1

Chapter I
INTRODUCTION

Background of the study

"Train up a child in the way he should go" (Proverbs 22:6).
In this multicultural society, the idea of ethnic differences in child
temperament and parenting styles is controversial because of the
cultural values, beliefs, and differences that influence a parent' attitudes
and goals toward their children. Anyone who ever parented more than
one child understands the fundamental truth: No two kids are alike in
which many parents dont understand. Every child is born with his own
individual way of approaching the worlda temperament.

Thats why

parents need to tailor their parenting styles according to each childs

individual needs and temperaments.
Almost all parents have vision of what they want their child to be
like. Sometimes the vision gets clouded by everyday pressures. All these
daily dilemmas are certainly important in the lives of children, but what
counts most of all is their parents' overall style and attitude. It's the
overall pattern of interactions rather than one single act that shapes

2
children's behavior. Parents should develop various styles of interacting
with their children; some styles seem to work better than others.
Understanding the child helps parent in recognizing the childs
behavior patterns that are influenced by temperament so as to help
parent anticipate childs responses to certain situations. The goal isnt to
change the childs temperament, but to help him make the most of his
unique temperamentboth its strengths and the areas where he may
need more support. Be aware of your child's temperament and respect
his uniqueness without comparing him to others.
Childs temperament is often defined as constitutionally based
individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and
self-regulation (Rothbart MK, et al. 2006). Childs temperament is
apparent

from early infancy and is an important

influence on

development. Temperament is moderately stable over time, but is by no

means immutable. It contributes to a wide range of child outcomes in
behavioral, cognitive and social domains. The task for parents in
thinking

about

temperament

is

to

take

their

childs

particular

characteristics into account when choosing parenting strategies and in

arranging their overall childrearing environment.

3
According to the study of the Behavioral-Development Initiatives
(1996-2012), child temperament is a behavioral style that shows the how
of behavior, rather than the what or why. Temperamental differences are
present at birth; they influence how children behave toward individuals
and objects in their environments and how they are affected by the
environment. Temperament originates in genes and prenatal development
and is affected by early experiences (Berger, 2011).
In line with Gurian and Gudman study parenting is not a one
sided activity; it's a dynamic, interactive situation, and children also have
styles or temperaments that in turn affect their parents' styles and elicit
different responses. No matter what the child's temperament, it's the
harmony, or the goodness of fit, between mother or caregiver and child
that's important. In a circular fashion, the behavior of one influences the
responses of the other. However, temperament is not destiny, and family
and other life experiences can make a difference. Parents who are
attuned to their child's temperament and who can recognize their child's
particular strengths will find life more harmonious. In a new situation,
the easy child needs little help in adapting; the slow-to-warm up child
does best if not hurried and given time to think about the situation; the

4
difficult child may need advance warning and practice of the appropriate
behavior (Gurian, A. 2009).
Parent temperamental style is considered whether it meshes with
the child's temperamental style. An active on-the-go parent may have to
learn patience in dealing with a slow-to-warm up child. Obviously,
neither parents nor children fit neatly into these categories. Most parents
use a combination of styles, and most children have elements of different
temperamental styles. In both cases, however, one style usually
predominates. Encourage him to accomplish tasks at his own pace.
Praising him for his ideas and achievements, however small, will enhance
his self-image and make him feel capable of being independent.
According to Morin, in her study parents temperament is one
of five factors that determine discipline effectiveness. Your temperament
influences your type of discipline, for example, how strict or permissive
you will be with your child. Examining your temperament and how it fits
with your childs temperament can help you find the most effective ways
to respond to your childs behaviors (Morin, A., 2010)
Children with difficult temperaments and children who are anxious
and depressed are challenging and parents may feel responsible yet
uncertain how to effectively help their children. Parents may benefit from

5
discussing their childs temperament and their own parenting style to
achieve a "good fit" between the two.
Temperament is defined as the features of your personality that are
present at birth and have a genetic/biological basis. Your temperament,
or basic disposition, interacts with environmental influences to create
your personality (Salters-Pedneault, 2010). In addition, Bates JE, defined
temperament as general term referring to individual differences in
behavior

tendencies

characteristic

that

patterns

are

early-appearing,

of emotional

biologically

based

reactivity, self-regulation

and

relatively stable across situations and time. Though temperament is

thought to be a predominantly stable trait, research suggests that
environmental influences may have some impact on individual qualities
across the lifespan (Sturby, 2012).
Based on study conducted by Baum, findings suggest that child
positive emotional reactivity, fearfulness, and self-regulation elicit
warmth from parents, whereas child negative emotional reactivity results
in more negative parental control. Conversely, parental warmth and
positive control appear to contribute to childrens development of less
negative emotional reactivity and more positive emotional reactivity and
self regulation (Baum KD, 2010).

6
In addition, when fearful children had mothers with low negativity,
their depression increased. The researchers speculated that the fearful
children may have interpreted their mothers behaviors as invalidating
and rejecting of their emotional response rather than calming and
reassuring. This exemplified the study finding that a childs temperament
poses a risk for depression and anxiety and that parenting style can
affect both the occurrence and course of depression and anxiety. For
some children, their temperamental characteristics increase or decrease
their effect that parenting has on their emotional development (Entin,
2011).
Parenting isnt only a collection of skills, rules, and tricks of the
trade. It's who they are, the family culture is, and how parent transmit
the most personal aspects of their values to their child's growth and
development. A childs development is therefore strongly influenced by
the immediate family - particularly by their home environment, their
social environment and the culture in which they grow up. The way in
which a parent raises a child is considered a parenting style which is
important in predicting child well-being.
In the study of Halpenny, et al., (2010), systems of influence

7
surround family experiences and parenting behaviours are, to a large
extent, shaped by social norms and expectations should not be
undermined. Potential influences on family and parenting behaviours
include community and cultural values, and the associated social and
legal policies in which they are embedded (Halpenny, 2010).
Parenting is a composite activity that is the sum of many particular
behaviors working together or individually, to finally have an effect on the
childs behavior (Baumrind 1991). It is the rearing of a child or children,
especially the care, love, and guidance given by a parent. It points out
that parenting are the process or state of being a parent and it includes
nourishing, protecting, and guiding the child through the course of
development. In the process, parenting is a continuous series of
interactions between parent and child, and these interactions change
both partners in the parent-child dyad. Parents differ how they try to
control or socialize their children and the extent to which they do so
using various styles of interacting with their children. Approach to the
child is as unique as the parent.
Statistic shows on the relations of parenting and temperament
(effortful control and anger/frustration) to childrens externalizing
problems were examined in a 3.8-year longitudinal study of 425 native

8
Chinese children (6 9 years) from Beijing. Childrens experience of
negative life events and coping efficacy were examined as mediators in
the parenting and temperament-externalizing relations. Parents reported
on their own parenting. Parents and teachers rated temperament.
Children reported on negative life events and coping efficacy. Parents,
teachers, children, or peers rated childrens externalizing problems.
Authoritative
uniquely

and

predicted

authoritarian

parenting

and

anger/frustration

externalizing

problems.

The

relation

between

authoritarian parenting and externalizing was mediated by childrens

coping efficacy and negative school events. The results suggest there is
some cross-cultural universality in the developmental pathways for
externalizing problems (Qing Zhou, 2013).
As cited in the study of Garcia, that Asian societies suggested that
authoritarian parenting was also an adequate parenting strategy. Quoss
and Zhao, 104 found that authoritarian parentingbut not authoritative
predicted satisfaction with the parent-child relationship in Chinese
children. Farah (2006) found that in Arab societies authoritarian
parenting did not harm childs mental health as it did in Western
societies. On the other hand, another set of studies suggested that
adolescents who characterize their parents as indulgent obtain equal or

9
higher scores on different outcomes than adolescents who describe their
par scores on different outcomes than adolescents who describe their
parents as authoritative. Researchers in South European countries such
as Spain (Turkey (Turkel & Tezer, 2008), and Italy or in South American
countries such as Mexico and Brazil also found that children and
adolescents of indulgent parents did perform equally or better in several
childrens outcomes. Martinez et al. (2007) showed that Brazilian
adolescents from indulgent families scored equally or higher on several
self-esteem dimensions than children from authoritative families. In
Spain results supported that the optimum style of parenting is the
indulgent one, outcomes were equal to or better than the authoritative
style of parenting. These results confirm previous research in some
South European and South American countries, as well as in other
cultural contexts, suggesting that adolescents from indulgent families do
perform equally or even better than adolescents from authoritative
households (Garcia, 2009).
In the Philippines, taking the number of completed Bachelor-level
courses as a criterion, no significant differences were found between the
authoritative and indulgent house differences were found between the

10
authoritative and indulgent house holds, but there were differences in the
neglectful households (Garcia, 2009).
Moreover

the

Philippines

the

findings

of

the

study

yield

overprotection and rejection emerge as the descriptive patterns of the

mothers' attitudes toward their children and the kind of attitude they
present to their children determines the extent to which their children's
personality tends towards being relaxed or tensed and towards being
socially shrewd or artless. Overindulgent attitude of mothers was found
to be significantly related to tensed personality characteristics in
children. Whereas confused/ ambivalent attitude was associated with
children's shrewd and calculating traits. Overindulgent mothers tend to
have tense children whereas confused/ambivalent mothers tend to have
children with calculating personality characteristics (Espina, E. 2008).
Also in the Philippines, it was found out that parenting styles
impact upon the behavior of children and carried on during their teenage
life. The study reveals that negligent parenting contributes to a greater
tendency of a teenager to exhibit juvenile delinquency. according to the
Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD), there are more
than 2,600 juvenile delinquency cases reported in 2009 and still many
unreported cases (htt://www.cbnnews.com).

11
It is important to remember that there is no single answer or one
right way to parent and that children have innate temperamental profiles
that are as unique to them as their physical appearance. The goal is to
provide age and developmentally appropriate discipline to allow children
to develop the skills that will serve them in adulthood.
There are many books and guidelines for parents on how to deal
with their children and how to go about raising their children to ensure
good behaviour or coping skills. However, little seems to be known about
the nature of the parenting styles used on specifically five-year olds. The
researcher also observed that there are children who are incompetent,
unhappy, unfriendly, and low self-confidence. Others are impulsive, low
in school achievement, and when they reach their teens they exhibit
antisocial behavior like delinquency. Some parents would claim that their
children are unresponsive and display misbehavior despite punishments.
These observations and personal encounters with children could be
attributed to parenting styles. It is for this reason that the researcher
wants to delve deeper whether or not parenting style has a relationship in
the temperament of children.
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
This study is anchored on the following theories and concepts.

12
The Psychosocial theory, Erickson focused on the emotional and
social development of children and subsequent mental health. From
birth to one year (Trust vs. Mistrust) babies establish basic trust in
her/himself and the world. Attachments with adults are secured through
being held and responded to instantly when distressed. He emphasizes
human movement from the family toward the greater community: from
mother to the family, from family to the unfamiliar environments and
from there to different people in which social experiences is the most
important factor in character. Character develops across a life-span that
has an evolutionary movement from the early childhood to the end of life.
(Santrock, 2009).
This theory is connected with this study in as much as the home
environment including parenting style contributes to the childrens
experiences which impact upon their temperament. Parenting styles may
build, destroy or reinforce the childs behavior. Parents then are expected
to select parenting styles that could build positive behavior among
children. This study then presents various parenting styles that parents
could choose from to suit to their childs temperament and eventually
develop positive behavior among their children.

13
Another theory relevant to the study is Social Learning Theory,
by Albert Bandura. Posits that learning is a cognitive process that takes
place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or
direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct
reinforcement. In addition to the observation of behaviour, learning also
occurs through the observation of rewards and punishments, a process
known as of vicarious reinforcement.
The focus of this study is on the correlates that may influence
maternal parenting style. Adopting the social learning theory, child
behaviour is learned from the environment around him and through the
process of observational learning, a childs upraising and environment is
very important in influencing the childs behaviour in later life, if the
childs environment is a rough area and are brought up by rough parents
then the child is more likely to copy the actions and the behaviour of the
parents when they grow up.
Another theory is the Ethology Theory by Kondrad Lorenz in
respect to the attachment of children to their mothers states that
behavior can be directly related and linked to not only biology, but to
evolution and the impact of this is heightened even more so during
particularly critical and sensitive periods in an individual's development.

14
Those who subscribe to the idea of ethology believe that the experiences
an individual undergoes (or fails to undergo) can have a dramatic and
lasting impact on the individual. Ethology focuses on the study of
animals in their natural environment and the observation of their
behavioral patterns. Theorists pose that human child is genetically ready
to be attached to the person who takes care of him. It further asserts
that these attachments are valuable evolutionally as they help the child
to adapt to the environment. It further asserts that these attachments
are valuable evolutionally as they help the child to adapt to the
environment (Pillay, 2009).
This theory is linked with the study since parenting styles may
create a favorable attachment of the child to the mother. However, there
could also be parenting styles that lessen or even destroy the attachment
of the child to the mother; hence the former becomes emotionally distant
to the latter. As preschool children encounter a widening social world,
they are challenged more than when they were infants; therefore, active,
purposeful behaviour is needed to cope with these challenges. Children
are developing a sense of responsibility increases initiative for their
bodies, their behaviour, their toys, and their pets. They also become

15
increasingly active due to their increasing mastery of locomotors and
language skills.
Another theory in line to the study is the Bowlbys Attachment
Theory, that Bowlby believed that the attachment an individual develops
with a caregiver during the very early years of life has dramatic affect on
the continued growth and development throughout that individual's life.
Bowlby believed that if this attachment was positive and provided the
individual with a sense of security, that the likelihood of positive growth
and develop to continue throughout is great. However, if the attachment
to the caregiver is negative and does not provide the individual with
security, the person may suffer the after affects of this poor connection
for the remainder of their life. That a childs pattern of attachment
usually correlates with the way his mother treats him. By pre-school age,
this matrix will have become a function of him. In Bowlbys terms, the
cognitive map of attachment may also correlate with the childs
participation in the regulation of his care and mothering.
In this study, the researcher determined the correlates of the
importance of the role of the parent in providing a secure and comforting
environment for their child and the importance of the relationship
developed within the childs life since birth. The manner in which the

16
parent deals with the child will also indicate what parenting style was
commonly used.
Another theory relevant to this study is Banduras Behaviourism/
Social Learning states that moral behavior is learnt like any other
behavior. The social situation as the context wherein the behaviour takes
place is of great significance in the moral development of the five-year
old. Banduras views that moral values and norms can be acquired
through direct instruction. Bandura emphasizes the indirect way in
which moral learning takes place through childrens observations of the
behaviour of other people in their social environment. This is referred to
as modeling or observational learning. This means that the preschooler
will usually demonstrate the same behaviour observed in someone else.
Socially

acceptable

and

unacceptable

behaviour

are

acquired

in

particular from significant persons in the preschoolers life, (e.g. parents,

members of the family and teachers).
This is related to the study because personality and temperament
patterns are primarily acquired through the child's active imitation of
parental attitudes and behavior. Most parents have never directly
attempted to teach aggressive or harmful behavior to their children. The
truth is that parental modeling behavior may often counteract the effects

17
of their direct training. The persuasiveness of learning through modeling
is also clearly evident in naturalistic observations of children's play.
The study revolved around the concepts of parental style and
childs temperament. There are different dimensions within each
parenting styles and each style is important as it focuses on certain
interactional patterns and will be discussed accordingly.
The authoritative style is considered the ideal parenting style and
seems to produce children with high levels of self-reliance and selfesteem, who are socially responsible, independent and achievementoriented.

Authoritative

parents

encourage

their

children

to

be

independent and assertive, while also being respectful of others. These

parents rely on reason, not force. They explain the rules and they listen
to their children, and they set reasonable expectations. Authoritative
parents set clear expectations and have high standards. They monitor
their childrens behavior, use discipline based on reasoning and
encourage their children to make decisions and learn from their
mistakes. They are also warm and nurturing, treating their children with
kindness, respect and affection. Tend to result in children who are happy,
capable and successful.

18
Although the word sounds similar, authoritarian parenting is
different in many ways from authoritative parenting. Authoritarian, also
known as the disapproving parent, the style used is reprimanding,
disciplining or punishing the child for emotional expression, whether the
child is misbehaving or not. Tends to set rigid rules, demand obedience
and use strategies such as the withdrawal of love or approval to force a
child to conform whether the child is misbehaving or not. These parents
are more likely to use physical punishment or verbal insults to elicit the
desired behavior. They lack the warmth of the authoritative parent and
may seem aloof to their children. The parent believes the child uses
negative emotions to manipulate and they believe that negative emotions
show bad character traits. Children with authoritarian parents may be
well-behaved, but they are also likely to be moody and anxious; they tend
to be followers rather than leaders. Baumrind notes that teen boys of
authoritarian parents are likely to do poorly in school, lack initiative and
might be unfriendly toward peers. Generally lead to children who are
obedient and proficient, but they rank lower in happiness, social
competence and self-esteem.
The permissive parent is also known as the dismissing parent and
tends not to problem-solve with the child. They let their child do as he

19
pleases, and these children might grow up without understanding that
society will impose limits on their behavior. Consequently, children of
permissive parents often grow up frustrated by their attempts to function
within societys expectations. The effect of permissive parenting,
Baumrind notes, is that these children might be impulsive, might lack
self-control and might not have experience in molding their wishes to
others expectations, which makes it difficult for these children to adapt
to adult life. They may display immaturity and be reluctant to accept
responsibility. Generally lead to children who are obedient and proficient,
but they rank lower in happiness, social competence and self-esteem.
Uninvolved parenting is characterized by the same lack of limits or
demands seen in the permissive-indulgent style. However, the uninvolved
parent displays little or no parental warmth. At its extreme, the
uninvolved style can be neglectful or involve outright rejection of the
child. Children with uninvolved parents are likely to have lowest levels of
functioning in all life domains. They tend to do poorly in school and,
particularly as they move into high school, are more likely to exhibit
delinquent behavior and to be depressed. Rank lowest across all life
domains. These children tend to lack self-control, have low self-esteem
and are less competent than their peers.

20
There is no universally "best" style of parenting," Parenting styles
are associated with different child outcomes and the authoritative style is
generally linked to positive behaviors such as strong self-esteem and selfcompetence.

However,

other

important

factors

including

culture,

children's perceptions of parental treatment, and social influences also

play an important role in child's temperament.
Temperament has been defined as the inbuilt predispositions that
form the foundations of personality (Bee and Boyd, 2012).
Thomas and Chess (1977) identified that from birth, babies have
been found to be different from each other in nine ways: activity level,
adaptability,

approach/withdrawal

to

novelty,

attention

span,

distractibility, intensity of reaction, mood, regularity, and sensitivity

threshold. These traits are shaped, strengthened or counteracted by the
childs relationships and experiences. Children with more challenging
temperaments may find it more difficult to deal with lifes stresses.
Supportive, responsive adults in a low stress, accepting environment
reduce this potential difficulty (Fish, Stifter and Belsky, 1991). In these
environments,

relationships

enhance

and

enrich

learning

and

development supporting many children to move through childhood with

relative ease.

21
Activity level this is the childs idle speed or how active the child is
generally. Does the infant always wiggle, more squirm? Is the infant
difficult to diaper because of this? Is the infant content to sit and quietly
watch? Does the child have difficulty sitting still? Is the child always on
the go? Or, does the child prefer sedentary quiet activities? Highly active
children may channel such extra energy into success in sports; may
perform well in high-energy careers and may be able to keep up with
many different responsibilities.
Adaptability. Related to how easily the child adapts to transitions
and changes, like switching to a new activity. Does the child have
difficulty with changes in routines, or with transitions from one activity
to another? Does the child take a long time to become comfortable to new
situations? A slow-to-adapt child is less likely to rush into dangerous
situations, and may be less influenced by peer pressure.
Regularity is the trait refers to the predictability of biological
functions like appetite and sleep. Does the child get hungry or tired at
predictable times? Or, is the child unpredictable in terms of hunger and
tiredness? As grown-ups irregular individuals may do better than others
with traveling as well as be likely to adapt to careers with unusual
working hours.

22
Sensitivity is related to how sensitive this child is to physical
stimuli. It is the amount of stimulation (sounds, tastes, touch,
temperature changes) needed to produce a response in the child. Does
the child react positively or negatively to particular sounds? Does the
child startle easily to sounds? Is the child a picky eater or will he eat
almost anything? Does the child respond positively or negatively to the
feel of clothing? Highly sensitive individuals are more likely to be artistic
and creative.
Mood, this is the tendency to react to the world primarily in a
positive or negative way. Does the child see the glass as half full? Does he
focus on the positive aspects of life? Is the child generally in a happy
mood? Or, does the child see the gall as half empty and tend to focus on
the negative aspects of life? Is the child generally serious? Serious
children tend to be analytical and evaluate situations carefully.
Persistence, this is the length of time a child continues in activities
in the face of obstacles. Does the child continue to work on a puzzle
when he has difficulty with it or does he just move on to another activity?
Is the child able to wait to have his needs met? Does the child react
strongly when interrupted in an activity? When a child persists in an
activity he is asked to stop, he is labeled as stubborn. When a child stays

23
with a tough puzzle he is seen as being patient. The highly persistent
child is more likely to succeed in reaching goals. A child with low
persistence may develop strong social skills because he realizes other
people can help.
Intensity is the energy level of a response whether positive or
negative. Does the infant react strongly and loudly to everything, even
relatively minor events? Does the child show pleasure or upset strongly
and dramatically? Or does the child just get quiet when upset? Intense
children are more likely to have their needs met and may have depth and
delight of emotion rarely experienced by others. These children may be
gifted in dramatic arts. Intense children tend to be exhausting to live
with.
Approach or withdrawal refers to the childs characteristic response
to a new situation or strangers. Does the child eagerly approach new
situations or people? Or does the child seem hesitant and resistant when
faced with new situations, people or things? Slow-to-warm up children
tends to think before they act. They are less likely to act impulsively
during adolescence.
Distractibility The degree of concentration and paying attention
displayed when a child is not particularly interested in an activity. This

24
trait refers to the ease with which external stimuli interfere with ongoing
behavior. Is the infant easily distracted by sounds or sights while
drinking a bottle? Is the infant easily soothed when upset by being
offered alternate activity? Does the child become sidetracked easily when
attempting to follow routine or working on some activity? High
distractibility is seen as positive when it is easy to divert a child from an
undesirable behavior but seen as negative when it prevents the child
from finishing school work.

Figure 1 shows the paradigm of the study consist of independent

variables: the maternal parenting styles and dependent variables: the
childs temperament.
On the basis of analyzed data, on the maternal parenting style and
childs temperament and the result of significant relationship between
the dominant parenting style and childs temperament, the researcher
was guided to come up with a parenting style guideline for the
enhancement of mothers with temperament child.

25

INDEPENDENT
VARIABLE
Childs Temperament
Parenting Styles
A.
A.Activity
Authoritative
Level
B. Authoritarian
B.
C.Adaptability
Permissive
D. Uninvolved
C. Regularity
D. Sensitivity
E. Distractibility
F. Mood
G. Persistence
H. Intensity

DEPENDENT
VARIABLE

OUTPUT

Parenting Style
Guidelines

26

Figure I. Paradigm of the Study

Statement of the Problem

The study aimed to determine the maternal parenting styles and
their childrens temperament in the City of San Fernando, La Union.
Specifically, this study sought answer to the following questions:

27
1.

What is the dominant parenting style of the mothers along the

following dimensions:
a. Authoritative Parenting Styles,
b. Authoritarian Parenting Styles,
c. Permissive Parenting Styles,
d. Uninvolved Parenting Styles?
2. What is the temperament that the child manifests along the
following indicators:
a. Activity Level,
b. Adaptability,
c. Regularity,
d. Sensitivity,
e. Distractibility,
f. Mood,
g. Persistence,
h. Intensity, and
i. Approach/Withdrawal?
3. Is there a significant relationship between the dominant
parenting style and childs temperament?

28
4. What parenting style guidelines can be proposed to address the
childs temperament?
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses have guided the researcher in conducting
this study.
1. The dominant parenting style of mothers is authoritative.
2. The childs temperament manifest along the indicators of mood,
sensitivity, intensity and withdrawal.
3. There is no significant relationship between the dominant
maternal

parenting

style

and

the

childs

temperament

among

preschooler.
4. Parenting style guidelines can be proposed to address childs
temperament.

29