9

II,

On

the Stability

By W.

of Loose Earth

Macquoef Eakkine,

J.

F.R.S,

Beceiyed June lOjEead June 19, 1856.

General Principle,

1.

The

subject of this paper

in a mass

is,

the mathematical theory of that kind of

composed of separate

grains, arises

stability,

which,

wholly from the nautual friction of those

and not from any adhesion amongst them.

grains,

Previous researches on this subject are based (so far as I

on some mathematical

artifice or

am

assumption, such as Coulomb's

acquainted with them)

'^

Eesearches so based, although leading to true solutions of

ance."

are both limited in the application of their results,

wedge of

least resist-

many special

and unsatisfactory in a

problems,

scientific

point

I propose, therefore, to investigate the mathematical theory of the frictional

of view.

stability of

a granular mass, vnthout the aid of any

artifice or

assumption, and from the

following sole

The

resistance to displacement by sliding along

equal to the normal

a given plane in a

pressure exerted between the parts

loose

granular mass^

is

of the mass on either side of that

planCj multiplied by a specific constant

of friction of the mass, and is regarded as the

tangent of an angle called the angle of repose. Let P denote the normal pressure per

The

specific constant is the coeffidmit

unit of area of the plane in question

^ the angle of repose;

follows

the resistance to sliding (per unit of area also)

then the symbolical expression of the above principle

is

as

F
p=tan^.

(1.)

This principle forms the basis of every investigation of the stability of earth.
peculiarity of the present investigation consists in

its

deducing the laws of that

The

stability

from the above principle alone, without the aid of any other special principle. It vdll
in some instances be necessary to refer to Mr. Moseley's "Principle of the Least Resistance ; " but this must be regarded not a special principle, but as a general principle of
stat/ics.

2.

Corollary as to Limit of Obliquity of Pressure.

It is necessary to the stability of a granular mass, that the direction of the pressure

between the portions into which

it is

divided

by any plane should not

vnth the normal to the plane an angle exceeding the angle of repose.
MDCCCIiVn.

at

any point ni^ke

ON THE STABILITY OE LOOSE EARTH.

MR. MACQIJOElSr EAJSTKHSTE

10

That

is

to say, symbolically, let

R be

the total pressure, per unit of area, at any point

of the given plane,

making with the normal

be the normal and

Q the

tangential

to the plane the angle of obliquity 6; let

component of

P=Rcos^;
Tp

then

it is

so that

Q=Rsin^;

tan

necessary to stability that

Q<F=Ptan?),
and consequently that

3.
It is well

>

Lemmata

known

as to the Composition of the Stress at a point.

that the stress at any point in a solid

resolved, with reference to

(2.)

any

medium

capable of being

is

set of three rectangular axes, into six elements, viz. three

normal pressures, P^, P^, P^, on unity of area of the three coordinate planes, and three
tangential pressures, Q^, Q^, Q^, on unity of area of the three pairs of coordinate planes
parallel to the three axes respectively.

It is also

known, that

if

we

take these six

elementary stresses for the coefficients of what, in Mr. Cayley's nomenclature

^, is called

a Ternary Quadric^ and in the nomenclature of a paper on Axes of Elasticity, a Tasime"

trie

Function f

V=F^w^+V^y^+F^z^+2Q^7/z-{'2QyZW'i'2Q^wy^
then

if this

quadric be transformed so as to be referred to

new

(3.)

axes, the coefficients of

the transformed quadric will be the elementary stresses referred to the

new

axes

and

further, that there is a set of three rectangular axes, being the principal axes of the sur-

face

U=l,

maxima

for

which the tangential

stresses vanish,

and the normal

stresses

become

or minima, the quadric being reduced to

The normal

stresses for those principal axes of pressure are called the principal pressures.

Let P^ be the greatest and P^ the

0, and let

0%

least of the three principal pressures at a given point

making with 0^ the angle xOn=^, be a

line in the plane wy.

Let R^ be

the total pressure on unity of area of a plane normal to 0^, and let the direction of this
pressure

make with On

the angle

of R^ are respectively, normal,

on the

P^=R^ cos 6

Let the half-sum of the greatest and

and

their half-diiference

side of
;

O^

towards

tangential,

^, so that

Q=R sin

least principal pressures

the components

d.

be denoted by

by
Drz:

P
-__.
2

* PhilosopHcal Transactions for 1854-^5, "

On

Quantics.''

Ibid. 1855,


ME.

MACQUOEN EANKINE ON THE STABILITY OP LOOSE EAETH.

Then the magnitude and

are given

11

direction of the pressuie exerted at the plane normal to On,

by the following equations

E=<v/M^+D^+2MD cos 2^D sin 2^

^
tan 0^
M + DCOS24/'
or otherwise by the following

P^=M+D cos

of the obliquity

J
6,

and the corresponding position of the

normal O^, are given by the following equations

_.

/a

2%|/1

Q^=:Dsin2a|/.

The maximum value

(5.)

T)

>

(7.)

0=sin-^S
M
to

which correspond the following

pressures, total, normal,

prj')=M(i-g)

and tangential

(8-)

Q(Y)=Dy^iI5.
The

following geometrical construction represents

Pig.

1.

the theorems expressed symbolically by the equations

(5.), (6.), (7.), (8.) (fig. 1).

greatest

half-sum
it is

and

least pressure at the point O.

M, and

half-difference

required to find

a plane normal

and makes with the

angle ^0^=%|/.

Then

D, of those pressures,

and magnitude of the pressure

O^, which line

to

is

at

in the plane wy^

axis of greatest pressure the given

Make 0^=M.
will

Given, the

Firsts the direction

nr=D.

Let wOw^ yOy be the axes of

Or=E^

On O^

take the point a so that na=:On.

represent the pressure required, and

rOn=& will

On na
be

its

take

angle

of obliquity.
Also, let fall

rpj^On; then Op=P^,pf =Q^.

Secondly^ to find the plane for

which the obliquity

half a right angle -f half the angle whose sine

plane having the required property.

There

is

is

=g-

6 is greatest.

Then

Make ^0N='^=

ON will be

the normal to a

obviously a pair of such planes, whose

normals make equal angles at either side of Ox,

The remainder

of the construction

is

to

be proceeded with

c2

as before, to find the total

12

ME. MACQIJOEK EANKINE ON THE STABILITY OF LOOSE EAETH.

pressure

OR, and

ORN

is

The

normal and tangential components OP, PE.

It is obvious that

a right angle.

locus of the points t

greatest

^ 4.

its

and

is

an

whose semiaxes 0^=P^, Oy^zP^, represent the

ellipse,

least pressures at the point O.

Additional Lemmata^ as to the Transformation of Stress in

tJie

plane of greatest and

least pressure.

By

the plane of greatest and least pressure at a given point O,

taining the axes

new

O^ and Oy

meant the plane con-

Let there be taken any two

of greatest and least pressure.

rectangular axes in that plane, Ox^ and Oy\ and let

<:^0^'=<2^0y='4^,
Also

is

let P^/

and

Vy,

so that

<:^Oy=2+'4'-

be the normal pressures at planes perpendicular to the axes O^', Oy\

respectively, and Q' the tangential pressure on either of those planes.

tions (6.)

it

Then from equa-

appears that

P,,=M+Dcos2'^
p^,=M-Dcos2'4/

(9.)

Q^=Dsin2^.
the elementary stresses

Consequently,

if

to each other

and

least pressures,

P^/, P^,,, Q',

to the plane of greatest

and the positions of their

^x

and

at

any pair of planes

least pressure

axes, are given

at right angles

be given, the greatest and

by the following equations

:-

2
"y

T^
/ ]\^
.J)=^[^^^'

se'

tan

2%//:

^a'

The equations given above

ni2
^y^+Q
"^

y>)

(10.)

^y'

solve a particular case only of the general problem, viz.

the case in which the given elementary stresses act in the plane of greatest and least
pressure.

and

But

in all actual problems respecting the stability of earth, the plane of greatest

least stress

general problem

is

known; and

problem which requires

5.

It is a

it is

therefore unnecessary to apply to that subject the

as to the finding of the axes of pressure in space of three dimensions

'the solution

Lemmata

at a given point

as to Conjugate Planes and Pressures,

first

plane.

conjugate to each other, with respect to the pressures on

be conjugate.

of

elasticity

solids, that if

the pressure

be parallel to a second plane, the pressure on the second

plane at the same point must be parallel to the

said to

of a cubic equation.

well-known theorem in the theory of the

on a given plane

Such planes are

them

said to

be

the pressures also are

ME. MACQUOEN EAJV^KINE ON THE STABILITt OE LOOSE EAETH.

To adapt

this

theorem

tions (5.), so as to

make

angle of direction

^p

tions,

13

to the present question, the first step is to transform the equa-

the obliquity of the pressure,

the given angle, instead of the

Thus are obtained the following equa-

of the normal to the plane.

from which, when the greatest and

^,

may

least pressures at a point are given, there

be found the position of a plane perpendicular to the plane of greatest and least pressure,

on which the obliquity of the pressure

shall

amount R of the pressure corresponding

R^

=M cos

Of

TT

be equal

to a given angle d

and

also the

to such obliquity.

+^/D^ M^sin^^
ill

.MsinS

2%^=-+ 0+ cos~^ 37
Hence

of R.

appears, that for each value of the obliquity

it

two of E^ the
Let

less

be the

-^pu

value of

less^

and

the greater value of

Ov be drawn
then the angle between them is

O^

and

%|/

^,

R^ the

greater,

and R^ the

less

value

at opposite sides of the axis of greatest

Let the two normals Ou^

pressure

there are two values of

corresponding to the greater value of R, and conversely.

-^

%^^

^,

TT

uOv='^^+'4^,=-^+0;
2

and the angle between the planes

to

which they are normal

is

(12.)

TT

'^'-'^u^'^v

= 2'^^\

therefore those two planes are conjugate.

ProMem.-^The

positions of a pair of conjugate planes, both perpendicular to the plane

of greatest and least pressure, and the pressures on them, being given,
find the position of the axes of greatest

greatest

From

and

and

least pressure,

it is

required to

and the magnitude of the

least pressures.

the equations (11.)

it is

easily deduced, that

"2cosT

R-R-

D =M\/|sin^^+

"'MJ

cos

-tVv

= 1. ^{(E+RjHan''^+(R-Il)n
2'4/=-

IJLO.y

+ ^ + COS"'

-jrj

i+'fcrl/^*^"^
The

axis of greatest pressure will

Oi?,

and nearer

to

When R=R^,

be found in the obtuse angle between the normals O^,

Ou^ the normal to the plane on which the pressure

then

^=0,

the angle of greatest obliquity*

R=R,=R(T),

In

is

the greater.

this case let

ME. MACQUOEN EAJSTKINE ON THE STABILITY OP LOOSE EAETH.

M and D, has abeady been given.

of which the value, in terms of

'^

cos

=Msin0=E('*F)tan0

and

in accordance with the equations (7.)

From

the equations (13.) and (14.)

Then

it

appears that

(14.)

\.

(8.).

easily

it is

jugate pressures has the following value

deduced that the

a pair of con-

ratio of

cosfl V'sin^ sin^S

Rt?
-try

^u
6.

Lemmata

"

"

'
'

'"
'

'

'

'

let

..l

fl^\
JLtj
t

as to the Internal Equilibrium of a Solid Mass,

Let O^', Oy, O.' be rectangular axes, of which O^'

and

--*

cos+ -^sin^ sin^d

is vertical,

G be the weight of unity of volume of a solid mass.

ditions of the internal equilibrium of such a

"T

rl^J

and

positive

downwaxds

Then the well-known

mass are the following

con-

dz'

p'
mmmmn

4'

dw'

(16.)

>'

dz

dOiyt
6&'

In

all

T-xr=o.
dz'

+*^ %'

actual problems respecting the stability of earth, the plane of greatest

pressures

and there

is vertical,

is

one horizontal direction,

which the state of stress of the earth does not vary.

restrict the

putting

Q^u

Then we have the two

J
dw'

7. Surfaces of

The following

is

*^
T^

J^J
dy'

^'

>

differential equations, suited to the subject of the

and

OY horizontal,

fig.

2,

being

mass to be subdivided

into prismatic molecules by an

indefinite

vertical planes perpendicular to the plane

as y,w,

1^2,

1,

^2^1

2^2, 23

and by an

indefinite

surfaces, also perpendicular to the plane

as

e^i^i,

vertical,

and in the plane of greatest and

least pressure, conceive the

#25 and of such a

^/=0

and

dy^

Uniform Horizontal Thrust.

OX,

Qy=

equations,

a peculiar transformation of these

present investigation.

dQ

dP^t
"'
dx'

least

It will be sufficient, therefore, to

above equations to two dimensions, by making Q^.=0

Q simply for

and

normal to that plane, along

number of

XY,

such

number of

XY,

figure, that the

such

tangent

(17.)

ME.

MACQUOEN EANKIM) ON THE STABILITY OF LOOSE EARTH.

plane at each point of each of those surfaces

explained

iri

section

is

15

conjugate to a vertical plane, in the sense

Let

5.

a=:Oa
be the

vertical ordinate of

^=/(^.
will

be

equation.

its

of such a surface

By

then
(18.)

1/)

the definition of conjugate planes, the pressure on each element

is vertical.

Let R^ be

its

amount per unit of area of the

the pressure on unity of area of a vertical plane, which pressure

to ab

^=0

any one of those surfaces corresponding to

is

surface,

parallel to a tangent

the angle of obliquity being given by the equation

(")

t-=i
Let

and K^

X be the vertical pressure on a given element of a surface ab^ per unit of area of the

projection of that surface on a horizontal plane ; then

R
X=^=rVi
"^ V + S
cos

It

is

'

(20.)

dy

following

the

The second

M JL

of these equations being integrated, gives

^<^^

= -7^=^(4

which value'being introduced into the

Now

m are

evident that the equations of the equilibrium of a prismatic element

first

(22.)

equation, gives the following,

l(X-Gx}+F(a).^,=0.

(23.)

H=

(24.)

let

'F(a)da=:\ ^^cos

be the total horizontal thrust of the solid mass from

under consideration.

its

0^da

upper surface^ down to the surface

This quantity, being independent of

pendent variable instead of a; that

is

^,

may be used

to say, dividing equation (23.)

by

as

F(<^),

an inde-

we

obtiain

the following :

^(G^ X)=:^,
which

is

the differential equation of a Surface of Uniform Thrust.

(25.)

ME. MACQUOEN EANKIKB ON THE STABILITY OE LOOSE EAETH.

16

of Uniform Thrust and Uniform Vertical Pressure,

8. Surfaces

With an

exception to be described in the next section, the only case in which the

equation (25.) becomes linear with respect to ^, and capable of being satisfied by an
indefinite

thrust

is

number of arbitrary forms of

also a surface of

surface, is that in

uniform vertical pressure

that

which each surface of uniform

is

to say,

when

X=F(H).

(26.)

found by the method of Foueier,

this case, the integral of equation (25.), as

In

capable of being expressed in various forms, of which the following

hensive

is

the most compre-

is

F(H)

G ^-'j^fy^'^yl^y+^ms/^ym;

w-

(27.)

the function /being such, that neither

e-%
become

shall

infinite for

any value of the argument, how great

indefinitely with the argument,

This function

tion.

the mass

is

nor e^'^f,

and that they

shall

determined by the following condition at the upper surface of

^,=M.
In

all

soever, nor increase

both vanish at the limits of integra-

...........

(28.)

those cases in which the upper surface of the mass deviates alternately above

and below an inclined or horizontal plane by deviations which recur periodically in each
horizontal distance 2B, the integral of the differential equation (25.)

expressed in the following form

capable of being

is

....

w=='--^+Ay+2,e-'^(c^sm^
where

A is the

(29.)

tangent of the average declivity, above and below which the surfaces of

equal thrust deviate periodically, and C^ and C^ are determined by the following formulae:
2

C.=l\ B{w,-Ai/}sin^.dy
2

(30.)

CI

Such are the

= |\

{a; Ayjcos

^B

di/,

integrals of the equations of internal equilibrium in

vertical plane, in those cases in

two dimensions in a

which each surface of uniform thrust

is

also a surface of

uniform vertical pressure a condition realized in those cases in which the horizontal thrust
;

is

caused by the vertical pressure.

The

relation

X=F(H)

between

thfe

horizontal thrust and the vertical pressure,

remains to be determined by the physical conditions of each

partictilar

problem.

still


ME.

MACQUOEN EANKINE ON THE STABILITY OF LOOSE EAETH.

17

Note. Equilibrium of Arched Bibs,

Although foreign

to the

X=F(H)=0

making

immediate subject, the

in equations (27.)

and

may

fact

they furnish the means of deter-

(29.),

mining the form of the intrados of any equilibrated arched

weight, or proportionally to the weight of each of

dos

is

either represented

by equation

(28.), or

here be noted, that by

rib

its parts,

loaded solely with

when

its

own

the form of the extra-

developed by means of the formulae (30.);

care being taken, in the latter case, to include the entire rib within the limits

2/=iiB.

If the rib be divided into voussoirs, their joints ought theoretically to be normal to the

by equation

series of curves given

(27.) or equation (29.).

9. Extrinsic

The exception

and Intrinsic Vertical Pressures,

referred to at the beginning of the last section

is

Besides

as follows.

the vertical pressure

Xh=F(H),
which

is

uniform for each surface of equal thrust, there

uniform in each vertical

horizontal coordinate,

line,

and varying proportionally

may
to

also

be a

vertical pressure,

an arbitrary function of the

viz.

X,=0(y)
This

last pressure

(31.)

does not enter into the differential equation (25.), and

therefore to be determined in each problem

ditions of internal equilibrium.

It

by conditions

may be

distinct

its

amount

is

from the general con-

called the Extrinsic Vertical Pressure

and

the vertical pressure depending on the horizontal thrust, the Intrinsic Vertical Pressure

so that the surfaces determined in the last section are surfaces of uniform intrinsic vertical

pressure J the extrinsic vertical pressure being independent of their form and position*.

Limiting delations of the Pressures^ at a point in a Mass of loose Earth,

^ 10.

The seven preceding

common

sections,

from

3 to 9 inclusive, contain principles

to every case of the internal equilibrium of a solid mass, in

which are

what manner soever

constituted.

In the present section, those

common

principles will

be combined with the peculiar

principle of the stability of an incoherent granular mass, explained in 1

The symbol ^ will

be used in the following sense

and

2.

a^b + c
means,

'"

is

not

less

than 5- c, and not greater thani>+(?."

be used in their ordinary sense of " not greater than

(p

''

The symbols < and

>: will

and " not less than."

being, as in 2, the angle of repose of a given kind of earth, and 0, as in 3, the

In

tlie sequel,

wlien vertical pressures are not expressly designated as extrinsic, they are to be under-

stood as intrinsic.

MDCCCLVII.

MACQUOEN EANKINE ON THE STABILITY OF LOOSE EAETH.

ME.

18

greatest obliquity of the pressure at any point in any plane traversing that mass,

from equation

(2.) that

the condition of stability of the mass

it

appears

is

0^(p.

(32.)

From this condition the following propositions are deduced

Theorem I. At each 'point in a mass of earthy the ratio of the difference of the
and least pressures to their sum cannot exceed the sine of the angle of repose.
:

This theorem* follows from the second of the equations

(7.), its

greatest

symbolical expression

being
Awy
^

A x
,

...,..

-L'

<:

P.+P,-M-^i"^-

Theorem

The following

II.

expression of the condition of^tahility of a mass of

is the

of the pressures at a pointy referred

Oy', in the plane of greatest and least pressures

earthy in terms

(P.

(33.)

+ P,)-

to

any pair of rectangular

axes^ Ox',

(34.)

=M^~''''^

This follows from the equations (10.).

Theorem
of

The following

III.

earthy in terms

least pressures

of

expression of the condition of the stability of a ma^s

a
pair
of
of conjugate pressures in the plane of greatest and

the ratio

is the

Let E^, R be the two conjugate pressures,

< cos +

Uu
This follows from equation

common

angle of obliquity; then

'^

cos^ f

(15.).

the limits, consistent with stability,

either

their

^cos^i

Theorem IV. The positions of a pair of

make with

&

of the normals

conjugate planes being given^ the following are

of the angle which the axis of greatest pressure can

to the conjugate planes

'4^^7

+ H+oCos"^--.-

(36.)

This follows from the second of the equations (11.).

Theorem V. The amount

and

obliquity 6

of the pressure on a given plane being

and half
of the half sum

given, the following are the limits, consistent with stability,

difference

D, of the greatest and

least principal pressures

cos^+ v'cos^^ cos^<p

/^

^
,D=Msm^^
-TV

lijr

'

cos^-f

This follows from the

The

first

greater values of

of the angle

-v//

Esm(3^
^cos^^

......

ty

cos'^p

of the equations (11.).

M and D given by this equation correspond to the greater values

given by equation (36.).

* Already publislied in the

Proceedings of the Eoyal Society

'

for the 6th of

March, 1856.


ME.

MACQUOEN EANKINE ON THE STABILITY OF LOOSE EAETH.

Corollary to the

Theorems

to the angle of repose

(p,

and V.

III., IV.,

^When the angle of

19

obliquity d

is

equal

the quantities given by the equations (35.), (36.), (37.), have

each but one value, v^ithout any limits of deviation,

viz.

5-^=1- -*=-+?
(38.)

M=Rsec<p; D=:Etan(p.
11. Planes

The angle
sliding

is

above given,

"SP*,

by the normals

is

that

made on

to the pair of planes along

The angle made by

greatest.

of greatest pressure

is

of Bupture.
either side of the axis of greatest pressure

which the tendency of the earth

to give

way by

these planes themselves on either side of the axis

therefore
(8-)

^-f=i-\

Those planes are called Planes of Rupture, Their position, in the particular case of a
horizontal bank, where the axis of greatest pressure is vertical, was determined by

Coulomb by the

aid of his ideal wedge of least resistance,

12. Application

ofMx, Moseley's Principle of Least Besistance

to the Stability

of

Earth,

may be

This principle

upon a given body

active

stated as follows

The

forces

which balance each other in or

or structure being distinguished into two systems, called respectively

and passive^ which stand

to

each other in the relation of cause and

effect,

then will

the passive forces be the least which are capable of balancing the active forces, consistently

with the physical condition of the body or structure.

In a mass of earth, the active forces are the

tion of
sures,

its

parts

whereby the earth

is

The

prevented from spreading.

vertical pressures will therefore

be the

least

ditions of internal equilibrium given in

stability at

vertical pressures

produced by the gravita-

the passive forces are the pressures conjugate to those vertical pres-

which are

6,

7, 8,

pressures conjugate to the

at once consistent

and

9,

with the con-

and with the conditions of

each point, given in 10.

Statement of the General Prohlem of the Stability of a Mass of Earth under

13.

its

own Weight,

The upper and

sure

Xh=0,

greatest

The

and

mass of earth, at which the

intrinsic vertical pres-

supposed to be curved in one coordinate plane only, that of greatest and

is

least pressures

free surface of the

and the form of the section of that surface by the

least pressures is

specific gravity

vertical plane of

supposed to be given by an equation of the form

G and angle

of repose

d2

(p

of the earth being given,

it is

(28.).

required

MACQFORN

ME.

20

to determine the

EAJSTKIM)

ON THE STABILITY OF LOOSE EAETH.

form and position of the surface

at

which the

intrinsic vertical pressure

has any given value.

In order that the equations

of this problem,

the relation

The

it is

case in

be solved

case,

which

form

(29.).

is

and

to determine,

(30.)

first,

is

and

may furnish

stability in 10,

the intrinsic vertical pressure and the horizontal thrust.

is

an indefinitely extended plane,

the only case which admits of an exact solution.

It will there-

solution used to facilitate the solution of the

more complex

its

solved approximately by the integral (27.), or

I.

the complete solution

from the conditions of

which the upper surface of the earth

Problem

14.

now

Xh=F(H), between

horizontal or inclined,
fore

(27.), or (29.)

necessary

by

infinite series of the

Surfaces of Equal Pressure and Thrust in the case of a horizontal or

uniformly sloping hank.

In this case, equation

(28.), giving the

form of the free

surface,

becomes

0CQ=zAy^=yidJi6

(40.)

Equation (27.) gives for the form and position of any surface of uniform

intrinsic

vertical pressure,

x=-~-\-Ay; or^ ^0=^

(41.)
*

Hence the

surfaces of equal intrinsic vertical pressure are planes parallel to the free

and the

surface,

vertical pressure is simply the

weight of a column of earth of unity of

At each

area of base, and of the height xXq.

point, a vertical plane,

parallel to the free surface, are conjugate to each other

parallel to the surface

surface

is vertical,

and the angle of

slope,

and the pressure on a

^, is

the

common

that

is,

and a plane

the pressure on a plane

vertical plane is parallel to the

angle of obliquity of those conjugate

pressures.

Equation (20.) gives for the vertical pressure per unit of area of a plane parallel to the
surface,

Il^=Xcos^=G(^ ^o)<^os^

Now

from the principle of

(42.)

least resistance, it follows that the pressure at

any point on

a vertical plane, in a direction parallel to the slope, must have the least value consistent

with the equation of stability (35.); that

R "~

to say.

"*

For

is

cos5-f

(43.)

(44.)

Vcos^l^^s^f

brevity's sake, let

^^ =ik,

COS 0*

cos^+ A/cos^fl

Then the

cos^cp

horizontal component of E^ has the following value

dx

== R^ COS ^

= ^X =: >^G(^ ^o)-

:-

(46.)


MAOQUOEN EAFKIM) OH THE STABILITY OF LOOSE EAETH.

ME.

And

the total horizontal thrust, from the surface

down

to

a given depth xXq^

21
is

(46.)

The

between the

relation, then,

uniform thrust and pressure,

to a given surface of

and the

vertical pressure

total horizontal thrust

expressed by the equation

is

2GH
or X=a/
H= -7^5
=^/
V ^
2G
=

Equation (36.)
with the

gives, for the angle

made by the

down

(47.)
^

axis of greatest pressure at each point

vertical,

2^422

TT

TT

Sind

o""y=7 H oCos'"\-T
sin<p
lies in

The two

planes of rupture at each point

;

that

at opposite sides

is

to say, they

make with

make with

this axis the angle given

2~2~2^^^

the vertical the following angles respectively

_j sin

sm

(p

2'

(49.)

>
^

15.

+ HC0S

_j sind

(p

sin ^

Extreme

cases

of this FroMem.

The two extreme cases of this problem are respectively, when the
horizontal, or 0=0, and when it slopes at the angle of repose, or d=(p.
The following are the results in these two cases.

free suiface

is

d=0:

Case First.

of rupture

by

TT

the axis of greatest pressure

--^-^pzizOj or

the acute angle between the slope of the surface and the vertical.

This axis

equation (39.)

/iO

(4b.)

make

Case Second.

the angles

t |

on either

is vertical,

and the planes

>.

(50:)

>

(51.)

side of the vertical.

d=<p:

R=:Xcos<p; R^=:E,^=Xcos^; ^=cos^^;

,

between the

or the axis of greatest pressure bisects the acute angle

vertical

and the slope of the

surface,

and the planes of

rupture are respectively vertical, and parallel to the surface.

16. Mev^tement Walls.

Problem

the resultant ^pressure on the base

of

II.

the

To determine

the magnitude

and

revHement wall of an earthen

direction

hanlc^

of

having a

horizontal or uniformly sloping u{pper surface^ the angle of repose of the earth upon the

masonry being not

Case

1.

When

less

than that of the earth upon

itself.

the back of the wall does not overhang the base. (See

fig. 3.)

;;

22

.ME.

MACQUOBN EANMHB ON THE STABILITY OF LOOSE EAETH.

ABDE be the section of the wall Through A draw AF

vertical (=^ ^o), cutting the upper surface of the bank in F.

Kg.

Let

If the back of the

waE

is vertical,

CW

HE

CW in O

parallel to the surface of the bank, cutting

plane

position

To

AF.

"'^^'--

coincides with B.

Through C, the centre of gravity of the mass of masonry and

vertical.
earth AFBDE, draw
Take AH=|AF, and draw
mil be the

this

and direction of the resultant pressure on the

represent that resultant pressure, take

OR=~='^^^
2 cos
cos

Also take

8.

OW

to represent the

then will the resultant

OS

of

OK

weight of the mass of earth and masonry

and

(62.)
V

OW represent

AFBDE

in magnitude and direction the

on the base AE.

resultant pressure required

0S= -/{0R'+0W'+20K.0W.sin^};l
sin
sin d is to

Cme

(53.)

be taken as positive when the bank slopes down towards the

2.

When

Proceed in

all

OW,

the weight
is to

H
< WOS=^

be treated

wall.

the back of the wall overhangs, as represented, for example, by

AT.

respects as above, except that in inding the centre of gravity C,

the mass

AFBDE alone

as if its specific gravity

the masonry above that of the earth.

AFT

the earth which the prism

is

to

be treated as masonry, and the prism

were merely the

This

is

could contain,

and

AFT

ewcess of the specific gravity of

because a pressure equal to the weight of

is

sustained by the earth vertically below

leaving only the excess of the weight of masonry over that of earth to add to the

it,

of the wall.

stability

general

little

As

this excess is in general very small, it follows that there is in

or no advantage in building revetement walls so as to overhang behind.

For the same reason

it is

evident, that if a straight line be

drawn from

to

U, where

the line of slope cuts the face of the wall, the masonry behind this line contributes

little

to the stability of the wall,

17.

The

Gmeral Case:'its

amidguity.

application of the principle of least resistance to the case in which the vertical

section of the upper surface of the earth

is

of any form (limited only by the condition

that the slope shall nowhere exceed the angle of repose),

is

attended with this difiiculty

that at certain portions of each layer of equal thrust, viz. the lower portion,

pressure and the horizontal or inclined pressure,

as e^ect ;

There

it is

not impossible, to determine which of the two conjugate pressures, the vertical

difficult, if

is

to

be regarded as came and which

and thus the solution becomes ambiguous.

is

one

case,

however, which

is

not affected by such ambiguity

the steepest declivity of each surface of equal thrust

is

viz.

that in which

the angle of repose p

for in that

MACQUOEF EANKINE ON THE STABILITY OF LOOSE EAETH.

ME.
case there

but one

is

with

relation, consistent

stability,

between the

23
and

vertical pressure

horizontal thrust, without any limits of deviation.

The

relation

between those forces which

of the solutions consistent with

is

the only solution in the case specified,

is

one

appear from the

stability in every other case, as will

following

Lemma.

The

of the horizontal thrust^ E^ cos ^=X cos^ <p, which corresponds

pressure^ X, for a declivity sloping at the angle of repose Pj lies

intensity

with a given vertical

between the limits consistent with stability for every declivity sloping at a

For the condition of

deduced from equation (35.)

stability

cos'-^

R^

R,,cosa

and

cos^

(p

18.

is

>
cos^ 6 ^

cos^ 6

is

"^V ^ cos^a^
^------^=.rri_l Z T

coB^P

^=^====

III.

The

of the surfaces of uniform

of the upper surface of a mass of earthy

being given^ it is required to find the form and position

when

vertical pressure^

the greatest declivity

of each of them

is

of repose.

It appears

from the preceding lemma that the solution of

the solutions even

when

the greatest declivity

this

problem

by the formulae

(30.).

Then the form

by finding the

relation

between the

always one of

(28.), or

of the surfaces of equal pressure

transcendental parts of the equations (27.) or (29.); and

their position^

is

than the angle of repose.

is less

Let the equation of the upper surface be expressed by the equation

The

vertical section

curved in the plane of section only^

thrust

/54.

always within the limits fixed by this equation.

Peoblem

the angle

less angle.

it

is

developed

given by the

only remains to determine

vertical pressure

X and the horizontal

H.
condition of stability gives
Ri,cos8

From

the general differential equation (25.),

it

f^^^\

appears that

d'RQ\dU.'^df)'

v'^"'-'

but at the points of greatest declivity of each surface

consequently equation (55.) becomes

which being integrated, gives

cos <p.A

2(j

being the solution required.

'

2GH

cosf

/riy


24

ME. MACQTJOEF EAJSTKINE ON THE STABILITY OF LOOSE EAETH,

The

introduction of the above value of the thrust into the equations (27.) and (29.)

showing at once the

gives the following results,

surfaces of equal pressure

relative position

and the form of the

General

Solution

Gr

e-^(y+^^l:^^dM

(58.)

oo

Periodical

Solution^

F=g+%+2"^~^^^^^^^'(^^^^^+^^^"b

In using the &st of the above equations,

/^

e~''''''dm='\/<^.

J
19.

.........

00

C^^-)

be observed that

to

it is

(60.)

00

Approximate Bescripticm of Surfaces of Equal Pressure by Graphic Construction,

The following method of approximately determining the forms of the surfaces of equal
pressure or equal thrust, is analogous to that employed by Professor William Thomsof
in

some recent researches on

purpose of finding the successive forms

Electricity, for the

of the curve showing the electric tension in a conductor.

Let ^=7^+^^.
tions (25.), (26.),

Fig. 4.

Then, by the general equa-

we have
29

Substituting finite differences for differentials,

it

follows that the subjoined equation

mately true

is

approxi-

(61.)
.2
immmifMiMj nt

Ah denoting

Now

let

intersected
tion being

differences caused

by varying H, and A^ those caused by varying

the vertical section of any surface of equal thrust be given

by equidistant

Af

distance apart

vertical ordinates, their

y.

and

let it

be

uniform interval in a horizontal direc-

Join by a straight chord any two of the points of intersection whose

is

two

intervals, or 2Aj^.

The

vertical sagitta intercepted

upon the

inter-

mediate ordinate between the chord and the given line of section will be i A|^^ and if
a second surface of equal thrust be conceived to pass through the middle of the chord,
;

the same sagitta will be Ah^^.

traverse the ends

and the middle of the chord in question.

Hence we have the following

the

first

Consequently, for the pair of surfaces which respectively

ah

l\yWy

GAy%

construction.

surface of equal thrust

alternate ordinates

Ah^^

(62.)

Inscribe a polygon in the vertical section of

by joining the points where the surface

is

intersected

by

the points where the intermediate ordinates bisect the sides of the


ME.
polygon will

MACQUOEN EANKINE ON THE STABILITY OF LOOSE EAETH.

lie

very nearly in a curve parallel to a surface of equal thrust at which the

total thrust is greater

in the second curve

than at the

first

surface

by the amount ^GA^/^

by joining the points found

in

it

the thrust from any curve to the next being

are

drawn approximately the forms of a

distances apart are to be

Let the

first

JGAy^.

number of polygons denoted by p

this surface

which the form of each surface

been drawn by means of the

will

H=0

then the

show the form of the

..........

is

below the upper surface (that

to

be transferred

to say, the

downwards,

(63.)

depth to

after

having

be given by the formula

(64.)

V G

an outline of upper surface marked

and partly of a

j}=:0, consisting partly of two horizontal planes,

also

is

Ay
sec^\/^=:\/p.sec(p.
^

Fig. 4 shows the result of applying this process to

is

vertically

inscription of polygons,) will

declivity sloping at

an

supposed to be the angle of repose.

Of the Limits of Extrinsic

At any

where

total horizontal thrust is

and the mean depth of

which

Their

(57.), as before.

H=|GA/;

20.

the constant increment of

surface be the upper surface of the mass of earth,

which the

angle of 30,

series of surfaces of equal thrust.

computed by equation

successive inscription of the

surface at

still

Inscribe a polygon

the points of bisection of the sides

of this second polygon will indicate a third curve, and so on

Thus

25

Pressure and the Stability of Foundations in

Earth

point on a surface of uniform thrust and uniform vertical pressure, where the

declivity 6 is less

than the angle of repose

(p,

it

appears from the equations (35.) and (54.)

that there are two limits to the ratio of the vertical to the horizontal pressure, given by

the equation

doo

-V

cos^d

cos^fi

cos^^

('V'-3l)'

Should, therefore, the intrinsic vertical pressure

less

Xh

due

(^-)

to the

weight of the earth be

than that fixed by the upper limit of the above expression, an extrinsic vertical

pressure

may be

applied at the given point of the given layer (by means, for example, of

the foundation of a building) not exceeding the amount whereby the intrinsic pressure
falls

short of the limit

that

is

to say,

X,<^.(lV^^) -Xh
MDCCCLVII.

(66.)

ME. MACQUOEN EANKINE ON THE STABILITY OF LOOSE EARTH.

26

In the case to which Problem

III. refers, in

which

ttX

equation (66.) becomes

The most important

application of these principles relates to the

earth whose upper surface

is

power of a mass of

horizontal, to sustain the weight of a building founded at

a given depth.

In

by the equation

this case, the condition of stability expressed

(65.)

becomes

Xd^

<l+sin^
aH-^l + smip

Now
the

the horizontal pressure of the earth

maximum amount

may be

so increased

by ramming,

consistent vnth the intrinsic vertical pressure

due

as to

to the

^^r,

have

weight of

the earth, in which case

^H3H = l + sin(p
And

consequently, the extrinsic vertical pressure, due to the excess of the weight of a

building above that of the earth which

displaces, is limited

it

4tanf?

of the weight of a
limited by the equation

and the
tion^ is

(by.)

ratio

building^ to the weight

XH-f-X, ^/l

When

4sinf

the angle of repose, for example,

21. Negative Extrinsic Pressure.

is

by the equation
/^n

of the earth displaced hy

its founda-

+ smA^
30, the limit of that ratio is 9.

Resistance of Screw Piles to Extraction,

When the intrinsic vertical pressure exceeds the lower limit given by the equation (65.),
the earth will resist a Negative Extrinsic Pressure^ or upward tension, not exceeding such
excess.

To

avoid the use of negative signs, let

wu--ipr

jy^y'

Bji

ii

Xy

then

T,<X-^.(l-v/l-Sg|);
dR

(72.)

ME.

MACQUOEN EANKINE ON THE STABILITY OF LOOSE EAETH.

Let the surface of the earth be horizontal, and

least

amount

consistent with stability.

let

i.\i7

27

the horizontal pressure have the

Then

Xdx
dH

+ sin

sm(p

<p

f*7^

and
4 tan if

yp

^^-1^
The

last expression

shows the

ratio

4sm<p

~^^'{l + mnff

...

/^7
^

(74.)

borne to the superincumbent load, by the upward

tension necessary to extract from the earth a body with a nearly horizontal u^pper surface,

When

like the thread of a screw pile.

the angle of repose, for example,

is

30^, that

8
..
ratio IS Q.
.

22. Mesistance

The

of Earth

to the Horizontal

Thrust of a Building.

limit of the resistance of a horizontal stratum of earth to the horizontal thrust of

the foundation of a building,

consistent with

its

weight

.^.

is

that

the upper limit of the horizontal thrust of the stratum,

is

to say,

X^ l+sinf^

2G l smf

G(^ ^o)^

l4-sin<p

1 smf

,^^
v