Thermal II Lab Manual

Dr.N.N.C.
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
ME2355THERMALENGINEERINGLABORATORYII
LABORATORYMANUAL
FORSIXTHSEMESTERMECHANICALENGG.
(FORPRIVATECIRCULATIONONLY)
ACADEMICYEAR20132014(EVEN)
ANNAUNIVERSITYCHENNAI
DEPARTMENTMECHANICALENGINEERING
Dr.NAVALARNEDUNCHEZHIYANCOLLEGEOFENGINEERING
THOLUDUR606303,CUDDALOREDIST.,
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
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UNIVERSITYPRACTICALEXAMINATION
AllotmentofMarks
InternalAssessment
=20marks
PracticalExamination
=80marks
INTERNALASSESSMENT[20Marks]
StaffshouldmaintaintheassessmentRegisterandtheHeadoftheDepartmentshould
monitorit.
SPLITUPOFINTERNALMARKS
RecordNote=10marks
ModelExam=5marks
Attendance
Total
=5marks
__________
20marks
___________
UNIVERSITYEXAMINATION
Theexaminationwillbeconductedfor100marks.Thenthemarkswillbecalculatedto80
marks.
SplitupofPracticalExaminationMarks
AimandProcedure
Tabulation
FormulaeandCalculation
GraphandResult
VivaVoce
Total
= 25marks
= 15marks
= 30marks
= 20marks
= 10marks
___________
=100marks
___________
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
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GENERALINSTRUCTIONSFORLABORATORYCLASSES
EntertheLabwithCLOSEDFOOTWEAR.
BoysshouldTUCKINtheshirts.
Studentsshouldwearuniformonly.
LONGHAIRshouldbeprotected,letitnotbelooseespeciallynearROTATING
MACHINERY.
Anyothermachines/equipmentsshouldnotbeoperatedotherthantheprescribed
oneforthatday.
POWERSUPPLYtoyourtesttableshouldbeobtainedonlythroughtheLAB
TECHNICIAN.
DonotLEANanddonotbeCLOSEtotherotatingcomponents.
TOOLS,APPARATUSandGUAGEsetsaretobereturnedbeforeleavingthelab.
HEADINGSandDETAILSshouldbeneatlywritten
i.
Aimoftheexperiment
ii.
Apparatus/Tools/Instrumentsrequired
iii.
Procedure/Theory/Algorithm/Program
iv.
ModelCalculations
v.
NeatDiagram/Flowcharts
vi.
Specifications/DesignsDetails
vii.
Tabulations
viii.
Graph
ix.
Result/discussions.
Beforedoingtheexperiment,thestudentshouldgettheCircuit/Programapprovalby
theFACULTYINCHARGE.
Experimentdateshouldbewrittenintheappropriateplace.
Aftercompletingtheexperiment,theanswertothe vivavocequestions should

beneatlywrittenintheworkbook.
BePATIENT,STEADY,SYSTEMATICANDREGULAR.
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
LISTOFEXPERIMENTS
HEATTRANSFER
1. Thermalconductivitymeasurementbyguardedplatemethod.
2. Thermalconductivityofpipeinsulationusinglaggedpipeapparatus.
3. Naturalconvectionheattransferfromaverticalcylinder.
4. Forcedconvectioninsidetube.
5. Heattransferfrompinfin(natural&forcedconvectionmodes)
6. DeterminationofStefanBoltzmannconstant.
7. Determinationofemissivityofagraysurface.
8. EffectivenessofParallel/counterflowheatexchanger.
REFRIGERATIONANDAIRCONDITIONING
1. DeterminationofCOPofarefrigerationsystem.
2. Experimentsonairconditioningsystem.
3. Performancetestonsingle/twostagereciprocatingaircompressor.
LISTOFEXPERIMENTSBEYONDTHESYLLUBUS
1. ThermalConductivityofinsulatingpowder.
2. ThermalConductivityofmetalrod.
3. CalorificvaluedeterminationbyJunkersgascalorimeter.
TELABIILM
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
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CONTENTS
Exp.No.
NameoftheExperiment
Thermalconductivitymeasurementbyguarded
platemethod
Thermalconductivity ofpipeinsulation using
LaggedPipeApparatus
NaturalConvectionHeatTransferfromaVertical
Cylinder
ForcedConvectioninsidetube
Heattransfer from pinfin(natural
&forced
2
3
4
5
convectionmodes)
DeterminationofStefanBoltzmannconstant.
DeterminationofEmissivityofagreysurface
Effectiveness ofParallel/Counter Flow Heat
Exchanger
DeterminationofCOPofaRefrigerationsystem
Experimentsonairconditioningsystem.
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
PerformancetestonTwostagereciprocatingAir
Compressor
ThermalConductivityofinsulatingpowder
ThermalConductivityofmetalrod.
CalorificvaluedeterminationbyJunkersgas
calorimeter
QuestionBank
PageNo.
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
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OBSERVATION:
MINIMUM40VOLTS[BOTH]
S.
No.
Volts Amps Volts
Amps
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
1.
39
0.18
44.1
0.14
34.2 32.3 41.3 80.9 62.5 92.1
98.4
42.0 34.6
2.
36
0.16
41
0.13
22.6 34.5 44.4 85.0 66.4 95.6 102.8
44.9 37.4
3.
32
0.14
36
0.12
23.8 35.0 44.5 82.5 65.4 92.0
45.0 38.2
98.7
CALCULATION:
Insulatingmaterial
Specimendiameter
Areaofspecimen
Specimenthickness
Volts
Amps
:Asbestossheet[commercialgrade]
=150mm=0.15m.
2
2
=/4x[0.15] =0.018m .
=L=12mm=0.012m.
=32
=0.14
Mainheater
Volts
Amps
=36
=0.12
Ringheater
Heatinputq
=q[mainheater]+q[guardheater]
=[32x0.14x0.86]+[36x0.12x0.86]
=3.85+3.71
=7.56kcal/hr.
Itshouldbenotedthatoutofthisheatinput,ideallyonlyahalfwillpassthrougheachof
thespecimens[topandbottom].
Henceq
=q/2=7.56/2=3.78kcal/hr.
T={[T4T3]+[T7T8]}/2
= {[82.544.5]+[98.745.0]}/2
= [38+53.7]/2
0
= 91.7/2=45.85 C.
Thermalconductivityofspecimen
K =qL/AT
= 3.78x0.012/0.018x45.85
= 0.04536/0.8253
0
= 0.05496kcal/hrm C.
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
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ExperimentNumber:1
TitleoftheExperiment:ThermalConductivityMeasurementByGuarded
PlateMethod
DateoftheExperiment:
OBJECTIVE[AIM]OFTHEEXPERIMENT
Todeterminethethermalconductivityofapoorconductingmaterial,sayAsbestos
sheet.
RELEVANTTHEORY
Thermalconductivityisaspecificpropertyofconductingmaterialwhichisdefined
belowforahomogeneoussolidasthequantityofheatconductedacrossaunitareanormalto
theflowdirectioninunittimeandforunittemperaturegradientalongtheflow.
K=qdL/AdT
Where,
q=heatconductedinwatts
dL=thickness[m]
2
A =Areaofconductionheattransfer,m
0
dT=temperaturedifferenceacrossthelengthdL[ C]
MEASUREMENT:
Experimentalmeasurementofthermalconductivitiesofsolidscanbeaccomplished
byavarietyofmethods,allbasedontheobservationofthetemperaturegradientacrossa
givenareaofthematerialconductingheatataknownrate.Eachofthesemethodshascertain
uniquelimitations,andthechoiceofoneoveranotherisgovernedbythegeneraltemperature
levelatwhichKismeasured,bythephysicalstructureofthematerialinquestionandby
whetherthematerialisagoodorpoorconductor.
Inmeasuringthethermalconductivityofpoorconductors,thespecimensaretakenin
theformofsheetsinorderthattheheatflowpathisshortandtheconductingarealarge.[low
dL,higherA].
Dr.N.N.C.E
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FACILITIESREQUIREDANDPROCEDURE
a]Facilitiesrequiredtodotheexperiment:
Sl.No.
1.
Facilitiesrequired
Quantity
Guardedplateapparatus
SPECIFICATIONS:
Material
Specimendiameter[d]
SpecimenthicknessdL
Areaofspecimen
Heatinput
=Asbestossheet[commercialgrade]
=150mmor0.15m.
=12mmor0.012m.
2 2
=/4x[0.15] m
=VIwatts[q]
b]GuardedHotPlatemethod[Solids]
The apparatus consists of a Guarded Hot Plate, the arrangement along with
thermocouplepositions[T3,T4]acrossthespecimenandT5,T6guardedheatertemperature
[onlyforcheck][T1,T2]TopandBottompadtemperatures.
Thepanelconsistsofvoltmeter,ammeter,temperatureindicator[alldigital],dimmer
controls,voltmeterandammeterselector[commonswitch,thermocoupleselectorswitch].
c]Operation:
a]Connectthethreepinplugtopto230V,50Hz,5Ampspowersupplysocket,dimmers
in OFFposition.
b]Keepthevoltmeterandammeterswitchin1position.Turnthedimmerinclockwise
andadjustthepowerinputtomainheatertoanydesiredvaluebylookingatvoltmeterand
ammeter.
c]Turnthevoltmeterandammeterswitchtopositionmarked2andcheckthevoltage
&currentaresameforringheater.
d]Allowtheunittostabilize[approx30minutes].
e]Notedownthetemperatureindicatedbythedigitaltemperatureindicatorbyturning
thethermocoupleselectorswitchclockwisestepbystep[1,2,3,4,5,and6].
f]Repeattheexperimentfordifferentpowerinputstotheheater.g]
Tabulateallthereadingsandcalculatefordifferentconditions.
h]Aftertheexperimentisoverturnallthedimmerknobsanticlockwise,directionto
zero.i]Disconnectthethreepinplugtopfromthemains.
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
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CAUTION:
Theequipmentshouldbeoperatedbetween0and150V.
d]Procedurefordoingtheexperiment:
StepNo.
DetailsoftheStep
1.
SupplyasmallquantityofenergytothesourceH[themainheaterMH].
2.
Nowadjusttheinputtotheguardheaterssuchthatthetemperatureissame
asthatofthemainheater
3.
Allowwaterthroughthecoolingcircuitslowly.
4.
Allow3060minutesforthetemperaturestostabilize.
5.
Notedownalltheparameter
6.
Repeattheexperimentatdifferenttemperaturevaluesbyadjusting
appropriatelytheinputconditions.
e]Result:
Thusthethermalconductivityofapoorconductingmaterial[Asbestossheet]is
determined.
0
K=0.05496Kcal/hrm C.
9
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
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VIVAQUESTIONS
1.Defineheattransfer.
Heattransfercanbedefinedasthetransmissionofenergyfromoneregionto
anotherduetotemperaturedifference.
2. Whatarethemodesofheattransfer?
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation.
3. Whatisconduction?
Heatconductionisamechanismofheattransferfromaregionofhightemperature
toaregionoflowtemperaturewithinamedium[solid,liquidorgases]ordifferent
mediumindirectphysicalcontact.
4. StateFourierslawofconduction.
Therateofheatconductionisproportionaltotheareameasurednormaltothe
directionofheatflowandtothetemperaturegradientinthatdirection.
QAdT/dx
Q=kAdT/dx
2
Where,AAreainm .
dT/dxTemperaturegradient,K/m
kThermalconductivity,W/mK.
5.DefineThermalconductivity.
Thermalconductivityisdefinedastheabilityofasubstancetoconductheat.
10
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
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ExperimentNumber:2
TitleoftheExperiment:ThermalConductivityOfPipeInsulationUsing
LaggedPipeApparatus
OBJECTIVE[AIM]OFTHEEXPERIMENT:
Toplottheradialtemperaturedistributioninthecompositecylinderandto
determinethethermalconductivityofthepipeinsulation.
THEORY
Consideronedimensionalradialheatflowthroughahollowcylinder,understeady
stateconditions.
q=2KL[T1T2]/ln[r2/r1]
WhereT1,T2aretheinnerandouterwalltemperaturer1andr2aretheinnerand
outerradiiofthepipe.
K=Thermalconductivityofthematerial.
Sl.No.
1.
Facilitiesrequired
LaggedPipeApparatus
Quantity
b]DescriptionoftheApparatus:
Theapparatus consistsofametal pipewithtwolayers ofinsulation. Anelectric
heatingcoilwoundonasilicarodisplacedatthecenter.Theendsarethicklyinsulatedto
preventheatlosssothat,heatflowonlyinaradialdirection.Threethermocoupleseachare
placedatdifferentradiitomeasurethetemperaturedistributionwithinthecylinder.
c]TechnicalData:
Locationofthermocouples1,2,3ataradius=25mm.
Locationofthermocouples4,5,6ataradius=37.5mm.
Locationofthermocouples7,8,9ataradius=50mm.
Locationofthermocouples10,11,12ataradius=62.5mm.
LengthofthepipeL=500mm.
TABULATION
11
Dr.N.N.C.E
S.No
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HeatInput
TempatRadius
TempatRadius
TempatRadius
TempatRadius
[watts]
R10C
R20C
R30C
R40C
V
1.
MECH/VISem
75 0.44
T1
T2
33 111.8 133.8
T3
T4
T5
102.2 37.2 41.9
T6
Atr1=25mm
T1=(111.8+133.8+102.2)/3=115.930C.
Atr2=37.5mm
T2=(37.2+41.9+37.3)/3=38.80C.
Atr3=50mm
T3=(35.4+39.9+39.7)/3=38.330C.
Atr4=62.5mm
T4=(31.8+30.2+30.4)/3=30.80C.
K=qln[r3/r2]/2L[T2T3]
=33ln[0.05/0.0375]/2x0.5[38.8
38.33]K=0.1948W/mK.
12
T8
37.3 35.4 39.9
MODELCALCULATION:
q=VxI=75x0.44=33.
T7
T9
T10
T11
39.7 31.8 30.2
T12
30.4
Dr.N.N.C.E
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StepNo.
1.
2.
DetailsoftheStep
Connecttheequipmenttoa230V,5amps,and50HZelectricalsource.
Twinthedimmerstatknobclockwiseandfixtheheatinputtoadesired
wattage[VxI]
Allowtheequipmenttostabilizeandattainsteadystate.
Turnthethermocoupleselectorswitchknobclockwiseandnotedown
temperatureT1toT12.
Repeattheexperimentfordifferentheatinputs.
3.
4.
5.
d]Formula:
0
T2=Temperatureatradiusr2 C
T3=Temperatureatradiusr30C
r=radiusofthepipem
K=ThermalConductivityW/m
KL=Lengthofthepipem
e]Result:
ThusthethermalConductivityofthepipeinsulationis
determined.K=0.1948W/mK.
13
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
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VIVAQUESTIONS
QAdT/dx
Q=kAdT/dx
2
Where,AAreainm .
4.Writedowntheequationforconductionofheatthroughaslaborplanewall.
Heattransfer,Q=Toverall/
RWhere,T=T1T2
R=L/kAThermalresistanceof
slabLThicknessofslab
KThermalconductivityof
slabAArea
5.Writedowntheequationforconductionofheatthroughahollowcylinder.
Heattransfer,Q=Toverall/
RWhere
T=T1 T 2
R=1/2Lkin[r2/r1]Thermalresistanceof
slab.LLengthofcylinder
kThermalconductivity
r2Outerradius
r1Innerradius
6.Whatarethefactorsaffectingthethermalconductivity?
a. Moistureb.Densityofmaterialc.Pressure
d.Temperaturee.Structureofmaterial.
14
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
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TABULATION
S.
No
.
Meter
Reading
[Volts]
1.
78.125
Am
Meter
Reading
[I]
Amps
0.64
2.
84.337
3.
91.836
Volt
In
Put
Watts
ThermocoupleLocationin C
1
Ts
[T8]
Tmf
Ta
C.
[Ts+Ta]/2
50
53
56
62
68
66
71
64
62.857
38
50.429
0.83
70
83
92
101 107
101
110
103
99.571
38
68.736
0.98
90
98
102
121 128
123
133
113
116.857
39
77.929
CALCULATION:
[1]Experimentheattransfercoefficient[Average]
Q=hA[T]Watts.
`
Q=hA[TsTa]Watts.
2
h=Q/A[TsTa]W/m K.
h=50/xdxl[TsTa]=50/x0.031x0.5[62.85738]
2
havg=41.309W/m K.
[2]Localheattransfercoefficient:
hexp[local]=Q/A[TxTa].
2
h1=50/0.5x 0.031xx[5338] =68.454W/m K.
2
h2=50/0.5x 0.031xx[5638]=57.045W/m K.
2
h3=50/0.5x 0.031xx[6238]=42.784W/m K.
2
h4=50/0.5x 0.031xx[6838]=34.227W/m K.
2
h5=50/0.5x 0.031xx[6638]=36.672W/m K.
2
h6=50/0.5x 0.031xx[7138]=31.115W/m K.
2
h7=50/0.5x 0.031xx[6438]=39.493W/m K.
[3]Theoreticalheattransfercoefficient.htheo[Average]
3
2
Gr=[gxL xxT]/
30 1
=1/Tmf inK=1/[50.429+273]=3.092x10 K .
0
T=[Ts T a]=24.857 C.
0
Tf=[Ts+Ta]/ 2=[62.857+38]/2=50.429=50 C.
0
Propertiesofairat50 C
3
Pr=0.698;
L=0.5m;
=1.093kg/m ;
6 2
K=0.02826W/mK; g=9.81m/sec2.
=17.95x10 m /s;
3
2
3
3
6 2
Gr=[gxLx xxT]/ ={9.81x[0.5] x3.092x10 x24.857}/[17.95x10 ]
10
Gr=0.0942/3.222x10 =2.924x10 .
8
8
GrPr=[2.924x10 ]x0.698=2.040x10 .
8 0.25
Nu=0.59[2.040x10 ] =70.511
70.511=hx0.5/0.02826
2
htheo=3.985W/m K.
15
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
ExperimentNumber:3
TitleoftheExperiment:NaturalConvectionHeatTransferfromaVertical
Cylinder
Todeterminesurfaceheattransfercoefficient,localheattransfercoefficientalong
thelengthofthetubeandalsotodrawthegraphbetweenlocalheattransfercoefficient
anddistancealongthelengthofthetube.
Sl.No.
1.
Facilitiesrequired
Quantity
Naturalconvectionverticalcylinder
apparatus
b]Theory
Whenahotbodyiskeptinastillair,heatistransferredtothesurroundingbynatural
convection, the fluid layer in contact with the hot surface gets heated, rises up due to
decreaseinitsdensityandthecoldfluidrushesintotakeitsplace.Theprocessiscontinuous
andheattransfertakesplaceduetorelativemotionofhotandcoldfluid.Thesurfaceheat
transfercoefficientofasystemtransferringheatbynaturalconvectiondependsuponits
shape,dimension,orientationandalsothetemperaturedifferencebetweenthesurfaceandthe
fluid.
c]ApparatusDescription
TheapparatusconsistsofaBrasstubefittedinarectangularductinaverticalfashion.
Theductisopenatthetopandbottomandformsanenclosureandservesthepurposeof
undisturbedsurrounding.OnesideoftheductismadeupofPerspexsheetforvisualization.
Anelectricheatingelementiskeptintheverticaltubewhichinturnheatsthetubetothe
surrounding air by natural convection. The surface temperature of the vertical tube is
measured by seven thermocouple wires. The tube surface is polished to minimize the
radiationlosses.Thetemperatureofthetubemeasuredbyatemperatureindicator.
Specification:
[1]Diameterofthetube[d]
[2]Lengthofthetube[l]
[3]Ductsize
=31mm.
=500mm.
=200mmx200mmx750mm
16
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
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[4]TheoreticalLocalheattransfercoefficient.htheo
3
2
[Local]Gr[local]=[gxxLx xT]/
[i]
Tmf [Local] = [Tx + Ta] / 2 = [53 +38] / 2 =

0
0
45.5 C.Propertiesofairat45.5 C
3
Pr=0.685;
=1.109kg/m ;
Lx=0.01m;
6 2
2
=17.505x10 m /s K=0.02795W/mK; g=9.81m /s;
3
2
3
Gr=[gxxLx xT]/
=1/318.5=3.140x10 .
3
3
6 2
=9.81x3.140x10 x0.01 x[5338]/[17.505x10 ]
3
Gr=1.508x10 .
3
GrPr=[1.508x10 ][0.685]
3
GrPr=1.033x10 .
4
9
0.25
10 GrPr10
Nu=[0.59][GrPr]
3 0.25
=[0.59][1.033x10 ] =3.345
Nu=hLLx/K
3.345=hL[0.01]/0.02795
hL1=9.349W/m2K.
[ii]
Tmf [Local]=[Tx +Ta]/2=[56+38]/2=

0
0
47 C.Propertiesofairat47 C
3
Pr=0.689;
=1.104kg/m ;
Lx=0.05m;
6 2
3
=17.653x10 m /s K=0.02805W/mK;=1/320=3.125x10
3
Gr=[gxxLx xT]/
3
3
=9.81x3.125x10 x0.05 x[5638]/[17.653x10

6 2
5
] Gr=2.214x10 .
5
GrPr=[2.214x10 ]x[0.689]=1.525x
5
5 0.25
10 Nu=[0.59][1.525x10 ] =11.66.
Nu=hLLx/K
11.66=[hLx0.05]/0.02805
hL2=6.54W/m2K.
0
[iii]Tmf=[Tx+Ta]/2=[62+38]/2=50 C.
0
3
Pr=0.698;
=1.093kg/m ;
Lx=0.1m;
6 2
3
=17.95x10 m /s K=0.02826W/mK; =3.0296x10
3
Gr=gxxLx xT/
3
3
6 2
6
Gr=9.81x3.096x10 x0.1 x[6238]/[17.95x10 ] =2.262x10 .
6
6
GrPr=[2.262x10 ]x[0.698]=1.579x10 .
6 0.25
Nu=[0.59][1.579x10 ] =20.91.
Nu=hLLx/K
20.91=[hLx0.1]/0.02826
hL3=5.909W/m2K.
0
[iv]Tmf=[Tx+Ta]/2=[68+38]/2=53 C.
0
3
Pr=0.697;
=1.083kg/m ;
Lx=0.2m;
6 2
3
=18.26x10 m /s K=0.02847W/mK; =3.067x10
17
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
[4]NumberofThermocouples
=7andareshownas[1][7]andasmarkedon
temperatureindicatorswitch.
[5] Thermocouplenumber8readsthetemperatureoftheairintheduct.
[6] Temperatureindicator0300
alumelthermocouples.
[7]Ammeter
[8]Voltmeter
[9]Dimmerstart
[10]Heatercartridgetype
C.Multichanneltype,calibratedforchromel
=[02A]
=[0100/200V]
=2A/230Volt.
=400Watts
StepNo.
1.
DetailsoftheStep
Switchonthesupplyandadjustthedimmerstattoobtaintherequiredheat
input.
2.
Waittillthefairlysteadystateisreached,whichisconfirmedfrom
temperaturereadings[T1toT7].
3.
Notedownsurfacetemperatureatvariouspoints.
4.
5.
NotetheAmbientTemperature[T8].
Repeattheexperimentatdifferentheatinputs.
Precautions:
[1] Donotexceed100Watts.
[2] Operatethechangeoverselectorswitchgentlyfromposition[1]to[8].
FormulaUsed:
[1]Ts=[T1+T2+T3+T4+T5+T6+T7]/70C
WhereT1,T2,T3,..T7aretemperatureatlocations1,2
7Meanfilmtemperature[Tmf]=[Ts+Ta]/2.
WhereTs=Averagesurfacetemperaturein
0
C.Ta=AmbientTemperaturein0C.
Experimentheattransfercoefficient
[Average]Q=hA[T]Watts.
Whereh=Experimentalconvectiveheattransfercoefficient
2
[Average]W/m K.
2
A=AreaofheattransferdLm .
T=Ts T a in 0C.
Ts=Surfacetemperaturein0C.
Ta=Ambienttemperaturein0C.
Q=Averagerateofheattransferbyconvectionin
2
[Watts].hexp[average]=Q/As[TsTa]W/m K.
18
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
3
Gr=gxxLx xT/
TELABIILM
6 2
Gr=9.81x3.067x10 x0.2 x[6838]/[18.26x10 ] =21.659x10 .

6
GrPr=[21.659x10 ]x[0.697]=15.096x
6
6 0.25
10 .Nu=[0.59][15.096x10 ] =36.776.
Nu=hLLx/K
36.776=[hL4x0.2]/0.2847
hL4=5.235W/m2K.
0
[v]Tmf=[Tx+Ta]/2=[66+38]/2=52 C.
0
3
Pr=0.698;
=1.086kg/m ;
Lx=0.3m;
6 2
3
=18.15x10 m /s K=0.02840W/mK; =3.077x10
3
Gr=gxxLx xT/
3
3
6 2
6
Gr=9.81x3.077x10 x0.3 x[6638]/[18.15x10 ] =69.28x10 .
6
6
GrPr=[69.28x10 ][0.698]=48.36x10 .
6 0.25
Nu=[0.59][48.36x10 ] =49.201.
Nu=hLLx/K
49.201=hL5x0.3/0.02840
hL5=4.658W/m2K.
0
[vi]Tmf=[Tx+Ta]/2=[71+38]/2=54.5 C.
0
Propertiesofairat54.5 C
3
Pr=0.697;
=1.078kg/m ;
Lx=0.4m;
6 2
3
=18.41x10 m /s K=0.02858W/mK; =3.053x10
Gr=gxxLx xT/
3
6 2
Gr=9.81x3.053x10 x0.4 x[7138]/[18.41x10 ] =186.63x10 .

6
GrPr=[186.63x10 ]x[0.697]=130.08x
6
6 0.25
10 .Nu=[0.59][130.08x10 ] =63.01.
Nu=hLLx/K
Nu=[hLx0.4]/0.02858
63.01=[hLx0.4]/0.2858
hL6=4.502W/m2K.
[vii]Tmf=[Tx+Ta]/2=[64+38]/2=51 C.
0
3
Pr=0.698;
=1.090kg/m ;
Lx=0.49m;
6 2
3
=18.052x10 m /s K=0.02833W/mK; =3.086x10
3
Gr=gxxLx xT/
3
3
6 2
6
Gr=9.81x3.086x10 x0.49 x[6438]/[18.052x10 ] =284.136x10 .
6
GrPr=[284.136x10 ]x0.698=198.33x
6
6 0.25
10 .Nu=[0.59]x[198.33x10 ] =70.16
Nu=hLLx/K
Nu=[hLx0.49]/0.02833
70.16=hLx0.49/0.2833
hL7=4.048W/m2K.
19
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
[2]Localheattransfercoefficient:
hexp[local]=Q/A[TxTa].
WhereTx=Temperatureatlocations1to7in0K.
Thelocalheattransfercoefficienth1,h2,h3,.h7canbecalculatedfrom
theaboveequation.
[3]Theoreticalheattransfercoefficient[Average].
Usingfreeconvectioncorrelationforverticalcylinder.
0.25
4
9
Nu=0.59[Gr.Pr] for10 Gr.Pr10 .
1/3
=0.13[Gr.Pr] for10 Gr.Pr

12
10 .Nu=NusseltNumber.
Gr=GrashofNumber.
Pr=PrandtlNumber.
3
GrashofNumber=gxL xxT/
Whereg=Accelerationduetogravity=9.81m/s .
L=Characteristicsdimensioninmeters,HereL=0.5m.
=Coefficientofthermalexpansionforthefluid
=1/TfinK.
T=Temperaturedifferencein 0K=[Ts T a].
2
=Kinematicviscosityoftheairatmeanfilmtemperature,m /s.
[fromtheHMTDatabook].
pr=PrandtlNumberofairatTmf[fromtheHMTData
book].Nu=hL/K.
2
Whereh=Convectiveheattransfercoefficientinw/m K.L
=Characteristicdimensioninm.L=0.5m.
K=ThermalconductivityofairatTmf[fromHMTDatabook]
[4]TheoreticalLocalheattransfercoefficient.htheo
3
2
[Local]Gr[local]=gxLx xxT/
WhereLx=L1,L2,L3,.L7distancefromthebottomof
thetubeinm
Pr=PrandtlNumber[Tmf]
Tmf[local]=[Tx+Ta]/2
Tx=Temperatureatpoint1to7.
2
=KinematicviscosityatTmf inm /s.
T=Temperaturedifference[Tx T a]in
0
K. Nu[Local]=hlLl/K.
Wherehl=Localconvectiveheattransfercoefficientat
2
point1to7inw/m K.
Ll=Charactersticsdimensioninm.
2
K=ThermalconductivityofairatTmfinw/m K.
20
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
Result:
Thustheaveragesurfaceheattransfercoefficientandlocalheattransfercoefficient
alongthelengthofthetubearedeterminedandalsothegraphb/wlocalheattransferco
efficientandthedistancealongtheheightofthetubeisdrawn.Theresultsaretabulated.
Experimentlocalheattransfercoefficient:
Average
Surface
Heat
2
Localheattransfercoefficient[w/m K][experiment]
Input
Transfer
S.No.
[watts]
Co
efficient
2
[w/m K]
h1
h2
h3
h4
h5
h6
h7
1.
50
68.45 57.045 42.784 34.227 36.672 31.17 39.493
41.309
TheorticalLocalheattransfercoefficient:
Average
Heat
[Theortical]Localheattransfercoefficientexperiment
Transfer
Input
2
[w/m K]
S.No.
Co
[watts]
efficient
2
[w/m K]
h1
h2
h3
h4
h5
h6
h7
1.
50
9.349
6.54 5.909
5.235
4.658 4.502 4.048
3.983
VIVAQUESTIONS
1.Whatismeantbyfreeornaturalconvection?
It is fluid motion is produced due to change in density resulting from
temperature gradients, the mode of heat transfer is said to be free or natural
convection.
2.DefineGrashofnumber[Gr].
Itisdefinedastheratioofproductofinertiaforceandbuoyancyforcetothe
2
squareofviscousforce.Gr=InertiaforcexBuoyancyforce/[Viscousforce]
3.DefineStantonnumber[St].
ItistheratioofNusseltnumbertotheproductofReynoldsnumber
andPrandtlnumber.St=Nu/RexPr.
4.WhatismeantbyNewtonionandnonnewtonionfluids?
ThefluidswhichobeytheNewtonslawofviscosityarecalled
Newtonionfluidsandthosewhichdonotobeyarecallednonewtonionfluids.
5. Whatismeantbylaminarflow?
Laminarflow: Laminarflowissometimescalledstreamlineflow.Inthistypeof
flow,thefluidmovesinlayersandeachfluidparticlefollowsasmoothcontinuous
path.Thefluidparticlesineachlayerremaininanorderlysequencewithoutmixing
witheachother.
21
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
ExperimentNumber:4
TitleoftheExperiment:ForcedConvectioninsideTube
TodeterminetheheattransfercoefficientonthegivenForcedConvectioninsidetube
Apparatus.
Sl.No.
1.
FacilitiesRequired
Quantity
ForcedConvectioninsidetubeApparatus
b]Description
Theexperimentalsetupconsistsofatubethroughwhichairissentinbyablower.
Thetestsectionconsistsofalongelectricalsurfaceheateronthetubewhichservesasa
constantheatfluxsourceontheflowingmedium.Theinletandoutlettemperaturesofthe
flowingairaremeasuredbythermocouplesandalsothetemperaturesatseverallocations
alongthesurfaceheaterfromwhichonaveragetemperaturecanbeobtained.Anorifice
meterinthetubeisusedtomeasuretheairflowratewithaUtubewatermanometer.
Anammeterandavoltmeterareprovidedtomeasurethepowerinputtothe
heater.Apowerregulatorisprovidedtovarythepowerinputtoheater.
Amultipointdigitaltemperatureindicatorisprovidedtomeasuretheabove
thermocouplesinput.
Avalveisprovidedtoregulatetheflowrateofair.
c]Procedurefordoingtheexperiment:
StepNo.
DetailsoftheStep
1.
Switchonthemain.
2.
Switchontheblower.
3.
Adjusttheregulatortoanydesiredpowerintoinputtoheater.
4.
Adjustthepositionofthevalvetoanydesiredflowrateofair.
5.
Waittillsteadystatetemperatureisreached.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Notemanometerreadingh1andh2.
Notetemperaturesalongthetube.Noteairinletandoutlettemperature.
Notevoltmeterandammeterreading.
Adjustthepositionofthevalveandvarytheflowrateofairandrepeatthe
experiment.
Forvariousvalveopeningsandforvariouspowerinputsthereadingsmay
betakentorepeattheexperiments.
22
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
TABULATION:
Inlet
Outlet
Temperaturealong
Voltage Current
Temperature Temperature theduct
S.No.
[V]
[A]
T
ofair[T]
ofair[T]
T3
T4
T5
2
[Volts]
50
[Amps]
[ C]
[ C]
[0C]
35
38
42
h1
h2
[C]
[cm]
[cm]
47
[C]
[C]
45
46
MODELCALCULATIONS:
EXPERIMENTALMETHOD:
PI=VxI=50watts
VI=hxAxt
t=AveragetemperatureofheaterAveragetemperatureof
air t=4536.5
t=8.50C
Averagetemperatureofheater=T2+T3+T4+T5/4=42+45+46+47/4=
450C.Averagetemperatureofair=T1+T6/2=35+33/2=36.50C.
A=Areaofheattransfer
A=xdxl
Diameteroftubed=0.04m
Lengthofthetubel=0.5m
A=3.14x0.04x0.5
A=0.0634m2.
VI=hxAxt
50=hX0.0634X8.5
2
h=92.782W/m C.
THEORTICALMETHOD
2
Q=Cdxa1xa22gho/a1 a2
3
ho=[h1h2]x[w/a]m /sec
3
w =1000kg/m
3
a =1.16kg/m .
Manometer
reading
19
23
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
[1]EXPERIMENTALMETHOD:
VI=hAt
Where,
t=AveragetemperatureofheaterAveragetemperatureofair
[0C]. A=dl
A=Areaofheattransfer.
d=diameterofthetube=0.04ml
=lengthofthetube=0.5m.
2
h=heattransfercoefficient[W/m
C]VI=Powerinputtoheater.
[2]THEORITICALMETHOD:
2
Q=Cdxa1xa22gho/a1 a2 m /sec.
ho=headofaircausingtheflow.
=[h1h2]x[w/a]
3
w =Densityofwater=1000kg/m .
3
a =Densityofair=1.16kg/m .
h1,h2=Manometerreadingin
m.a1=Areaofthetube.
a2=Areaoftheorifice.
Q=Volumeofairflowingthroughthe
tube.Cd=0.6
[3] VELOCITYOFAIR:
V=Q/am/sec.
[4] REYNOLDSNUMBER:
Re=VD/.
V=VelocityofairD
=Dia.ofthepipe.
=Kinematicviscosityofair.
[5] Nu=hD/K
K=Thermalconductivityofair.
0.8
0.4
Nu=0.023xRe xPr
Re=ReynoldsNumber.
Pr=PrandtlNumber.
d]Result:
Thustheexperimentoftheforcedconvectionisconductedandheat
transfercoefficientarecalculated.
HeatTransferCoefficient:
2
Experimentalvalue=92.782W/m C.
2
Theoreticalvalue=31.2395763W/m C.
TELABIILM
24
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
h1=9
h2=19.
ho=[199]x[1000/1.16]
=10x862.069=86.20689m.
Cd=0.6
a1 =/4xd12
d1=Diaofpipe=40mm=0.04m
2
=/4x[0.04]
a1 =0.00125664m2.
a2 =/4xd2 2
d2=Diaoftheorifice=20mm=0.02m.
2
=/4x[0.02]
a2 =0.00031416m2.
Q=0.6x0.00125664x0.00031416x2x9.81x86.20689/[0.00125664] 2
[0.00031416]
7
Q=2.3687x10
x411.264/1.216x10
3
3
Q=0.008006376m /sec.
VELOCITYOFAIRFLOW
V=Q/a1
= 0.008006376/0.00125664
= 6.3713m/sec.
REYNOLDSNUMBER
Re=VD/.
KinematicviscosityfromHMTDatabook
=0.00001696
=6.3713x0.04/0.00001696
Re=15027.
NUSSELTNUMBER
Nu=hD/K
0.8
Nu=0.023x[15027]
x
0.33
[0.698] Nu=43.75290799.
Nu=hD/K
KThermalconductivityfromHMTData
bookK=0.02856.
43.75290799=hx0.04/0.02856
2
h=31.2395763W/m C.
25
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
VIVAQUESTIONS
1.DefineConvection.
Convectionisaprocessofheattransferthatwilloccurbetweenasolid
surfaceandafluidmediumwhentheyareatdifferenttemperatures.
2.DefineReynoldsnumber[Re].
Itisdefinedastheratioofinertiaforcetoviscousforce.
Re=Inertiaforce/Viscousforce
3.DefinePrandtlnumber[Pr].
Itistheratioofthemomentumdiffusivitytothethermaldiffusivity.
Pr=Momentumdiffusivity/Thermaldiffusivity
4.DefineNusseltNumber[Nu].
Itisdefinedastheratiooftheheatflowbyconvectionprocessunderan
unittemperaturegradienttotheheatflowratebyconductionunderanunit
temperaturegradientthroughastationarythickness[L]ofmetre.
NusseltNumber[Nu]=qconv/qcond
5.StateNewtonslawofconvection.
Heattransferfromthemovingfluidtosolidsurfaceisgivenbythe
equation.Q=hA=[TwT]
ThisequationisreferredtoasNewtonslawofcooling.
2
Whereh=LocalheattransfercoefficientinW/m K.
2
A=Surfaceareainm .
Tw=Surface[or]Walltemperaturein
K.T=TemperatureoffluidinK.
6.Whatisforcedconvection?
Ifthefluidmotionisartificiallycreatedbymeansofanexternalforcelike
ablowerorfan,thattypeofheattransferisknownasforcedconvection.
7. Whatarethedimensionlessparametersusedinforcedconvection?
1. Reynoldsnumber[Re].
2. Nusseltnumber[Nu].
3. Prandtlnumber[Pr].
26
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
ExperimentNumber:5
TitleoftheExperiment:Heattransferfrompinfin(natural&forced
convectionmodes)
TodetermineHeattransferfrompinfin(natural&forcedconvectionmodes)
.
Sl.No.
1.
Facilitiesrequired
PinfinApparatus
Quantity
1
b]ApparatusDescription
Theheattransferfromaheatedsurfacetotheambientsurroundingisgivenbythe
relation,q=hAT.Inthisrelationhcistheconvectiveheattransfercoefficient,Tisthe
temperaturedifference&Aistheareaofheattransfer.Toincreaseq,hmaybeincreasedor
surfaceareamaybyincreased.Insomecasesitisnotpossibletoincreasethevalueofheat
transfercoefficient&thetemperaturedifferenceT&thustheonlyalternativeistoincrease
thesurfaceareaofheattransfer.Thesurfaceareaisincreasedbyattachingextramaterialin
theformofrod(circularorrectangular)onthesurfacewherewehavetoincreasetheheat
transferrate."Thisextramaterialattachediscalledtheextendedsurfaceorfin."Thefinsmay
beattachedonaplanesurface,andthentheyarecalledplanesurfacefins.Ifthefinsare
attachedonthecylindricalsurface,theyarecalledcircumferentialfins.Thecrosssectionof
thefinmaybecircular,rectangular,triangularorparabolic.
StepNo.
DetailsoftheStep
1.
Connecttheequipmenttoelectricpowersupply.
2.
Keepthethermocoupleselectorswitchtozeroposition.
3.
TurntheVariac(dimmerstat)clockwiseandadjustthepowerinputtotheheaterto
thedesiredvalueandswitchontheblower.
4.
Settheairflowratetoanydesiredvaluebyadjustingthedifferenceinmercury
levelsinthemanometerandallowtheunittostabilize.
Notedownthetemperatures,T1toT6fromthethermocoupleselectorswitch.
5.
6.
Notedownthedifferenceinlevelofthemanometerandrepeattheexperimentfor
differentpowerinputstotheheater.
7.
Connecttheequipmenttoelectricpowersupply.
8.
Keepthethermocoupleselectorswitchtozeroposition.
FORMULA:
27
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
Where;
d0=DiameteroftheOrifice;dp=Diameterofthepipe
Where;
m=densityofmanometricfluid=13.6x10kg/m
a=densityofair=1.17kg/m
Velocityatorificexcrosssectionalareaoforifice
Va=Velocityofairintheduct=
Va==
Crosssectionalareaofduct
V0x(d0)/4
WxB
Where,
dp=diameterofpiped0
=diameteroforificeW
=WidthoftheductB=
Breadthofduct
Averagesurfacetemperatureoffinisgivenby
T1+T2+T3+T4+T5
Ts =
T=T6=Ambienttemperature=
+ 273.15=
+273.15=
Tm=Meantemperature=Ts+T2
Propertiesofairat_____0C
=
,Pr=,K=
Vadf
Re = ----------- =
Re=Reynoldsnumber
Pr=Prandtlnumber
Nu=Nusseltnumber
TherelationshipforNuis
n
Nu=CRePr
1/3
28
Dr.N.N.C.E
For
Re=0.4to4.0
Re=4to40
Re=40to4000
Re=4000to40,000
Re=40,000to400,000
h=
Nuk
df
MECH/VISem
C=0.989and
n=0.33
C=0.911and n=0.385
C=0.683and
n=0.466
C=0.293and n=0.618
C=0.27andn=0.805
TELABIILM
2
9
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
TABULATION:
Sl.
No.
HeatInput
V
61
Temperatures,0C
Pressuredrop,h
mmofmercury,
A
0.27
5mm
70
62
58
56
54
CALCULATION:
1.
=0.4
ThermalExpansion
=0.4
2.Velocityofofifice :
X(1/1)
d]Result:
Thustheheattransfercoefficientunderforcedconvectionisfoundouttheefficiencyoffin.
(i).Theoreticalvalueoftemperatureoffin=327K
(ii).Effectivenessoffin=0.6
(iii).Efficiencyoffin=40%
30
40
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
VIVAQUESTIONS
1. Whatisfin?
Fins are extended surfaces used primarily to enhance the heat transfer rate
betweenthesolidfinsandanadjoiningfluid
2. DefineFineffectiveness
3. ListouttheFintypes.
1. Straightfinofuniformcrosssection
2. Straightfinofnonuniformcrosssection
3. Annularfin
4. Pinfin
5.Sketchalltypesoffins
31
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
ExperimentNumber:6
TitleoftheExperiment:Determinationofstefanboltzmannconstant
TodeterminethevalueofStefanboltzmanconstantforradiationheattransfer.
Sl.No.
1.
Facilitiesrequired
StefanBoltzmannconstantApparatus
Quantity
1
Theapparatusconsistsofaflangedcopperhemispherefixedonaflatnon
conducting plate. Atest discmade ofcopperis fixed tothe plate. Thus the testdisc is
completelyenclosedbythehemisphere.Theoutersurfaceofthehemisphereisenclosedina
verticalwaterjacketusedtoheatthehemispheretoasuitableconstanttemperature.Three
CrAlthermocouplesareattachedatfourstrategicplacesonthesurfaceofthehemisphereto
obtainthetemperatures.Thediscismountedonaneboniterodwhichisfittedinahole
drilledatthecenterofthebaseplate.AnotherCrAlthermocoupleisfixedtothediscto
recorditstemperature.FillthewaterintheSSwatercontainerwithimmersionheaterkepton
topofthepanel.
StepNo.
DetailsoftheStep
1.
Removethetestdiscbeforestartingtheexperiment.
2.
Heatthewaterinthesscontainerstoitsboilingpoint.
3.
Allowtheboilingwaterintothecontainerkeptatthebottomcontainingcopper
bemisphereunitsitisfull.allowsufficienttimetoattainthermalequilibriumwhich
isindicatedbythefourthermocoupleprovidedonthehemisphere.
4.
Insertthetestdiscfixedontheeboniterodsleevecompletwlyinsideandlockit.
Startthestopclocksimultaneously.
5.
Notedownthetemperatureofthetestdiscatanintervalofabout15secforabout
15to20minutes.
6.
Removethetestdiscbeforestartingtheexperiment.
7.
Heatthewaterinthesscontainerstoitsboilingpoint.
8.
Allowtheboilingwaterintothecontainerkeptatthebottomcontainingcopper
bemisphereunitsitisfull.allowsufficienttimetoattainthermalequilibriumwhich
isindicatedbythefourthermocoupleprovidedonthehemisphere.
32
Dr.N.N.C.E
FORMULA:
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
Eb=T
Where,=StefanBoltzmanconstant=5.6697x10 W/(mK)
Temperatureofdiscv/stimetoobtaintheslope(dT/dt)oftheline,whichpassesthrough/nearertoall
1.
points.
dT/dt=
2.
Averagetemperatureofthehemisphere
Tavg =
(T1 + T2 + T3 ) + 273.15 =
3
3.
Td=TemperatureofthediscbeforeinsertingtotestchamberK(ambient)=
4. Rateofchangeofheatcapacityofthedisc=mCp(dT/dt)
Netenergyradiatedonthedisc=Ad(T4avgT4d)
2
Ad=areaofthedisc=d
Where,
m
d=20mm
4
Cp=specificheatofcopper=0.38kJ/kgK
Rateofchangeofheatcapacityofthedisc=Netenergyradiatedonthedisc
4
mCp (dT/dt)= Ad (T4avg T

d)Thuscanbeevaluatedasshown
mCp(dT/dt)
=
=
Ad(T4avgT4d)
TABULATION:
Thermocouple
Temperatureofthecopper
hemisphere
35
35
35
36
33
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
CALCULATION:
Rateofchangeofheatcapacityofthedisc=Netenergyradiatedonthedisc
4
mCp(dT/dt)=Ad(T4avgT
d)Thuscanbeevaluatedasshown
mCp(dT/dt)
=
=4.67x10
Ad(T4avgT4d)
W/(mK)
d]Result:
ThustheStefanBoltzmanconstantforradiationheattransferisfoundoutanddrawthegraph.
StefanBoltzmanconstant()=4.67x108W/
34
Dr.N.N.C.E
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. MentionStefanboltzmancontant.
2.
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
=StefanBoltzmanconstant=5.6697x10 W/(mK)
DefineStefanboltzmancontant.
StefanBoltzmanlawstatesthatthetotalemissivepowerofaperfectblackbodyisproportionalto
fourthpoweroftheabsolutetemperatureofblackbodysurface
Eb=T4
8
3.
4.
5.
=StefanBoltzmanconstant=5.6697x10 W/(mK)
DefineEmissivepower[Eb].
Theemissivepowerisdefinedasthetotalamountofradiationemittedbyabodyperunit
timeandunitarea.ItisexpressedinW/m2.
Definemonochromaticemissivepower.[Eb]
Theenergyemittedbythesurfaceatagivenlengthperunittimeperunitareainall
directionsisknownasmonochromaticemissivepower.
Whatismeantbyabsorptivity?
Absorptivityisdefinedastheratiobetweenradiationabsorbedandincidentradiation.
Absorptivity,=Radiationabsorbed/Incidentradiation.
35
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
ExperimentNumber:7
TitleoftheExperiment:DeterminationofEmissivityofaGreySurface
Todeterminetheemissivityofthetestplateatanydesiredtemperature.
Sl.No.
1.
Facilitiesrequired
EmissivityMeasurementApparatus
Quantity
1
The experimental setupconsists oftwocircular Alplates identical insize andis
providedwithheatingcoilsatthebottom.Theplatesaremountedonanasbestoscement
sheet and are kept in an enclosure so as to provide undisturbed natural convection
surroundings.
Theheatinputtotheheatersisvariedbyseparatedimmerstatsandismeasuredbya
wattmeterwiththehelpofadoublepoledoublethrowswitch.Thetemperaturesoftheplates
aremeasuredbyseparatethermocoupleswhichareconnecteddiametricoppositepointsto
gettheaveragetemperatureoftheplaces.Otherthermocouplesarekeptintheenclosureto
readtheambienttemperature.
Plate1isblackenedbyathicklayeroflampblacktoformtheidealizedblacksurface
whereastheplates2isthetestplatewhoseemissivityistobedetermined.
StepNo.
DetailsoftheStep
1.
Switchonthepowersupply.
2.
Keepthethermocoupleselectorswitchinfirstposition.
3.
Adjustthepositionoftheregulatortoprovidedesiredinputtoheater.
4.
Allowtheunittostabilize.
5.
Notedownthetemperatureindicatedbytemperatureindicator.
6.
Tabulatethereadingsandcalculate.
7.
Aftertheexperimentisoverturnboththeenergyregulators1and2tozeroposition.
8.
Forvariouspowerinputrepeattheexperiment.
FORMULA:
4
Emissivityp=b[Tb Ta ]/[Tp Ta ]
Whereb=EmissivityblockbodyTemperature[b=1]
Tb=BlockBodyTemperatureinK.
Tp=PolishedBodyTemperatureinK.
Ta=ChamberTemperatureinK.
36
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
TABULATION:
S.No.
Voltage
Current
100
BlackBody
Temperature
[0C]
PolishedBody
Temperature
[0C]
Chamber
Temperature
[0C]
80
90
40
0.4
CALCULATION:
0
[1]BlackbodyTemperature [Tb]=80 +273=353K.
0
[2]PolishedbodyTemperature[Tp]=90 +273=363K.
0
=40 +273=313K.
[3]ChamberTemperature[Ta]
EMISSIVITY:
p = b [Tb4 T a4]/[Tp4 T a4]

4
[b=1]
= 1x[353 313 ]/[363 313 ]

10
9
10
9
= [1.55x10 9.59x10 ]/[1.736x10 9.59x10 ]
p =0.7626.
d]Result:
ThustheEmissivityofthetestplateis
determined.Emissivityp=0.7626.
37
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
VIVAQUESTIONS
6.DefineRadiation.
Theheattransferfromonebodytoanotherwithoutanytransmitting
mediumisknownasradiation.Itisanelectromagneticwavephenomenon.
7.DefineEmissivity.
Itisdefinedastheabilityofthesurfaceofabodytoradiateheat.Itisalso
definedastheratioofemissivepowerofanybodytotheemissivepowerofablack
bodyofequaltemperature.
Emissivity,=E/Eb.
8.DefineEmissivepower[Eb].
Theemissivepowerisdefinedasthetotalamountofradiationemittedby
2
abodyperunittimeandunitarea.ItisexpressedinW/m .
9.Definemonochromaticemissivepower.[Eb]
Theenergyemittedbythesurfaceatagivenlengthperunittimeperunit
areainalldirectionsisknownasmonochromaticemissivepower.
10.Whatismeantbyabsorptivity?
Absorptivityisdefinedastheratiobetweenradiationabsorbedandincident
radiation.
Absorptivity,=Radiationabsorbed/Incidentradiation.
11.Whatismeantbyreflectivity?
Reflectivityisdefinedastheratioofradiationreflectedtothe
incidentradiation.
Reflectivity,=Radiationreflected/Incidentradiation.
12.Whatismeantbytransmissivity?
Transmissivityisdefinedastheratioofradiationtransmittedtotheincident
radiation.
Transmissivity,=Radiationtransmitted/Incidentradiation.
13. Whatisblackbody?
Blackbodyisanidealsurfacehavingthefollowingproperties.
1. Ablackbodyabsorbsallincidentradiation,regardlessofwavelength
anddirection.
2. Foraprescribedtemperatureandwavelength,nosurfacecanemitmore
energythanblackbody.
14. Whatismeantbygraybody?
Ifabodyabsorbsadefinitepercentageofincidentradiationirrespectiveof
theirwavelength,thebodyisknownasgraybody.Theemissivepowerofagray
bodyisalwayslessthanthatoftheblackbody.
38
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
PARALLELFLOWSIDE
HOTWATERSIDE
Flowrate
[kg/s]
400ml/10sec.
Thi
0
[ C]
56
COLDWATERSIDE
Tho
0
[ C]
45
Flowrate
[kg/s]
400ml/12sec
Tci
0
[ C]
34
Tco
0
[ C]
39
COUNTERFLOWSIDE
HOTWATERSIDE
COLDWATERSIDE
Flowrate
Thi
Tho
Flowrate
Tci
Tco
0
0
0
0
[ C]
[ C]
[ C]
[ C]
[kg/s]
[kg/s]
800ml/10sec.
82
57
800ml/15sec
35
51
CALCULATION:
PARALLELFLOW:
LMTD= [ThiTci][ThoTco]/ln[ThiTci/ThoTco]
0
Tci=Entrytemperatureofcoldfluid[ C].
0
Tco=Exittemperatureofcoldfluid[ C].
0
Thi=Entrytemperatureofhotfluid[ C].
0
Tho=Exittemperatureofhotfluid[ C].
=[329307][318312]/ln[(329307)/( 318312)]
=12.31K.
6
4
Massflowrateofhotwatermh=400/10x10 x1000=400x10 Kg/s.Mass
6
4
flowrateofcoldwatermc=400/12x10 x1000=333.3x10 Kg/s.
Qh=mhxCph[ThiTho]
4
=400x10 x4.187x[329
318]Qh=1.842KJ/sec.
Qc=mcxcpc[TcoTci]
4
=333.3x10 x4.187[312
307]Qc=0.698KJ/sec.
Qact=[Qh+Qc]/2=[1.842+0.698]/
2Qact=1.27KJ/sec.
Overallheattransfercoefficient
A=xDxL
= x0.013x1.5
2
= 0.06123m .
U =Qact/AxLMTD
= 1.27/0.06123x12.31
2
= 1.685W/m K.
U=Overallheattransfercoefficient.
39
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
ExperimentNumber:8
TitleoftheExperiment:EffectivenessOfParallel/CounterFlowHeat
Exchanger
Todeterminetheoverallheattransfercoefficientonthegivendoublepipe
parallelflowandcounterflowheatexchanger.
Sl.No.
1.
Facilitiesrequired
Parallel/Counterflowheatexchanger
apparatus.
Quantity
b]Theory:
Aheatexchangerisdefinedasequipmentwhichtransferstheheatfromahotfluidto
acoldfluid.
TypesofHeatExchanger
Thereareseveraltypesofheatexchangerswhichmaybeclassifiedonthebasisof
I.
Natureofheatexchangeprocess
II.
Relativedirectionoffluidmotion
III.
Designandconstructionalfeatures
IV.
Physicalstateoffluids.
I.Natureofheatexchangeprocess
Onthebasisofthenatureofheatexchangeprocess,heatexchangersareclassifiedas
a]DirectcontactheatexchangersorOpenheatexchangers
b]Indirectcontactheatexchangers.
a]DirectcontactheatexchangersorOpenheatexchangers
Indirectcontactheatexchanger,theheatexchangetakesplacebydirectmixing
ofhotandcoldfluids.Thisheattransferisusuallyaccompaniedbymasstransfer.
Examples:Coolingtowers,directcontactfeed
heaters.b.Indirectcontactheatexchangers
Inthistypeofheatexchangers,thetransferofheatbetweentwofluidscould
becarriedoutbytransmissionthroughawallwhichseparatesthetwofluids.
Itmaybeclassifiedas
[i] Regenerators
[ii] Recuperators[or]Surfaceheatexchangers.
40
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
EFFICTIVENESS:
=[1exp(U A/Cmin {1+Cmin/Cmax))]/1+[Cmin/Cmax] Ch
4
=Cpnxmh=4.187x400x10 =0.167=Cmax
`
Cc=Cpcxmc=4.187x333.3x10 =0.140=Cmin
=[1exp((1.685)x(0.6123))]/0.140x[1+0.663]]/1+[0.839]
Effictiveness==0.52.
COUNTERFLOW:
LMTD=[ThiTci][ThoTco]/in[ThiTci/ThoT
co]=[355324][330308]/in[355324/330
308]=26.24K.
Qh=mchCph[ThiTho]
=0.08x4.187[355
330]Qh=8.374KJ/sec.
Qc=McCpc[TcoTci]
=0.053x4.187[324
308]Qc=3.551KJ/sec.
Qact=8.374+3.551/2
=5.962KJ/sec.
Overallheattransfercoefficient
U=Qaet/AxLMTD
U=Overallheattransfercoefficient
2
[W/m K]A=DL=3.14x0.013x1.5
=0.06213.
U=5.962/0.06123x
2
26.24=3.543W/m K
EFFICTIVENESS
=1exp[UA/Cmin[1+Cmin/Cmax]]/1+[Cmin/Cmax]
=[1exp[3.543x0.06123/0.222][1+0.663]]/0.663+1
Cc=McCpc=0.053x
4.187=0.222KJ/sec.
Ch=MhCph=0.68x
4.187=0.333KJ/sec.
2
U=Overallheattransfercoefficient[W/m K]
2
A =Area=M
=0.62%
TELABIILM
41
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
[i]Regenerators
Inthistypeofheatexchangers,hotandcoldfluidsflowalternatelythroughthesame
space.
Examples:ICengines,gasturbines.
[ii]Recuperators[or]Surfaceheatexchangers
Thisisthemostcommontypeofheatexchangerinwhichthehotandcoldfluiddo
notcomeintodirectcontactwitheachotherbutareseparatedbyatubewallorasurface.
Examples:Automobileradiators,Airpreheaters,Economisersetc.
Advantages
1. Easyconstruction
2. Moreeconomical
3. Moresurfaceareaforheattransfer.
Disadvantages
1. Lessheattransfercoefficient
2. Lessgeneratingcapacity.
II.Relativedirectionoffluidmotion
Thistypeofheatexchangersareclassifiedasfollows
a]Parallelflowheatexchanger
b]Counterflowheatexchanger
c]Crossflowheatexchanger.
a]Parallelflowheatexchanger
Inthistype,hotandcoldfluidsmoveinthesame
direction.b]Counterflowheatexchanger
Inthistype,hotandcoldfluidsmoveinparallelbutoppositedirections.
c]Crossflowheatexchanger
Inthistype,thehotandcoldfluidsmoveatrightanglestoeachother.
IIIDesignandconstructionalfeatures
Onthebasisofdesignandconstructionalfeatures,theheatexchangersare
classifiedasfollows.
a]Concentrictubes
b]Shellandtube
c]Multipleshellandtubepasses
d]Compactheatexchangers.
a]Concentrictubes
Inthistype,twoconcentricpipes,eachcarryingoneofthefluidsareusedasa
heatexchanger.Thedirectionofflowmaybeparallelorcounter.
b]Shellandtube
Inthistypeofheatexchanger,oneorthefluidsmovethroughabundleoftubes
enclosedbyashell.Theotherfluidisforcedthroughtheshellanditmovesovertheoutside
surfaceofthetubes.
c]Multipleshellandtubepasses
Inordertoincreasetheoverallheattransfer,multipleshellandtubepassesare
used.Inthistype,thetwofluidstraversetheexchangermorethanonetime.Thistypeof
exchangerispreferredduetoitslowcostofmanufacture,andeasytorepair.
42
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
d]Compactheatexchangers
Therearemanyspecialpurposeheatexchangerscalledcompactheatexchangers.
Theyaregenerallyemployedwhenconvectiveheattransfercoefficientassociatedwithone
ofthefluidsismuchsmallerthanthatassociatedwiththeotherfluid.
IVPhysicalstateoffluids
Basedonthephysicalstateoffluidsinsidetheexchanger,heatexchangers
areclassifiedas
a]Condensers
b]Evaporators.
a]Condensers
Inacondenser,thecondensingfluidremainsatconstanttemperaturethroughoutthe
exchangerwhilethetemperatureofthecolderfluidgraduallyincreasedfrominlettooutlet.
Inotherwords,thehotfluidloseslatentheatwhichisacceptedbythecold
fluid.b]Evaporators
Inaevaporator,thecoldfluidremainsatconstanttemperaturewhilethetemperature
ofhotfluidgraduallydecreasesfrominlettooutlet.
APPARATUSDESCRIPTION
Apparatusconsistsoftheconstricttubeheatexchanger.Thehotfluidthatishot
waterisobtainedfromanelectricgeyseranditflowsthroughtheoutertube.Thecoldfluid
thatiscoldwatercanbeadmittedatoneoftheendsenablingtheheatexchangertorunas
parallelflowapparatus[or]acounterflowapparatus.Thiscanbedonebyoperatingthe
differentvalvescanbeprovided.
Temperatureofthefluidcanbemeasuredusingthermometer.Flowratecanbe
measuredusingstopwatchandmeasuringclock.Theoutertubeisprovidedwithadequate
asbestosropeinsulationtominimizetheheatlosstothesurroundings.
FORMULAUSED:
HeatTransferrateqiscalculated
Qh=Heattransferratefromhotwater.
Qh=mhxCph[ThiTho]
Where
mh=Massflowrateofhotwater[Kg/s]
Cph=Specificheatofhotwater[KJ/KgK]
0
Thi=Hotwaterinlettemperature[ C]
Tho=Hotwateroutlettemperature
0
[ C]Qc=HeatTransferratetothecoldwater
Qc=mcxCpc[Tco
Tci]Where
mc=Massflowrateofcoldwater[Kg/s]
Cpc=Specificheatofcoldwater[KJ/KgK]
0
Tco=Codwateroutlettemperature[ C]Tci
0
=Coldwaterinlettemperature[ C]
43
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
Q=[Qh+Qc]/2
Specificheatofcoldwaterandheatwater=4.187KJ/KgK.
LMTD=LogarithmicMeanTemperatureDifference.
FORPARALLELFLOW:
LMTD=[T]m=[T1To]/ln[T1/To]
=[ThiTci][ThoTco]/ln[ThiTci]/[ThoTco]
FORCOUNTERFLOW:
[T]m=[ThiTco][ThoTci]/ln[ThiTco]/[ThoTci]
OVERALLHEATTRANSFERCOEFFICIENT:
Q=UA
[T]MWhere
Q=HeattransferrateW
2
U=OverallHeattransfercoefficientW/m K
[T]M=LMTD
A=Area=dl
d=0.013m
l=1.5m
2
U=q/Ax[T]MW/m K
2
U=OverallheattransfercoefficientW/m K
Q=HeattransferrateW
2
A=Aream .
EFFICITIVENESS
=1exp[U A/Cmin [1+Cmin/Cmax]]/1+
[Cmin/Cmax] Ch=Cphxmh;Cc=Cpcxmc
2
U=Overallheattransfercoefficient[W/m K]
2
A=Area[m ].
A=DL=D=0.013m
L=1.5m
StepNo.
DetailsoftheStep
1.
Connectthewatersupplyatthebackoftheunit.Theinletwaterflows
throughthegeyserandouterpipeoftheheatexchangerandflowsthrough
theinnerpipeoftheheatexchangerandflowsout.
2.
SwitchontheGeyserallowthetemperaturetoreachsteadystate.
3.
Theconstantflowrateismaintainedforbothhotandcoldfluid.
4.
Notetheinletandoutlettemperature[coldandhotwater].
5.
Theflowrateismeasured.
6.
Theexperimentisrepeatedfordifferentflow.
44
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
d]Result:
Thustheheattransferexperimentwasconductedinadoublepipeparallelflow
andcounterflowheatexchanger.
PARALLELFLOW:
COUNTERFLOW
LMTD=12.31K
LMTD=26.24K
HeatTransferQ=1.27
HeatTransferQ=5.962
KJ/sec.Overallheattransfer
KJ/sec.Overallheattransfer
2
coefficientU=1.685W/m K
Effictiveness=0.52=52%
VIVAQUESTIONS
coefficientU=3.543W/m K
Effictiveness=0.62=62%
1.Whatisheatexchanger?
Aheatexchangerisdefinedasanequipmentwhichtransferstheheatfrom
ahotfluidtoacoldfluid.
2.WhatismeantbyDirectheatexchanger[or]openheatexchanger?
Indirectcontactheatexchanger,theheatexchangetakesplaceby
directmixingofhotandcoldfluids.
3.WhatismeantbyIndirectcontactheatexchanger?
Inthistypeofheatexchangers,thetransferofheatbetweentwofluidscould
becarriedoutbytransmissionthroughawallwhichseparatesthetwofluids.
4. Whatismeantbyparallelflowheatexchanger?
Inthistypeofheatexchanger,hotandcoldfluidsmoveinthesamedirection.
5. Whatismeantbycounterflowheatexchanger?
Inthistypeofheatexchanger,hotandcoldfluidsmoveinparallelbut
oppositedirections.
6.Whatismeantbycrossflowheatexchanger?
Inthistypeofheatexchanger,hotandcoldfluidsmoveatrightanglestoeach
other.
7.WhatismeantbyShellandtubeheatexchanger?
Inthistypeofheatexchanger,oneofthefluidsmovesthroughabundleof
tubesenclosedbyashell.Theotherfluidisforcedthroughtheshellanditmoves
overtheoutsidesurfaceofthetubes.
8.WhatismeantbyLMTD?
Weknowthatthetemperaturedifferencebetweenthehotandcoldfluidsin
theheatexchangervariesfrompointtopoint.Inadditionvariousmodesofheat
transferareinvolved.Thereforebasedonconceptofappropriatemeantemperature
difference,alsocalledlogarithmicmeantemperaturedifference,thetotalheat
transferrateintheheatexchangerisexpressedas
2
Q=UA[T]mWhere,U=Overallheattransfercoefficient[W/m K],A=Area,m
[T]m=Logarithmicmeantemperaturedifference.
9.WhatismeantbyEffectiveness?
Theheatexchangereffectivenessisdefinedastheratioofactualheat
transfertothemaximumpossibleheattransfer.
Effectiveness=Actualheattransfer/Maximumpossibleheattransfer=Q/Qmax
45
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
ExperimentNumber:9
TitleoftheExperiment:DeterminationofCOPofaRefrigeration
SystemDateoftheExperiment:
Todeterminethe[i]TheoreticalCOP,[ii]ExperimentalCOP,[iii]CarnotCOP,[iv]
RelativeCOPonarefrigerationsystem.
Sl.No.
1.
Facilitiesrequired
Refrigerationtestrig.
Quantity
1
b]Description
Vapourcompressioncycleiswidelyusedrefrigerationcycle.Themainobjectofthe
traineristodemonstraterefrigerationsystemwithbasiccomponentsandnecessarycontrols.
Thepracticalworkingisdemonstratedinthesystemandconsiderableamountoftheoretical
analysisandperformancecanbestudied.
Thetrainerconsistsofcomponentsofarefrigerationsystemviz.Hermetically
sealedcomponents,evaporator,condenser,capillarytube.Thecondenserisaircooledtype
forwhichacondenserfansandmotorhasbeenprovided.Evaporatoriswaterimmersiontype
whichishousedinathermallyinsulatedcalorimeter.Calorimeterisprovidedwithaelectric
heaterwhichcanbeusedforheatingthewaterinitiallytobedesiredtemperature.
Inadditiontocapillarytubeathermostaticexpansionvalveisalsoprovided.Wehave
toselecteitheracapillarytubeorthermostaticexpansionvalveatatime.Atoggleswitchhas
beenprovidedtofacilitatethisselection.
Atemperatureindicatorwithsixpointselectionswitchhasbeenprovidedtogetthe
various temperature ofFreon 12viz.Compressors uction, compressordischarge after
condenserandafterexpansionandwatertemperature.
SpecialgaugeshavebeenprovidesforindicatingFreon12pressureatabove
mentionedpointsexceptforcolorimeterwater.
Anenergymeterhasbeenprovidedwhichindicatestheconsumptionofenergyof
compressor. An additional energy meter has been provided to indicate the energy
consumptionofwaterheater.
The students are advised to find out the saturation temperature of F 12 after
knowingthepressuresatvariouspointsandbasedonthesaturationtemperaturesstudythe
workingofrefrigerationconsideringthecyclebasedon
[a] ReversedCarnotcycle,
[b] Simplevapourcompressioncycle.
46
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
TABULATION
S.
No.
1..
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Energy
Meter
Time Reading
[s]
For10
Rev.in
sev.
2.15
2.25
2.35
2.45
2.55
3.05
3.15
3.25
176
186
191
201
206
209
212
208
Temperature[ C]
Pressure
P1
P2
P3
P4
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
25
22.5
24
24
25
24
24
24
195
195
195
200
200
200
200
200
150
150
160
160
160
165
170
170
20
20
22
22
25
25
24
22
20
20
22
22
22
24
26
20
52
53
54
55
53
51
49
46
22
24
23
24
24
26
23
27
12
14
13
15
17
19
21
20
29.5
29
28
27
26
22
19
16
Quantityofwaterintank:10kg.
0
Initialtemperatureofwater:30 C.]
Pressureinbar:
Convertallthepressuresin[PSIG]tobar[multiplythevalueinPSIGby0.06894
andadd1.013toconverttobarabs.]
P1=25x0.06894+1.013=2.736bar.P2
=195x0.06894+1.013=14.456bar.P 3
=150x0.06894+1.013=11.354bar.P 4
=20x0.06894+1.013=2.391bar.
[1]TotalRefrigerantEffect:
Q=mCpT/t.
Q=10x4.186x[3016]/60x60
Q=0.1627KJ/sec.
[2]TheoreticalCOP.=[h1h3]/[h2h1]
h1correspondingtoP1andT1=370KJ/kg.
h2correspondingtoP2andT2=382KJ/kg.
h3=h4correspondingtoP3andT3=350KJ/kg.
Whereh1,h2,h3areenthalpiesofrefrigeranttakenfromph
chart.TheoreticalCOP=[370350]/[382370]
TheoreticalC.O.P.=1.667.
47
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
Theinterestedstudentscanalsostudythesaturationtemperatureagainsttheactual
temperatures obtained during the experimentation and thus study the actual cycle of
refrigerationsystem.
Specification:
[1] Compressor:Hermeticallysealedcompressor.
[2] Aircooledcondenser.
[3] Expansionvalve
[a] Capillarytube.
[b] ThermostaticExpansionvalve.
[4] Evaporator.
[5] Rotameter:Forliquidrefrigerantflowrate.
[6] Refrigerant:Freon12.
[7] Energymetersforpowermeasurementofcompressorandthefansandheater.
[8] Pressuregauges4Nos.[TwoforH.P.andTwoforL.P.]
[9] Temperatureindicator.
[10] Solenoidvalves.
[11] H.P./L.P.cutout.
[12] Ammeter.
[13] Voltmeter.
[14] Thermostat.
StepNo.
DetailsoftheStep
1.
Switchonthemain.
2.
Switchonthefanmotorandthencompressormotor.
3.
Allowtheplanttoruntoreachsteadyconditions.Takereadingsforevery
10minutestoknowthesteadystate.
4.
Observethereadingsincompressormotorenergymeter.Freonflow
meter,pressuregaugesandthermometerandrecorditisatubularform.
5.
Switchofftheplantafterexperimentisoverbyswitchingoffthe
compressormotorfirst.Allowthefanmotorstorunfor10minutesand
thenswitchoff.
SpecimenCalculations:
P1=PressureoftheRefrigerantbeforethecompressor.
P2=PressureoftheRefrigerantafterthecompressor.
P3=PressureoftheRefrigerantbeforetheexpansionvalve.
P4=PressureoftheRefrigerantaftertheexpansionvalve.
SensorMeterReading:
T1=TemperatureofRefrigerantbeforecompression.
T2=TemperatureofRefrigerantaftercompression.
T3=TemperatureofRefrigerantbeforeevaporation.
T4=TemperatureofRefrigerantafterevaporation.
48
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
[3]ExperimentalCOP
Timefor10rev.ofenergymeter,t=208sec.
t=208sec.
Energyconsumedbythecompressor
P=10/tx1/1500x3600x0.9KW.
=10/208x1/1500x3600x0.9
P=0.104KW.
ExperimentalCOP=ActualRefrigerationeffect/
workdone=Q/p=0.1627/0.104
ExperimentalCOP=1.564.
[4]CarnotCOP=TL/[THTL]
TL=Pmin=[P1+P4]/2=[2.736+2.391]/2=2.5635bar.
TH=Pmax=[P2+P3]/2=[14.456+2.391]/2=12.905bar.
LowestTemperaturefromtable.
0
TL=12 C=261K.CorrespondingtoPmin
HighestTemperaturefromtable.
0
TH=56 C=329KCorrespondingtoPmax
CarnotCOP=TL/THTL
= 261/[329261]
= 3.84.
[5]RelativeCOP=ActualCOP/CarnotCOP
= 1.564/3.84
= 0.407.
49
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
Formula:
[1]TotalRefrigeratingeffectQ=mCpT/t.
Where,m=Massofwaterinkg.
Cp=Specificheatofwater=4.186KJ/kg.
T=Temperaturedropinthewater.
[2]TheoreticalCOP=[h1h3]/[h2h1]
[EnthalpyistobefoundoutfromthePhdiagramofR12]
Where,h1=EnthalpycorrespondingtopressureP1and
0
refrigerantenteringtemperatureatT1 C.h2
=EnthalpycorrespondingtopressureP2and
0
refrigerantlevelingtemperatureatT2 C.h4
=h3=EnthalpycorrespondingtopressureP 3and
0
refrigeranttemperatureaftercondensingatT3 C.
[3]ExperimentalCOP=[ActualRefrigerationEffect/time]/
Workdone.ActualRefrigerationeffect/time=mCpT/t.
Where,mw=massofwaterinkg.
Cp=Specificheatofwater=4.186KJ/kg.
T=Temperaturedropinthewater.
Workdone=Energyconsumedbythecompressormotortobefoundout
fromtheenergymeter.
Workdone=(10/t)x(3600/x}x0.9.
Where,x=Energymeterconstant=1500rev./Kwhr.
t=Timetakeninsec.for10revolutionsofenergymeter
reading.ExperimentalCOP=mCpT/t/workdone.
TL=Pmin=[P1+P4]/2;TH=Pmax=[P2+P3]/2;
Where,TL=Lowertemperaturetobemaintainedintheevaporator
0
inabsoluteunits[ K]
TH=Highertemperaturetobemaintainedinthecondenser
0
inabsoluteunits[ K]
[5]RelativeCOP.=ActualCOP/CarnotCOP
50
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
d]Result:
TheCOPoftheRefrigerationsystemweredeterminedandtabulated.
Experimental
TheorticalCOP.
CarnotCOP
RelativeCOP
[Actual]COP
1.667
1.564
3.34
0.407
VIVAQUESTIONS
1.Powerrequirementofarefrigeratoris___________.
InverselyproportionaltoCOP.
2.InSIunits,onetonofrefrigerationisequalto_________.
210 kJ/min.
3. DefinetonsofrefrigerationandCOP.
Atonneofrefrigerationisdefinedasthequantityofheatrequiredtobe
0
0
removedfromonetonneofwater[1000kg]at0 Ctoconvertthatintoiceat0 C
in24hours.Inactualpractice,
1tonneofrefrigeration=210kJ/min=3.5kW.
4. Thecapacityofadomesticrefrigeratorisintherangeof___________.
1to3tonne.
5. Namefourimportantpropertiesofagoodrefrigerant.
1. Lowboilingpoint.
2. Highcriticaltemperature&pressure.
3. Lowspecificheatofliquid.
6. Whatisthedifferencebetweenairconditioningandrefrigeration?
Refrigerationistheprocessofprovidingandmaintainingthetemperaturein
spacebelowatmospherictemperature.
Airconditioningistheprocessofsupplyingsufficientvolumeofclean
air containing a specific amount of water vapour and maintaining the
predeterminedatmosphericconditionwithinaselectedenclosure.
7. Nameanyfourcommonlyusedrefrigerants.
1. Ammonia[NH3].
2. Carbondioxide[CO2].
3. Sulphurdioxide[SO2].
4. Freon12.
51
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
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8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of air refrigeration

system?Advantages:
1. Therefrigerantusednamelyairischeapandeasilyavailable.
2. Thereisnodangeroffireortoxiceffectsduetoleakages.
3. Theweighttotonneofrefrigerationratioislessascomparedtoothersystems.
Disadvantages:
1. Thequantityofrefrigerantusedpertonneofrefrigerationishighascompared
to
othersystem.
2. TheCOPofthesystemisverylow.Thereforerunningcostishigh.
3. The danger of frosting at the expander valves is more as the air
containsmoisturecontent.
9. Whatisnetrefrigeratingeffectoftherefrigerant?
Refrigeratingeffectisthetotalheatremovedfromtherefrigerantin
theevaporator.
COP=Refrigerationeffect/Workdone.
Refrigerationeffect=COPxWorkdone.
10.Definerefrigerant.
Anysubstancecapableofabsorbingheatfromanotherrequiredsubstance
canbeusedasrefrigerant.
52
Dr.N.N.C.E
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TABULATION:
S.
No.
Ammeter
Reading
In
[Amps]
Volt
meter
Reading
InVolts
Pressure
Reading
in
55
55
55
55
280
280
280
285
265
265
265
265
65
65
65
67.5
28
30
30
30
1.
2.
3.
4.
5
6
7
7
200
210
190
190
Temperature
[0C]
120
120
120
120
110
120
120
120
36
38
38
40
Mano
Before
After
Meter
Evapo
Evapor
Reading
ration
ation
In[mm]
Inlet
Outlet
[h2h1]
DBT WBT DBT WBT
[0C] [0C] [0C] [0C]
EVAPORATOR:
Lengthofthegrill[L]=14.8Cm=0.148m.
Heightofthegrill[H]=14.3Cm=0.143m.
Area[A]=LxH
=0.148x0.143
2
A=0.0212m .
MODELCALCULATION:
AMBIENTAIR:
0
DBToftheambientair[td]=37 C.
0
WBToftheambientair[tw]=28 C.
h1=90KJ/kg[frompsychometricchart]
CONDITIONAIR:
0
DBTofconditionedair[td1]=31 C.
0
WBTofconditionedair[tw1]=25 C.
h2=76KJ/kg[frompsychometricchart]Vs2=
3
0.89m /kg.
[1]Pressureheadintermsofair[ha].w
hw = a ha =ha = w hw / a.
Wherew=Densityofwater[1000kg/m ]
hw=Manometerreading[3.5mm=3.5x10
3
m]a =Densityofair.
a =1/Vs2
3
a =1/0.89=1.123kg/m .
3
ha = 1000 x 3.5 10 /
1.123ha=3.117m.
53
4
3.5
4
3.5
38
37
37
37
27
27
27
28
32
31
31
31
29
29
30
25
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
ExperimentNumber:10
TitleoftheExperiment:ExperimentsonAirConditioningSystem
TodeterminethecarnotCOP,theoreticalCOPandcapacityoftherefrigeration
andairconditioningsystem.
Sl.No.
1.
Facilitiesrequired
Airconditioningtestrig.
Quantity
1
b]Introduction:
AirConditioningforhumancomfortorindustrialprocessrequirescertain
processestobecarriedoutonairtovarythepsychometricpropertiesofairto
requirements.Theseprocessesmayinvolvethemixingofairstreams,heatingofair,
coolingoftheair,humidifyingair,anddehumidifyingairandcombinationoftheprocess.
Allsuchprocessesarestudiedwiththegivenairconditiontestrig.
StepNo.
DetailsoftheStep
1.
Switchonthemains.
2.
Switchonthecondenser,fanandblower.
3.
Switchonthecompressorandallowtheunittostabilize.
4.
Notedownthefollowing.
a]PressureP1,P2,P3andP4fromtherespectivepressuregauge.
b]NotethecorrespondingTemperaturesT1,T2,T3andT4atthe
respectivestatepoints.
c]Monometerreadings.
d]NoteDBTandWBTattheinletoftheduct[beforeevaporation].
e]NoteDBTandWBTattheoutletoftheduct[afterevaporation].
FORMULA:
DBT=DryBulbTemperature[Td]
WBT=WetBulbTemperature[Tw]
[1]ha=whw/a
w =Densityofwater[1000
3
kg/m ]. hw=Manometerreading.
3
a =Densityofair[1.123kg/m ].
[2]Va=Velocityofair
Va=2xgxha
g=accelerationduetogravity9.81m/s .
54
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[2]Velocityofair[Va]
Va=2xgxha
=2x9.81x
3.117Va=7.82m/s.
[3] Massofair[ma]=axAxVa
= 1.123x0.0212x7.82
ma=0.186kg/sec.
[4] Refrigerationeffect=ma[h2h1].
= 0.186[9076]
= 2.604KJ/sec.[or]KW.
[5] Capacity=Refrigerationeffect/3.5
=2.604/3.5
[1tonneofrefrigeration=210KJ/min.=3.5KW]
= 0.744tonneofrefrigeration.
[6] CarnotCOP=TL/[THTL]
TL=Lowertemperaturetobemaintainedintheevaporator.
P1=55PSI=55x0.07+1.013=4.863bar.
P4=67.5PSI=67.5x0.07+1.013=5.738bar.
Pmin=[P1+P4]/2
= [4.863+5.738]/2
= 5.3bar.
0
FromTableR22TL=2 C=275K
TH=Highertemperaturetobemaintainedinthecondenser.
P2=285PSI=285x0.07+1.013=20.963bar.
P3=270PSI=270x0.07+1.013=19.913bar.
Pmax=[P2+P3]/2=[20.963+19.913]/2=20.438bar.
0
FromTableFreon22,TH=52 C=325K.
CarnotCOP=TL/[THTL]
= 275/[325275]
= 5.5
CarnotCOP=5.5.
[7]TheoreticalCOP
TheoreticalCOP=[h1h3]/[h2h1]
[Whereh1,h2,h3areenthalpiesofrefrigeranttakenfromph
0
chart.]P1=4.863bar;T1=1.112 C;h1=260KJ/kg.
0
P2=5.738bar;T2=48.88 C;h2=300KJ/kg.
0
P3=19.913bar;T3=48.88 C;h3=100
KJ/kg.TheoreticalCOP=[260100]/[300
260]TheoreticalCOP=4.
55
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
[3]Massofairma=axAxVa
a =Densityofair
3
[kg/m ] Va=Velocityof
air[m/s]A=HxL
[4]Refrigerationeffect=ma[h2h1].
h2=Enthalpyofambientair[KJ/kg.]
h1=Enthalpyofconditionair[KJ/kg.]
[5]Capacity=Refrigerationeffect/3.5
TL=Lowertemperaturetobemaintainedintheevaporatorin
0
absoluteunit[ K].
TH=Highertemperaturetobemaintainedinthecondenserin
0
absoluteunit[ K].
[7]TheoreticalCOP=[h1h3]/[h2h1]
h1 correspondingtoP1 andT1.
[EnthalpyistobefoundoutfromthePhdiagramofR22]
56
TELABIILM
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
d]Result:
Thustheexperimentontheairconditionsystemwasconductedandresult
weretabulated.
CarnotCOP
5.5
TheoreticalCOP
4
CapacityTR
0.744
VIVAQUESTIONS
1. Whatispsychrometry?
Psychrometryisastudyofpropertiesofmoistair.
2. DefineDPTanddegreeofsaturation.
DPT[DewpointTemperature]isthetemperaturetowhichmoistairistobe
cooledbeforeitstartscondensing.
Degreeofsaturationistheratioofspecifichumidityofmoistairto
thespecifichumidityofsaturatedairattemperature.
3.DegreeRelativeHumidity[RH]andSpecifichumidity.
RHistheratioofthemassofwatervapour[mv]inacertainvolumeof
moistairatagiventemperaturetothemassofwatervapour[mvs]inthesame
volumeofsaturatedairatthesametemperature.
i.e.,RH[or]=mv/mvs
Specifichumidity[]istheratioofmassofwatervapour[mv]tothemass
ofdryairinthegivenvolumeofmixture.
i.e.,=mv/ma
4. Howareairconditioningsystemsclassified?
I.Basedonconstructionofcomponents:
[i] Unitarysystem,
[ii] Centralsystem,
[iii] Packagesystem,
[iv] Splitunits.
II.Basedonfluidflowmethods:
[i] Directexpansion[DX]system,
[ii] Chilledwater[DX]system,
[iii] Chilledwaterairwashersystem.
5. Howdoeshumidityaffecthumancomfort?
Ifthehumidityisaboveacertainlevel,watervapourfromhumanbody
moisturecannotbeabsorbedbytheatmosphericair.Itresultsindiscomfortbecause
ofsweating.
6. Whatarethevarioussourcesofheatgainofanairconditionedspace?
[i] Solargainthroughglasspanes.
[ii] Solargainthroughroofandwalls.
[iii] Heatgainfromoccupants.
57
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[iv] Heatgainfromappliancesandlights.
[v] Ductleakage.
[vi] Infiltration.
[vii] Vapourtransmission.
7.Definebypassfactor[BPF]ofacoil.
Theratiooftheamountofairwhichdoesnotcontactthecoolingcoil
[amountofbypassingair]totheamountofsupplyairiscalledBPF.
i.e.,BPF=Amountofairbypassingthecoil/Totalamountofairpassed.
8. Whatfactorsaffectbypassfactor?
1. Pitchoffins.
2. Numberofcoiltubes.
3. Airvelocityoverthecoil.
4. Directionofairflow.
9. Whataretherequirementsofcomforta/c?
1. SupplyofO2andremovalofCO2.
2. Removalofheatofoccupants.
3. Removalofmoistureofoccupants.
4. Goodairdistribution.
5. Maintainingairpurity.
10. Whatfactorsaffecteffectivetemperature?
1. Climaticandseasonaldifferences.
2. Clothing.
3. Ageandsex.
4. Activity.
5. Stayduration.
6. Airvelocity.
58
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TELABIILM
TABULATION:
S.
No.
Receiver
Pressure
Kgf/cm
Speedofthe
compressor
2
[RPM]
Manometer
Reading
h1
h2
cm
cm
h1h2
cm
Vactual
3
m /s
VTheoretical
3
m /s
3
5.08x10
5.02x10
4.90x10
4.85x10
880
10.3
8.3
3.58x10
870
10.2
8.2
3.58x10
850
9.9
1.9
3.49x10
840
9.7
7.8
1.9
3.49x10
10
830
9.5
7.7
1.8
3.39x10
Volumetric
Efficiency
Vact/Vtheox100%
70.47%
71.3%
71.22%
71.96%
4.79x10
70.77%
air =Densityofairkg/m . w
3
=Densityofwaterkg/m . w
3
=1000kg/m .
3
air =1.162kg/m .
D=0.07m.L
=0.09m.Nc=
880rpm.
MODELCALCULATION
[1]ACTUALVOLUMEOFAIR:
3
Vact=CdxAx2gHm /sec.
Cd=0.62.=Coefficientofdischarge.
d=20mm.
A=/4[20/1000] =0.000314
2
2
m .g=9.81m/sec
h=h1h2=10.38.3=2
Cm.H=[hxw]/100xair
=[2x1000]/100x1.162]
H=17.21.
3
=0.62x0.000314x2x9.81x
3
17.21Vact=3.58x10 m3/sec
[2]THEORTICALVOLUMEOFAIR:
2
Vtheo=3.14xD xLxNc/4x60
2
=3.14x[0.07] x0.09x880/4x60.
3
Vtheo=5.08x10 m /sec
[3]VOLUMETRICEFFICIENCY:
VolumetricEfficiencyv=Vact/Vtheox100
3
= [3.58x10 ]/[5.08x10 ]x100

= 70.47%
59
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TELABIILM
ExperimentNumber:11
TitleoftheExperiment:PerformancetestonTwostagereciprocatingAir
Compressor
Toconductaperformancetestonatwostageaircompressoranddetermine
itsvolumetricefficiency.
Sl.No.
Facilitiesrequired
Quantity
1.
Twostagereciprocatingaircompressor.
1
b]Description
The air compressor is a two stage reciprocating type. The air is sucked from
atmosphereandcompressedinthefirstcylinder.Thecompressedairthenpassesthroughan
intercoolerintothesecondstagecylinder,whereitisfurthercompressed.Thecompressed
airthengoestoareservoirthroughasafetyvalve.Thisvalveoperatesanelectricalswitch
thatshutsoffthemotorwhenthepressureexceedsthesetlimit.
ThetestunitconsistsofanairchambercontaininganorificeplateandaUtube
manometer;thecompressorandaninductionmotor.
CompressorSpecification:
Diameteroflowpressurepiston=70mm.
Diameterofhighpressurepiston=50mm.
Stroke
=90mm.
KCCompressorDetails:
Model
:DPS
S.No.
:317
RPM
:900
InductionMotorDetails:
S.No.
:1970
KW
:2.2
RPM
:1440
Precautions:
1. Checkoillevelinthecompressorcrankcase.
2. Theorificeshouldneverbeclosed,testthemanometerliquid[water]will
besuckedintothetank.
3. Attheendoftheexperimenttheoutletvalveattheairreservoirshouldbeopened
asthecompressoristobestartedagainatlowpressuretopreventunduestrainon
thepiston.
60
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TELABIILM
StepNo.
DetailsoftheStep
1.
Closetheoutletvalve.
2.
Fillupthemanometerwithwateruptothehalflevel.
3.
Startthecompressorandobservethepressuredevelopingslowly.
4.
Attheparticulartestpressure,theoutletvalveisopenedslowlyand
adjustedsothatthepressureinthetankismaintainedconstant.
5.
Observethefollowingreadings.
[i]SpeedofthecompressorNcR.P.M.
[ii]Manometerreadingh1andh2cmofwater.
2
[iii]PressuregaugereadingPKg/cm .
FORMULA:
VolumetricEfficiencyv=Vact/Vtheox100
Vact=Actualvolumeofaircompressed.
3
Cd=CoefficientofdischargeofOrifice=0.62.
A=OrificeArea[Dia.=20mm]
2
g=9.81m/sec .
h=Waterheadcausingflow.
TheoreticalVolumeofair
2
Vtheo=[3.14xD xLxNc]/4x60.
D=Dia.Ofpiston=0.07m.
L=Strokelength=0.09m.
Nc=RPMofthecompressor.
3
w =Densityofwater Kg/m .
3
air =Densityofair
Kg/m .
61
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MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
d]Result:
Thusthevolumetricefficiencyofthereciprocatingaircompressoraredetermined.
2
S.No.
Pressure[Kgf/cm ]
VolumetricEfficiency[vol]
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
2
4
6
8
10
70.47%
71.3%
71.22%
71.96%
70.7%
VIVAQUESTIONS
1.Classifythevarioustypesofaircompressors.
1]Accordingtothedesignandprincipleofoperation
a]Reciprocatingcompressors.
b]Rotarycompressors.
2]Accordingtotheaction
a]Singleactingcompressors.
b]Doubleactingcompressors.
3]Accordingtothenumberofstages
a]Singlestagecompressors.
b]Multistagecompressors.
4]Accordingtothepressurelimit
a]Lowpressurecompressors.
b]Mediumpressurecompressors.
c]Highpressurecompressors.
5]Accordingtothecapacity
3
a]Lowcapacitycompressors[Volumedelivered0.15m /sorless].b]
3
Mediumcapacitycompressors[Volumedelivered0.15m /sto
2
5m /s].
3
c]Highcapacitycompressors[Volumedeliveredisabove5m /s].
2.Whatismeantbysingleactingcompressor?
Insingleactingcompressor,thesuction,compressionanddeliveryofairtakes
placeononesideofthepiston.
3.Whatismeantbydoubleactingcompressor?
Indoubleactingreciprocatingcompressor,thesuction,compression
anddeliveryofairtakesplaceonbothsidesofthepiston.
4.Whatismeantbysinglestagecompressor?
Insinglestagecompressor,thecompressionofairfromtheinitialpressure
tothefinalpressureiscarriedoutinonecylinderonly.
5.Whatismeantbymultistagecompressor?
Inmultistagecompressor,thecompressionoftheairfromtheinitialpressureto
thefinalpressureiscarriedoutinmorethanonecylinder.
62
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
6. Indicatetheapplicationsofreciprocatingcompressorsinindustry.
Theapplicationsofcompressedairareasfollows:
1. Pneumaticbrakes.
2. Pneumaticdrills.
3. Pneumaticjacks.
4. Pneumaticlifts.
5. Spraypainting.
6. Shopcleaning.
7. Injectingfuelindieselengines.
8. Supercharginginternalcombustionengines.
9. Refrigerationandairconditioningsystems.
7. Definethetermsasappliedtoaircompressors:Volumetricefficiencyand
isothermalcompressionefficiency.
Volumetricefficiency:
Volumetricefficiencyisdefinedastheratioofvolumeoffreeairsuckedinto
thecompressorpercycletothestrokevolumeofthecylinder.
Vol =Volumeoffreeairtakenpercycle/Strokevolumeofthecylinder.
Isothermalcompressionefficiency:
Isothermalefficiencyisdefinedastheratiobetweenisothermalworktothe
actualworkofthecompressor.
Isothermalefficiency,Isothermal=Isothermalwork/Actualwork.
Mechanicalefficiency:
Mechanicalefficiencyisdefinedastheratiobetweenbrakepowertothe
indicatedpower.
Mechanicalefficiency,mech=Brakepower/Indicatedpower.
8.Defineclearanceratio.
Clearanceratioisdefinedastheratioofclearancevolumetosweptvolume
[or]strokevolume.
C=Vc/Vs
Vc=clearancevolume.
Vs=sweptvolume.
9.Defineisentropicefficiency.
Itistheratiooftheisentropicpowertothebrakepowerrequiredtodrivethe
compressor.
Isentropicefficiency=Isentropicpower/Actualbrakepower.
10.Whatiscompressionratio?
Compressionratioisdefinedastheratiobetweentotalvolumeand
clearancevolume.
Compressionratio=Totalvolume/Clearancevolume.
63
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TELABIILM
ExperimentNumber:12
TitleoftheExperiment:ThermalConductivityofinsulatingpowder
TodeterminetheThermalConductivityofinsulatingpowder
[a]Description
Theapparatusconsistsoftwothinwalledconcentriccopperspheres.Theinnersphere
housestheheating coil.Theinsulatingpowder[AsbestospowderLaggingMaterial] is
packedbetweenthetwoshells.Thepowdersupplytotheheatingcoilisbyusingadimmer
statandismeasuredbyVoltmeterandAmmeter.ChoromelAlumelthermocouplesareuseto
measure the temperatures. Temperature readings in turn enable to find out the Thermal
Conductivity oftheinsulatingpowderasanisotropicmaterial andthevalueofThermal
Conductivitycanbedetermined.
Consider thetransfer ofheatbyconduction throughthe wall ofahollow sphere
formedbytheinsulatingpowderedlayerpackedbetweentwothincopperspheres.
Let,
ri=Radiusofinnersphereinmeters.
ro=Radiusofoutersphereinmeters.
0
Ti=AverageTemperatureoftheinnerspherein C.
0
To=AverageTemperatureoftheouterspherein C.
Where,
Ti=[T1+T2+T3+T4]/4
and
To=[T5+T6+T7+T8+T9+T10]/6
NotethatT1toT10denotethetemperatureofthermocouples[1]to[10].
Fromtheexperimentalvaluesofq,Ti andTo theunknownthermalconductivityKcalbe
determinedas
K=q[rori]/4rixro[Ti+To]
Specifications:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Radiusoftheinnercoppersphere,ri=50mm.
Radiusoftheoutercoppersphere,ro=100mm.
Voltmeter[0100200V].
Ammeter[02Amps.]
0
5. TemperatureIndicator0300 Ccalibratedforchromelalumel.
6. Dimmerstat02A,0230V.
7. HeatercoilStripHeatingElementsandwichedbetweenmicasheets200watts.
64
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8. ChromelAlumelThermocouplesNo.[1]to[4]embeddedoninnersphere
tomeasureTi.
9. ChromelAlumelThermocouplesNo[5]to[10]embeddedonoutersphere
tomeasureTo.
10. InsulatingPowderAsbestosmagnesiacommerciallyavailablepowderand
packedbetweenthetwospheres.
Precautions:
1. Keepdimmerstattozerovoltpositionbeforeandaftertheexperiment.Checkthis
beforeswitchingONthesupply.
2. Handlethechangeoverswitchoftemperatureindicatorgently.
b]Procedurefordoingtheexperiment:
StepNo.
DetailsoftheStep
1.
Startmainswitchoncontrolpanel.
2.
Increaseslowlytheinputtoheaterbythedimmerstatstartingfromzero
voltposition.
3.
Adjustinputequalto40WattsMax.byVoltmeterandAmmeter.
WattageW=VI
4.
Seethatthisinputremainsconstantthroughouttheexperiment.
5.
Waittillfairlysteadystateconditionisreached.Thiscanbecheckedby
readingtemperaturesofthermocouples[1]to[10]andnotechangesintheir
readingswithtime.
6.
Notedownthereadingsintheobservationstableasgivenbelow:
ObservationTable:
1.Voltmeterreading[V] =Volts.
2.Ammeterreading[I] =Amps.
3.Heaterinput[VI]
=Watts.
INNERSPHERE:
Thermocouple
1
No.
T1
T2
T3
T4
MeanTemp.Ti
Ti=[T1+T2+T3+T4]/4
Temp. C
OUTERSPHERE:
Thermocouple
No.
5
T5
10
T6
T7
T8
T9
T10
Temp. C
65
MeanTemp.Ti
Ti=[T5+T6+..T10]/6
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
CALCULATION:
W=VxIWatts.
0
Ti=Innerspheremeantemp. C.
0
T0=Outerspheremeantemp. C.
ri=Radiusofinnercoppersphere=50mm.ro
=Radiusofoutercoppersphere=100mm.
UsingEquation:
q=0.86WKcal/hr[InMKSunits]
K=0.86W[rori]/4rixro[Ti+To]
q=VxIw/mk[InSIunits]
K=q[rori]/4rixro[Ti+To]
d]Result:
ThusThermalConductivityofinsulatingpowderisdetermined
VIVAQUESTIONS
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation.
QAdT/dx
Q=kAdT/dx
2
Where,AAreainm .
66
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ObservationTable:
S.No.
MassFlowRateinKg/Min.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
67
TemperatureinDegree
Centigrade
T1,T2,T3,T4T13
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
ExperimentNumber:13
TitleoftheExperiment:ThermalConductivityofMetalRod
TodeterminetheThermalConductivityofMetalRod.
[a]Introduction:
Thermalconductivityisthephysicalpropertyofthematerialdenotingtheeasewitha
particularsubstancecanaccomplishthetransmissionofthermalenergybymolecularmotion.
Thermalconductivityofmaterialisfoundtodependonthechemicalcompositionof
thesubstanceorsubstanceofwhichitisacomposed,thephase[i.e.gas,liquidorsolid]in
whichitexists,itscrystallinestructureifasolid,thetemperatureandpressuretowhichitis
subjected,andwhetherornotitisahomogeneousmaterial.
Table1liststhevaluesofthermalconductivityforsomecommonmetal
THERMALCONDUCTIVITY
METAL
Kcal/hrm 0C
SOLIDSPureCopper
330
STATE
20degree
Brass
95
do
Steel[0.5%C]
46
do
S.S.
14
do
MechanismofThermalEnergyConductioninMetals:
Thermalenergymaybeconductedinsolidsbytwomodes:
1. LatticeVibration
2. Transportbyfreeelectrons.
Ingoodelectricalconductorsaratherlargenumberoffreeelectronsmoveaboutin
the lattice structure of the material. Just as these electrons may transport electric
charge,theymayalsocarrythermalenergyfromahightemperatureregiontoalow
temperatureregion.Infact,theseelectronsarefrequentlyreferredastheelectrongas.
Energymayalsobetransmittedasvibrationalenergyinthelatticestructureofthe
material.Ingeneral,however,thislattermodeofenergytransfersnotaslargeasthe
electronstransportanditisforthisreasonthatgoodelectricalconductorsarealmost
alwaysgoodheatconductorviz.Copper,Aluminiumandsilver.Withincreaseinthe
temperature,howevertheincreasedlatticevibrationscomeinthewayofthetransport
68
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
byfreeelectronsformostofthepuremetalsthethermalconductivitydecreaseswith
increaseinthetemperature.
Apparatus:
Theexperimentalsetupconsistsofthemetalbar,oneendofwhichisheatedbyan
electricheaterwhiletheotherendofthebarprojectsinsidethecoolingwaterjacket.The
middle portion of the bar is surrounded by a cylindrical shell filled with the asbestos
insulatingpowder.Thetemperatureofthebarismeasuredateightdifferentsections.While
theradialtemperaturedistributionismeasuredbyseparatethermocouplesattwodifferent
sectionsintheinsulatingshell.
Theheaterisprovidedwithadimmerstatforcontrollingtheheatinput.Waterunder
constantheatconditioniscirculatedthroughthejacketanditsflowrateandtemperaturerise
arenoted.
Specification:
1. Lengthofthemetalbar[total]
:410mm.
2. Sizeofthemetalbar[diameter]
:25mm.
3. Testlengthofthebar
:200mm.
4. No.ofthermocouplemountedonthebar
:9
5. No.ofthermocouplesintheinsulationshell
:2
6. Heatercoil[Baldtype]
:Nichrome
7. Waterjacketdiameter
:80mm.
8. Temperatureindicator,13channel
:200Degree
9. Dimmerstatforheatercoil
:2A/230V.
10. Voltmeter0to300Volts.
11. Ammeter0to2Amps.
12. Measuringflashforwaterflowrate.
13. Stopclock.
Theory:
Theheaterwillheatthebaratitsendandheatwillbeconductedthroughthebarto
otherend.
AfterattainingthesteadystateHeatflowingoutofbar.
Heatflowingoutofbar=Heatgainedbywater
Qw=mwxCpwx[ToutTin]=mwCpw[Tw]=mw[Cpw[ToutTin]
Where,mw=MassflowrateofthecoolingwaterinKg/hr.
Cp=SpecificHeatofwater[Given1]
T=[ToutTin]forwater
ThermalConductivityofBar
1.HeatConductedthroughtheBar[Q]
Q=Qw+{2KL[ToT1]}/{Loge[ro/ri]}
69
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
Where,Qw=Heatconductedthroughwater
K =ThermalconductivityofAsbestospowderis0.3Kcal/hrm
degree
ro&ri=Radialdistanceofthermocoupleininsulating
shell.2.ThermalconductivityofBar[K]
Q=K[dt/dx]xA
Where, dt= Changeintemperature [T1
T9]dx=Lengthacrosstemperature
[0.2]A=Areaofthebar[/4xd2]
4
/4x[0.025]2=4.9x10 m
b]Procedurefordoingtheexperiment:
StepNo.
DetailsoftheStep
1.
Starttheelectricsupply.
2.
Adjustthetemperatureinthetemperatureindicatorbymeansofrotating
theknobforcompensationoftemperatureequaltoroomtemperature.
[Normallythisisperadjusted]
3.
Giveinputtotheheaterbyslowlyrotatingthedimmerstatandadjustitto
voltageequalto80V,120Vetc.
4.
Startthecoolingwatersupplythroughthejacketandadjustitabout350cc
perminute.
5.
Gooncheckingthetemperatureatsomespecifiedtimeintervalsay5
minuteandcontinuethistillasatisfactorysteadystateconditionisreached.
6.
Notethetemperaturereading1to13.
7.
NotethemassflowrateofwaterinKg/minuteandtemperatureriseinit.
Observations:
Massflowrateofwater[m]:Kg/min
Waterinlettemperature[T12]:DegreeCentigrade
Wateroutlettemperature[T13]:DegreeCentigrade
RodTemperature[T1toT9]:DegreeCentigrade
RadialdistanceofThermocouples[ro]:40mm.
Insulatingshell
[ri]:25mm.
0
Specificheatofwater[Cp]:1Kcal/Kg K=4.186KJ/KgK
0
ThermalconductivityofAsbestospowder[K]:0.3Kcal/hrm C
0.3x4.18KJ/KgK
Lengthofbar[L]
:200mm.
Demeterofbar[d] :50mm
4
Areaofthebar[A]:4.9x10 m .
Plotthetemperaturedistributionalongthelengthofthebarusingobservedvalues.
70
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
CALCULATIONS:
1. Heatflowingoutofbar.Qbar=Q w
Qw=mxCpx[Tw][Kcal/hr]
Where,m=MassflowrateofthecoolingwaterinKg/hr.
Cp=SpecificHeatofwater[Given1]
Tw=[Tout T in]forwater
2. Heatconductedthroughthebar[Q]
Q=Qw+{2KL[T10T11]}/{Loge[ro/ri]}[Kcal/
Hr]Where,Qw=Heatconductivityofbar[K]
K = Thermal conductivity of Asbestos powder is 0.3 Kcal/hrm
degreero&ri=Radialdistanceofthermocoupleininsulatingshell.
3. ThermalconductivityofBar[K]
0
Q=K[dt/dx]xA[Kcal/Hrm C]
Where, dt = Change in temperature [T1
T9]dx=LengthAcrosstemperature
[0.2]A=Areaofthebar[n/4xd2].
4
n/4x[0.025]2=4.9x10 m
c]Result:
ThusThermalConductivityofMetalRodisdetermined.
VIVAQUESTIONS
1.Defineheattransfer.
Heattransfercanbedefinedasthetransmissionofenergyfromoneregionto
anotherduetotemperaturedifference.
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation.
71
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
QAdT/dx
Q=kAdT/dx
2
Where,AAreainm .
72
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
ObservationTable:
Sl.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Description
SetI
3
Volumeofwatercollectedduringtestperiod[m ]
0
Inlettemperatureofwater[T1 C]
0
Outlettemperature[T2 C]
0
Gasinlettemperature[Tact C]
Durationoftestperiod[tsec.]
Volumeofgasburntduringtestperiod[V glit]
Barometerreading[mmHg]
73
SetII
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
ExperimentNumber:14
TitleoftheExperiment:CalorificValueDeterminationbyJunkers
GasCalorimeter
Todeterminethehighercalorificvalueofgivengaseousfuelusinggascalorimeter.
Sl.No.
Facilitiesrequired
1.
2.
3.
4.
Junkersgascalorimeter
LPGcylinderwithpressureregulator
Gasflowmeter
Measuringjaroftwolitcapacity
5.
6.
Thermometers[0100 C]
Stopwatch
Quantity
1
1
1
1
3
1
b]Theory:
Thecalorificvalueofagaseousfuelisthetotalamountofenergyliberatedinthe
formofheatduetothecombustionofunitvolumeoffuelunderstandardconditions.Theunit
3
ofcalorificvalueisKJ/m .TheheatenergyliberatedbythecontrolledcombustionofLPG
fuelistransferredtothecirculating coolingwater inthecalorimeter. Understeadystate
conditions,theheatenergyliberatedbyburningthefuelisequaltotheenergygainedbythe
water.Bycalculatingthis,thecalorificvalueofthefuelcanbefoundout.
c]Description:
Theinstrumentconsistsofagasmeter,agaspressureregulator,verticalcylindrical
chamberandaburnertomaintainperfectcombustion.Thegasfirstpassesthroughthegas
flowmeterandthenthrougharegulator,finallythegasisburnedbytheBunsenburner.The
gasisburnedinaburnerplacedunderneathofthechamberandthendownwardthroughthe
tubes.Thetubesaresurroundedbycontinuouslyflowingwaterwhichentersatthebottom
andleavesatconstantheadtoensureuniformcirculation.Theflowingwaterabsorbstheheat
produced by the burning gas whose calorific value is to be determined. Water which is
flowingthroughthecalorimeteriscollectedandweighed.
Precaution:
1. Checktherubberhosejointsattheregulatorvalve,gasflowmeterforleakproof.
2. KeeptheLPGcylinderinverticalposition.
74
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Ensurenogasleak.
Ensureproperflameintheburner.
Pourwaterinthepressureregulatortillitoverflows.
Pourwatertothelevelmarkedintheflowmeter.
Beforeinsertingthelightedburner,ensurepropercirculationofwaterthroughthe
calorimeter.
8. Afterthecompletionoftheexperiment,thewatersupplyshouldbeclosedonly
afterthegassupplyisclosed.
StepNo.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
DetailsoftheStep
Levelthecalorimeterbyadjustingthelegs.
Insertthermometersandcheckalltheconnectionstoensurethatthereisno
leakageofgas.
Openthewatertapandcirculatewaterthroughthecalorimeterandensure
thatthewaterisflowingthroughtheflowpipeuniformandcontinuous.
OpentheregulatorontheLPGcylinderandmeasurethegasflowusinggas
flowmeter.Thetimetakenforarequiredvolumeofgastopasstheflow
meterisnoted.
TheairregulatorontheBunsenburnerisadjustedtogetabluenon
luminousflame.
Thewaterflowtothecalorimeterisadjustedtogetatemperature
0
0
differenceof10 Cto15 Cbetweentheinletandoutlet.
Thewatercomingoutofthecalorimeteriscollectedusingameasuringjar
andthetimetakenisnoted.
Takeallthereadingsaftersteadystateconditionsarereached.
Repeattheexperimentbyalteringthequantityofwaterandthetabulatethe
readings.
SpecimenCalculation:
1. VolumeofgasburntpersecatSTPisobtainedfromthefollowingrelation:
{[PactxVact]/Tact}{[PSTPxVSTP]/TSTP
Where,
3
VSTP=VolumeofgasburntasSTP[m /s]
Pact=Actualpressureofgas[mmofHg]
PSTP=Standardatmosphericpressure[760mmHg]
Tact=Actualroomtemperature[K]
3
3
Vact=Vgx10 /t[m /sec]
0
TSTP=Standardatmospherictemperature[25 C]
3
2. Waterflowrate,[mw]=[Volumeofwatercollectedinm xdensity]xTimetakenkg/s
3
3. Highercalorificvalue[HCV]={mwxCpwx[T2T1]}/VSTPkJ/m
75
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
Where,
Cpw=Specificheatofwater=4.187kJ/kgK.
0
T2T1=differenceintemperaturebetweeninletandoutlet, C.
d]Result:
TheaveragehighercalorificvalueofgiveLPGgasatstandardconditions=MJ/m
VIVAQUESTIONS
1.DefineCalorificValue.
Theamountofheatreleasedinonekgoffuelinonehouriscalledascalorific
value.ItisdenotedbyCV.ItsunitiskJ/hr.
2. Statethetypesoffuels
1. Solidfuels
2. Liquidfuels.
3. Gaseousfuels.
3. StateadvantagesofLiquidfuels.
1. Ithashighercalorificvalue.
2. Itrequireslesserspaceinuse.
3. Itkeepscleanlinesssurroundings.
4. Iteliminateswearandtearofgrate.
5. Itiseasytocontrolofcombustion.
6. Itiseasytohandleandsupply.
76
Dr.N.N.C.E
MECH/VISem
TELABIILM
QUESTIONBANK
THERMALENGINEERINGLABII
HEATTRANSFER
1. DetermineThermalconductivitymeasurementbyguardedplatemethod.
2. DetermineThermalconductivityofpipeinsulationusinglaggedpipeapparatus.
3. DetermineNaturalconvectionheattransferfromaverticalcylinder.
4. DetermineForcedconvectioninsidetube.
5. DetermineHeattransferfrompinfin(natural&forcedconvectionmodes)
6. DeterminationofStefanBoltzmannconstant.
7. Determinationofemissivityofagraysurface.
8. FindEffectivenessofParallel/counterflowheatexchanger.
REFRIGERATIONANDAIRCONDITIONING
9. DeterminationofCOPofarefrigerationsystem.
10. DetermineCOPonairconditioningsystem.
11. ConductPerformancetestonsingle/twostagereciprocatingaircompressor.
LISTOFQUESTIONSBEYONDTHESYLLUBUS
12. DeterminetheThermalConductivityofinsulatingpowder.
13. DeterminetheThermalConductivityofmetalrod.
14. Determinethehighercalorificvalueofgivengaseousfuelusinggascalorimeter.
77

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Aftercompletingtheexperiment,theanswertothe vivavocequestions should

Volts Amps Volts

34.2 32.3 41.3 80.9 62.5 92.1

22.6 34.5 44.4 85.0 66.4 95.6 102.8

23.8 35.0 44.5 82.5 65.4 92.0

102.2 37.2 41.9

37.3 35.4 39.9

39.7 31.8 30.2

Tmf [Local] = [Tx + Ta] / 2 = [53 +38] / 2 =

Tmf [Local]=[Tx +Ta]/2=[56+38]/2=

=9.81x3.125x10 x0.05 x[5638]/[17.653x10

Gr=9.81x3.067x10 x0.2 x[6838]/[18.26x10 ] =21.659x10 .

Gr=9.81x3.053x10 x0.4 x[7138]/[18.41x10 ] =186.63x10 .

=0.13[Gr.Pr] for10 Gr.Pr

mCp (dT/dt)= Ad (T4avg T

p = b [Tb4 T a4]/[Tp4 T a4]

= 1x[353 313 ]/[363 313 ]

8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of air refrigeration

= [3.58x10 ]/[5.08x10 ]x100

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