PHYSICS 15C LECTURE 2

FALL 2012, 6 SEPTEMBER

The Damped and Driven Harmonic Oscillator

Reading: Morin, Section 1.2-1.3.
Reading in Supplemental Texts (Not required, but could be helpful for some): H & L
1.6-1.7; Georgi 2.1-2.4.
Problem Set: Problem set 1 (already handed out, on Tuesday, 4 September), due Wednesday 12 September
Sectioning: Poll handed out today
Lab: to be discussed
Reading for next lecture: Morin 1.2 - 1.3 (again).
Reading in supplemental texts for next lecture: H & L 1.6-1.7; Georgi 2.1 - 2.4 (again).
Last lecture:
Simple harmonic oscillatorequation of motion is linear, 2nd order dierential
equation; has 2 complete and linearly independent solutions
Almost everything in the world can be approximated by a SHO
math review of Taylor series
Review of complex numbers
General algorithm for solving linear homogenous dierential equations
nth order equation has n solutions of the form et where is complex
in the special case where i = j , use et and tet
Two dierent solution bases: {eit , eit } and {cos(t), sin(t)}
In dierent cases, it will be more convenient to use dierent solution basis vectors,
e.g. use the former when rst solving the dierential equation, but use the latter
when nding constants to satisfy initial conditions

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Physics 15c

Goals for today: damped oscillator

inhomogenous linear dierential equations
forced oscillator example: driven RLC circuit
resonance

Lecture 2

Fall 2012

Physics 15c

Lecture 2

Undriven Damped Oscillator Old School Style scratch.scratch.

Mass on a spring with dashpot

We start with good ole Newtons second law: F = ma.

The forces in play in this problem are
force from spring: Fs = kx
force form damping: Fd = bv = bx,
where b is the damping constant and the
damping force is proportional to velocity
Then,

where b/m and 0

equation. Woohoo!

kx bv = ma
ma + bv + kx = 0
d2 x
k
b dx
+ x = 0,
+
2
dt
m dt
m
b
k
x
+ x + x = 0
m
m
x
+ x + 02 x = 0
k/m. This is a second order linear homogenous dierential

From our vast knowledge gained in the last lecture, we know that the solutions can be of
the form Aet .
Thus, plugging in our trial solution of x(t) = Aet ,
2 Aet + Aet + 02 Aet = 0
2 + + 02 = 0.
Solving for the roots (using the quadratic formula, seriously old school.)

()2 402
=
(2 )

2
=
02
2
2
That last part (the square root) could be real or imaginary, or zero, depending on the
relative values of and 0 . That fact is pretty cool. Depending on the actual values of
these physical parameters, the system will behave very dierently.

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Physics 15c

Lecture 2

We will examine several cases. Note that is often called the damping factor. Each case
has a dierent name, corresponding to the physical behavior of the system.
Underdamped: 2 < 402

= i 02
2
4

= i
2
where we have dened a new, real, parameter,

2
02
4
Thus, the general solution is:
x(t) = A+ e+ t + A e t

= A+ e 2 t ei t + A e 2 t ei t
(
)

= e 2 t A+ ei t + A ei t
The second part of this solution is the oscillation, and the rst part is the exponential
decay envelope of this oscillation.

Overdamped: 2 > 402

Now the square root is real. We dene a dierent, new, real parameter in order to simply
express the results of this problem (and as you can see, is very closely related to ), just
to distinguish between the over damped and underdamped cases
( )

2
=
02
2
2
Thus, the general solution is x(t) = B+ e+ t + B e t . Since are always negative in this
case, this is a sum of two decaying exponentials. Sometimes, in order to make explicit the

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Physics 15c

Lecture 2

negative value of beta in this case and its subsequent eect on the behavior of the system,
this expression is written
x(t) = B+ e|+ |t + B e| |t

Critical damping: 2 = 402

In this case, = /2 0, so we have 2 degenerate soldutions to our dierential equation.
This is a mathematically interesting case, but this is not a math class, and this solution,
although interesting in some ways, is much less important for most physical systems of
interest in modern physics (although beware, this can be important for mechanical engineering, so pay attention you future engineers!), compared to the underdamped system.
So I refer you to the Morin text and just quote the solution below.
Rule of thumb: if you have m degenerate solutions of an nth order linear dierential
equation (m n), then take the solutions
et , tet , t2 et , . . . tm1 et .
In this case, m = n = 2, wo we just have et and tet as solutions x(t) = Aet +
Btet .
This is the fastest damping solutionthis is used for shocks on cars.

Critical damping is not qualitatively dierent from overdamping; the former is merely the
limiting case that settles the fastest.

Fall 2012

Physics 15c

Lecture 2

Damped Oscillator Grunge Version twang.scrunch.

LRC Circuit
First we say a few words about math, just to, perhaps, ground us in the constraints and
results from dierential equations.
Inhomogenous linear dierential equations.
We now know how to solve
(1)

an

dn x
dn1 x
dx
+ an1 n1 + . . . + a1
+ a0 x = 0,
n
dt
dt
dt

but what about

(2)

an

dn x
dn1 x
dx
+
a
+ . . . + a1
+ a0 x = f (t) ?
n1
n
n1
dt
dt
dt

Note the presence of the f (t) term in (2) is what causes the second equation to be inhomogenous. This is some arbitrary function that is like a time-dependent external force on
the system.
Basic strategy:
(1) Solve for a particular solution xs (t) which satises (2).
This solution xs (t) is totally constrained, i.e. there are no free parameters. Thus,
this is the steady state solution after the inuence of initial conditions has completely died away (s for steady state).
(2) Find the transient solution xt (t) to (1):
xt (t) = A1 x1 (t) + . . . An xn (t),
which will have n free parameters (A1 , . . . , An ) which can be determined using
initial conditions (t for transient).
(3) If we plug xt (t) into (2), we just get 0 on the right side, so we can take our total
solution to be
x(t) = xs (t) + xt (t).
In plain english, we can have, say, in our mass on spring example, an external force driving
the mass, but we can ALSO have at t = 0 the mass starting o at some initial position
and velocity. The total solution is just the solution we would have gotten with no external
force PLUS the solution due to the driving of the external force. This is our rst example
of why linearity is so intensely powerfultwang!!

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Physics 15c

Lecture 2

V0

Undriven

Driven

We consider the series Resistor-Inductor-Capacitor (RLC) circuit, rst, with no driving

term at all, just free (a.k.a. undriven), like the mass on the spring in dashpot example
shown above. We will solve the same equation here, but in a new way, using slightly dierent
math, as a warm up to solving the system with a driving voltage (a.k.a. driven).
This is a simple oscillator circuit that has simple damping. To analyze the circuit we use
Kirchos voltage law (the sum of voltages around the loop equals zero).
(3)

V L + VR + VC = 0

Using VR = IR = qR;
VL = L dI/dt = L
q ; VC = q/C,
R
1
(4)
q + q +
q=0
L
LC

and making the following denitions, 0 = 1/ LC and = R/L, we obtain the damped
harmoic oscillator equation in standard form,
(5)

q + q + 02 q = 0

is proportional to the resistance. The resistor dissipates energy through scattering of

electrons, eventually radiating this energy o as many uncorrelated photons, heat. Thus,
if there is energy initially put into the system (in the form of charge or current), there is
a way for it to leak out.
As for the other terms, as we will see, this leads to the oscillations between the capacitor
and inductor; energy oscillates between being stored in the capacitor (U = 21 CV 2 ) and the
inductor (U = 12 LI 2 ). The resistor does not store energy but only dissipates. is called
the damping factor and 0 is called the natural or resonant frequency.
The simple oscillating behavior of the circuit is most easily seen by setting the value of R
to zero (shorting out the resistor). The oscillator equation now becomes
(6)

q + 02 q = 0

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Lecture 2

Lets solve this for the specic case where t = 0, q = Q0 , q = 0. These initial conditions
correspond to the case where a charge Q0 is instantaneously placed on the capacitor with
zero current going through the inductor. In anticipation of trying to solve the less tractable
case of the damped and driven harmonic oscillator, we will solve this using the method
of complex numbers. First, just for clarity, we will rewrite the above equation using a
dierent variable name, x,
x
+ 02 x = 0

(7)
and a corresponding one

y + 02 y = 0

(8)
combining using z = x + iy we get

z + 02 z = 0

(9)

Once we nd the solution for z we simply take the real part of z to get the solution for
x. Why do we invite this hassle? Because for the more complex equations we will soon be
solving it makes the math easier. To nd the solution to equation 9 we try z = z0 exp t.
Plugging this in we obtain
2 et = 02 et = i0

(10)
resulting in
(11)

Re{z = z0 exp(i0 t)} x = x0 cos(0 t) |t=0 q = Q0 cos(0 t)

Now we consider the case where the initial conditions are the same but R is not zero. That
is, there is damping. NOTE that this is just the exact same equation as out damped mass
on a spring. Now, starting with equation 5, repeated here,
(12)

q + q + 02 q = 0

and casting this into complex form,

(13)

z + z + 02 z = 0

and again trying z = z0 exp(t) then we nd

2
(14) 2 + + 02 = 0 =
02 z = z+ exp(+ t) + z exp( t)
2
4
Now this looks quite simple, and it is, once you understand it. It is simple in the extremes but non-trivial in general. Lets consider three cases, called light, critical and heavy
damping.
Light damping, 2 < 402
The most important case in many areas of physics is where only a small fraction of the
total energy of the system is leaked out with each oscillation. Think of a child on a swing.
As long as the bearings holding the chain are not too rusty, the swing will only lose about

Fall 2012

Physics 15c

Lecture 2

1/10 of its amplitude on each oscillation. In the case of light damping the squareroot term
is imaginary and

(15)
= i 02
= i
2
4
2
where we dene, as before,

2
(16)
= 02
4
Taking the real part of the general solution for z in the case of light damping we get

Re{z = e( 2 t) (z+ exp(i t) + z exp(i t))}

(17)
and expanding

(18) x = e( 2 t) Re{(a+ + ib+ )(cos t + i sin t) + (a + ib )(cos t + i sin t)}

(19)

= e( 2 t) {(a+ + a ) cos t + (b+ + b ) sin t}

(20)

= e( 2 t) {A cos t + B sin t}

(21)

= e( 2 t) C cos( t + )

and then inputing the initial conditions,

2 + 4 2 t
e 2 cos( t + 0 ) where 0 = arctan( )

2
2
Q0 is the initial charge put on the system at t = 0 with q = 0. Note that due to the
damping there is a bit of a phase shift from the perfect cosine that we saw in the case of
zero damping. Note also that charge is lost from the system on a time scale of 2/. As
the energy in the system is equal to U = q 2 /C that means that energy is lost from the
system in a time 1/. is called the damping time.
(22)

q = Q0

Heavy damping, 2 > 402 .

In this case the square root term is real and

=
2

(23)

02 +

2
4

both roots are negative and

(24)

x = Re{z+ e(|+ |t) + z e(| |t) }

(25)

= {Ae(|+ |t) + Be(| |t) }

Again, applying the dame initial conditions we obtain

| |
|+ |
(26)
q = Q0 {
e|+ |t +
e| |t }
|+ | | |
|+ | | |
We note here that for very heavy damping,
with decay .

0 2

<< 1, this is close to a single exponential

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Physics 15c

Lecture 2

Critical damping, 2 = 402 , again, same as in the case of the damped mass on a
spring.
(27)

x = Ae 2 t + Bte 2 t

becomes

q = Q0 e 2 t (1 +

(28)

t
)
2

As you can see, there are all sorts of interesting eects hiding in this very simple system.
We have been considering the transient response of the damped harmonic oscillator system.
Now consider the response under a drive. This is similar to the situation of a child on a
swing with eager parent nearby. The parent may pull the child (in the swing) back to a
stationary position and then let go. The child will oscillate back and forth and with each
cycle reach a slightly lower maximal position. The damping in this case is a combination
of air and bearing resistance. Soon the child will tire of this fun and want to be pushed
in order to maintain a constant maximum height. How well continued oscillation works
depends on how well the parent couples in their pushing energy int the oscillating child
system. As we all know, it is best to push at the natural frequency of the swing.
In in our RLC circuit we model the driven system by adding a oscillating voltage source.
This source oscillates at a frequency which we can set. We can measure things (presumably with out disturbing the system) like charge.
Our equation now becomes
(29)

V L + VR + VC V i = 0

Using VR = IR = qR;V

q ;VC = q/C,
L = L dI/dt = L
R
1
V0
q +
q=
cos t
L
LC
L

and making the usual following denitions, 0 = 1/ LC, = R/L and I0 = V0 /L, we
obtain the damped harmoic oscillator equation in standard form,
(30)

(31)

q +

q + q + 02 q = I0 cos t

Casting into complex form,

(32)

z + z + 02 z = I0 eit

We assume a solution z = z0 eit and nd that

(33)

z0 =

1
02 2 + i

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Lecture 2

[]

Figure 1. This is a plot of the charge using the exact expression (solid
line) and the Lorentzian approximation (dashed line) for 0 = 0.1.
which can be cast into polar form,
(34)

z0 = P ei

(35)

(36)

tan =

1
(02 2 )2 + ()2

2
02

= I0

Finally, taking the real part,

V0

1
(37)
q=
cos(t + 2
)
L (02 2 )2 + ()2
02
This is the full steady-state solution. Lets concentrate just on the amplitude term and
consider the case of near resonance and light damping. For near resonance can be replaced
with 0 almost everywhere. With this Lorentzian Approximation one obtains
(38)

q=

1
V0 1
1
(
2 ) 2 cos(t + )
2
L 0 (0 ) + ( 2 )

and there is a similar approximation for . How good is this approximation? See the
plots.

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Physics 15c
1

Lecture 2
E

b
1

[]

Figure 2. This is a plot of the charge using the exact expression (solid
line) and the Lorentzian approximation (dashed line) for 0 = 0.01.
Often in real experiments the measured parameter is either the energy in the system or the
power put into the system or the power leaking from the system. For example, in microwave
experiments there is often a resistor and the power leaking out of the system is determined
simply by the temperature of the resistor. In visible light atomic spectrosocpy experiments
the power leaking out is measured by determining how many photons per second come out
of a sample of atoms that is being excited by radiation at a xed wavelength. For our RLC
system the total energy contained in the system is
(39)
(40)
(41)

1 2
q + L/2q2
2C
1 V0 2
1

=
( )
(cos(t + 2
))2
2
2
2
2
2C L (0 ) + ()
02
L
V0
1

+ 2 ( )2 2
(sin(t + 2
))2
2
L (0 2 )2 + ()2
02

(42)

U =

(43)

U L =

1 V02
( 2 + 2 )/2
2 0 2 2
2 R (0 ) + ()2
1
1 V02

8 R (0 )2 + ( 2 )2

where the second to the last line indicates the time average energy and the last line is its
Lorentzian approximation. The time average energy is usually the quantity measured in

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Lecture 2

many real physics experiments simply because the frequencies used are so high that it is
not possible to measure the instantaneous energy. (This limitation is changing as higher
frequency electronics are developed, as well as new techniques.)
The power put into the circuit in steady state (and , therefore, the power leaking out of
the circuit through the resistor) is given by
(44)

(45)

= I 2R
1
V02 2

=
sin2 (t + ) R
2
2
2
L
(0 )2 + ()2

(46)

P =

(47)

P L =

2
1 V02 2

2 R (02 2 )2 + ()2
1 V02 2
1

8 R (0 )2 + ( 2 )2

Note that P L = U L . This line shape is given, ignoring overall scale, by

(48)

x=

1
(0 )2 + ( 2 )2

is called the Lorentzian Line Shape and is ubiquitous in many areas of physics. Note
that it is an approximation but an excellent one for the case of near resonance and very
light damping.
Finally we dene some simple key parameters that are commonly talked about when describing a damped resonant system. First is the term Full Width at Half Maximum
(FWHM). Just like it sounds, it is the width of the resonance curve measured at half
its maximum value. For the Lorentzian the FWHM = = . The smaller the damping, the narrower the line, the smaller the FWHM. Second is the term cue or que or
Q. (NOTE, this Q is also the standard symbol for charge. Dont get confused! Sorry, I
did not invent these standard symbols.) This is a measure of how peaky the line is,
Q = 0 /. Within a factor of unity, a system with a Q of 100 will lose 1% of its energy
in each oscillation. (Likewise a Q of 1000 would indicate a 0.1% loss per cycle.)
We can plot the limiting behavior of power input as a function of driving frequency: we
have 3 cases according to the size of , our driving frequency:
(1) 0 :

(2) 0 :

(3) d = 0 :

2
2
04 + 2 2
4

2
1
2
+ 22

02
2 02

1
2

Q2

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Physics 15c

Lecture 2

Plots of Drive and Response for Driven, Damped, Mass on Spring

t

)
F

<<0

>>0
Below Resonance
Drive and Response
are
completely out of phase

Below Resonance
Drive and Response
are
in phase
0

=0
At Resonance
Drive and Response
are
completely out of phase
/2

So, depending on whether one is above, below or at resonance, the ability to put power
into the system will be quite dierent. Consider the child on the swing. What happens if
the parent decides to go well above resonance?
Above we are plotting the drive and response for a mathematically identical system, the
damped, driven harmonic oscillator.
*************************************
Summary.
physical example: undriven damped oscillator
underdamped:

x = e( 2 t) {A cos t + B sin t}

= e( 2 t) C cos( t + )
oscillation at < 0 with a decaying exponential envelope
overdamped:
x = {Ae(|+ |t) + Be(| |t) }
sum of 2 decaying exponentials
critically damped:

x = Ae 2 t + Bte 2 t

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Lecture 2

fastest damping; the limit of the overdamped case

solved inhomogenous linear dierential equationsfull solution is the sum of the
steady state and the transient motion
driven damped oscillator
resonance
energy conservation

15