COMPARATIVE STUDY OF VARIOUS METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS OF

STRESS FREE TEMPERATURE IN CWR TRACK

Introduction
As on March 05, on IR, route kilometrage is nearly 63,465 kms out of which
83% is laid on PSC sleepers and 77% of track is laid as Long Welded Rails on Broad
Gauge (main line).
Long welded rails are laid and fastened to the sleepers at rail temperature which
is called destressing Temperature or Td. This temperature is kept 5 to 10 Celsius
higher than the mean rail temperature (Which is the average of minimum and maximum
rail temperature).
If LWR could be complely constrained (ideal situation), then there would be no
change in its destressing temperature (initial laying tempature). However, because the
rail can not be fully constrained in all directions, elongation or contraction can occur
whenever track is subjected to train and environmentally induced loads, causing
temperature changes above or below Td. The following rail /track kinematics influence
LWR stress-free tempeature.

Rail Creep can occur through fasteners during train braking and
accelerating actions as well as due to tempature gradients along the rail. Loss
of toe load of fitting can also cause movement of rail.
Curve Shifting can occur under repeated vehicles lateral loads and high
curving forces.
Track Vertical Settlement can occur under repeated vertical wheel loads
and high impact loads.

Apart from the above, track maintenance operations (such as lining, lifting,
tamping, repairing defective / broken rails, etc.) which alter the longitudinal force state
in the rails also influence the stress free tempature.
Hence the effective rail temperature at which the rail would be stress free, can be
different from the Td at any point of time and in fact, can also vary along the length of
LWR at same time.
The importance of correct knowledge of the stress-free tempature (SFT) of rails
in LWR tracks is demonstrated by the fact that every 10oC variation in tempature causes
LWR force variation of 16 t in 52 kg and 19 t in 60 kg track respectively. The
maximum and minimum tempature in a day varies up to 15oC and 25oC during summer
& winter respectively. Thus the locked up localized stress towards higher / lower side
can result in fractures / buckling of track when compounded with the thermal forces.
This underlines the need for correct assessment of stess-free tempature (SFT) of rail.
The safety of Long Welded Rails (LWR) track is vitally affected by locked up
thermal stresses, which play an important role in the phenomenon of buckling or
fractures and thus have important bearing on safety. At present, the IR do not have any
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equipment to objectively assess these stresses and therefore de-stressing operations are
carried out based upon the observation of movements at Switch Expansion Joint (SEJ).
Some countries have developed devices to measure stress, in long-welded rails
`in-situ' which makes it possible to monitor and take timely action to avoid rail
fractures. It has been decided to obtain expertise to measure rail stress `in-situ', in the
interest of enhanced safety. This will help in introducing the concept of "Need Based
Destressing" of Long Welded Rails ( LWR) instead of calendar based system. This will
not only save huge costs but also postpone the need to demand longer traffic block at
the specific time of the day.
Methods of measurement of stress-free tempature
Measuring the longitudinal stresses in rail will give an estimation of the
remaining safety margin in a given track section. There are various methods of
measurement of stress in the track.
(1) Conventional methods These methods only allow measurement of the
difference in stress between two states. Such methods can only be used to determine the
absolute stress level if an additional xeroing measurement is carried out. This involves
cutting out a section of rail at the point to be measured and neutralizing the stresses in it.
On IR, two methods have been developed i.e.
(a) Cut & Weld method developed by RDSO

An initial zero force state is needed.

A group of LWRs with similar maintenance conditions can be choosen
to know their actual SFT.
Destress these LWRs & record tdo.
Make a cut in Central portion at temp 200 below tdo.
Measure gap (g) at Cut after movement stabilizes and note rail temp
tobs.
2
2 (t do t obs )
Compute Rmob = AE
g
The gap at fracture gobs is:

gobs = AE2

(t dcal t obs ) 2
Rmob

tdcal = tobs +

g obs xRmob
AE

(b) Cut & Weld Method (Developed by IRICEN)

Initial zero force state not needed.

Erect two marker pillars A& B distance L apart (L > Breathing
Length) and transfer these marks A & B on to the rail foot.
Make a saw cut at Mark A at a temperature 20oC below original td.
2

Remove fastenings in length L.

Measure gaps ga and gb with respect to masrker pillasrs A & B after
movement stabilizes. The rail temperature is also recorded tobs.
ga gb
tdcal = tobs +
L

Limitations of destructive methods:

Requires line blocks & time consuming.

Stresses to be neutralized at the cut location.
Cutting & Re-welding costs

The railways are therefore interested in obtaining a non-destructive test method

that would allow them to determine the longitudinal stress in a rail without cutting it.
The method of measuring the longitudinal force should have the following
characteristics.

Ability to measure the Longitudinal force in the rail.

Ability to measure the effective rail temp.
Ability to combine above two to give SFT.
To be able to compare the computed SFT with the original installed value.
To be able to operate continuously from train borne equipment.
The equipment should be sufficiently robust and weatherproofed to
withstand the normal track and vehicle environment
The equipment must be inherently stable and not drift over long periods.
Data reduction should be performed automatically.
The system should be suitable for use with all types of rail and rail steel.
The system should be insensitive to temperature changes.
The recording car must not influence the measuring result.
The measuring system must be compatible with rails carrying return currents
and track circuit currents.

And the device to be developed shall meet the following requirements:

It should be portable.
It should be able to give absolute and accurate values.
The measurement should be independent of residual stresses in the rail.

Therefore, realizing the need to determine the general stress level in the LWR
and the difference in the stresses in the various portions of the same LWR, various
Railway Systems in the world made efforts to develop some methods of finding out the
stress level by way of Non-Destructive Instrumentation Device. The developmental
history of these measures is as follows:
(i)

During early 80s in Japan, KANEKO INSTRUMENTS developed the

system where two markings at a distance of one meter apart were made
on the web of the rail at the time of laying the rail / distressing i.e. when
the rail is stress free. Subsequently, exact distance between these two
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points was measured very very accurately along with the prevailing rail
temperature. The strain thus measured could be converted into stress
level. Similar equipments were subsequently developed and adopted by
some of the European railway systems. This system has limitation that
initial markings had to be done when the rail is stress-free and therefore
it was not possible to determine the stress in the rail without having
access to the zero stress level.
(ii)

Monitor Rail Displacement method

Every 200m mark is made on the rail and its position W.r.t ground is
recorded.
The measurements are periodically repeated.
If the distance between two adjacent marks changes, it means the
stress in the rail changes.
Track Segments whose distance between marks are shorter /longer
than before are compression/tension.
The process is time consuming and not accurate.

(iii)

Various laboratories in the United States tried to develop the system

using the concept of strain gauging the rail. However, the system could
not be developed to facilitate commercial applications.

(iv)

In Europe itself during early 90s, heavy equipment was developed where
a on track rail car was used to pick up the rail, which has been released
by removing the clips, and subject it to bending deflection using ram in
the centre. The reactions at the support and load applied at the centre
were measured along with the relative deflection, which could be
analyzed to work out the stress level in the rail accurately. The
equipment was very costly and required blocking of the track as the
equipment was mounted on the rail car and had to be worked like a track
machine.

(v)

A simpler system was developed in UK where track was pulled up after

releasing the clips up to 15 meters either side and stress in the rail level
worked out using the relationship between the pulling up force and
tension in the rail. As in this method, reaction at the support cannot be
measured, therefore, the method is approximate when compared to the
method described in para (iv) above. However, in view of the simplicity
and the reasonable accuracy of this method, the same is being
extensively used by the various contractors of the European railroad
system.

(vi)

On similar line as in (v) above, PCE/C.Rly developed a procedure to

work out the SFT of LWR.
This non-destructive method of
determination of SFT involves pulling up of 30m unclipped rail length at
centre by application of vertically upward force and measuring the
corresponding deflection at prevalent rail temperature. This method
offers fast and low cost measurement, making SFT measurement more
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practical and financially viable. In this system, measurements can be

carried out quickly at much less cost compared to the conventional cut
and weld method. Prevailing temperature of rail must be less than the
SFT so that the rail is in tension. Typical testing time will be about 30
minutes for an experienced crew. This method is approved by Railway
Board to take up testing with equipment on trial basis.
The detailed procedure for working out SFT with this method is as
follows:

Procedure of testing
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)

(viii)

(ix)

(x)
(xi)

Insert 65 mm wedges at 2 locations at distance of 5 m at both

ends of 30 m unclipped rail.
The head of rail at centre is clamped with lifting hook of stress
measuring equipment.
Rail temperature is noted throughout the experiment.
Initial sag or hog is measured at centre before applying upward
vertical force.
The tip of deflection measuring dial gauge is adjusted on top of
the rail and then force is applied progressively in controlled
manner.
The reading of vertical load is noted at every 10mm interval of
upward deflection till a maximum reflection of 100mm is
achieved at the cente over and above the sag or hog point.
Now the vertical load is released progressively in controlled
manner and readings are again noted again at every 10mm
interval of down ward deflection and experiment is closed after
recording of load at 0 deflection.
Stress-free temperature for the given rail section is computed
with these parameters of central deflection (yc = wedge hight
hog /sag + amount of lift given to rail by equipment i.e. 100 mm
normally or actual lift at final load) , vertical load (P) and
prevailing rail temperature (ti).
For computation of SFT Monograms have been developed
relating central deflection and vertical loads for different types of
rail sections. From these monograms placed at Annexure I & II
the temperature difference (t) is read out for corresponding
values of P and yc.
For correction of Auxiliary Tension caused due to stretching of
rail during the experiment, the value of temperature correction is
read out from the appropriate curves placed at Annexure III & IV.
SFT = ti + Temperature Difference (t) Temperature
Correction.

Limitation of this method

(i)

(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

This procedure is valid for values of Temperature Difference

more than Temperature Correction so that rail is definitely
under tension and prevailing rail temperature is certainly below
SFT.
LWR has to be divided into segments of 250 m length on both
LH and RH and the location at which the experiment is to be
done shall be locat ed at minimum 250m away from SEJ.
The experiment is to be carried out when prevailing temperature
is lower by approximately 15oC than destressing temperature.
The experiment shall not be conducted on or near the LC or
Girder bridge.
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Further developments in this field have taken place using

electromagnetic probe and ultrasonic waves as detailed below:
(1) Magneto Elastic Methods The magnetization of ferro-magnetic materials causes high-frequency
electromagnetic and acoustic phenomena, known as Barkhausen noise. The
level of such noise is dependent on the stress condition. The measured signal
contains the pulses generated in the rail and has a noise-like spectrum. The
amplitude of this so called Magnetic Barkhausen Noise (MBN) depends
significantly on the longitudinal stress in the rail. Tension increases the
amplitude of the MBN, whilst compression leads to decreases. The higher the
longitudinal stress, the higher the signal amplitude.
The measurement of stress using the Basrkhausen noise method utilizes the
relationship between the level of Barkhausen noise and the stress in the material
under investigation. The magnetic Barkhausen noise appears on the surface of
the material under study and the relationship between the noise and the stress in
the elastic range is clear. The measurement of stresses in the material is affected
by residual stresses. There are two methods developed for measuring stress.

Magneto-elastic stress measurement using the Railscan This method is

based on the fact that there is a relationship between the masgnetic
characteristics of the rail and its stress state. However, this relationship is
affected by the quality of material used and variations in the residual
stresses set up during production have a major effect on the stresses. This
method only assumes that the material characteristics remain constant
within one single piece of rail and eliminates manufacturing stresses. For
this purpose caliberation measurements need to be taken with the type of
rail to be studies. This is suitable for studying the distribution of the SFT
9which is dependent on position and time) in LWR track. This method
makes it possible to cover several hundred meters of rail per hour taking a
measurement every couple of meters.

Magneto-elastic stress measurement using the Railtest This is suitable for

studying the stresses in the cross sections of the rail and hence also for
verifying the permanent stress resulting rom manufacture.
Based on this concept, several papers have been published and patents
developed by various engineers worldover, a few of which are detailed
below:
(A) F Mau of TMG International, Australia during 6th International
Heavy Haul conference on 10th April 1997, presented a paper (placed at
Annexure-I) wherein a detailed procedure to develop a portable
equipment to determine longitudinal thermal stresses in rail independent of
residual stresses was deliberated in detail. The equipment shall be based on
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using Barkhausen Noise Technique. The BNA research identified

instrumentation and procedures which were able to :
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Test rail continuously for residual stresses during manufacture, in

store, or in track, to find areas of unacceptably concentrated high
stress.
Test for the presence of high vertical tensile surface residual
stresses adjacent to welds, allowing identifications of locations
needing attention, such as by shot peening.
Measure neutral temperature in track to enable intervention
maintenance procedures to be employed to avoid track stability
and rail overstress problems affecting safe operation of trains.

An equipment popularly known as Rail Scan developed by AST

(American Stress Technologies) Pitsburgh is a useful device.
(B) Equipment (patented) developed by Gyorgy Posgay and his associates
during 1999 is also based on Magnetic Barkhausen Noise. Details are placed
at Annexure-II.
(C) Equipment developed by David John Buttle, William Dalzell, Peter
John Thayer (Fresh Patents ) is also based on Magnetic Barkhausen
Noise.Details are placed at Annexure-III.
(D) MAPS stress Measurements :- The equipment developed by the Peter
Thayer & his associates is also based on magnetic properties of rail steel and
effect of stress,popularly known as MAPS Technology. Details are placed at
Annexure-IV and briefly described as follows:
MAPS is a non-destructive technology relaying on the effect of stress on the
masgnetic properties of steel for the measurement of absolute biaxial stress
i.e. applied plus residual stress). MAPS has been developed recently in the
rail industry to assist in the understanding and management of rolling contact
fatigue in rails and wheels, and has already shown how RCF cracking can be
predicted in situ. Another application is the measurement and control of
residual stresses in rails during their manufac ture to minimise the
undesirable tensile residual stresses in the head and foot of rails. These
stresses arise from the final rail st raightening process. This method can be
further extended for measurement of thermally induced stress in rail for the
management of rail buckling and breaking during extremes of environmental
temperature. The basic consept is that the magnetic properties of
ferromagnetic materials are sensitive to internal stresses.
A limitation of all stress measurement technologies is the need to separate
thermally induced stress from residual stress. Thus for effective SFT
measurement the residual stress shall be determined independently by a nondestructive method. This has prooved to be an obstacle for all absolute stress
measurement methods so far. This development of MAPS technology has
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overcome this problem by relating vertical and longitudinal stresses in the

web of the rail. To derive the SFT of a length of rail track, all that is
necessary is to measure the total longitudinal stress and total vertical stress.
The total vertical stress is the same as the vertical residual stress since there
is no constraint. With knowledge of the relationship between vertical and
longitudinal residual stress, the thermally induced stress can be deduced by a
simple subtraction.
The measured thermally induced stress can be converted to a temperature
difference by using the standard rail industry conversion of 2.4MPa per
0oC. Thus by dividing the thermally induced stress by the conversion factor
and measuring the actual rail temperature, it is possible to derive a nondestructive measurement of SFT.

Benefits of a MAPS SFT measurement

An objective for any practical SFT measurement is not only to be nondestructive, but also to be non-intrusive so thast traffic interruptions are
minimal. As MAPS measurements do not require rails to be unclipped or cut,
and individual measurements can be made directly on the web of the rail, the
time required for taking the measurement is approximately 5 minutes. Thus this
method is trully non-destructive method for SFT measurements with wider
coverage of the network without adversely affecting railway traffic.
Procedure

Measure total longitudinal stress and total vertical stress.

Total vertical stress is same as the vertical residual stress since there is
no constraint.
9

With the knowledge of the vertical and longitudinal residual stress, the
thermally induced stress is deduced by simple subtraction.
The measured thermally induced stress can be converted to a temp
difference by using the std rail industry conversion of 2.4 MPa per oC.
So, by dividing the thermally induced stress by the conversion factor and
measuring the actual rail temp, temp it is possible to derive SFT

2.Ultrasonic Methods:(A) A Technical Report prepared by DM Egle & DE Bray of Oklahoma

during 1974-75. In this Report, a procedure is described for developing a
Portable Stress Measurement System. The basis of measurement is the
acousto-elastic effect or the stress induced changes in the speed of
ultrasonic waves. A general arrangement of the proposed system for
measuring stress changes is shown in the Figure below:

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The speeds of various wave modes in a rail are dependent on initial

material properties, temperature as well as applied stress. Because the
variations in wave speed with initial properties and temperature are not
negligible, a reference wave speed must be established for each individual
rail if the acoustoelastic effect is to be feasible for measuring absolute
stresses.
Results of the acoustoelastic studies showed that a bulk longitudinal wave
propagating parallel to the applied force exhibited the greatest
acoustoelastic effect. Of the guided wave modes, the speed of those
consisting predominately of longitudinal waves propagating nearly
parallel to the applied load showed the greatest sensitivity to longitudinal
stress. The fact that different guided wave modes have different
sensitivities to applied stress suggests that a measuring system
incorporating two wave types and measuring the relative difference in
velocity in a particular rail may allow making absolute stress
measurements. A more restricted although potentially useful approach
might be to take measurement data with a portable instrument at a
specific location in a particular rail while in an unstressed condition. Data
obtained after the rail was in operation could then be used to determine
the relative stress change. As a result of this work, it is concluded that a
portable rail stress measurement unit based on the acoustoelastic effect is
feasible in principle.
(B) A Technical paper presented by J. Szelazek, Warszawa (Annexure-V)

The basis for this study is also the accousto-elastic effect.

The difference in time of flight pulse polorized along &

perpendicular longitudinal force in the rail, averaged value of
residual stresses & rail material texture.

Using Longitudinal wave only, one cant measure absolute value of

Longitudinal force in the rail.

Therefore, limitation of this method that stress changes in chosen

location only can be measured as the acoustic properties of the
material are constant, residual stresses are also constant and the
only factors influencing measured time of flight are temp & LStress in the rail.
Absolute values of forces can be measured by first taking
measurement on a thermally stress free rail i.e at the time of laying
/destressing operation and then later at the same location.

In 1992 the measurement of stresses introduced into the CWR

during track laying. It was shown that in the neutral temperature
when thermal stress is assumed to be zero, in some locations on the
track the bughudinal forces acting in each of the rails can reach
more then 6 kN [3].
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Figures presented below show result of other field measurements

performed with portable DEBRO-30 device.

Fig. 6. The dependencies stress increment - rail

temperature measured with subsurface 1ongitudinal wave
on various tracks.

Fig. 6 shows thermal stress versus rail temperature measured on

various CWR Line denoted as A shows the changes of stress
observed during one day and measured on the straight CWR The
slope of the straight line is equal to 2,5 MPa/C what is equal to
theoretical predictions.
It was assumed that rail neutral temperature was 22C. Lines
denoted as B and C show stress changes observed during much
longer time period.The slope of the straight line is equal to 2,5
MPa/C what is equal to theoretical predictions. It was assumed
that rail neutral temperature was 22C. Lines denoted as B and C
show stress changes observed during much longer time period.
Stress changes presented as line B were measured close to the road
crossing and as line C - in the distance from the road crossing [13].
For line B stress-temperature dependence is equal to 2,6 MPa/C
and for line C - only 1.9 MPa/C. It means that depending on
location on CWR the same temperature changes can result in
various stress changes. Much higher stress scatter on line B
comparing to lines A and C is probably due to other than

Fig. 7. Stress changes along the rail due to repair

(destressing) operation.
temperature factors influencing stress state.

Fig. 7 presents stress changes measured during track repair. The

rail were cut, short piece of rail was removed and rails were welded
together. The aim of the operation was to reduce compressive force
in the CWR.
It can be seen that the operation reduced compressive stress along
the 112 m track section and the average stress change is equal to 43
MPa. Variation in stress increment along 150 m long section was
caused probably by variations in the rail temperature. Some parts of
the track were in the shade, other in the sun.
A small, lightweight portable & battery operated ultrasonic devices
equipped with multitransducer probeheads for L-Subsurface waves,
it is possible to monitor stress changes in the LWR
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(3) A patent developed by Austill & Robert J of U.S.A (Annexure-VI)

The procedure described in this patent to determine SFT is based on the
comparison of the length of an unconstrained piece of steel with a
demarcated portion (similar length) of a railway track rail which is
constrained and thereby reflected at most temperatures because of the tracks
tie into the earths surface. The demarcated portion of rail is calibrated to be
substantially the same length as the gauge bar (unconstrained piece of steel)
when both are at the same temperature and neither is under axial load. The
difference in length is an analog of an associated rail characteristics such as
the number of degrees that the rails instantaneous temperature is above or
below the rails SFT. The length comparisons are made with precision
devices.
The Inventor of the patent claims that the following are the advantages of the
process described in the patent:
(i)

The process of determining SFT does not require calculations or

mental steps.

(ii)

The SFT can be determined at any temperature or time of the year.

(iii)

The process for determining the SFT will permit track maintenance
personnel to monitor changing SFTs in order that they may adjust
them as a planned maintenance activity before they reach a hazardous
level.
The process for determining the SFT can also be used in conjunction
with a SFT adjustment operation in order that the correct amount of
rail to add or remove to attain the desired new SFT.

(iv)

(v)

The process of determining the SFT is such that the vulnerable,

high-precision components are portable and can be taken away from
a site when not in use.

(vi)

To perform the required measurement over a comparatively long

distance in order to average-out or eliminate the effects of local
anomalies that would reduce accuracy is measurement was made in a
short distance.

(vii)

To infer the amount of temperature-related deflection in a

constrained CWR rail by comparing a denoted portion of its length to
an unconstrained stress free metal gauge bar.

(viii)

To provide a process for determining the SFT which can be installed,

calibrated and used by typical track maintenance personnel without
requiring them to undergo special training.

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(4) Remote Monitoring (Annexure VII)

Using Advantechs ADAM data acquisition controller, workers can wireless monitor
railway conditions via the Longitudinal Stress Detector, which can be mounted directly
on the track.

Data Traks of Fort Collins have developed the Longitudinal Stress

Detector (LSD).

Using wireless data acquisition technology from Advantech Automation,

the LSD is mounted directly to the track where it records temp & stress
levels as frequently as once an hour.

This data can be downloaded and analyzed by the P.way Engineers

Comparative study of various methods of stress measurements in LWR:

1.Cut & weld method

Simplest but destructive

Requires lines block of more duration.

2.Monitor Rail Displacement method

Time consuming.
Not accurate, actual SFT cant be
workout.
Widely used technique in practice today.

3.Resistence Strain Gauges

4.Semi Non destructive Rail lift up

technique

14

Tried in USA.
System could not be developed for
commercial application
Against the provision of maintenance
practice of LWR
Time consuming & requires line block

5.MBN Method

6. Ultrasonic method(Debro Ultrasonic

equipment)

_______

15

Sensitive to rail material magnetic

properties, electric current in rail and
structure variation.
Fairly accurate
Residual Stresses in rail can be
eliminated in the calculation of L-thermal
forces & SFT.
It gives information about relative
changes in rail Longitudinalstress.
Requires no special surface treatment.
It is rapid and reproducibility is good.
Accuracy is generally poor.
It is used to access Longitudinal residual
stresses on rail.
To accesses thermal stresses in LWR, it
is necessary to make a first measurement
in the rail in the absence of any forces
applied externally or due to temperature.

References:
1. European Rail Research Institutes Report No.ERR/D/173/RP/12.
2. European Rail Research Institutes Report No.ERR/D/202/RP/9.
3. 6th International Heavy Haul Conference (Strategies beyond 2000), 10th April
1997.
4. 8th International Heavy Haul Conference, 2005.
5. Confidential Report dt. 13.9.2005 released by CTEs C.Rly on Non-destructive
Measurement of stresses in LWR.
6. Paper presented by David Bateman, London on Rail Stress & Rail Stress
Management during a Seminar held on 31 March 2004 (Published in Permanent
Way Institution Journal June 2004 Vol. 122).
7. Interim Report No. FRA-OR&D-76-270 dt. July 1976 prepared by D.M. Egle &
D.E. Bray for U.S. Department of Transportation.
8. Various Internet sites.
________

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