16

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

REQUIREMENTS OF CUTTING TOOLS

Many types of tool materials, ranging from high carbon steel to

ceramics and diamonds, are used as cutting tools in todays metalworking

industry. Modern machining process consists of automated machining at high
speed and machining of work materials in its hardened condition. Consistent
tool performance is essential to meet the requirements of modern machining
process. In order to perform satisfactorily in the machining operation, the
cutting tool materials should have the basic properties such as abrasion
resistance, hot hardness, chemical stability, fracture toughness and thermal
shock resistance as reported by Li and Low (1994).
It is essential for a tool to have a high resistance to abrasion, in
order to withstand the change in dimensions due to rubbing. A cutting tool
requires hot hardness in order to maintain a sharp and consistent cutting edge
at elevated temperatures that occurs while machining. Chemical stability of
the tool material is an important property because the affinity between the tool
and the work material produces chemically activated wear in the tool material
especially at high temperatures. Toughness allows the insert to absorb the
forces and shock loads that are produced during machining. It is particularly
relevant in intermittent machining operations. Thermal shock resistance is
necessary for cutting tools to overcome the effects of the continuous cycle of
heating and cooling, in machining.

17

From metalworking point of view, a cutting tool can generally be

stated as a tool used to remove material from a work piece (work material)
usually by the use of abrasive cutting and shear deformation. Muhammad
Farouq Bin Muhammad Faisal (2008) stated that for a cutting tool to be able
to do its job efficiently, the cutting tool needs to have certain characteristics of
which three of them are listed below.
i)

Hardness: Hardness and strength of the cutting tool must be

maintained at elevate temperatures also called hot hardness.

ii)

Toughness: Toughness of cutting tool is needed so that tools

do not chip or fracture, especially during interrupted cutting
operations.

iii) Wear Resistance: Wear resistance means the attainment of

acceptable tool life before tools needs to be replaced.
Generally, machinability is defined the as a combination of
optimum machining parameters such as low cutting force, high metal removal
rate, good surface integrity, accurate and consistent work piece geometry
characteristics, low wear rate, and acceptable chip formation as reported by
Noordin et al (2004). A single cutting tool material cannot obviously meet all
the above-mentioned requirements. This is especially so in the present day
needs of cutting tools for high speed machining and machining of hard
materials. Hence tool material technology is making great strides in producing
a wide variety of cutting tool materials to meet the ever-increasing demands
of the industries.
2.2

CERMET CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

In recent years, cermet cutting tools are widely used for machining

cast iron and steel because of their excellent hot hardness and toughness.

18

Cermets which are commonly used to describe TiC-NiMo or TiCN-NiMo

alloys have been mostly used for finishing turning operations. Cermets are
materials with high resistance at higher temperatures, making special
refractory materials resisting to corrosion in acid medium and a good wear
resistance. They present a set of physical and mechanical properties, which
allow them to be used in different fields of extreme working conditions.
Cermets are particularly useful for finishing hard materials such as
tool steel because in many cases they last longer than cutting tools made of
just metal or ceramic. In cutting performance, the relatively high enthalpy of
formation of Titanium Carbonitride increases its resistance to built-up edges,
scaling and crater formation; favorable flank wear when cutting tough steel at
a relatively high cutting speed prolongs tool life and increases total chip
removal between tool changes. As a result, Titanium Carbonitride cermet
cutting tools are used for the high speed milling, roughing and semi-finishing
of carbon alloy and stainless steels by Shanyong Zhang (1993).
DErrico et al (1997) pointed out that cermet materials are widely
used in the production of cutting tools that can conveniently machine metals
like grey cast-iron and steels. A balanced combination of hardness and
toughness is achieved in cermet cutting tools by the ceramic hard phase like
TiC, TiN and a metal binding phase like Co and Ni. The ductile metal binder
has tough phase which helps in mitigating the inherent brittleness of the
ceramic phases, which in turn are responsible for the hardness and abrasive
wear resistance. Use of cermet tools is especially recommended for
application in dry cutting operations where high temperature rise at the insertwork piece interface.
Furthermore cobalt and nickel contribute to plastic deformation
resistance. The cermet tools lower reactivity with steel also contributes to
finer surface finishes. Steel adheres to the Titanium Carbide in cermet tools at

19

a much higher temperature than it adheres to the Tungsten Carbide in carbide

tools. As a result, chips do not stick to cermet tools as readily. Compared to
Cemented Carbide cutting tool, Cermet has high temperature hardness,
resistance to oxidation and better chemical stability as reported by Ning Liu
(2005), Won Tae Kwon (2004). Because of these characteristics, cermet
cutting tools are used for high cutting speed machining operations. The most
important application of cermet cutting tool is for finish machining process.
Cermets composed of hard phase, namely TiC and TiN or Ti[C,N] bonded in
the soft phase metallic binders. The metallic binder represents as a tough,
ductile and conducting phase which helps in mitigating in inherent brittleness
of the ceramic and supplies the liquid phase that is necessary for sintering as
reported by D'Errico et al (1998).
D'Errico et al (2001) further stated that the performance of ceramic
tool materials, minimum in production cost, best for high speed finishing
operation and it is outperformed to other cutting tool materials like CBN and
PCD. However ceramic performs better than the cermets. Sarkar et al (2004)
compared the cutting performance of WC-Co conventional tool materials with
that of Ti (CN)-based cermets, it was observed that the TiCN-cermets
provided improved surface finishing and excellent chip and tolerance control
and after geometrical accuracy in the workpieces than WC-Co tools. All of
these characteristics are attributable to the mechanical properties of the hard
phases, which are retained in the cermets.
2.3

COATED CUTTING TOOLS

Several attempts have been made to improve the performance of

the cutting tool through different types of coatings by increasing abrasiveness

and the hardness. These coatings offer not only high hardness and excellent
refractoriness but also generally lower coefficient of friction, good oxidation
resistance and chemical stability by Venkatesh (1983, 1984). Supriya Sahu (2012)

20

stated when cutting ferrous and hard to machine materials such as steels, cast
iron and super alloys, softening temperature and the chemical stability of the
tool material limits the cutting speed. Therefore, it is necessary for tool
materials to possess good high-temperature mechanical properties and
sufficient inertness. The machining of hard and chemically reactive materials
at higher speeds is improved by depositing single and multi layer coatings on
conventional tool materials to combine the beneficial properties of ceramics
and traditional tool materials. The effect of coatings layer can be summarized
as follow (Abdul Kareem Jaleel and Kareem Abdulla Hadi 2012)
i.

Reduction in friction, in generation heat, and in cutting

forces which allow the use of high cutting speeds and feed,

ii.

Reduction in the diffusion between the chip and the surface

of the tool, especially at higher cutting speeds (the coating
acts as a diffusion barriers),

iii.

Prevention of galling, especially at lower cutting speeds.

Armarego et al (2002) observed that cemented carbide can be used

for hot application due to their heat resistance and all types of PVD and CVD
processes can be used to deposit coatings. The combined substrate-coating
properties determine the important properties such as wear, abrasion
resistance and adhesion strength of a coating. A hard wear resistant coating
can not perform well unless complimented by a hard and tough substrate.
Thus, a hard coating deposited on a soft substrate leads to poor properties
reported by Smith (1989). PVD and CVD coatings offer today a powerful
alternative to improve further the cutting performance of the cutting materials.
Under dry machining with high cutting speeds and high-feed rates, the coating
is worn away rapidly which results wear of the carbide substrate by Lim et al
(1999).

21

A question of recent interest is to review whether the resistance of

cermet cutting tools to wear has improved by the use of appropriate hard
coatings. Research in this area is concentrated on new composite gradient
coating, multi component and multilayer coating and adding new elements to
coating combination like silicon or vanadium to Ti-Al-N as reported by
Dobrzanski and Go ombek (2005). Khrais and Lin (2007) investigated the
tribological influences of PVD-applied TiAlN coatings on the wear of
cemented carbide inserts and the microstructure wear behaviours of the coated
tools under dry and wet turning of hardened steels. The study reveals that
when the material hardness rises above 40 HRC the material machinability
decreases due to shortened tool life either in wet or dry conditions.
Reginaldo Coelhoa et al (2007) analyzed the tool wear on turning
hardened AISI 4340 with PCBN tools with TiAlN, TiAlN-nanocoating and
AlCrN coating. It was observed that the lowest tool wear happened with
TiAlN-nanocoating followed by TiAlN, AlCrN and uncoated PCBN .The
cutting forces variation followed the same pattern except at the beginning of
cutting operation the uncoated one showing higher cutting force. Further
indicated that TiAlN-nanocoating performed better in terms of tool wear and
surface roughness due to a combination of high hardness in the cutting
temperature range and the presence of an oxidizing layer.
2.3.1

Ti-Al-N Coating
TiAlN coatings are well known for their excellent wear and

oxidation resistance which enable improved machining processes like

high-speed and dry cutting. Zheng Liyun et al (2009) observed that when the
Ti-Al-N coating subjected to high temperature, Al atoms from Ti-Al-N
coating diffused in to the surface and hence forms a layer which prevents
further oxidation. Because of its supersaturated metastable phase, the TiAlN
coating shows age-hardening effects, which increases its hardness at higher

22

temperature. The higher hardness value of TiAlN was also attributed due to
more random-oriented microstructure in crystallographic direction, finer grain
size, and possible residual stress due to substitution of Al ions for the Ti site
in the TiN crystal lattice reported by Huang et al (1994).
Cselle et al (1995) compared the thermal properties TiAlN coating
with TiN, TiCN, and CrN. The Ti-Al-N coating separates tool and the
workpiece material during machining and offers a possibility to replace
coolants. (Ti, Al)N coating over the substrate of cemented carbide and cermet
provides the lowest coefficient of thermal expansion, improved wear
resistance and the low friction against steel, which reduces cutting forces as
well as the heat generated in the process as reported by Tijnshoff et al (1997).
Khrais and Lin (2007) reported dry cutting is better than wet cutting on
machining AISI 4140 steel using TiAlN coated carbide inserts under high
cutting speed (around 200400 m/min).
PalDey and Deevi (2003) have discussed the wear resistant
properties of (Ti,Al)N coating during dry machining, machining of abrasive
alloys and compared with coatings such as TiN, Ti(C,N) and (Ti,Zr)N. It was
found that the high hardness, relatively low residual stress, high oxidation
resistance, high hot hardness, and low thermal conductivity of (Ti,Al)N
coatings are most desirable properties at high speeds. Vikram Kumar et al
(2008) studied the comparative performance of TiCN and TiAlN coated tools
on machining of AISI 4340 hardened steel under dry, wet and minimum fluid
application conditions. Both the tools performed better with minimum fluid
application when compared with wet and dry machining. The performance of
the TiAlN tool was observed to be better with reference to wear resistance of
the tools and better surface finish on the components.
Claudin et al (2008) conducted dry machining of AISI 4140 treated
steel with various coated carbide tools with TiN, TiAlN, AlCrN coatings

23

deposited by PVD. TiAlN and AlCrN coated carbide tools have showed
similar frictional properties and exhibited the best frictional properties under
dry cutting conditions. Gatto and Iuliano (1997) have reported that SiC
whiskers reinforced alumina tools are coated by chromium nitride, titanium
nitride and aluminium nitride using the physical vapour deposition (PVD)
technique. Machining tests are carried out on Inconel 718 using uncoated and
coated tools. After machining, the tools are observed with a scanning electron
microscope (SEM). The wear behaviour of the coated tools is analysed and
different wear mechanisms are observed along the tool chip contact length.
The hardness value of the CrN coating and (Ti, Al)N coating are less than the
uncoated tool. However, the performances of coated tools are better than the
uncoated tools. The improvement in performance is due to thermal barrier
effect of CrN coating and (Ti, Al) N coating.

2.4

CRYOGENIC TREATMENT
New advances are being attempted in the secondary processes of

cutting tool manufacturing, such as the heat treatment, surface coating and
cryogenic treatment to improve tool life and performance of cutting tools.
Cryogenic treatment is one of the secondary processes which are frequently
used for the improvement of cutting tool performance. Cryogenic technology
has been used on several types of materials including plastics and composites
to improve their performance in their various applications. Barron (1982)
performed abrasive wear tests on a variety of cryogenically treated steels and
concluded that metals which can exhibit retained austenite at room
temperature, resulted in improved wear resistance. The hardness and wear
resistance of tool and die steels can be improved simultaneously through
cryogenic treatment, have been pointed out by Molinari et al (2001), Mohan
Lal et al (2001).

24

Huang et al (2003) carried out microstructural analysis on

cryogenically treated M2 tool steels and indicated that treatment has increased
the carbide population which was distributed the carbides evenly throughout
the structure, resulting in improved the wear resistance. Yugandhar et al.
(2002) cryogenically treated the 52100, D2, M2 and O1 tool steels and
reported that the cryogenic treatment increased the tool life. Leskovsek et al
(2005) cryogenically treated the vacuum heat-treated AISI M2 HSS cutting
tool and concluded that the deep-cryogenic-treatment improved wear
resistance. Fanju Meng et al (1994) conducted cold treatment (223K) and
cryogenic treatment (93K) on Fe-12Cr-Mo-V-1.4C tool steel and concluded
that wear resistance of steels after cryogenic treatment is superior to that after
cold treatment.
Yuan et al (2008) investigated the effect on mechanical properties
and microstructure of Fe-Cr-Mo-Ni- C- Co alloy after quenching in liquid
nitrogen for 24 hr. The result shows that hardness increased by 1-2 HRC and
compressive strength decreased slightly after cryogenic treatment. The
increase in hardness is attributed to the transformation from austenite to
martensite and precipitate of the very tiny carbide -Fe2C. The decrease in
compressive strength is caused by residual stress. Ya-Jun Liu et al (2006)
concluded that the cryogenic treatment has improved the abrasion wear
resistance of M10 tungsten carbide inserts due to the complete phase
transition of cobalt. Kalsi et al (2011) in their study on cryogenically treated
tungsten carbide inserts treated by following variable number of posttempering cycles found a maximum reduction in tool flank wear with triple
tempered inserts after the cryogenic treatment was approximately 26% ,
power consumption approximately 20%, with better surface finish of the
workpieces.

25

Hongjuan Yan et al (2010) studied the deep cryogenic treated YT15

carbide inserts and concluded that the increase of hardness and enhance in
wear resistance of inserts was due to effect of soaking temperature, cooling
rate, tempering temperature and multi-type martensite transformation of Co
(Cobalt). Dinesh Thakur et al (2008) carried out different post treatments on
Tungsten Carbide-Cobalt inserts and concluded that the cobalt densification
was occurred, which held the carbide particles more firmly resulting increased
wear resistance in the inserts. Kalsi et al (2013) concluded that controlled
cryogenic treatment helped in fineness, uniform distribution and densification
of cobalt binder that held the carbides more firmly for better wear resistance.
Further the formation of W 2C and Co3W3C secondary carbides along with
fine and dense cobalt binder formed a stress free harder and tougher matrix
after cryogenic treatment, thereby improved performance of the inserts
Zhao et al (1992) tested materials include a high-speed steel, M46,
and five grades of carbide-cobalt alloys (K3109, K313, K420, K68) and
SP274 at cryogenic temperatures and reported that the micro hardness of each
individual constituent of WC, TaC, TiC and cobalt increases as temperature
decreases on. Thus, the increase in hardness of the carbide alloys at cryogenic
temperatures can be regarded as a common element of both the carbides and
the cobalt binder phase. George (1989) concluded that despite the composite
nature of the microstructure, it has been well established that the amount of
binder phase greatly affects the mechanical properties and other properties of
the carbide-cobalt alloys. The binder phase may also play a predominant role
in determining cryogenic properties.
Peekuer et al (1986) reported some cobalt-base alloys are
considerably tough at cryogenic temperatures. Jiang Yong and Chen Ding
(2011) indicated that cryogenic treatment increased hardness, compressive
strength, wear resistance and fatigue resistance of cemented carbide, but there

26

is no effect on bending strength and toughness of cemented carbide. The

improvement of mechanical properties is highly dependent on the soaking
time. Panchakshari et al (2012) determined the wear properties of
cryogenically treated Al/Al2O3 composites and concluded that the optimum
level of cryogenic process parameters to obtain good wear resistance of Al
/Al2O3 are 20 % wt. of Al2O3 particles, cryogenic temperature of -150 C and
treatment duration of 50 hours.
Indumathi et al (1999) investigated the effectiveness of cryotreatment on the wear performance of polymers (Polyimide (PI),
Polyetherimide (PEI), Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), Polycarbonate (PC)
and Polyurethane (PU)) and composites (PI, PEI and its copolymer with
increasing amount of short glass fiber and solid lubricants) and it was proved
that cryogenic treatment to be an effective technique enhancing abrasive wear
performance which increases in hardness. X-ray diffraction studies on treated
and untreated polymers indicated an increase in crystallinity of amorphous
and semi crystalline polymers due to treatment resulting in enhancement of
wear performance.
2.5

TOOL WEAR / FAILURE MECHANISMS

The classic definition of wear, regardless of the cause but here

referring specifically to cutting tools, is: the loss or dislocation of mass of a

material caused by some kind of tribological phenomenon. Tool wear results
in undesirable effects: less in dimensional accuracy of the finished product,
possible damage to the work piece, decreased surface integrity, residual
stress, surface roughness, and amplification of chatter during the cutting
process. For these reasons, it is important to evaluate tool wear and to predict
tool life reported by Devillez et al (2004). Wear on tools can appear in the
form of a crater on the rake face, flank wear on the flank face or a notch that
may appear at either the nose or the end of the cutting depth, normally on the

27

flank face. Yoram Koren et al (1991) designed and performed turning

experiments and concluded that the difference between the true and the
estimated wear is less than 0.05 mm during the entire cutting cycle and also
concluded it is a promising result for practical applications. Janne Laaksonen
(2008) compared the silhouette images of the worn tool and unused tool taken
by two cameras, to estimate the tool flank wear and reported that
measurement error to be less than 5 %.
In cemented carbide cutting tools these forms of wear can develop
by one or a combination of the following wear mechanisms; plastic
deformation under compressive stress, diffusion, attrition, abrasion and wear
under slide conditions. Tool wear mechanisms are based on the stress and
temperature on the rake face of the cutting tool, have been pointed out by
Trent and Wright, (2002), Moore (1975). HBkan Thoors et al (1993)
concluded that abrasion, adhesion, plastic deformation, cracking and (to a
limited extent) micro chipping appear to be the primary wear mechanisms
resulting in the crater and flank wear of the present cermet tool when
machining steels.
Among the different forms of tool wear, flank wear is the
significant measure as it affects the dimensional tolerance of the workpiece
reported by Senthilkumar et al (2003). Flank wear occurs on the relief face of
the cutting tool and is generally attributed to the rubbing of the tool along the
machined surface, and high temperatures causing abrasive and/or adhesive
wear, thus affecting the tool materials properties as well as workpiece
surface. Abrasion, diffusion and adhesion are the main wear mechanisms in
flank wear, has been pointed out by Senthilkumar et al (2006). Venkatesh
(1980) carried out tool wear investigations on carbide cutting tool materials.
The tool life curves were plotted using the flank wear criterion for carbides
and the tool life of carbides decreased quickly at higher speeds. The flank

28

wear in carbide tools, initially occurs due to abrasion and as the wear process
progresses, the temperature increases causing diffusion reported by Bonifacio
(1994), Venkatesh (1980).
The wear of the cutting tool was the critical issue in metal cutting
as well as in turning of metal, consequently caused the tool failure as reported
by Woodrow (2005). Khrais and Lin (2007) identified micro-wear
mechanisms

include

edge

chipping,

micro

abrasion,

micro-fatigue,

micro-thermal, and micro-attrition through Scanning Electron Microscope

(SEM) micrographs. These micro-structural variations of coatings provide
structure-physical alterations as the measures for wear alert of TiAlN coated
tool inserts under high speed machining of steels. Micro-abrasion and microfatigue behaviors were the dominant kinds of wear mechanisms in higher
cutting speeds under dry cutting.
The performance of cermet cutting tool materials is usually
evaluated in terms of tool life. The tool life and the performance of a cutting
tool are limited by its wear. Bellosi et al (2003) compared the wear
mechanisms of two Ti(C, N)-based tools with commercial tools, in order to
understand key aspects due to thermal wear mechanisms (mainly diffusion
and oxidation) and mechanical wear mechanisms, which both contributed to
the material degradation. Yueh-Jaw Lin et al (2008) compared the wear
performance of AlCrN and TiAlN coated cemented carbide tools at high
cutting speed under dry and wet conditions on machining SAE4140 steel, the
types of microstructure wear phenomena captured during the course of the
experimental study are micro-abrasion, micro-tensile fracture, micro-fatigue,
micro-thermal cracks, micro-adhesion, built up edge and micro-attrition.
Blau (1997) observed that the desired surface quality, dimensional
accuracy and economics of machining are influenced by tool wear. A study
of the nature of wear of a tool helps in better utilization of the cutting tools.

29

An understanding of failure mechanisms directs new research into the

development of more durable materials. Metal cutting studies so far have
revealed different types of tool wear which are associated with multifarious
mechanisms. The type of wear depends on the character of contact. The type
of contact between the tool and the work material in the process of metal
cutting depends upon the cutting conditions, and the properties of the tool and
the work material. The problem of tool wear is a complicated one, pointed
out by Loladze (1976).
The primary cause of tool failure under normal cutting conditions is
gradual wear. Cook (1973) has stated that a tool is considered failed when it
either does not cut or it cuts in a manner grossly different from a sharp tool.
Failure of a tool can be categorised as follows:
i)

Fracture or chipping under severe conditions of cutting force

or shock.

ii)

Accelerated wear leading to failure, when the wear rate

increases due to the cutting conditions.

iii) Tool softening leading to gross, very rapid loss of entire

cutting zone.
It is necessary to regrind or discard a tool when the shape is so
altered, that it can no longer cut efficiently up to the requirement. The amount
of work done by the tool between regrinds is called the life of the tool. Tool
life may be measured in number of units of time, number of components
machined, weight of metal removed before the end of tool life. When the
surface finish of the work piece deteriorates beyond the accepted limit, when
the dimensions of the work piece varies due to wear on the tool, when
excessive wear causes chatter or vibration, when the tool ceases to cut, when
the power consumption rises sharply or when the tool wear exceeds the

30

allowable limit; then the tool has reached its failure under the above
conditions.
Usually the tool life is evaluated quantitatively, by tool wear
criteria for failure such as flank wear criterion and crater wear criterion, which
are the maximum allowable limit of wear in machining operation. Tool wear
affects the cutting tool geometry and hence the cutting forces, temperature
conditions at the cutting zone and surface quality. Usually the wear in a
cutting tool is a complex phenomenon and can be attributed to several wear
modes / mechanisms. Hastings and Oxley (1976), Opitz and Konig (1967)
have pointed out that, the most likely dominant wear mechanisms and the
corresponding

cutting

speeds/temperatures

are:

abrasion

at

low

speeds/temperatures, followed by adhesion at moderate speeds/temperatures

and then diffusion at high speeds/temperatures.
Tool failure / wear mechanisms of the cermet cutting tools may be
classified as abrasive wear, adhesive wear, diffusion wear, plastic
deformation, fatigue failure, micro spalling, chipping, cracking and fracturing.
The tool failure / wear mechanism should be properly understood for the
effective utilization of the cermet cutting tools.
2.5.1

Abrasive Wear
Abrasive wear is caused by the sliding of the hard asperities on the

tool or it is caused by the hard wear debris between tool and work piece,
sliding along the tool surface and it is shown in Figure 2.1. The resistance to
such a wear mechanism is associated with cutting tool material hardness and
melting point. Using tool materials with a high thermal conductivity may
contribute to minimizing the action of the abrasive wear mechanism, because
the heat can then be removed rapidly from the chip formation region.
Abrasion wear on cutting tools happens when tool material is removed or

31

dislocated by hard particles that can be loose, between chip and rake face, or
emerging from workpiece material and/or from cutting tool material reported
by Anderson et al (2006).

Figure 2.1 Abrasive wear mechanism in the machining operation

Abrasive wear is usually a dominant wear mechanism on the flank
face and it is also observed on the rake face. Abrasion is characterized by
development of grooves and ridges in the direction of tool sliding against a
newly machined surface of the work piece or chip sliding against the rake
face. The severity of abrasion increases in cases where the work piece
materials contain hard inclusions, or when there is hard wear debris from the
work piece or the tool at the interface.
Abrasive wear can also occur when a third particle harder than one
or both the surfaces in contact is trapped at the interface. It can then operate to
remove the material from one or both the surfaces. This can also happen in
metal cutting operations, when the strain hardened chips get trapped between
the tool and the work piece. The product of fracture toughness and hardness
can be used to predict the abrasive wear resistance of a tool in a cutting
operation, where abrasion is a dominant wear mechanism, i.e. where
tribochemical wear is negligible. The wear by abrasion is usually due to crack
development and intersection caused by hard asperities or wear particles
acting as small indenters on the cutting face.

32

In many cases, the abrasive action is attributed to special features of

the flowing chip, which is characterised by a serrated profile along its edges
and also by the broken chips of irregular shapes caught in-between the tool
and work piece. This type of serrated chips and broken chips abrades the tool
material under high cutting speed, and creates scars in the tool material. High
stresses generated at the tool-chip/work piece interface during machining
cause many abrasive grooves and ridges on rake and flank faces.
Wear mechanisms abrasion and oxidation of WC tools were
considered by Hastings and Oxley (1976).Trent and Wright (2002) pointed
out that when machining steel work materials, these mechanisms are unlikely
to be

dominant

under the conditions normally used in practice

(i.e. at relatively high cutting speeds). This is due to (i) the insufficient
amount of abrasives present in the work material, (ii) insufficient hardness of
abrasives to abrade WC and (iii) inability to detect any significant signs of
abrasive wear in extensive metallurgical studies. For chemically stable cutting
tools such as cermet, plastically deformed grooves and ridges account for
most of the rake and flank face wear. Flank and crater wear are the types of
wear most frequently associated with this mechanism.
2.5.2

Adhesive Wear
Adhesive wear is produced, when two surfaces are brought into

intimate contact under pressure and subjected to sliding friction. During this
process, welded junctions are formed between the two sliding surfaces and
subsequently these welded junctions are sheared off. It may intensify at high
temperatures prevailing at the tool-chip interface. Figure 2.2 shows the
adhesive wear mechanism in which the tool and the chip are welded together
at the adhesive junction. During machining, adhesive patches are periodically
sheared off and formed which can be seen at the tool work interface.
Anderson et al (2006) has pointed out attrition is frequently treated as

33

adhesion. It usually happens at relatively low cutting speeds due to the

irregular flow of chip material on the rake face and associated with a high
pressure/high temperature on the cutting edge.

Figure 2.2 Adhesive wear mechanisms in the machining operation

The adhesion can also be accelerated depending on the chemical
affinity between tool and workpiece materials. A built up edge and notch
wear are the more common types of wear related to this mechanism. Attrition
consists basically in:
i)

adhesion of workpiece material on the cutting tool surfaces;

ii)

breakaway of microscopic particles of the cutting tool material

and

iii) dragging of these particles on cutting tool surfaces, generally

causing abrasion.
Adhesive wear can occur at low machining temperatures on the
chip face of the tool. This mechanism at low temperature often leads to the
formation of Built-Up Edge (BUE). It is a dynamic structure, with successive
layers from the chip being welded to the tool. The BUE can be sheared off

34

and this causes the tool material to break away from the cutting tool edge.
Nouari and Ginting (2006) studied wear mechanism of alloyed uncoated
carbide tools during dry machining of the titanium alloy Ti-6242S and found
that adhesion wear (attrition and galling) and diffusion wear have been the
wear mechanisms of tools. Adhesion wear (attrition and galling) is the wear
mechanism of flaking and chipping for tool.
Adhesive wear (often called attrition) of cutting tools involves the
mechanism in which, individual grains or their small aggregates are pulled out
of the tool surface and are carried away to the underside of the chip or torn
away by the adherent work piece. The term plucking is also used to describe
the loss of tool particles from the edge or faces. The adhered work piece
particles often remain attached to the tool edge. The difference between the
adhesive wear and the diffusion wear is that, the adhesive wear is not a
chemically activated wear like the diffusion wear. The wear scars produced
by adhesive wear are rough, as opposed to the smooth wear surfaces
generated by diffusion wear.
2.5.3

Diffusion Wear
Diffusion wear involves a chemical reaction between the work

piece and the cermet tool, and the process is activated by high temperatures
and pressure is observed mainly at the tool-chip (rake face) interface. During
dry machining, the toolchip contact occurs under extreme conditions such as
an intense friction and a high cutting temperature. This supports the activation
of the diffusion process and atoms move from the tool towards the chip
through the toolchip interface, and vice versa. The cutting temperature is a
crucial parameter controlling the diffusion rate of the tool and the chip
constituents.

35

Arsecularatne et al (2006) investigated wear mechanisms of cutting

tools for tool/work combinations WC/steel and PCBN/hardened-steel, it was
concluded that the tool wear was found to be greatly influenced by the
temperature the most likely dominant tool wear mechanism for WC is
diffusion and that for PCBN is chemical wear. Figure 2.3 shows the diffusion
wear mechanism, in which the tool atoms diffuse into the work material.
During the diffusion wear mechanism, compounds of lower melting points
(e.g. eutectics) are formed, which are highly susceptible to wear. This form of
wear is mainly associated with crater wear and, to a less extent, flank and
notch wear. Crater wear on cemented carbide cutting tools is normally formed
due to diffusion, where interchange of atoms occurs between rake face and
chip root at the seizure zone, and it is strongly dependent of temperature, time
and solubility of the involved elements reported by Anderson et al (2006).

Figure 2.3 Diffusion wear mechanism in the machining operation

2.5.4

Plastic Deformation
Apart from the above abrasion, adhesion and diffusion wear cutting

tools also exhibit severe deformation at the cutting nose, resulting in poor
cutting performance. As the cutting speed and the feed increase, the
temperature and the stress at the cutting edge increase. Plastic deformation

36

takes place as a result of combined high temperatures and high pressures on

the cutting edge. The tool material can withstand this combined effect up to a
certain limit after this the tool material deforms plastically. This may lead to
gross and very rapid loss of entire cutting zone.
Astakhov (2004) pointed the phases normally present in the
sintered carbides used as the tool material; the plastic deformation is greater
in the cobalt phase. This plastic deformation results in tearing-off of the
grains of carbide from deforming cobalt layers, ploughing this deforming
layer by hard inclusions contacting the work material, and spreading of the
tool material on the chip and workpiece contact surfaces. If the temperature
increases further, a liquid layer forms between tool and workpiece due to
diffusion, leading to the formation of the low-melting point compound Fe 2W
having melting temperature Tm = 1130 C. This layer is quickly removed in
cutting.
Deformation is a factor in tool life, quite distinct from normal flank
wear. When the tool tip is not stressed above its elastic limit, the wear rate is
not related to the resistance to deformation. As the cutting speed and feed are
increased, the elastic limit is exceeded and the tool begins to deform. At first
this may not have much effect on the rate of wear, then the limit to which the
tool can be strained may be reached suddenly and it may fail all of a sudden.
Such plastic deformation occurs usually at the nose radius of the tool. A tool
with small radius will deform at much lower speed and feed than one with
larger radius. Hot hardness is one of the properties required of the tool
material to resist failure due to plastic deformation. This mode of failure
mostly occurs at high cutting speeds. No evidence of fracture is visually
observed and hence it is concluded that the edge deformed plastically.

37

2.5.5

Fatigue Failure of Cermet Cutting Tools

This can be mainly of two kinds: mechanical and thermal fatigue.

The first is due to the alternating tensile and compression stresses on the
cutting edge. The second can be associated with alternating cycles of heating
and cooling. When a cermet cutting tool is machining a work piece well and
fails suddenly without any observable changes in cutting conditions, then a
fatigue failure is said to have taken place normally. The tool may fail by
fatigue when the tool tip is subjected to stress both static and cyclic for a long
period of time. The fatigue can be either mechanical or thermal or the
combination of both. Pure mechanical fatigue can occur due to high cutting
forces or the variation in the cutting forces exerted on the cutting tool.
Thermal fatigue may be due to the temperature fluctuations in the cutting
operation and it can lead to edge cracking.
King and Wheidon (1966) have reported that the damage due to
fatigue accumulates over a period of time before a tool fails as evidenced by
the numerous micro cracks seen on the wear land and in the crater area. The
cutting tool tip is subjected to compressive stresses due to the cutting forces
from orthogonal directions. The compressive stresses in the cermet cutting
tools inhibit the propagation of fatigue cracks. In this case, the fatigue damage
can accumulate in the ceramic to a great extent prior to the destruction of
ceramic by a catastrophic fracture. The machining of high strength materials
using ceramic cutting tools produces these conditions where fatigue may be
expected. Essentially there are two stress conditions to be considered in
fatigue; cyclic stress and static stresses. In both cases the stress levels are
below the macroscopic yield point and are applied for an extended period of
time.
The primary distinction between fatigue and short time stress
applications is that, in fatigue, sufficient time is provided for slow processes

38

to contribute to the material degradation. In machining, tool is held under high

state of stress for an extended time and at high temperature. Superimposed
upon these conditions are cyclic changes in stress due to machine tool
vibrations. Thus conditions are conducive for fatigue failure of tools. In
general, tougher materials show resistance to fatigue and the development of
tougher ceramics would increase the tool life. Chipping and catastrophic
failure are the main types of wear associated with the fatigue mechanism
(comb cracks).
2.5.6

Micro Spalling
Wear in cermet cutting tools sometimes occurs in a discontinuous

fashion with a sudden removal of whole grains or small aggregate of grains

from the cutting tool material, and this process is often referred to as micro
spalling. If this process occurs more or less continuously, accelerated wear
results. Because of their poor quality, some early ceramics were subjected to
micro spalling which made them quite undependable. King and Wheidon
(1966) have conducted tests with various tool materials having different grain
sizes. The character and texture of the spalled wear surface systematically
vary with grain size. A correlation is found between the width of the striations
and the grain size.
2.5.7

Chipping, Cracking and Fracturing

The cermet cutting tools are susceptible to chipping, cracking and

fracturing, especially when it is used in interrupted machining operations.

Nouari and Ginting (2006) tested the TiN, TiC, TiCN coated carbide during
dry machining of the titanium alloy Ti-6242S, it was observed that flaking,
cracking, chipping, and plastic deformation at the leading cutting edge. In
addition, a phenomenon of coating delamination is clearly distinguished.
Flaking is another type of fracture mode of cermet cutting tool material.

39

In flaking, a thin layer of tool material is stripped off the tool rake face or
flank face. Depending on the imposing position of the impact cutting force on
the tool face, the fracture occurs and the fracture fragment is often a shell like
shape.
Jawaid et al (2001) observed the cutting performance and
characteristic of PVD TiN coated and uncoated tungsten carbide cutting tools
on face milling of Inconel 718 superalloy and it was found that dominant
wear modes are galling and adherence of the workpiece material with
associated

coating

lamination

and

substrate

pitting

or

plucking.

Micro-chipping was observed on both coated uncoated cutting tool edge. Liu
et al (2002) reported that during high speed milling of cast iron and carbon
steel using Al2o3+TiC coated cemented carbide tool, the coating serves as an
easy crack initiation, increasing tendency towards fracture. The high elastic
modulus of the coating causes intensification of stress in brittle coating. Due
to low resistance of the failure of coating, small chipping on tool corner was
observed.
Cracking is also regarded as a kind of fracture for the cermet tools
which is often caused by fatigue effect after a long period of machining. The
cracks may be due to mechanical fatigue caused by mechanical impacts and
often run parallel to the cutting edge. Thermal cracks are caused by thermal
shocks and they often run perpendicular or in an angle to the cutting edge. In
general the number and size of mechanical / thermal cracks increase with the
increase of load amplitude and cutting duration. This results in an increased
rate of crack formation and propagation that may eventually lead to tool
fracture.
Slavko Dolinek et al (2001) stated that the wear of the cutting tool
is a result of mechanical (thermo-dynamic wear, due to thermally loaded

40

motion, i.e. abrasion, adhesion) and chemical (thermo-chemical wear, where

elevated temperatures enhance the chemical processes, i.e. diffusion,
oxidation) interactions between the tool and workpiece. Further it was
illustrated schematically the wear mechanisms of the coated carbide tools as
shown in Figure 2.4. When machining steel with coated carbide tools,
different tool wear mechanisms occurred such as

abrasion, adhesion,

oxidation and diffusion, which act simultaneously reported by Abdul Kareem

Jaleel and Kareem Abdulla Hadi (2012).

Figure 2.4

Illustration of the wear mechanisms on the coated carbide

tool

2.6

TYPES OF CUTTING TOOL WEAR

Tool wear in cutting tools can be classified into different types and

they are useful to evaluate the performance of cutting tools. The classification
of cutting tool wear is an important basis for assessing the machining
operation and to optimize productivity. Figure 2.5 shows the various types of
tool wear. By observing the cutting edge with magnification, the wear pattern
can be spotted and the wear in the cutting tool can be controlled to increase
the tool life. By analysing the wear pattern, the performance of the cermet
cutting tools and the machinability of the work material can be improved.

41

The tool wear classification is important in identifying the cause of tool wear
and wear mechanism.
The types of tool wear can also be classified as:
Flank Wear
Crater Wear
Notch Wear
Plastic Deformation
Thermal Cracking
Mechanical Fatigue Cracking
Chipping
Fracture
Built Up Edge (BUE).
Flank wear, as the name indicates, occurs on the flank face of the
tool and is generally attributed to rubbing of the tool along the machined
surface as defined by Kalpakjian and Schmid (2003). Flank wear occurs in the
cutting tool mainly due to abrasive wear mechanism. The leading edge, the
trailing edge and the nose radius are subjected to rubbing of the work piece
during and after chip formation. Flank wear is usually a normal type of wear.
The ideal wear pattern is to maintain safe progressive flank wear. The
excessive flank wear will lead to poor surface texture, inaccuracy and
increasing friction as the cutting edge changes shape.

42

The flank wear is caused by many mechanisms, and the dominant

ones are:
a)

aberration of the tool flank face and also rake face by the just
machined surface

b)

possible erosion of the flank face due to impingement of the

flying hard machined particles

c)

shearing of tool material on the clearance face by the principal

cutting force

d)

possible chemical reaction between the tool and the work

piece.

e)

microspalling of the grains near the cutting edge.

Crater wear on the chip face can be mainly due to diffusion wear
mechanism. Crater wear is the formation of a groove or a crater on the tool
face. Anderson et al (2006) stated that crater wear on cemented carbide
cutting tools is normally formed due to diffusion, where interchange of atoms
occurs between rake face and chip root at the seizure zone, and it is strongly
dependent of temperature, time and solubility of the involved elements. Crater
wear is caused primarily by the dissolution of tool material by diffusion or
solution wear since it occurs in the region of maximum temperature rise
reported by Subramanian and Strafford (1993).
Notch wear is caused due to rubbing of the machined surface at the
depth of cut line (dcl) and also due to cutting of the part of the cutting tool
over the dcl zone. Notch wear occurs mainly when machining materials with
poor thermal properties such as nickel alloys, titanium, cobalt and stainless
steel and it can develop either on the flank face or on the rake face of a cutting
tool.

43

Flank wear

Crater wear

Notch wear

Chipping

Fracture

BUE

Plastic deformation

Thermal cracks

Figure 2.5 Types of tool wear

44

According to Trent and Wright (2002), this type of wear generally

occurs in regions where sliding condition persists and involves abrasion and
attrition and suffers strong influence of the atmosphere, mainly due to the
amount of oxygen. Chandrasekaran and Johansson (1994) observed that notch
wear would depend on the extent of area available for adhesion of the chip,
adhesive affinity of tool and work material, the hot strength of the tool at the
adhesive junction and the frequency of interruption in the adhesive contact.
The repeated adhesive welding of the chip/work material to the tool and
breaking away from the tool after adhesion, initiates the loss of material from
the notch region of the tool material.
Plastic deformation takes place as a result of combined high
temperatures and high pressure on the cutting edge. High speeds and feeds
and hard work piece materials mean heat and compression. For the tool
material to stand up to this and not deform plastically, high hot hardness is
critical. The typical bulging of the edge will lead to even higher temperatures,
geometry deformation, and chip flow changes and so on until a critical stage
is reached. The size of the edge rounding and cutting geometry also play a
role in combining this wear type.
Thermal cracking is mainly fatigue wear due to thermal cycling.
The temperature changes in machining operation can lead to this type of wear.
The cracks form perpendicular to the cutting edge and pieces of tool material
between the cracks can be pulled out of the edge. Tool material particles can
then release themselves from the edge and lead to rapid breakdown and
failure of the edge. Varying chip thickness also affects temperatures
throughout the cut. The application of cutting fluid can often be detrimental to
metal cutting, since the fluid will amplify the temperature variations between
in-cut and out-of-cut. Jie Gu et al (1999) conducted face milling on 4140
preheat treated steel using uncoated C5 carbide insert, as well as TiN, TiAlN,

45

and ZrN coated inserts and concluded that at the highest cutting speeds, it was
observed that cracks normal and parallel to the cutting edge. Temperature is
very high at high cutting speeds, and as the tool moves periodically in and out
the workpiece, the temperature fluctuates. Thermal cycling combined with
thermal shock causes the thermal fatigue.
Mechanical fatigue cracking can take place when the cutting force
shocks are excessive. It is fracture due to continual variations in load where
the load in itself is not large enough to cause fracture. Start of cut and
variation in cutting force magnitude and direction may be too much for the
strength and toughness of the insert. These cracks are mainly parallel to the
cutting edge. Jie Gu et al (1999) conducted face milling on 4140 preheat
treated steel using uncoated C5 carbide insert, as well as TiN, TiAlN and ZrN
coated inserts and found that identified wear mechanisms of attrition,
abrasion, mechanical fatigue, and thermal fracture . Mechanical fatigue due to
the mechanical impact increased as the speed and feed rate increased, the
insert flank face shows micro-cracks parallel to the cutting edge. The cracks
are parallel to the cutting edge because the insert is subject to dynamic
stresses in the direction normal to the cutting edge.
Chipping is the term used to describe the breaking away of a small
piece from the cutting edge of the tool. Kalpakjian and Schmid (2003) have
stated that chipping of the cutting edge occurs when the edge line breaks
rather than wears. The chipped pieces from the cutting tool may be very small
(micro chipping or macro chipping) or they may be relatively large and it is
called gross chipping. Unlike wear, this is gradual process, chipping results in
a sudden loss of tool material and a corresponding change in shape and has a
detrimental effect on the surface finish, surface integrity and dimensional
accuracy of the work piece. Intermittent cutting is a frequent cause of this
wear type. Spalling and nicking are variations of this type of edge breakdown.

46

Fracture can be the catastrophic end of the cutting edge. The bulk
breakage is the most harmful and also it should be avoided as far as possible.
Edge fracture is often also the end of the line for the wear types. The change
of geometry, weakening of the edge and rise of temperatures and forces will
eventually lead to some major failure of the edge. Brittle fracture, causing
sudden failure, at heavy cutting data or from demanding work piece material
may be the result of various stress factors on a tool material unable to cope
with the operational demands. Fracture of cemented carbide tools is more
likely to occur during interrupted cutting, as in milling operations. Under
these conditions, the cutting edge can be damaged due to cyclic mechanical
impacts or fatigue. Tool characteristics such as hardness, fracture toughness,
Transverse Rupture Strength (TRS), grain size, tool geometries, cutting
parameters and conditions of entrance and exit into and from the workpiece
are all important variables for tool damage prevention has pointed out by
Anderson et al (2006).
The BUE formation is largely a temperature, and a cutting speed,
related phenomenon. Shaw (1984) has stated that BUE is a negative aspect for
the cutting edge, as the geometry changes and the particles from tool material
breaks away along with the welded work material. The adhesive affinity of
tool material to work piece material forms an important role as well. The low
cutting temperatures and high pressures lead to the pressure welding of work
piece material from the chip on the chip face of the tool. Fortunately the
temperature and cutting speed areas of built-up edge formation are relatively
well defined and can be avoided. Much of modern machining takes places at
speeds above the BUE area, and many modern grades are not so prone to the
formation if used correctly. Surface texture is often the first to suffer as the
BUE grows but is this type of wear is allowed to continue, there is a risk of
rapid edge breakdown and even fracture.

47

2.7

MACHINING

STUDIES

USING

CRYOGENICALLY

TREATED CUTTING TOOLS

To provide cost effectiveness in manufacturing and especially
machining operations, there is a continuous need to reduce tooling costs. The
most well-known methods used to reduce tooling costs are various
applications of more resistant tool materials, heat treatments, cutting fluids,
speed and feed rates, and the development of coated cutting tool reported by
Da Silva et al (2006). One of these methods is the application of cryogenic
treatment used in recent years. Firouzdor et al (2008) observed the effect
deep cryogenic treatment on M2 HSS drill on drilling of carbon steel under
high speed dry condition. The experimental results indicated 77 and 126%
improvement in cryogenic-treated and cryogenic- and temper-treated drill
lives, respectively. The improvement of tool life was attributed to the
resistance of cryogenically treated drills against diffusion wear mechanism,
which was due to the formation of fine and homogeneous carbide particles
during cryogenic treatment.
Cohen et al (1998) carried out drilling operation on 1018
low-carbon steel, 340 alloy steel, A-2 tool steel and 304-S stainless steel using
cryogenically treated M-1 HSS drills and untreated M-1 HSS drills and
concluded that significant increase in tool life and decreases in both drilling
thrust force and torque. Manu Dogra et al (2011) observed that the surface
roughness produced by cryogenically treated/ untreated coated-carbide inserts
on machining AISI H11 steel was comparable with that produced by CBN
inserts. Sreerama Reddy et al (2009) observed the improvement in life of
normal and deep cryogenically treated P30 coated tungsten carbide inserts on
machining C45 steel and concluded that subjecting tool to cryogenic
treatment results in better machinability due to increase in thermal
conductivity of the tungsten carbide, resulting in decrease in tool tip

48

temperature during turning operation, which is a definite advantage. The

cryogenic treatment also results in better machinability due to increase in hot
hardness of the tungsten carbide. This also indicates that cryogenic treated
tool tips are subjected to lesser tool wear and increase in the tool life, lesser
cutting force and gives better surface finish compared to untreated tool. In
another study,
Yong Ayl et al (2007) analysed the performance of cryogenically
treated and untreated tungsten carbide tool inserts during the high-speed
milling of medium carbon steel and found cryogenically treated tools exhibit
better tool wear resistance than untreated ones. Furthermore, Yong Ayl et al
(2006) performed orthogonal turning on medium carbon steel (ASSAB 760)
using cryogenically treated and untreated Tungsten Carbide tool inserts and it
was shown that cryogenic treatment on carbide insert improves the resistance
to chipping and flank wear resistance. Bonilla et al (2007) compared the
performance of untreated and cryogenically treated TiCN-coated carbide
inserts on machining gray cast iron clutch drum and concluded that
cryogenically treated TiCN-coated carbide inserts enhancing the tool life due
to less average residual weight of the inserts when compared with untreated.
Shivdev Singh et al (2012) investigated the cryogenically treated,
coated and uncoated tungsten carbide cutting tool inserts on turning of AISI
1040 steel and reported that cryogenically treated TiN coated tools exhibited
lower tool wear and cutting forces followed by cryogenically treated AlCrN
coated and cryogenically treated uncoated tools. Stewart (2004) applied
cryogenic treatment to C2 tungsten carbide (WC6% Co) inserts and
compared with untreated carbide inserts during turning of Medium Density
Fibre Board (MDF) and found that cryogenic treatment appeared to have an
effect upon the cobalt binder by changing phase or crystal structure so that
more cobalt binder was retained during turning which results cutting force

49

and tool wear was reduced. Also stated that cobalt is next to iron in the
periodic table as part of VIII B group, has the same valences as iron and
forms similar phases in crystalline structures. Tungsten being the harder and
more stable phase, the changes was expected in cobalt binder only reported by
Steward (2008). Simranpreet Singh Gill et al (2009) conducted machining
studies on C60 steel and reported that the cryogenically treated tungsten
carbide inserts performed better in interrupted machining mode as compared
with continuous machining mode in both dry and wet cutting conditions.
Gisip et al (2009) confirmed the cobalt densification which held the
carbide particles more firmly resulting increased wear resistance in the inserts
when machining medium density fiberboard using Tungsten Carbide inserts.
The review of the literature reveals the potential of use of cryogenic treatment
in improving the performance of WCCo insert material from cutting tool
point of view. But the available results in the literature pertaining to wear
behaviour of WCCo insert material subjected to cryogenic treatment are not
coherent, and the underlying postulated mechanisms for achieving improved
tool life is not well Crystallized reported by Simranpreet Singh Gill et al
(2010).
Biranchi Narayan Sahoo (2011) identified notable changes include
increase in concentration of Co and C on the top surface of cryo treated
tungsten carbide inserts on machining stainless steel. This shows that
redistribution and densification of Co took place on the top surface of cryo
treated inserts. Increase in C percentage may be attributed to the formation of
phase carbides which were also revealed from SEM. The increase in binder
phase might be helpful in enhancing the bonding strength of WC particles
XRD profile of the cryo treated inserts qualitatively indicated more amount of
Co on the top surface. This again indicates the phase reorientation or

50

densification of Co binder phase, an observation which was also supported by

EDS analysis.
Vadivel and Rudramoorthy (2009) reported on machining operation
using cryogenically treated and untreated coated carbide inserts on nodular
cast iron. The cryogenically treated coated carbide inserts exhibit better
performance than that of the untreated coated carbide inserts based on the
surface roughness of the work specimen, power consumption, and flank wear.
Sreerama Reddy et al (2009a) conducted turning studies on AISI 1040
workpieces using both untreated and deep cryogenic treated P-40 tungsten
carbide cutting tool inserts and found that the flank wear and cutting force of
deep cryogenic treated carbide tools lower than that of untreated carbide tools.
Further the surface finish produced on machined AISI 1040 steel workpieces
was superior with the deep cryogenic treated carbide tools as compared to the
untreated carbide tools.
Ramji et al (2010) examined the effect of cryogenic treatment of
the coated carbide inserts on their performance in turning gray cast iron work
pieces. Cryogenically treated inserts proved superior to the non-treated in all
the test conditions in terms of lesser flank wear of the inserts and reduced
surface roughness of the specimens. Further studied the performance of
cryogenically treated HSS drills on drilling gray cast iron, concluded that the
treated drills were found superior to the non-treated in all the test conditions
in terms of lesser thrust force, torque and also superior surface roughness of
the specimens. Kadam and Pathak (2011) compared the performance of
TiAlN coated cemented carbide and HSS tool on drilling of T105CR1 EN31
steel under dry condition and found that machining time and torque in TiAlN
less as compared to HSS where as chip load remains same.
Shirbhate et al (2012) studied the impact cryogenic treatment on
AISI M2 grade of HSS tools and performed drilling operation on MS plate. It

51

is observed that cryotreated drills perform better as that of non cryotreated

drills in terms of cutting torque and surface finish of work piece. Adem iek
et al (2012) investigated the effects of deep cryogenic treatment on M35 HSS
twist drills during drilling of AISI 316 stainless steel. The experimental
results showed that the lowest thrust forces were measured with the
cryogenically treated and tempered drills.
Rupinder Singh and Kamaljit Singh (2010) conducted study on
crank shaft machining using deep cryogenic treated HSS and carbide tools, it
highlights 20% - 22% increase in tool life. Further cost per component is
decreased up to 14.75%. Cryogenic treatment on HSS improves mechanical
properties like wear resistance, toughness and resistance to fatigue cracking.
This is due to the, transformation of retained austenite into stable martensite.
The phase transformation leads to the increase in density of dislocations and
vacancies which in turns enhance the diffusion coefficient of carbon. This
microstructure evolution induces the precipitation of very tiny carbides during
the cryogenic treatment.
For WC tools, cryogenic treatment effects on cobalt binder which
in turns enhance tool life. The precipitations of

phase at sub zero

temperature might have improved the flank wear. The different cryogenic
cycle might have affected the amounts and distributions of these carbides and
appeared to have altered some of the properties of carbide tools. Overall,
cryoprocessing has significant favorable influence on the performance of
cutting tool steels and carbides. Hence, cryoprocessing is a good alternative
for having productivity enhancement.
2.8

MACHINING STUDIES USING CERMET CUTTING TOOLS

The technologies of cermet cutting tool materials have made great

strides in recent years with substantial improvements in their strength,

52

toughness and wear resistance. Cermet cutting tools are used to machine a
variety of work materials and they are used to machine these materials at
relatively higher speed than carbide tools. The cermet cutting tools are used
for machining various materials like cast iron, steel, stainless steel in their
hardened conditions. In this section, machining studies conducted using
cermet cutting tool materials on various types of work materials and the
performance of the cutting tools are discussed from the available literature.
Zeng Min Shi et al (2007) tested the Ti(C, N)-based cermet cutting
tools on dry machining of normalized medium carbon steel (AISI1045) under
various cutting conditions. The wear mechanism was predominantly
controlled by the flank wear under all cutting condition. It was found that the
removal of the ceramic grain and abrasive wear were the main source of tools
failure. In addition, adhesion and oxidation were also observed. Bellosi et al
(2003) two Ti(C, N)WC-based cutting tools obtained by hot pressing were
tested in milling and turning operations on C45 carbon steel and compared to
the best commercial inserts at different cutting conditions, these tools have
performed better than commercial competitors.
Lima et al (2005) evaluated machinability of hardened AISI 4340
(42 and 48 HRC) high strength low alloy steel in the former, a coated carbide
insert was used as cutting tool, whereas in the latter a polycrystalline cubic
boron nitride insert was employed and AISI D2(58 HRC) cold work tool steel
were conducted using a mixed alumina-cutting tool. The results indicated that
when turning AISI 4340 steel using low feed rates and depths of cut, the
forces were higher when machining the softer steel and that surface roughness
of the machined part was improved as cutting speed was elevated and
deteriorated with feed rate. Abrasion was the principal wear mechanism
acting when turning the 42 HRC steel, whereas diffusion was present when
machining the 50 HRC steel.

53

Ibrahim Ciftci (2006) has done experimental work in dry turning of

austenitic stainless steels (AISI 304 and AISI 316) using CVD multilayer
coated cemented carbide tools (TiC/TiCN/TiN and TiCN/TiC/Al2O3). The
results showed that cutting speed significantly affected the machined surface
roughness values. With increasing cutting speed, the surface roughness values
decreased until a minimum value is reached beyond which they increased.
AISI 316 resulted in higher forces at all cutting speeds employed than
AISI 304. The 2.0% Mo present in AISI 316 was considered to be the cause
of the higher forces. TiC/TiCN/TiN coated cutting tools gave lower cutting
forces than TiCN/TiC/Al 2O3 coated tools though the difference was not
significant. This was attributed to a lower friction coefficient of the TiN top
coating layer. Anon (1995) has enumerated the advantages of hard turning as
the increase in productivity, processing complex work pieces in one step and
surface roughness comparable to grinding quality. Cubic boron nitride and
titanium carbide mixed aluminium oxide cutting inserts are the two most
common insert materials for hard turning. AISI 4340 steel is heat treatable
and it is a low alloy steel containing nickel, chromium and molybdenum. It is
known for its toughness and capability of developing high strength in the heat
treated condition while retaining good fatigue strength.
Leonardo et al (2008) investigated the influence of cutting speed on
cutting forces and surface roughness when dry precision turning AISI 1045
steel using uncoated and coated cemented carbide tools, the results indicate
that cutting force was reduced as cutting speed increased and surface finish
produced was tending to decrease as the speed was increased. Khan and
Hajjaj (2006) illustrated capabilities of cermets tools for high speed
machining of austenitic steel. They found that when cermet inserts were used
for finishing cuts, very fine surface were produced. However, when used for
roughing cuts, they tended to fracture unpredictably rather than having
gradual flank wear. It was also reported that when the cutting speed is

54

comparatively low, the size and depth of the crack on the flank is very small.
Crack grows rapidly at higher cutting speeds. The cutting force on the tool
edge increases as the cutting speed is increased. Though cermet tools have
high hot hardness and wear resistance, they have low fracture toughness. As a
result tool wear intensifies at a high cutting speed. According to experiments,
it is noted that the life of insert in conventional machining is 9.7 times longer
than high speed turning.
According to Khan and Hajjaj (2006), under heavier cutting
conditions the rate of heat generation at the cutting zone is high, but thermal
conductivity of cermets tools is very low. As a result the temperature at the
cutting edge rises to a high level which ultimately causes tool failure. He was
also observed in his research that the other reason of tool failure is low
fracture toughness of cermet tools. Khan et al (2002) that the life of cermet
tools is very long while machining with low cutting parameters. At low
cutting parameters a gradual flank wear is observed. But as the cutting speed
is increased up to a certain limit, a brittle fracture occurs at the cutting edge
rather than a gradual flank wear and the depth of the cracks on the cutting
edge increases rapidly resulting in a catastrophic failure of the tool. Yanming
Quan and Zehua Zhou (2000) have conducted machining studies on SiC
particles reinforced aluminium using ceramic tools and sintered carbide tools.
The SiC particles in the composites micro-cut these tools due to their
hardness. However, when the SiC particles in the composite are fine enough,
the cutting tools are able to machine without much difficulty. Ceramic cutting
tools with higher hardness can be used for machining composites reinforced
with coarse SiC particles, whereas sintered carbide tools can be used to
machine the composites reinforced with fine SiC particles.
Tie Fu et al (2008) conducted machining studies using the cermet
insert NT7 and WC based carbide insert YT14 on high strength steel

55

38CrNi3MoVA (hardened and tempered, HRC36~40) results of these tests

demonstrate that NT7 cutting tools have better performance on some
characteristics, such as wear resistance, tool life and cutting force. And its
ability of impact resistance is similar to YT14. Ghani et al (2004) investigated the
wear mechanism of TiN-coated carbide and uncoated cermets tools on milling
of hardened AISI H13 tool steel at various combinations of cutting speed,
feed rate, and depth of cut. It was observed that the time taken for the cutting
edge of TiN-coated carbide tools to initiate cracking and fracturing is longer
than that of uncoated cermets tools, especially at the combinations of high
cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut and at the combinations of low
cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut, the uncoated cermets tools show
more uniform and gradual wear on the flank face than that of the TiN-coated
carbide tools.
Rech (2006) found out that various coatings deposited on a carbide
insert has shown the sliding properties of the TiN and (Ti, Al)N+MoS2
coatings, compared to uncoated tools in the context of high-speed dry turning
of steels. TiN and (Ti, Al)N+MoS2 coatings reduce the toolchip contact
area, the thickness of the secondary shear zone and the temperature at this
interface, which reduce the heat flux transmitted to the cutting tool substrate.
Che Haron et al (2006) investigated the tool life and wear behaviour at
various machining parameters. Coated carbide (KC 9125) and uncoated
carbide (K 313) were used in turning tool steel AISI D2 bar with hardness of
25 HRC and have found that the wear progression for both type of carbide
tools experienced three stages of wear rate, namely; initial, gradual and abrupt
stages of wear mechanism. Slow wear rate and uniform flank wear were
observed at low feed rate of 0.05 mm/rev. Generally, coated tool performed
better as compared to uncoated tool. A good surface finish and longer tool life
were achieved using coated tool.

56

A lot of research work has been carried out on machining a variety

of steel materials using cermet cutting tools, and the machining performance
of these tools have been evaluated. Machining of work materials in their
hardened conditions needs further study, because, the wear of cutting tools
drastically varies while machining work materials in their hardened
conditions. The performance of cermet cutting tools can be evaluated by
conducting machining studies on various materials and the sparseness of
information available on their machining performance will lead to under
utilization of these cutting tools. Further research on cermet cutting tools on
their machining performance on hard work materials will lead to better
utilization of these cermet cutting tools.
2.9

MODELLING OF CUTTING TOOLS LIFE

Tool life can be defined as the total cutting time required to reach a

specified tool life criterion, which is a predetermined value of deterioration of

a specific tool. Oberg et al (2004), Richetti et al(2004) studies have shown
that the cutting speed is the most dominate factor influencing tool life,
followed by feed and depth of cut, in that order. The analysis of engineering
systems is generally based on numerical solution methods. For this purpose,
regression analysis method has been used. However, it is necessary that a
great number of experimental data are used in the regression analysis method
for obtaining suitable mathematical form. Therefore, Artificial Neural
Networks (ANNs) having properties as learning capability and adaptation,
working property with a few data and high speed working have been used.
The results indicate that ANNs were giving better result with respect to
regression analysis method. In addition, it is shown that ANNs can be used as
an effective and an alternative method for the experimental studies whose the
mathematical model cannot be formed.

57

Tool life is an important parameter in evaluating the performance

of the cutting tools. Tool wear affects dimensions and surface quality of the
workpiece and it is also one of the important criteria in determining tool life.
Flank wear of cutting tools is often selected as the tool life criterion as it
determines the diametric accuracy of machining, its stability and reliability.
Tool-life investigations of the cutting tools in machining have been among the
most significant research topics during the last several decades. Jawahir
(2004) developed various types of tool-life models through analytical
modelling and experimental observations. Jain et al (1999) analyzed the
abrasive flow machining process using multiple regression analysis and
neural network and also analyzed the influence of machining parameters on
material removal rate and surface finish.
Oraby and Hayhurst (2004) developed tool wear and tool life
models using nonlinear regression analysis techniques in terms of the
variation of a ratio of force components acting at the tool tip. Dabade et al
(2003) analyzed the various parameters affecting surface roughness using
multiple regression analysis. Paulo Davim (2003) studied the influence of
cutting parameters on tool wear and surface finish while drilling metal matrix
composites using multiple regression analysis. Choudhury et al (2003)
predicted the response variables for flank wear, surface finish and cutting
zone temperature using Design of Experiments and the neural network
technique. Shibasaka et al (1993) reported the back propagation neural
network method as a good method in building tool life models using limited
data set. Feng et al (2002) proved that for a reasonable large data set,
regression analysis generates results comparable to that of artificial neural
network.

58

Chattopadhyay et al (1996) used the forward back propagation

artificial neural network for evaluation of tool wear of carbide inserts with
speed, feed and depth of cut as input parameters. Palanisamy et al (2008)
found that the ANN model is capable of better predictions of tool flank wear
within the range that they had been trained. Kuo (2000) proved that
integration of neural network and fuzzy logic was able to accurately predict
the amount of tool wear and the accuracy was increased when compared to
the conventional approaches. A particle swarm optimization technique was
used instead of back propagation algorithm (ANN), the result showed PSO is
a promising method to train ANN and accurate results were achieved in the
estimation of tool life as reported by Natarajan et al (2007). Adem iek et al
(2012) investigated the thrust force using ANN and multiple regression
methods on drilling of AISI 316 stainless steel using cryogenically treated on
M35 HSS twist drills. It was found that both the methods are suitable for the
prediction of the thrust forces within acceptable error limits and usage of
ANNs is highly recommended for the prediction of the thrust force instead of
complex and time-consuming experimental studies.
2.10

INFERENCE FROM LITERATURE SURVAY

From literatures, cryogenic treatment has been an effective method

in improving the tool life of different cutting tools (in particular HSS and
cemented carbide) used in machining processes. There are many studies have
proven significant increases in tool life after deep cryogenic treatment (from
125C to 196C). The literatures reveal that cryogenic treatment improves
wear resistance, increases hardness, fatigue resistance and reduces residual
stresses. From the literature review, coating acts as a heat barrier and provides
lubrication. It improves wear resistance, reduces cutting forces, lowers the
friction coefficient and thereby the contact temperature.

59

Most of the research on cryogenic treatment has been concentrated

on steel. From the above literature review, it was found that a lot of
experiment work has been carried out on various types of cryogenically
treated carbide cutting tools, where as very little work has been carried out in
the effect of cryogenic treatment on cermet and coated tools cutting tools.
Since, there are no reports of evaluation on post and pre-cryogenic treated of
Ti-Al-N coated tools. Hence, it was decided to investigate the performance of
the plain, cryogenically treated and Ti-Al-N coated cermet cutting tools and
cermet tools with cryogenic treatment before and after Ti-Al-N coating by
evaluating the effect of various parameters on tool wear, surface roughness,
cutting forces and chip formation study on machining AISI 4340 steel
(45HRC) and AISI D2 steel (50HRC).