DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

z Descriptive research is used to obtain

information concerning the current status of the
phenomena to describe "what exists" with respect
Descriptive Research to variables or conditions in a situation. The
methods involved
– range from the survey which describes the status quo,
– the correlation study which investigates the
relationship between variables,
– to developmental studies which seek to determine
changes over time.

Descriptive Research Conclusive 

Research Design
z Major objective is DESCRIPTION OF
Descriptive  Causal    Research
SOMETHING. Research

z 6 Ws of Descriptive Research Cross‐Sectional  Longitudinal 

Design Design
Who Where
What Why Single Cross‐ Multiple Cross‐
Sectional Design Sectional Design
When Way (How)

Cross Sectional Design Single Cross Sectional Design

z A type of research design involving the
collection of information from any given sample
A cross sectional design in which one
of population elements ONLY ONCE. sample of respondents is drawn from the
target population and information is
z Types of Cross Sectional Design
obtained from this sample once

– Single Cross Sectional Design

– Multiple Cross Sectional Design
– Cohort Analysis

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Multiple Cross Sectional Design
A cross sectional design in which Two or
more samples of respondents is drawn
from the target population and information
is obtained from this sample once
Longitudinal Designs
A type of research design involving a fixed
sample of population elements that is
measured REPEATEDLY on the same
variables. The sample remains the same
over the time, thus providing a series of
pictures which when viewed together,
portray a vivid illustration of the situation
and the changes that are taking place over
time.
Descriptive Research Methods
z Case Studies
z Archival Research
z Observational Research
z Survey Research
Cohort Analysis
A cohort is a group of respondents who
experience the SAME EVENT within the
SAME TIME INTERVAL
Cohort Analysis is a multiple cross
sectional design consisting of a series of
surveys conducted at appropriate time
intervals.
Panel ??
z PANEL is used interchangeably with the
term longitudinal design.
z A panel is nothing but sample of
respondents who agree to provide
information at specified intervals over an
extended period.
Case Studies
z Detailed analysis of a single (or limited number)
of people or events.
z It is not surprising that case studies often seem
to provide very compelling evidence for a theory.
z Case studies can therefore assist psychology by
illustrating how a theory could be applied to a
person or events and by assisting with the
development of hypotheses for more systematic
testing.
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 Archival Research
z Analysis of pre-existing data or records
OBSERVATIONAL
z Archival research often involves content
analysis, a qualitative analysis of material. For RESEARCH
example, one would use content analysis to
determine whether there had been an increase in
the frequency with which women and minorities
were mentioned in US history books between
1920 and 2000.

Scientific Observation Is
What Can Be Observed?
Systematic
z Physical actions
“YOU SEE, BUT YOU z Verbal behavior
DO NOT OBSERVE.” z Expressive behavior
z Spatial relations and locations
Sherlock Holmes z Temporal patterns
z Verbal and pictorial records

What Can Be Observed What Can Be Observed

Phenomena Example Phenomena Example

Human behavior or physical Shoppers movement Spatial relations How close visitors at an
action pattern in a store and locations art museum stand to paintings

Verbal behavior Statements made by
airline travelers who wait
in line
Expressive behavior Facial expressions, tone of
voice, and other form of
body language
Temporal patterns How long fast-food customers
wait for their order to be served
Physical objects What brand name items are
stored in consumers’ pantries
Verbal and Pictorial Bar codes on product packages
Records

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Categories of Observation
z Structured Vs Unstructured Observation
z Disguised Vs Undisguised Observation
z Natural Vs Contrived Observation
Disguised Vs Undisguised
z Disguised : Respondents are UNAWARE
of being observed.
z Undisguised: Respondents are AWARE.
Observation of Human Behavior
Benefits
z Communication with respondent is not
necessary
z Data without distortions due to self-report
(e.g.: without social desirability) Bias
z No need to rely on respondents memory
z Nonverbal behavior data may be obtained
Structured Vs Unstructured
z STRUCTURED: Observation techniques
where the researcher clearly defines the
behaviors to be observed and the methods
by which they will be observed
z UNSTRUCTURED: Monitoring all
relevant phenomena in an unstructured
way.
Natural Vs Contrived
z NATURAL : Observing behavior as it
takes place.
z CONTRIVED: Behavior is observed in
artificial envirionment.
Observation of Human Behavior
Benefits
z Certain data may be obtained more quickly
z Environmental conditions may be recorded
z May be combined with survey to provide
supplemental evidence
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Observation of Human Behavior Scientifically Contrived
Limitations Observation
z Cognitive phenomena cannot be observed z The creation of an artificial environment to
z Interpretation of data may be a problem test a hypothesis
z Not all activity can be recorded
z Only short periods can be observed
z Observer bias possible
z Possible invasion of privacy

Response Latency Observation Methods

z Recording the decision time necessary to z Personal Observation
make a choice between two alternatives
z Mechanical Observation
z It is presumed to indicate the strength of
preference between alternatives.
z Audit

z Content Analysis

z Trace Analysis

Mechanical Observation Content Analysis

Mechanical devices z Obtains data by observing and analyzing the
are used for observing content of advertisements, letters, articles,
the event such as:
etc.
z Traffic Counters z Deals with the study of the message itself
z Web Traffic z Measures the extent of emphasis or
z Scanners omission
z Peoplemeter
z Physiological
Measures

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TRACE ANALYSIS: Comparative Evaluation
Observation of Physical Objects / traces
PERSONAL MECHANICAL CONTENT TRACE
CRITERIA OBSERVATION OBSERVATION AUDIT ANALYSIS ANALYSIS

Degree of Structure Low Low to High High High Medium

z Physical-trace evidence Degree of Disguis Medium Low to High Low High High

z Wear and tear of a book indicates how Ability to observe in High Low to High High Medium Low

often it has been read natural setting

Observation Bias High Low Low Medium Medium

Analysis Bias High Low to Medium Low Low Medium

General Remarks Most Flexible Can be intrusive Expensive Limited to Method of

Communicati
ons last resort

Surveys

Surveys as a respondent for information

using verbal or written questioning
Surveys

Survey Methods Surveys

z A structured questionnaire given to a Surveys can be divided into two broad
sample of a population and designed to elements:
elicit specific information from
respondents.
– The questionnaire
z A structured questionnaire leads to
structured data collection as the questions – The interview.
are asked in a prearranged order.

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Questionnaires Survey Methods
Questionnaires are usually paper-and-pencil z Telephone Interviewing
instruments that the respondent completes.
z Personal Interviewing

z Mail Surveys

z Electronic Surveys

Telephone Interview
z Speed of Data Collection
– Very fast
TELEPHONE INTERVIEW z Geographical Flexibility
– High
z Respondent Cooperation
– Good
z Versatility of Questioning
– Moderate

Telephone Interview Telephone Interview

z Questionnaire Length z Supervision of interviewers
– Moderate – High, especially with central location WATS
z Item Nonresponse interviewing
– Medium z Anonymity of respondent
z Possibility of Respondent – Moderate
Misunderstanding z Ease of call back or follow-up
– Average – Easy
z Degree of Interviewer Influence of Answer
– Moderate

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Telephone Interview Telephone Interview
z Cost z Central location interviewing
– Low to moderate z Computer-assisted telephone interviewing
z Special features z Computerized voice-activated interviews
– Fieldwork and supervision of data collection
are simplified; quite adaptable to computer
technology

Telephone Interview
z Advantages
– They allow for some personal contact between the
interviewer and the respondent.
– They allow the interviewer to ask follow-up questions
PERSONAL INTERVIEW
z Disadvantages
– Many people don't have publicly-listed telephone
numbers. Some don't have telephones.
– People often don't like the intrusion of a call to their
homes.
– Telephone interviews have to be relatively short or
people will feel imposed upon.

Door-to-Door Personal Door-to-Door Personal

Interview Interview
z Speed of data collection z Questionnaire length
– Moderate to fast – Long
z Geographical flexibility z Item non-response
– Limited to moderate – Low
z Respondent cooperation z Possibility of respondent misunderstanding
– Excellent – Lowest
z Versatility of questioning
– Quite versatile

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Door-to-Door Personal Door-to-Door Personal
Interview Interview
z Degree of interviewer influence of answer z Ease of call back or follow-up
– High – Difficult
z Supervision of interviewers z Cost
– Moderate – Highest
z Anonymity of respondent z Special features
– Low – Visual materials may be shown or
demonstrated; extended probing possible

Mall Intercept Personal Mall Intercept Personal

Interview Interview
z Speed of data collection z Speed of Data Collection
– Fast – Fast
z Geographical flexibility z Geographical Flexibility
– Confined, urban bias – Confined, urban bias
z Respondent cooperation z Respondent Cooperation
– Moderate to low – Moderate to low
– Versatility of questioning – Versatility of Questioning
z Extremely versatile – Extremely versatile

Mall Intercept Personal Mall Intercept Personal

Interview Interview
z Questionnaire length z Degree of interviewer influence of answers
– Moderate to long – Highest
z Item nonresponse z Supervision of interviewers
– Medium – Moderate to high
z Possibility of respondent misunderstanding z Anonymity of respondent
– Lowest – Low

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Mall Intercept Personal
Personal Interview
Interview
z Ease of call back or follow-up z Advantages
– The interviewer has the opportunity to probe or ask
– Difficult follow-up questions.
z Cost – Interviews are generally easier for the respondent,
especially if what is sought is opinions or impressions
– Moderate to high
z Special features z Disadvantages
– Taste test, viewing of TV commercials – Interviews can be very time consuming and they are
possible resource intensive.
– The interviewer is considered as a part of the
measurement instrument and interviewers have to be
well trained in how to respond to any contingency

Mail Surveys
z Speed of data collection
– Researcher has no control over return of
MAIL SURVEYS questionnaire; slow
z Geographical flexibility
– High
z Respondent cooperation
– Moderate--poorly designed questionnaire will
have low response rate

Mail Surveys Mail Surveys

z Versatility of questioning
– Highly standardized format
z Questionnaire length
– Varies depending on incentive
z Item nonresponse
– High
z Possibility of respondent misunderstanding
– Highest--no interviewer present for
clarification
z Degree of interviewer influence of answer
– None--interviewer absent
z Supervision of interviewers
– Not applicable

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Mail Surveys
z Anonymity of respondent
– High
z Ease of call back or follow-up
– Easy, but takes time
z Cost
– Lowest
Increasing Response Rates
z Effective cover letter
z Money helps
z Interesting questions
z Follow-ups
z Advanced notification
z Survey sponsorship
z Keying questionnaires
Mail Panel
z A large and nationally representative
sample who agree to periodically
participate in mail questionnaires, product
tests and telephone surveys.
How to Increase Response
Rates for Mail Surveys
• Write a “sales oriented” cover letter
• Money helps
- As a token of appreciation
- For a charity
• Stimulate respondents’ interest with interesting questions
• Follow Up
- Keying questionnaires with codes
• Advanced notification
• Sponsorship by a well-known and prestigious institution
Mail Interview
z Advantages
– They are relatively inexpensive to administer.
– You can send the exact same instrument to a wide
number of people.
– They allow the respondent to fill it out at their own
convenience
z Disadvantages
– Response rates from mail surveys are often very low.
– Mail questionnaires are not the best vehicles for
asking for detailed written responses
Group-
Group-administered
questionnaire
z A sample of respondents is brought
together and asked to respond to a
structured sequence of questions.
z There are often organizational settings
where it is relatively easy to assemble the
group (in a company or business, for
instance).
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Internet Surveys Internet Surveys

z Speed of data collection z Respondent cooperation

– Instantaneous – Varies depending on web site
z Cost effective – Varies depending on type of sample
z Geographic flexibility – When user does not opt-in or expect a
– worldwide voluntary survey cooperation is low.
z Visual and interactive – Self-selection problems in web site visitation
surveys - participants tend to be more deeply
involved than the average person.

Internet Surveys
Internet Surveys
z Versatility of questioning z Representative samples
– Extremely versatile z The quality of internet samples may vary
z Questionnaire length substantially.
– Individualized base on respondent answers z A sample of those who visit a web page
– Longer questionnaires with panel samples and voluntarily fill out a questionnaires
can have self-selection error.
z Item nonresponse
– Software can assure none

Internet Surveys
Internet Surveys
z 1) not all individuals in the general public z Possibility for respondent
have internet access misunderstanding
z 2) many respondents lack powerful – High
computers with high-speed connections to z Interviewer influence of answers
the internet – None
z 3) many respondents computer skills will z Supervision of interviewers
be relatively unsophisticated. not required

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Internet Surveys

z Anonymity of Respondent
– Respondent can be anonymous or known
z Ease of Callback or Follow-up
– difficult unless e-mail address is known
z Special Features
– allows graphics and streaming media

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