DEVELOPMENT IN CONCRETE BUILDING DESIGN

By
ENGR. DR. VICTOR O. OYENUGA
(HND, BSc(Hons), MSc, DIC, PGD(Comp. Sc.), DSc (Honoris Causa), FNSE, FNIStructE, FNICE, MNIOB

Managing Director: Vasons Concept Consultants Ltd (Consulting Engineers and Town Planners)

Victor O. Oyenuga became a

Partner of M/S Vasons Concept
Group in 1991 and currently the
MD/CEO of the Firm (now,
Vasons Concept Consultants Ltd).
He worked briefly, as a lecturer,
with Yaba College of Technology,
Yaba, Lagos and Lagos State
Polytechnic, Isolo, Lagos, where
he resigned his appointment in
1989 as a Senior Lecturer and
Acting Head of Department of
Civil Engineering.
His design
works include: Teslim Balogun
Stadium,
Surulere,
Lagos;
Reconstruction
of
Petroleum

Products Jetties Apapa; Ikeja

Plaza and the various projects of
Babcock University, Ilishan
Remo, his town of birth; many
Road Projects for the Federal
Ministry of Works and Federal
Capital Development Authority,
Abuja; some notable projects in
Ondo State and Federal
Polytechnics, Ado Ekiti. He is a
Fellow of the Nigerian Society
of Engineers (NSE), the
Nigerian
Institution
of
Structural
Engineers
(NIStructE) and the Nigerian
Institution of Civil Engineers
(NICE).
Engr. Oyenuga is the author of
the following publications:
1). Todays Fortran
77
Programming 2).
Simplified
Reinforced Concrete Design, 3).
Concise Reinforced Concrete
Design 4).
RCD2000 Reinforced Concrete Design
Programs and 5) Design and

Construction of Foundations. He
was a member of the Pioneer
Executives of NICE (then Civil
Engineering Division of NSE)
and served the Institution for
10years (1989 to 1999). He
joined NIStructE in 1998 and
became the Honorary Secretary
and Secretary to Council in 1999
till 2002. He was elected Vice
President, Deputy President and
President of the Institution (2009
to 2011). He is currently a
member of NSE Board of
Fellows
and
member
of
Regulation
and
Control
Committee of COREN Board.
Recently, he was appointed a
Member of the 5th Board of
Council for Registered Builders
of Nigeria (CORBON).
Engr. Oyenuga is married with
children and they are members
of the Seventh-Day Adventist
Church in Nigeria.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Design of buildings entails the following:
Architectural Drawings;
Structural Drawings;
Electrical/Mechanical Drawings or Services Drawings and in case of an Estate
Civil Engineering Drawings and External Works.
Each set of drawings is produced by the professional concerned. The objective of this discussion is
to elucidate on the Structural Drawings and Specifications. Structural frame can be of any of the
following materials:
Concrete (reinforced or pre-stressed);
Steel and
Timber.
Aluminum is also used for frames of light weight buildings and for partitioning.

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In this country over 90% of our buildings are of concrete frame while steel frames are restricted to
factories, warehouses, bridges and few residential or public buildings such as: The Sheraton Hotels
and Towers, Lagos and many large auditorium churches. Timber structures are relatively few in
Nigeria, unlike in overseas countries where the use of such, is rather rampant.
In view of limited strength of timber and for the fact that it is a homogeneous material, but ungraded in terms of strength properties, the usage is limited. However, in previous years timber
stairs and suspended floors were common and some still exist. The major advantage of timber, is
in maintainability, the removal of a weak member and replacing it with a new one in most cases is
all that is required to get the entire structure new again.
Steel has great strength and, can be put to immediate use; therefore, it is used for large spans
structures such as roofs to Churches, Factory Buildings, Bridges and Sporting Complexes. Since
steel can be welded together deep girders to carry heavy loads are easily fabricated and this allows
a lot of free space. This is one of the major advantages of using steel structures for large span
buildings.
Concrete Buildings are generally of two forms, the buildings on load bearing walls which are
limited to bungalows and two storey buildings (buildings with rooms on the ground floor and one
upper floor). These buildings depend on the strength of the walls to sustain the loads of the
suspended floor, the walls and the roof. The bearing capacity of the soil for such site, however,
must be of at least 100kN/m2, that is relatively good soil. Buildings of higher load capacity on
poorer soil must be framed. This is the second type of concrete buildings Framed Buildings. In
this category we have buildings in excess of two storey such as multi-storey office complex,
sporting complex buildings, large churches or churches with gallery, mosques etc. This paper
focuses more on Framed buildings or when reinforced concrete plays a dominant role.

2.0 REINFORCED CONCRETE

Concrete is a composite inert material comprising of a binder course (e.g. cement), mineral filler
(body) or aggregates and water. Aggregates on the other hand are two categories of fine (sand) and
coarse (gravel or crushed stone) aggregates. The aggregates are usually graded from fine sand to
stones of say 20mm in diameter depending on the job to be executed. There are basically two types
of concrete, viz.
(i) Dense concrete and (ii) Light weight concrete
Lightweight concrete can be defined as those weighing less than 1920kg/m3 and are made in
densities down to about 160kg/m3. The group of lightweight concrete includes: aerated concrete,
lightweight aggregate concrete and no-fines concrete.
Dense concrete is the most common form of concrete for reinforced concrete work and the average
density is 2400kg/m3. For most usage, concrete is reinforced with reinforcing bars.
Concrete is reinforced to give it extra strength; without reinforcement, many concrete buildings
would not be possible. Reinforced concrete can encompass many types of structures and
components, including slabs, walls, beams, columns, mats, frames and more. There are multiple
ways of reinforcing concrete; the two main methods are conventional reinforcement (nonprestressed) and pre-stressed.
Reinforced concrete consists of two materials group combined together in specific proportions and
form. The materials are plain concrete, which is characterized by having high compressive strength
but low tensile strength, and steel reinforcing bars or strands embedded in concrete to provide the
needed strength in tension.

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In prestressed members, compressive stresses are introduced into the concrete to reduce tensile
stresses resulting from applied loads including the self weight of the member (dead load). Prestressing steel, such as strands, bars or wires, is used to impart compressive stresses to the concrete.
Pre-tensioning is a method of pre-stressing in which the tendons are tensioned before concrete is
placed and the pre-stressing force is primarily transferred to the concrete through bond. Posttensioning is a method of pre-stressing in which the tendons are tensioned after the concrete has
hardened and the pre-stressing force is primarily transferred to the concrete through the end
anchorages.

3.0 CONCRETE MATERIALS

Concrete is a composite materials comprising of cement (the binder course), fine aggregates (inner
filler), coarse aggregates (strength giver) and water (to provide the medium of interaction, for the
completion of chemical reaction). These materials are briefly described. In some cases admixtures
are added to modify the properties of the mixed concrete. In most cases admixtures retard the
concrete strength.

3.1 Cement
Prior to year 2000, Cement properties, tests, and characteristics were being controlled by British
Standard 12 (BS 12). BS 12 specifies some tests that govern the quality of cement. They include
fineness test, chemical composition test, setting time test, soundness test, strength test and heat of
hydration test. The details can be obtained from the BS 12. Cement for concrete work should
satisfy, at least, the minimum requirements of BS 12.
In the spirit of globalization, a new standard for cement was developed as EN 197-1:2000. The
Standard Organization of Nigeria adapted from this standard, NIS 444-1:2003 which replaces NIS
439:2000. The NIS 444 defines Cement as Cement is a hydraulic binder, that is, a finely ground
inorganic material which when mixed with water, forms a paste which sets and hardens by means
of hydration reactions and processes and which, after hardening retains its strength and stability
even under water. The Standard continues Cement conforming to this standard, termed CEM
cement, shall, when appropriately batched and mixed with aggregate and water, be capable of
producing concrete or mortar which retains its work ability for a sufficient time and shall after
defined periods attain specified strength levels and also posses long-term volume stability.
The Standard listed twenty-five types of cement broken down into five main groups identified as
CEM I (Portland cement), CEM II (Portland-composite cement), CEM III (Blastfurnace cement),
CEM IV (Pozzolanic cement) and CEM V (Composite cement). Over 90% of the cement used in
the country is the CEM II type. The cement that is commonly used is the general normal setting or
Ordinary Portland Cement (the colour resembles Portland stone, hence, the name). The principal
chemical compounds of Portland cement are, tricalcium silicate (3CaOSiO2), dicalcium silicate
(2CaOSiO2), tricalcium aluminate (3CaOAl2O3), and tetracalcium alumino ferrite (4CaO
Al2O3Fe2O3). The most important of these are the dicalcium and tricalcium silicates.
Low Heat Portland Cement, Super-Sulphate Portland Cement and High Alumina Cement are not
covered by the Standard. Low heat cement is required when massive concreting is to be carried
out such as Dam construction. During the process of hydration of the cement, a large amount of
heat is generated as a result of the chemical reaction. In case of massive concreting, the large heat
can lead to disintegration of the structure, hence, the need for low heat cement. To circumvent this,
the concrete designer specifies the heat of hydration required and an agreement is made with the
cement manufacturer to produce the cement of required heat of hydration. In the same vein, since
the use of sulphate resisting cement are not very common, a discussion can be held with the cement
manufacturer to produce, using appropriate additives, cement that can be used in such aggressive
soils. High Alumina Cement is useful where early strength is required, like in war time. However,

4
the development in the cement industry has advanced to a level that a desired high strength cement
can be achieved from the normal cement once the manufacturer is properly briefed. This makes the
production of High Alumina Cement (which is not a Portland cement) more or less obsolete.
In terms of strength the classes are 32.5N, 32.5R, 42.5N, 42.5R, 52.5N and 52.5R. The 32.5
category must have strength between 32.5N/mm2 and 52.5N/mm2, while the 42.5 grade has its
range between 42.5N/mm2 and 62.5N/mm2. The minimum strength of the third category is
52.5N/mm2. These are strength after 28days. The appendage N refers to a class of cement with
ordinary early strength while R refers to those with high early strength.

3.2 Aggregates
These are inert filler in the concrete mixture consisting of between 70-75% by volume of the whole
mixture. Aggregates are categorized as fine aggregates and these include sand and very rarely
quarry dust; and coarse aggregate which are gravel and crushed stone. For effective performances
aggregates must be clean, hard, tough, strong, durable and of proper grading. Other types of
aggregates especially for lightweight concrete include: blast furnace slag, broken bricks, clinker,
pumice, foamed slag, expanded clay, shale and exfoliated vermiculite.
Like cement, aggregates must be tested for quality and the tests include:
(i) Test for durability using freezing-thawing test procedure or alternate soaking in Na2SO4
or Mg SO4 solution and
(ii) Gradation test for purposes of controlling workability of the mixed concrete.

3.3 Water
The quality of the water used in mixing the concrete must be such that the chemical reactions,
which take place during the setting of the concrete, are not impaired. In general, portable water is
suitable for concreting. Thus, the water should be free from impurities such as suspended solids,
organic matters and salts, etc. which may affect the setting of the cement.

3.4 Admixtures
These are substances used in cement mortars and concrete for the purposes of improving or
imparting particular properties. The purpose may be to improve on workability, reduce the
quantity of water required, improve durability, retard or accelerate hardening and improve
resistance to attack e.g. sulphate attacks or impart colour e.g. white cement for terrazzo work. In
general, admixtures reduce the concrete strength.

3.5 Reinforcement
Section 7 of BS 8110:Part 1: 1997, specifies that reinforcements should comply with BS 4449, BS
4461, BS 4462 or BS 4483 and that different types of reinforcement may be used in the same
structural member. Hence, for a beam, the main reinforcement might be high yield bars while mild
steel bars are used for the links. It may be mathematically cumbersome to use two types of
reinforcement as main bars since their strengths are not the same.
Reinforcement should be kept clean by stacking them off the ground. Prior to usage
reinforcements should be free from mud, oil, paint, loose rust, all which weakens the bond with the
concrete. Unless the bars are rigidly fixed in the correct position the reinforcement may be
displaced during concreting, particularly where the concrete is to be vibrated. Special care should
be taken in fixing top tension steel particularly in cantilevers. The correct amount of concrete
cover should be maintained. It is important to ensure the correct placing and fixing of all

5
reinforcements before concreting. Should there be any discrepancies between the bending schedule
and the drawings, the design engineer should be contacted.

4.0 REINFORCED CONCRETE PRODUCTS IN BUILDING

The end product of a reinforced concrete in building is through two major processes of Design and
Construction. The Structural Engineer will carry out the structural analysis and design based on
the architectural drawings. The objective of the design is to determine the size of the members
required and the reinforcements needed for the strength and stability of the structure.

4.1 Design
The design is based on a Code of Practice which specifies the methodology and the specification of
the materials to be used. In the area of reinforced concrete design, the concrete cube strength (at
28days) is specified based on the quality of performance desired in the structure. The quality is a
function of the type of structure and the following are typical example:
Residential Buildings

- (Grade 25), 25N/mm2

High Rise Buildings

- (Grade 30), 30N/mm2

Piles

- (Grade 30), 30N/mm2

Bridges

- (Grade 30), 30N/mm2

Some structure such as prestressed concrete may require very high strength and strength up to
50N/mm2 (Grade 50) is not uncommon. In this country when the quality of the contractor is not
known a lower strength of 20N/mm2 is used. It should be noted that Grade 25 concrete is
internationally the absolute minimum grade required in reinforced concrete works.
In view of the new cement strength requirements as discussed in Section 3.1, strengths that are
much better than those specified above can be achieved. The major advantages of this include
slimmer member sizes and ultimate reduction in cost.
Design of the structure starts from the estimation of the load which is based mainly on the usage of
the structure and the environment (for wind analysis). Several computer programs are now
available for the analysis and design of the structure and this include RCD2000 (developed by the
author and for analysis and design of concrete elements such as slab, beam, column, stair and
foundation), RCC, Strand, SAP and of recent ORION which will analyze, design, detail and
produce the bending schedule for the entire building structure. There are limitations to the use of
these design packages and the engineer must be in a position to design the structure himself so as to
be able to interpret the results. Results from the best suite of computer program is as good as the
data input (garbage in garbage out they say).
An example of a design and the resulting product for Babcock University Stadium completed over
5years ago is attached. Each of the frames is at 5m interval and the roof cantilever is 14m. The
design was fashioned out from Teslim Balogun Stadium for Lagos State Government (both stadia
designed by the author) which has 6.0m centre to centre frames and 23m cantilever roof. However,
because we do not believe in ourselves, the 23m cantilever was propped and today free view is
impossible in the Stadium. Only Nigerians can develop Nigeria, foreigners can only help.
The current trend now is to design structures to Eurocode 2. The need to revise the academic
curriculum of our universities and colleges of technology/polytechnics to reflect this new trend
cannot be over emphasized. Eurocode 2 requires very high strength steel and the fear is the ability
to be able to meet that standard in the country. The onus is, therefore, on the Standard
Organization of Nigeria (SON) to assist in ensuring that this is done. We need to give kudos to the

6
Cement Manufacturers in the country that are up to the challenge in the areas of making cement for
concrete of high strength.

4.2 Design Software

Quantum development in software computer programs has made the work of the instructed and
experienced structural engineer very exciting in the sense that:
He is liberated from the drudgery of repeated manual and frustrating analysis.
He does not need to be the best mathematician to deal with complex analytical problems in
building design.
As a designer he is freed from the frustration of often incessant changes by the architect.
He can obtain instant references form other designers in any part of the world through the
internet.
He can allow the architect to dream his dream, produce interesting but intelligent buildable
designs.
Buildings in concrete can be built and tested on the engineers desk before the first work is
performed on the site.
Different schemes can be analyzed, designed and costed before the decision to execute the
project is taken.
The implication of the above listed gains is that the industry is programmed for men and women
who are consumed by the zeal to practice the profession. Fewer hands but highly qualified in
structural engineering principles are required to drive these innovations.
The new innovations can cause serious disruptions in the professional practice of any nation. It
means that it is possible to be colonized in your own country by foreign expertise because the
indigenous engineers and practitioners have refused to grow and the government has not put in
place effective and necessary legislation to protect her professionals. Therefore, in seeking the best
in terms of the practice, outsiders reduce the locals to spectators. This is a major issue that can be
addressed and should be addressed by all concerned. A total adherent to the Procurement Law of
2007 and paying economic rate for services delivered will go a long way to assist in the solution.

4.3 Codes of Practice

In this Country, our concrete strength specification is based on the British Standard Code of
Practice BS 8110 Parts 1 and 2. Recently the Euro Code was introduced but most designers
including the author are still using BS 8110. About two years ago, The Nigerian Institution of
Structural Engineers, under the leadership of the author set out to produce a new code for concrete
practice in the country titled The Structural Design and Construction of Reinforced Concrete
Structures The Scope of the Code is as stated below, quoting from the document.
This Code regulates design and construction in structural concrete in Nigeria, bearing in mind the present
state of technological development in the country and in Africa generally.
The Codes provisions were arrived at after a thorough evaluation of similar Codes of Practice either
presently or once operative elsewhere.
Although fundamentally based on the limit state method of design, suitably adapted to satisfy the exigencies
of the Nigerian environment, the Code nevertheless maintains the positive features of earlier Code
especially as it concerns simplicity of use, ease of comprehension and conciseness of presentation of its
provisions.

7
The Code specifies guidelines and precepts for design, detailing and construction in reinforced, precast and
composite concrete with the notable exception of prestressed concrete.

The Codes state clearly responsibilities of the various parties as follows:

1.4.0:
1.4.1:

1.4.1.1

1.4.1.2
1.4.1.3

1.4.1.4
1.4.1.5

1.4.2:

1.4.2.1

1.4.2.2

1.4.2.3
1.4.2.4

1.4.2.5

RESPONSIBILITIES OF VARIOUS PARTIES

The Client
The Client is the owner of a building project and shall, for the purpose of this code, be
charged with the following responsibilities:
He shall obtain all necessary permit and building approvals required by the state
and/or local planning authority for effective execution of the project. This normally shall
include fencing, piling, building (architectural, structural and services).
He shall ensure that qualified and registered professionals are appointed by him
to design and supervise the project in accordance with the provision of this Code.
He shall permit access to the project site by the authorized
Representatives of Local Government such as Building Inspectors, Adept persons,
etc. and ensure that all local Government approved documents are available on
site, at all times, during construction period.
Because the Client appoints accredited professional agent; under code, he shall be
solely and severely liable for all the foregoing responsibilities
A Client must recognize the need for adequate and prompt remunerations of all
members of the design and construction teams so as to assure that money is well
spent, using the prevailing and respective professional bodies Scale of Fees.
The Structural Engineer
The Engineers charged with the design of structural projects under this Code, shall be
either a COREN registered structural Engineer or a COREN Civil Engineer who must be
a Corporate Member of Nigerian Institution of Structural Engineers.
Submit to the Client structural engineering proposals drawn to minimum scales of 1:100
(general arrangements), 1:50, 1:25 (detail drawing), all elements must be appropriately
and properly drawn and clearly annotated to permit easy setting out on site.
Submit structural calculations if demanded by the local government, for economy in design,
all structural elements must be individually designed and generalization of designing one
beam, for example for use for others which are not similar in all respects would not be
acceptable by this Code.
All structural calculations must be based on the provisions of this Code of Practice and
others adopted by it.
A design Structural Engineer must hold himself ready to supervise his design during the
construction of the building project and issue a Structurally fit for Habitation
Certificate when the building is completed. Ref National Building Code 2006.
No registered Structural Engineer, under the provisions of this Code shall accept to
supervise a building project designed by another Registered Structural Engineer, unless he
has obtained, in writing, the approval of the Engineer who designed the project.

The two quotations from the proposed Code give an idea of the content of the Code and relevant it
may be to the Practice of Reinforced Concrete design in the Country.
Also in the proposed Code we have the expected various concrete cube strength for the various
types of cement based on characteristic strength of 20N/m2.
In order to guide the concrete production manager as to the quantity of materials needed for a
specific concrete mix, Table 2.2 of the proposed Code gives an indication towards this. Thus, for
the local concrete producer the proposed Code has enough information to assist.
In a well coordinated construction the design should specify the required concrete strength and this
is achieved through design mix. That is, various trial mixes are carried out prior to the execution of
the work and the particular mix ratio that certifies the design strength is chosen and used for the
execution of the Works.

8
It is instructive to note that this new proposed code may need to be massively revised to reflect the
global practice of Eurocode 2. This is a call on The Nigerian Institution of Structural Engineers to
do just this and liaise with the Cement Manufacturers Association of Nigeria (CMAN) for guidance
on the possible strength of concrete that can result from the various types of cement produced.

4.4 Contract Documents Specifications.

There are three major Documents to most Civil Engineering Contract apart from the drawings and
these are:
Volume I: The Standard Condition of Contract or the ICE Condition of Contract;
Volume II: The Specifications and
Volume III: Tender Documents Instruction to Tenderers, Form of Tender, Statements of
Qualification, Tender Security, Form of Agreement and Bill of Engineering Measurements and
Evaluation (BEME).
Volume I is expected to be a general document while Volume II is also a general document
emanating from the Federal Ministry of Works. Volume III is produced by the organization
concerned through Consultants, as the case may be.
The Highway Manual was metricated in 1995 and reasonably updated that time. The author was
the technical secretary that edited and produced all the various curves in the metricated version.
The concrete aspect of this was based on BS 12 and BS 8110. In addition the various
Specifications from the Ministry of Works as regards cement and its products are based on BS 12
including the various tests to be carried out when the work is in progress. Definitely in the light of
the discussion above, these need to be revamped in line with global practice. The call is hereby
made to the Ministry to constitute a panel for the review of the various specifications in
conjunction with the Universities, The Nigerian Institution of Structural Engineers, The Nigerian
Institution of Civil Engineers and the various other professional bodies that are relevant including
the Geologists.

4.5 Construction
Construction of concrete products starts from the formwork (or falsework). There are two types,
sawn formwork and fair-face formwork.. Sawn formwork is used when the surface of the finished
product needs to be treated while fair-face for is employed when the product surfaces will not
receive further treatment such as rendering. In this case it is customary to use large surface
plywood or steel sheets properly oiled to avoid the concrete sticking to the surface. The concrete
during placement must be well vibrated and cured after placement to achieve the desired strength.
Quality control must be ensured during the production and this is generally done through
workability tests: Slump Test or Compacting Factor Test. Cube strength test must be carried out
to ensure that there is no deviation from the control design mix.

5.0 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

The major issue facing the professional in the built environment is the influx of professionals from
other countries who in some cases will want things to be done according to their own Code of
Practice and experience In some cases, designs are done and drawings produced using these Codes
without proper interpretation. It is believed that such construction will be carried out by companies
from their country duly registered here. Unfortunately, most of these so called professionals fall
short of Professional Registration standards and as a result could not be registered according to law
establishing such bodies in Nigeria. The onus is on us to ensure that any engineer, architect,

9
builder, surveyor etc coming from overseas is duly registered by the relevant professional body,
before such a person is allowed to practice. Drawings produced from their country should also be
duly checked and authenticated using the prevailing Code of Practice here and all necessary
corrections duly effected.

6.0 CONCLUSION
In conclusion I will like to quote from Man on the Job leaflet published several years ago by the
United Kingdom Cement and Concrete Association which states:
A good concrete job is only good, strong, long lasting, good-looking and economical to build, if
every man on the job shares in making it so.
A good concrete building or road or bridge does not only depend on a good designer or a clever
engineer: it depends on good materials, accurate batching, the right amount of water and thorough
mixing: it depends on well-placed reinforcement, well-made formwork, careful compacting: it
depends on good finish. No stage is unimportant.
One mans carelessness can let down the whole job: every mans care can make it a job to be proud
of.
SO IT REALLY DOES DEPEND ON YOU

Thank you for your attention.

References.
1. NIS 444-1:2003. Cement Part 1: Construction, Specification and Conformity criteria for
common cements. Standard Organization of Nigeria, Abuja.
2. Simplified Reinforced Concrete Design by Victor O. Oyenuga, 2nd Edition, Asros Ltd
Lagos.
3. Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures. European Committee for Standardization.
4. The Structural Design and Construction of Reinforced Concrete Structures; Proposed Code
of Practice, Not yet published.
Attachments:
Design Detail of Babcock University Stadium, Ilishan Remo, Ogun State.
Semi Finished and Finished Product of the Stadium