Evaluation of Soil Settlement

NPTEL- Advanced Geotechnical Engineering
Module 6
EVALUATION OF SOIL SETTLEMENT (Lectures 35 to 40)
Topics
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT
1.2.1
Immediate Settlement from Theory of Elasticity
Settlement due to a concentrated point load at the surface
Settlement at the surface due to a uniformly loaded flexible circular area
Settlement at the surface due to a uniformly loaded flexible rectangular

area
1.2.2
Settlement of a flexible load area on an elastic layer of finite thickness
Settlement of rigid footings
1.2.3 Determination of Youngs Modulus

1.2.4 Settlement Prediction in Sand by Empirical Correlation
1.2.5 Calculation of Immediate Settlement in Granular Soil Using Simplified
Strain Influence Factor
1.3 PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT

1.3.1 One-Dimensional Consolidation Settlement Calculation
Method A
Method B
1.3.2 Skempton-Bjerrum Modification for Calculation of Consolidation

Settlement
1.3.3 Settlement of Overconsolidated Clays
1.3.4 Precompression for Improving Foundation Soils
1.4 SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT

1.5 STRESS-PATH METHOD OF SETTLEMENT CALCULATION
1.5.1 Definition of Stress Path
1.5.2
Stress and Strain Path for Consolidated Undrained Triaxial Tests
Dept. of Civil Engg. Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
1.5.3 Calculation of Settlement from Stress Point
PROBLEMS
Module 6
Lecture 35
Evaluation of Soil Settlement -1
Topics
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2.1
Immediate Settlement from Theory of Elasticity
Settlement at the surface due to a uniformly loaded flexible rectangular

area
Summary of elastic settlement at the ground surface (z = 0) due to

uniformly distributed vertical loads on flexible areas
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The increase of stress in soil layers due to the load imposed by various structures at the foundation level will
always be accompanied by some strain, which will result in the settlement of the structures. The various
aspects of settlement calculation are analyzed in this chapter.
In general, the total settlement S of a foundation can be given as
= + +
(1)
Where
= Immediate settlement
= Primary consolidation settlement
= Secondary consolidation settlement
The immediate settlement is sometimes referred to as the elastic settlement. In granular soils this is the
predominant part of the settlement, whereas in saturated inorganic silts and clays the primary consolidation
settlement probably predominates. The secondary consolidation settlement forms the major part of the total
settlement in highly organic soils and peats.

1.2.1 Immediate Settlement from Theory of Elasticity
For elastic settlement due to a concentrated point load (Figure 6. 1), the strain at a depth z can be given in
cylindrical coordinates, by
Figure 6.1 Elastic settlement due to a concentrated point load
= [ + ]
(2)
Where E is the Youngs modulus of the soil. The expressions for , , and are given in equations ,
respectively in earlier modules. Substitution of these in equation (2) and simplification yields
= 2
3(1+) 2
( 2 + 2 )5/2
3+ 12
(3)
( 2 + 2 )3/2
The settlement at a depth z can be found by integration equation (3):

=
= 2
(1+) 2
2 1 2
+ ( 2 + 2 )1/2
( 2 + 2 )3/2
The settlement at the surface can be evaluated by putting z = 0 in the above equation:
= (1 2 )
(4)
The elastic settlement due to a uniformly loaded circular area (Figure 6.2) can be determined by using the
same procedure as discussed for a point load, which involves determination of the strain from the
equation and determination of the settlement by integration with respect to z.
Figure 6.2 Elastic settlement due to a uniformly loaded circular area
= [ ( + )
Substitution of the relation for , , and in the preceding equation for strain and simplification gives
(Ahlvin and Ulery, 1962) where q is the load per unit area. A and B are nondimensional and are functions
of z/b and s/b; their values are given in table 7 and 8 in chapter 3.
=
1+
[ 1 2 + ]
(5)
The vertical deflection at a depth z can be obtained by integration of equation 6 as where 1 = and b is the
radius of the circular loaded area. The numerical values of 2 (which is a function of z/b and s/b) are given in
table 1.
=
1+
+ (1 )2
(6)
From equation (6) it follows that the settlement at the surface (i. e. , at z = 0) is
=
1 2
(7)
The term 2 in equation (7) is usually referred to as the influence number. For saturated clays, we may
assume = 0.5. so, at the center of the loaded area (i. e. , s/b = 0), 2 = 2 and
= =
1.5
0.75
(8)
Table 1 Values of (After Ahlvin and Ulery 1962)

/
/
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.2
1.5
2
2.5
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0
2.0
1.80998
1.63961
1.48806
1.35407
1.23607
1.13238
1.04131
.96125
.89072
.82843
.72410
.60555
.47214
.38518
.32457
.24620
.19805
.16554
.14217
.12448
.11079
0.2
1.97987
1.79018
1.62068
1.470044
1.33802
1.22176
1.11998
1.03037
.95175
.88251
.85005
.71882
,60233
.47022
,38403
.32403
.24588
.19785
0.4
1.91751
1.72886
1.56242
1.40979
1.28963
1.17894
1.08350
.99794
.92386
.85856
.80465
.70370
.57246
.44512
.38098
.32184
.24820
0.6
1.80575
1.61961
1.46001
1.32442
1.20822
1.10830
1.02154
.91049
.87928
.82616
.76809
.67937
.57633
.45656
.37608
.31887
.25128
0.8
1.62553
1.44711
1.30614
1.19210
1.09555
1.01312
.94120
.87742
.82136
.77950
.72587
.64814
.55559
.44502
.36940
.31464
.24168
1
1.27319
1.18107
1.09996
1.02740
.96202
.90298
.84917
.80030
.75571
.71495
.67769
.61187
.53138
.43202
.36155
.30969
.23932
.19455
.16326
.14077
.12352
.10989
1.2
.93676
.92670
.90098
.86726
.83042
.79308
.75653
.72143
.68809
.65677
.62701
.57329
.50496
.41702
.35243
.30381
.23668
1.5
.71185
.70888
.70074
.68823
.67238
.65429
.63469
.61442
.59398
.57361
.55364
.51552
.46379
.39242
.33698
.29364
.23164
.09900
2
.51671
.51627
.51382
.50966
.50412
.49728
.48061
.45122
.43013
.39872
.35054
.30913
.27453
.22188
.18450
.15750
.13699
.12112
.10854
.09820
where = 2 is the diameter of the loaded area.

At the edge of the loaded area (. . , / = 0and s/b = 1), I2 = 1.27 and
= = 1.27 0.75
= 0.95
0.475
(9)
The average surface settlement is

= , = 0.85 (, )
(10)
Settlement at the surface due to a uniformly loaded flexible rectangular area
The elastic deformation in the vertical direction at the corner of a uniformly loaded rectangular area of size
can be obtained by proper integration of the expression for strain. The deformation at a depth z below
the corner of the rectangular area can be expressed in the form (Harr, 1966)
/
/
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.2
1.5
2
2.5
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
3
.33815
.33794
.33726
.33638
4
.25200
.25184
.25162
.25124
5
.20045
.20081
.20072
6
.16626
7
.14315
8
.12576
.16688
.14288
.12512
.33293
.24996
.19982
.16668
.14273
.31877
.31162
.29945
.27740
.25550
.23487
.19908
.17080
.14868
.13097
.11680
.10548
.24386
.24070
.23495
.22418
.21208
.19977
.17640
.15575
.13842
.12404
.11176
.10161
.19673
.19520
..19053
.18618
.17898
.17154
.15596
.14130
.12792
.11620
.10600
.09702
.16516
.16369
.16199
.15846
.15395
.14919
.13864
.12785
.11778
.10843
.09976
.09234
.14182
.14099
.14058
.13762
.13463
.13119
.12396
.11615
.10836
.10101
.09400
.08784
10
.09918
12
.08346
14
.07023
.12493
.09996
.08295
.07123
.12394
.12350
.12281
.12124
.11928
.11694
.11172
.10585
.09990
.09387
.08848
.08298
.09952
.08292
.07104
.09876
.09792
.09700
.09558
.09300
.08915
.08562
.08197
.07800
.07407
.08270
.08196
.08115
.08061
.07864
.07675
.07452
.07210
.06928
.06678
.07064
.07026
.06980
.06897
.06848
.06695
.06522
.06377
.06200
.05976

10
.09510
.09290
.08980
= 2 (1 2 ) 3
1
Where 3 =
1+ 12 + 12 + 1
1+ 12 + 12 1
.08300
12
.08180
.07710
(11)
1+ 12 + 12 +1
1+ 12 + 12 1
(12)
4 =
(13)
1 1+ 12 + 12
1 =
(14)
1 =
(15)
Values of 3 and I4 are given in table 2.

For elastic surface settlement at the corner of a rectangular area, substituting / = 1 = 0 in equation (11)
and make the necessary calculations; thus,
= 2 (1 2 )3
(16)
The settlement at the surface for the center of a rectangular area (Figure 6.3) can be found by adding the
settlement for the corner of four rectangular areas of dimension /2 /2. Thus, from equation (11),
Figure 6.3 Determination of settlement at the center of a rectangular area of dimensions
= 4
(/2)
2
(1 2 )3 =
(1 2 )3
(17)
The average surface settlement can be obtained as

, = 0.848 (, )
(18)
Summary of elastic settlement at the ground surface (z = 0) due to uniformly
distributed vertical loads on flexible areas

For circular areas:
=
1 2
2
Where
=Diameter of circular loaded area
2 = 2 (at center)
2 = 1.27(at edge)
2 = 0.85 2 = 1.7(average)
For rectangular areas, on the basic equations (16) to (18) we can write
(1 2 ) 5
(19)
Where
5 = 3 (at center)
5 = 123 (at edge)
5 0.8483 (average)
Table 3 gives the values of 5 for various / ratios.
For the settlement calculation, it was assumed that the elastic soil layer extends to an infinite depth.
However, if the elastic soil layer is underlain by a rigid incompressible base at a depth H (Figure 6.4), the
settlement can be approximately calculated as
= (=0) (=)
(20)
Figure 6.4 Flexible loaded area over an elastic soil layer of finite thickness
Where (=0) and (=) are the settlements at the surface and at z = H, respectively.
Foundations are almost never placed at the ground surface, but at some depth (Figure 6.5). Hence, a
correction needs to be applied to the settlement values calculated on the assumption that the load is applied
at the ground surface. Fox (1948) proposed a correction factor for this which is a function of /, / and
Poissons ratio v. thus,
Figure 6.5 Average immediate settlement for a flexible rectangular loaded area located at a depth from
the ground surface
= 6 ()
(21)
Where
6 = correction factor for foundation depth,
= corrected elastic settlement of foundation
= elastic settlement of foundation calculated on assumption that load is applied at ground surface
By computer programming of the equation proposed by Fox, Bowles (1977) obtained the values of 6 for
various values of / length-to-width ratio of the foundation, and Poissons ratio of the soil layer. These
values are shown in Figure 6.6.
Table 3 Values of
5
/
1
2
3
5
10
20
50
100
Center
1.122
1.532
1.783
2.105
2.544
2.985
3.568
4.010
Corner
0.561
0.766
0.892
1.053
1.272
1.493
1.784
2.005
Average
0.951
1.299
1.512
1.785
2.157
2.531
3.026
3.400
Janbu et al, (1956) proposed a generalized equation for average immediate settlement for uniformly loaded
flexible footings in the form
= 1 0
(for = 0.5)
(22)
Where
1 = Correction factor for finite thickness of elastic soil layer, H, as shown in Figure 6.5.
0 = Correction factor for depth of embankment of footing, , as shown in Figure 6.5.
= Width of rectangular loaded area of diameter of circular loaded area
10
Figure 6.6 Correction factor for the depth of embedment of the foundation. (Bowles 1977)
Christian and Carrier (1978) made a critical evaluation of equation (22), the details of which will not be
presented here. However, they suggested that for = 0.5, equation (22) could be retained for immediate
settlement calculations with a modification of the values of 1 and 2 . The modified values of 1 are based
on the work of Groud (1972) and those for 0 are based on the work of Burland (1970). These are shown in
Figure 6.7. Christian and Carrier inferred that these values are generally adequate for circular and
rectangular footings.
Figure 6.7 Improved chart for use in equation (22). (After Christian and Carrier 1978)
Another general method for estimation of immediate settlement is to divide the underlying soil into layers
of finite thicknesses (Figure 6.5). It the strain at the middle of each layer can be calculated. The total
immediate settlement can be obtained as where () is the thickness of the layer and () is the vertical
strain at the middle of the layer.
11
=
=1
() ()
(23)
The method of using equation (23) is demonstrated in example 2.
12
Module 6
Lecture 36
Topics
1.2.2 Settlement of rigid footings
1.2.4 Settlement of rigid footings
The immediate surface settlement of a uniformly loaded rigid footing (Figure 6.8) is about 7% less than the
average surface settlement of a flexible footing of similar dimensions (Schleicher, (1926). So, based on this
simplified conclusion, the following expression can be written as:
Equation (24) for circular footing
Equation (25) for rectangular footing
Figure 6.8 Immediate settlement of rigid footing
For a uniformly loaded rigid circular footing of radius b (note = /2):

(=0) =
1 2
(24)
Where 7 = 0.932 average settlement = 0.93 1.7 = 1.58.

For a uniformly loaded rigid rectangular footing of dimension :
(=0) =
1 2
(25)
1
Where 8 = 0.935 (average settlement).

The values of 8 are given in table 4.
Example 1 A square tank is shown in Figure 6.9. Assuming flexible loading conditions, find the average
immediate (elastic) settlement of the tank for the following conditions:
(a) = 0, =
(b) = 1.5, =
(c) = 1.5, = 10
Figure 6.9
Solution Part (a): average = (/)(1 2 )5 ; = 3; / = 3/3 = 1; and 5 = 0.951. so,
100 3
average = 21,000 1 0. 32 951 = 0.0124 = 12.4

Part (b): From equation (18), average = 6 average ; / = 1.5/3 = 0.5; and I6 = 0.77 (Figure
6. 6). So,
= average = 0.77 12.4 = 9.55
Table 4 Values of
/
1
2
3
5
10
20
50
100
8
0.884
1.208
1.406
1.660
2.006
2.353
2.814
3.162
Part (c): From equation (20),

= (=0) (=)
From equation (11),
corner =
(1 2 ) 3
12
1
Determine the values of below the corner at = 10 for one loaded area of dimension 1.5 1.5
(Figure 6.10) and then multiply that by 4 to obtain the displacement at the center of the tank at depth
= 10. So for a loaded area of 1.5 1.5.
Figure 6. 10
1.5
= 1.5 = 1
10
= 1.5 = 6.67
From table 2, 3 = 0.189 and 4 = 0.047. so,

100 1.5
= 2
21,000
1 0.32
0.189
10.6
10.3
0.047 = 0.00053
For the whole loaded area of 3 3, the elastic settlement below the center at a depth of = 10 is equal
to 4 0.00053 = 0.00212 . Thus, (average) without considering the depth effects is 12.4
0.848 0.00212 1000 = 10.6. now, average = I6 Se ; , I6 = 0.77 from part (b).
So,
Example 2 For the tank shown in Figure 6. 11,
(a) Determine the immediate settlement at the center of the tank by using equation (6).
(b) Determine the immediate settlement by using equation (23). Divide the underlying soil into three
layers of equal thickness of 3 m.
Figure 6. 11
Solution Part (a): From equation (6),
=
(1+)
+ (1 )2
From equation (20),

= (=0) (=9 )
For / = 0 and / = 0, 1 = 1, and I2 = 2 (Table 1); so,
(=0) =
100 1+0.3
21,000
1.5
1 0.3 2 = 0.013 = 13
For / = 9/1.5 = 6 and / = 0, 1 = 0.01361, and I2 = 0.16554; so

(=9 ) =
100 1+0.3 (1.5)

21,000
6 0.01361 + 1 0.3 0.16554 = 0.00183 = 1.83
Hence, = 13 18.3 = 11.17

Part (b): From equation (5),
=
(1+)
[ 1 2 + ]
Layer 1: For, / = 1.5/1.5 = 1 and / = 0, = 0.29289, and B = 0.35355:

=
100(1+0.3)
21,000
1 0.6 0.29289 + 0.35355 = 0.00291]
Layer 2: For, / = 4.5/1.5 = 3 and / = 0, = 0.05132, and B = 0.09487:

(2) =
100(1+0.3)
21,000
1 0.6 0.05132 + 0.09487 = 0.00071]
Layer 3: For / = 7.5/1.5 = 5 and / = 0, = 0.01942, and B = 0.03772:

(3) =
100(1+0.3)
21,000
1 0.6 0.01942 + 0.03772 = 0.00028]
Similarly, the settlement can be calculated for part c

The final stages in the calculation are tabulated below:
layer no. i
Layer thickness ()
Strain at the center of the layer,

()
() () ,
1
2
3
3
3
3
0.00291
0.00071
0.00028
0.00873
0.00213
0.00084
0.0117
= 11.7

The equations derived for calculation of immediate settlement require a value of the Youngs modulus E for
the soil layers involved. It is difficult to obtain the correct value of E since it increases with the depth of soil,
i.e., the effective overburden pressure. Some approximate recommended values of E and Poissonss ratio v
for granular soils are given in table 5.
Table 5 Recommended values of E and v (Harr. 1966)
Type of soil
Sand (coarse)
v = 0.15
Sand (medium coarse)
= 0.2
Sand (fine grained)
= 0.2
Sandy silt = 0.3 0.35
Properties of soil*
(/2 )
(/2 )
(/2 )
(/2 )
(/2 )
(/2 )
(/2 )
(/2 )
0.41 to 0.5
43
6,550
45,200
40
6,550
45,200
38
5,300
36,600
36
2,000
13,800
Void ratio e
0.51 to 0.6
40
5,700
39.300
38
5,700
39.300
36
4.000
27,600
34
1,700
11,700
0.61 to 0.70
38
4.700
32,400
35
4.700
32,400
32
3,400
23,500
30
1,450
10,000
*Conversion factor: 1 /2 = 6.9/2 (the value of /2 have been rounded off). is the drained
friction angle.
More representative values of E and v can be obtained from triaxial compression tests of undisturbed
samples collected from a depth equal to the width of the foundation measured from the bottom of the
proposed foundation elevation.
However, in cohesionless soils, it is usually the secant modulus from zero up to about half of the maximum
deviator stress, . . , = /, as shown in Figure 6. 12. Poisssons ratio v can be calculated by measuring
the axial compressive strain and the lateral strain during the triaxial testing. The deviator stress-strain curve
can be approximately represented by a hyperbolic equation (Kondner, 1963): where a and b are constants for
a given soil.
Figure 6.12 Youngs modulus from triaxial test
= +
(26)
For granular soils. Youngs modulus determined from triaxial test is approximately proportional to
(Figure 6.12) or where is the hydrostatic confining pressure.

(27)
A reasonable average value of n is about 0.5 (Lambe and Whitman, 1969). However, in practical cases the
stresses in soil before loading are not isotropic, as shown in Figure 6.13. So Youngs modulus is
approximately proportional to the square root of the mean principal stress (Lambe and Whitman 1969), i.e.,
where is the effective overburden pressure before application of the foundation load.
Figure 6.13 Stress conditions in soil before loading
+ +
3
1+2
3
(28)
Due to the difficulty in obtaining undisturbed soil samples in cohesionless soils, a number of investigators
have attempted to correlate the equivalent Youngs modulus with the conventional results obtained
during field exploration program for calculation of static compression of sand. These conventional results
are standard penetration number N and static dutch cone resistance . It must be pointed out that is some
equivalent to the constrained modulus (odeometer modulus). Some of these correlations of
with and are given in table 6 and 7.
In-saturated clay soils the undrained Youngs modulus can be given by the relation where varies from
about 500 to 1500 (Bjerrum 1972) and is the undrained cohesion.
=
(29)
Some typical values of determined from large-scale field tests are given in table 8.
Figure 6.14 Relationship between / and over consolidation ratio from CU tests on three clays
determined from type direct shear tests. (After DAppo;onia, et al. 1971)
Module 6
Lecture 37
Evaluation of Soil Settlement - 3
Topics
Based on several field load tests, Terzaghi and Peck (1967) suggested that for similar intensities of load q on
a footing where is the settlement of a footing with width B and (1) is the settlement of a smaller footing
with width 1 . The value of 1 is usually taken as 1 ft.
=
+1
(1)
(30)
Table 6 Youngs modulus for vertical static compression of sand from standard penetration number
(After Mitchell and Gardner 1975).
Reference
Schultze and
Meizer (1965)
Relationship*
= 0.522 /2
= 246.2 log 26.34 + 375.6
57.6
0 < < 1.2 /2
= effective overburden pressure
Soil types
Dry sand
Webb (1969)
= 5 + 15 ton/ 2
= 10/3 + 5 ton/ 2
Sand
Clayey sand
Farrent (1963)
= 40 + 6 /2
> 15
= + 6 /2 > 15
Trofimenkov
(1974)
= 350 500 log /2
Silt with
sand to
gravel with
sand
Sand
Basis
Penetration tests in
field and in test shaft.
Compressibility
based on
, , and
(Schultze and
Moussa. (1961)
Screw plate tests
Remarks
Correlation
coefficient
=
0.730 for 77 tests
Below water table
Used in Greece
U.S.S.R. practice
Table 7 Equivalent Youngs modulus for vertical static compression of sand-static cone resistance
(After Mitchell and Gardner 1975).
Reference
Buisman (1940)
Trofimenkov
Relationship
= 1.5
Soil type
Sands
= 2.5
Sand
Remarks
Overpredicts settlements by a
factor of about 2
Lower limit
1
(1964)
De Beer (1967)
= 100 + 5
= 1.5
Schultze
and
Meizer (1965)
Bachelier
Parez (1965)
= 310.1 log 382.3 60.3

50.3
= effective overburden pressure
and
=
= 0.8 0.9
= 1.3 1.9
= 3.8 5.7
= 7.7
=
= 3 12
Thomas (1968)
Webb (1969)
1
0.522

1
2
1
= 2
+ 30 / 2
+ 15 / 2
Vesic (1970)
= 2(1 + 3 )
= relative density
Schmertmann
(1970)
Bogdanovic
(1973)
= 2
Schmertmann
(1974)
=
> 40 /2
= 1.5
20 < < 40
= 1.5 1.8
10 < < 20
= 1.8 2.5
5 < < 10
= 2.5 3.0
= 2.
Sand
Dry sand
Average
Overpredicts settlements by a
factor of 2
Based on field and lab
penetration tests-compressibility
based on , and
Correlation
coefficient
=
0.778 for 90 tests valid for o =
0 0.8 kg/cm2
Pure sand
Silty
sand
Clayey
sand
Soft clay
3 sands
Based on penetration and

compression tests in large
chambers.
Lower
values
of
at higher values of :
attributed to grain crushing
Sand
below
water
table
Clayey
sand
below
water
table
Sand
Based on screw plate tests:

correlated will with settlement of
oil tanks
Sand
Based on pile load tests and

assumptions concerning state of
stress
Based on screw plate tests
Sand,
sandy
gravels
Silty
saturated
sands
Clayey
silts with
silty sand
and silty
saturated
sands
with silt
NC sands / = 1 2, axisymmetric
NC sands / 10, plane strain
2
De Beer (1974)
= 3.5
= 1.6 8
= 1.5 , > 30 /2
= 3 , < 30 /2
> 1.5 , = 2
= 1.9
1
= 2 + 3200 /2 )
1
= 2 + 1600 /2 )
= , 1.5 < < 2
Trofimenkov
(1974)
= 3
= 7
Sand
Sand
Bulgarian practice
Greek practice
Sand
Sand
Fine to
medium
sand
Clayey
sands,
<
15%
Sand
Sands
Clays
Italian practice
South African practice
U. K. practice
U. S. S.R. practice
Table 8 Values of from various case studies of immediate settlement (After Appolonia, H. G. Poulos,
and C. C. Ladd 1971).
Clay properties
Sensitivity
Overconsolidation
ratio
2
3.5
,
/2
Source of

7,600
1,200
CIU
2.5
990
1,000
1,200
Field vane
CIU
100
1.7
880
1,000
1,100
Field vane
CIU
14
1.5
1,300
1,200
1,700
Field vane
Bearing
capacity
Portsmouty: Highway
embankment
15
10
1.3
3,000
2,000
1,700
Boston: Highway
embankment
Drammen: Circular load
test
Kawasaki: Circular load
test
Venezuela: Oil tanks
Maine: Rectangular load
test
24
28
10
1.5
1.0
1.4
10,000
13,000
3,200
38
63
1.0
2,200
1,600
1,200
1,400
1,100
400
37
332
82
4
1.0
1.5 to 4.5
5.00
100 to 200
Field vane
Bearing
capacity
Field vane

Field vane

Field vane
CIU
CIU
UU and
Bearing
capacity
No.
Location of structure
Plasticity
index
Oslo: Nine-story
building
Asrum I: Circular load
15
16
100
Asrum II: Circular load

test
14
Mastemyr: Circular load

test
7
8
9
10
800
80 to
160
Equation (30) can be rewritten in the form
(1)
= (1+
(31)
2
1 /)
DAppolonia et al. (1970) compared the above equation with several field experiments conducted by
Bjerrum and Eggstad (1963) and Bazaraa (1967). The results of the comparison are shown in Figure 6. 15.
It appears that the relationship gives the general trend; however, there appears to be a wide scattering of
points.
Figure 6.15 Comparison of field test results with equation (31). (After D. J. DAppolonia, E.
DAppolonia, and R. F. Brisette, discussion on Settlement of Spread Footings on Sand, J. Soil Mech.
Found. Div., ASCE, vol. 96, 1970)
Using the standard penetration resistance obtained from field explorations, Meyerhof (1965) proposed the
following relationships for settlement calculations in sand:
=
And =
for 4
6
+1
for > 4
(32a)
(32b)
Where
= intensity of applied load, kip/ft 2
= width of footing, ft
= settlement, in
= standard penetration number

Figure 6.16 shows a comparison of the observed settlements to those obtained through equation (32). It
appears that the predicted settlements are rather conservative. Bowles (1977) suggested that for a more
reasonable agreement equation (32) can be modified as
=
2.5
for 4
And =
+1
for > 4
(33a)
(33b)
In a later work, based on the analysis of the field data of Schultze and Sherif (1973), Meyerhof (1974) gave
the following empirical correlations for settlement of shallow foundations:
Figure 6.16 Comparison of observed settlement to that calculated from equation (32).
(After Meyerhof 1965)
=
(for sand and gravel)
(34a)
(for silty sand)
(34b)
Where
= settlement, in
= intensity of applied load, ton/ft 2

= width of footing, in

The equation for vertical strain under the center of a flexible circular load was given in equation (5) as
where is the strain influence factor.
=
(1+)
Or =
[ 1 2 + ]
= 1 + [ 1 2 + ]
(35)
Figure 6.17 shows the variation of with depth based on equation (35) for v equal to 0.4 and 0.5 also.
According to this simplified strain-influence factor method, the immediate settlement of a foundation can be
calculated as where 1 is the correction factor for the depth of embedment of foundation, and 2 is a
correction factor to account for the creep n soil. The factors 1 and 2 are given by the following equations:
= 1 2
2
0
1 = 1 0.5
(36)
(37)
Where = effective overburden pressure at foundation level

= net foundation pressure increase = q1 q o
1 = average pressure of foundation against soil
2 = 1 + 0.2
0.1
(38)
Where t is time, in years.

Below is an example for using equation (36) which was given in Schmertmanns 1970 paper.
Figure 6.17 Theoretical and experimental distribution of vertical strain influence factor below the center of
a circular loaded area. (after J. Schmertmann,1970)
Module 6
Lecture 38
Topics
1.3 PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
Method A
Method B

Settlement
1.3
PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT

the settlement for one-dimensional consolidation can be given by:
= 1+ (from chapter 5 equation 76)
Where = log
=
=
for normally consolidated clays
for overconsolidated clays, o + c
+
+
for o < c < o +
When a load is applied over a limited area, the increase of pressure due to the applied load will decrease
with depth, as shown in Figure 6.18. So, for a more realistic settlement prediction, the following methods
may be used.
Figure 6. 18 Calculation of consolidation settlement-method A
Method A
1. Calculate the average effective pressure on the clay layer before the application of the load under
consideration.
2. Calculate the increase of stress due to the applied load at the top, middle, and the bottom of the clay
layer. This can be done by using theories developed in chapter. 3. The average increase of stress in
the clay layer can be estimated by Simpsons rule, = 16( + 4 + )
(39)
Where ( , , and are stress increases at the top, middle, and bottom of the clay layer,
respectively.
3. Using the and calculated above, obtain from equations whichever is applicable.
4. Calculate the settlement by using equation.
Method B
1. Better results in settlement calculation may be obtained by dividing a given clay layer into n layers
as shown in Figure 6.19.
2. Calculate the effective stress () at the middle of each layer.
3. Calculate the increase of stress at the middle of each layer due to the applied load.
4. Calculate for each layer from equations, whichever is applicable.
5. Total settlement for the entire clay layer can be given by
=
=
=1
=1 1+
(40)
Figure 6.19 Calculation of consolidation settlement-Method B

Example 3 A circular foundation 2m in diameter is shown in Figure 6.20. A normally consolidated clay
layer 5 m thick is located below the foundation. Determine the consolidation settlement of the clay.
Solution Divide the clay layer into five layers each 1 m thick.
Calculation of () . The effective stress at the middle of layer 1 is
(1) = 17 1.5 + 19 9.8 0.5 + 18.5 9.81 0.5 = 34.44 /2 .
The effective stress at the middle of the second layer is
(2) = 34.44 + 18.5 9.81 1 = 34.44 + 8.69 = 43.13 /2
Similarly
(3) = 43.13 + 8.69 = 51.81/2
(4) = 51.82 + 8.69 = 60.51/2
(5) = 60.51 + 8.69 = 69.2/2
Calculation of . For a circular loaded area, the increase of stress below the center is given by
1
= 1 [(/)2 +1]3/2
Where b is the radius of the circular foundation, 1 m. hence,
1
1 = 150 1 [(1/1.5)2 +1]3/2 = 63.59 /2

1
2 = 150 1 [(1/2.5)2 +1]3/2 = 29.93 /2

3 = 150 1
1
[(1/3.5)2 +1]3/2
= 16.66 /2
4 = 150 1 [(1/4.5)2 +1]3/2 = 10.46 /2

1
5 = 150 1 [(1/5.5)2 +1]3/2 = 7.14 /2
Figure 6.20
Calculation of consolidation settlement : The steps in the calculation are given in the following table (
Figure 6.21):
Layer no.
() , /2
/2
1
2
3
4
5
1
1
1
1
1
34.44
43.13
51.82
60.51
69.2
63.59
29.93
16.66
10.46
7.14
0.0727
0.0366
0.0194
0.0111
0.00682
() +
()

1 +
0.0393
0.0198
0.0105
0.0060
0.0037
= 0.0793
; = 0.16
So, = 0.0793 = 79.3 .
Figure 6.21

Settlement
In one-dimensional consolidation tests, there is no lateral yield of the soil specimen and the ratio of the
minor to minor to major principal effective stresses, , remains constant. In that case, the increase of pore
water pressure due to an increase of vertical stress is equal in magnitude to the latter; or
=
(41)
Where is the increase of pore water pressure and is the increase of vertical stress.
However, in reality the final increase of major and minor principal stresses due to a given loading condition
at a given point in a clay layer do not maintain a ratio equal to . The increase of pore water pressure at a
point due to a given load is (Figure 6.22).
Figure 6.22 Development of excess pore water pressure below the center line of a circular loaded area
= 3 + (1 3 )
Skempton and Bjerrum (1957) proposed that the vertical compression of a soil element of thickness due
to an increase of pore water pressure may be given by
=
(42)
Where is the coefficient of volume compressibility, or
= 3 + 1 3 = 1 + 3 (1 )
1
The preceding equation can be integrated to obtain the total consolidation settlement:
=
1 + 3 (1 )
(43)
For conventional one-dimensional consolidation ( condition)

( ) =

0 1+
1
0 1 1+
1 =
(44)
. Thus,
Settlement ratio, =
=
( )
1 [+(3 /1 )(1)]
= + (1 )
3
1
= + (1 )1
Where 1 =
(45)
(46)
The values of 1 for the stresses developed below the center of a uniformly loaded circular of diameter B
are given in Figure 6. 23. The values of settlement ratio, , , for various values of the pore water
pressure parameter A are given in Figure 6. 24.
Figure 6. 23 Variation of 1 with /
Figure 6. 24 Settlement ratio for circular loading [equation (45)]
For consolidation under the center of a strip load (Scott, 1963), of width B (Figure 6.25).
Figure 6. 25 Excess pore water pressure below the center line of a uniform strip load

3
= 3 +
So, =
1
3
1
2
1 3
(for v = 0.5)
1 + (1 ) 3
1
(47)
3
Where =
3 +2
Hence, settlement ratio, =

=
( )
1 [+(1)(3 /1 )]
= + (1 )2
Where 2 =
(48)
(49)
Figure 6. 27 Settlement ratio for strip loading [equation (48)]
Module 6
Lecture 39
Topics

Settlement of structures founded on overconsolidated clay can be calculated by dividing the clay layer into a
finite number of layers of smaller thicknesses as outlined in method B. thus,
( ) =

1+
() +
()
(50)
To account for the small departure from one-dimensional consolidation, Leonards (1976) proposed a
correction factor, :
= ( )
(51)
The values of the correction factor are given in Figure 6.26b and are a function of the average value of
/ and / (B is the width of the foundation and is the thickness of the clay layer, as shown in
Figure 6.26a). According to Leonards, if > 4 , = 1 may be used. Also, if the depth to the top of the
clay stratum exceeds twice the width of the loaded area, = 1 should be used in equation (51).
Figure 6. 26 Settlement ratio on overconsolidated clay. (After Leonards 1976)

when it appears that too much consolidation settlement is likely to occur due to the construction of
foundations, it may be desirable to apply some surcharge loading before foundation construction in order to
eliminate or reduce the post-construction settlement.
Let us consider the case where a given construction will require a permanent uniform loading of intensity
as shown in Figure 6. 27. The total primary consolidation settlement due to loading is estimated to be equal
to () . To eliminate the expected settlement due to primary consolidation, let apply a total uniform load of
intensity = + . This load will cause a faster rate of settlement of the underlying compressible layer;
when a total settlement of () has been reached, the surcharge can be removed for actual construction.
Figure 6.27 Concept of precompression technique
For a quantitative evaluation of the magnitude of and the time it should be kept on, we need to recognize
the nature of the variation of the degree of consolidation at any time after loading for the underlying clay
layer, as shown in Figure 6.28. The degree of consolidation will vary with depth and will be minimum at
mid plane, . . , at = . If the average degree of consolidation is used as the criterion for surcharge
load removal, then after removal of the surcharge the clay close to the mid-plane will continue to settle and
the clay close to the pervious layer(s) will tend to swell. This will probably result in a net consolidation
settlement.. Using the procedure outlined by Johnson (1970),
Figure 6.28 Choice of degree of consolidation for calculation of precompression
() =
1+
And (+) =
1+
(52)
+ +

(53)
Where is the initial average in situ effective overburden pressure and () and (+) are the primary
consolidation settlements due to load intensities of and + , respectively. But,
() = (+) (+)
(54)
Where (+) is the degree of consolidation due to the loading of + . As explained before, this is
conservatively taken as the mid-plane (z = H) degree of consolidation. Thus,
()
(+) =
(+)
(55)
Combining equations (52, 53 and 55),

(+) = log
log [1+( / )
1+( / )[1+( / ]
(56)
The values of (+) for several combination of / and / are given in Figure 6.29. Once (+) is
known, we can evaluate the nondimensional time factor . (Note that (+) = at = of is based on
our assumption). For convenience, a plot of (+) against is given in Figure 6.30. So the time for
surcharge load removal, t, is
(57)
Where is the coefficient of consolidation and H is the length of the maximum drainage path.
Figure 6.29 Variation of (+) with / and /0 . (after Johnson 1970)
Figure 6.30 Plot of (+) against . (Redrawn after Johnson 1970)

The coefficient of secondary consolidation was defined as
=
/
log
Where t is time and is the thickness of the clay layer.

It has been reasonably established that decreases with time in a logarithmic manner and is directly
proportional to the total thickness of the clay layer at the beginning of secondary consolidation. Thus,
secondary consolidation settlement can be given by
(58)
Where
= thickness of clay layer at beginning of secondary consolidation = Ht Sc
= time at which secondary compression is required
= time at end of primary consolidation
Actual field measurements of secondary settlements are relatively scarce. However, good agreement of
measured and estimated settlements have been reported by some observers, e.g., Horn and Lambe (1964),
Crawford and Sutherland (1971), and Su and Prysock (1972).
Module 6
Lecture 40
Topics
1.5 STRESS-PATH METHOD OF SETTLEMENT CALCULATION
1.5.2 Stress and Strain Path for Consolidated Undrained Undrained Triaxial
Tests
1.5
STRESS-PATH METHOD OF SETTLEMENT CALCULATION
Lambe (1964) proposed a technique for calculation of settlement in clay which takes into account both the
immediate and the primary consolidation settlements. This is called the stress-path method.

In order to understand what a stress path is, consider a normally consolidated clay specimen subjected to a
consolidated drained triaxial test (Figure 6.31a). At any time during the test, the stress condition in the
specimen can be represented by a Mohrs circle (Figure 6.31b). Note here that, in a drained test, total stress
is equal to effective stress. So,
3 = 3
(minor principal stress)
1 = 3 + = 1
(major principal stress)
Figure 6. 31 Definition of stress path

At failure, the Mohrs circle will touch a line that is the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope; this makes an
angle with the normal stress axis ( is the soil friction angle).
We now consider another concept; without drawing the Mohrs circles, we may represent each one by a
point defined by the coordinates
=
1 + 3
(59)
And =
1 3
(60)
This is shown in Figure 6.31b for the smaller of the Mohrs circles. If the points with coordinates
of all the Mohrs circles are joined, this will result in the line AB. This line is called a stress path. The
straight line joining the origin and the point B will be defined here as the line. The line makes an angle
with the normal stress axis. Now,
(
3 )/2
1 + 3 )/2
tan = = ( 1
Where 1
and 3
(
(61)
are the effective major and minor principal stresses at failure. Similarly,
3 )/2
1 + 3 )/2
sin = = ( 1
(62)
From equations (61 and 62), we obtain

tan = sin
(63)
Again let us consider a case where a soil specimen is subjected to an oedometer (one-dimensional
consolidation) type of loading (Figure 6.32). For this case, we can write
Figure 6.32 Determination of the slope of line
3 = 1
(64)
Where is the at-rest earth pressure coefficient and can be given by the expression (Jaky, 1944)
= 1 sin
(65)
For the Mohrs circle shown in Figure 6. 32, the coordinates of point E can be given by
=
1 3
1 + 3
=
=
1 (1 )
2
1 (1+ )
Thus, = 1
= 1
1
1+
(66)
Where , is the angle that the line ( line) makes with the normal stress axis. For purposes of
comparison, the line is also shown in Figure 6. 31b.
In any particular problem, if a stress path is given in a . plot, we should be able to determine the
values of the major and minor principal stresses for any given point on the stress path. This is demonstrated
in Figure 6. 33, in which ABC is an effective stress path.
Figure 6. 33 Determination of major and minor principal stresses for a point on a stress path
1.5.2 Stress and Strain Path for Consolidated Undrained Triaxial Tests
Consider a clay specimen consolidated under an isotropic stress 3 = 3 in a triaxial test. When a deviator
stress is applied on the specimen and drainage is not permitted there will be an increase in the pore water
pressure, (Figure 6. 34a).
Figure 6. 34 Stress path for consolidation undrained triaxial test
=
(67)
4
Where A is the pore water pressure parameter (chapter 4).

At this time, the effective major and minor principal stresses can be given by:
Minor effective principal stress = 3 = 3
And
Major effective principal stress = 1 = 1 = 3 +
Mohrs circles for the total and effective stress at any time of deviator stress application are shown in Figure
6. 34b. (Mohrs circle no. 1 is for total stress and no. 2 is for effective stress). Point B on the effective stress
Mohrs circle has the coordinates and . If the deviator stress is increased until failure occurs, the
effective-stresses Mohrs circle at failure will be represented by circle No. 3 as shown in Figure 6. 34b, and
the effective stress path will be represented by the line ABC
The general nature of the effective-stress path will depend on the value of the pore pressure parameter A.
this is shown in Figure 6. 35.

In the calculation of settlement from stress paths, it is assumed that for normally consolidated clays, the
volume change between any two points on a . plot is independent of the path followed. This is
explained in Figure 6. 36. For a soil sample, the volume changes between stress paths AB, GH, CD, and CI,
for example, are all the same. However, the axial strains will be different. With this basic assumption, we
can now proceed to determine the settlement.
Figure 6. 36 Volume change between two points of a . plot
Consolidated undrained traixial tests on these samples at several confining pressures, 3 are conducted,
along with a standard one-dimensional consolidated test. The stress-strain contours are plotted on the basis
of the CU triaxial test results. The standard one-dimensional consolidation test results with give us the
values of compression index . For an example, let Figure 6. 37 represent the stress-strain contours for a
given normally consolidated clay sample obtained from an average depth of a clay layer. Also let =
0.25 and = 0.9. the drained friction angle (determined from CU tests) is 300 . From equation (66),
Figure 6. 37
= 1
1
1+
And = 1 sin = 1 sin 30 = 0.5. So

= 1
10.5
1+0.5
= 18.43
Knowing the value of we can now plot the line in Figure 6. 37. Also note that tan = . since =
30 , = 0.5. So = 26.57 . Let us calculate the settlement in the clay layer for the following
conditions (Figure 6. 37):
1. In situ average effective overburden pressure = 1 = 75 /2 .
2. Total thickness of clay layer = = 3 .
Due to the construction of a structure, a increase of the total major and minor principal stresses at an average
depth are:
1 = 40 /2
3 = 25 /2
(assuming that the load is applied instantaneously). The in situ minor principal stress (at-rest pressure) is
3 = 3 = 1 = 0.5 75 = 37.5 /2 .
So, before loading,
=
1 + 3
1 3
75+37.5
7537.5
= 56.25 /2
= 18.75 /2
The stress conditions before loading can now be plotted in Figure 6. 37 from the above values of and .
This is point A.
Since the stress paths are geometrically similar, we can plot BAC, which is the stress path through A. also
since the loading is instantaneous (i.e., undrained), the stress conditions in clay, represented by the .
plot immediately after loading, will fall on the stress path BAC. Immediately after loading,
1 = 75 + 40 = 115 /2
3 = 37.5 + 25 = 62,5 /2
So, =
1 3
2
1 3 11562.5
2
= 26.25 /2
With this value of , we locate the point D. at the end of consolidation,

1 = 1 = 115/2
3 = 3 = 62.5/2
So, =
1 + 3
2
115+62.5
2
= 88.75 /2 and = 26.25 /2
The preceding values of and are plotted at point E. FEG is a geometrically similar stress path drawn
though E, ADE is the effective stress path that a soil element, at average depth of the clay layer, will follow.
AD represents the elastic settlement, and DE represents that consolidation settlement.
For elastic settlement (stress path A to D),
=
1 at 1 at = 0.04 0.01 3 = 0.09
For consolidation settlement (stress path D to E), based on our previous assumption the volumetric strain
between D and E is the same as the volumetric strain between A and H is on the line. For point , 1 =
75 /2 ; and for point , 1 = 118 /2 . So the volumetric strain, , is
= 1+ =
log
(118/75)
1+0.9
0.9 log
(118/75)
1.9
= 0.026
The axial strain 1 along a horizontal stress path is about one-third the volumetric strain along the 0 line, or
1 = 13 = 13 0.026 = 0.0087
So, the consolidation settlement is
= 0.0087 = 0.0087 3 = 0.0261
And hence the total settlement is
+ = 0.09 + 0.0261 = 0.116
Another type of loading condition is also of some interest. Suppose that the stress increase at the average
depth of the clay layer was carried out in tow steps: (1) instantaneous load application, resulting in stress
increases of 1 = 40 /2 and 3 = 25 /2 (stress path AD), followed by (2) a gradual load
increase, which results in a stress path DI (Figure 6. 37). As before, the undrained shear along stress path
AD will produce an axial strain of 0.03. the volumetric strains for stress paths DI and AH will be the same;
so = 0.026. The axial strain 1 for the stress path DI can be given by the relation (based on the theory of
elasticity)
1
1+ 2
= (1 ) 1+2
(68)
Where = 3 /1 for the point I. in this case, 3 = 42 /2 and 1 = 123 /2 . So,

42
= 123
= 0.341
1
= 0.026
=
1+0.52 0.341 (0.5)

10.5 [1+2 0.341 ]
= 1.38
Or 1 = 0.026 1.38 = 0.036

Hence, the total settlement due to the loading is equal to
= [ 1 + (1 along )
= 0.03 + 0.036 = 0.066

Evaluation of Soil Settlement

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Evaluation of Soil Settlement

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NPTEL- Advanced Geotechnical Engineering

Immediate Settlement from Theory of Elasticity

Settlement due to a concentrated point load at the surface

Settlement at the surface due to a uniformly loaded flexible circular area

Settlement at the surface due to a uniformly loaded flexible rectangular

Settlement of a flexible load area on an elastic layer of finite thickness

Settlement of rigid footings

1.2.3 Determination of Youngs Modulus

1.3 PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT

1.3.2 Skempton-Bjerrum Modification for Calculation of Consolidation

1.4 SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT

Stress and Strain Path for Consolidated Undrained Triaxial Tests

Dept. of Civil Engg. Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

NPTEL- Advanced Geotechnical Engineering

1.5.3 Calculation of Settlement from Stress Point

Dept. of Civil Engg. Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

NPTEL- Advanced Geotechnical Engineering

Immediate Settlement from Theory of Elasticity

Settlement due to a concentrated point load at the surface

Settlement at the surface due to a uniformly loaded flexible circular area

Settlement at the surface due to a uniformly loaded flexible rectangular

Summary of elastic settlement at the ground surface (z = 0) due to

Settlement of a flexible load area on an elastic layer of finite thickness

NPTEL- Advanced Geotechnical Engineering

1.2 IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT

Figure 6.1 Elastic settlement due to a concentrated point load

The settlement at a depth z can be found by integration equation (3):

Settlement at the surface due to a uniformly loaded flexible circular area

Dept. of Civil Engg. Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

NPTEL- Advanced Geotechnical Engineering

Figure 6.2 Elastic settlement due to a uniformly loaded circular area

Dept. of Civil Engg. Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

NPTEL- Advanced Geotechnical Engineering

Table 1 Values of (After Ahlvin and Ulery 1962)

where = 2 is the diameter of the loaded area.

The average surface settlement is

Settlement at the surface due to a uniformly loaded flexible rectangular area

Dept. of Civil Engg. Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

NPTEL- Advanced Geotechnical Engineering

Values of 3 and I4 are given in table 2.

Figure 6.3 Determination of settlement at the center of a rectangular area of dimensions

The average surface settlement can be obtained as

NPTEL- Advanced Geotechnical Engineering

Summary of elastic settlement at the ground surface (z = 0) due to uniformly

distributed vertical loads on flexible areas

Settlement of a flexible load area on an elastic layer of finite thickness

Dept. of Civil Engg. Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

NPTEL- Advanced Geotechnical Engineering

NPTEL- Advanced Geotechnical Engineering

Dept. of Civil Engg. Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

NPTEL- Advanced Geotechnical Engineering

NPTEL- Advanced Geotechnical Engineering

The method of using equation (23) is demonstrated in example 2.

Dept. of Civil Engg. Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

NPTEL- Advanced Geotechnical Engineering

Figure 6.8 Immediate settlement of rigid footing

For a uniformly loaded rigid circular footing of radius b (note = /2):

Where 7 = 0.932 average settlement = 0.93 1.7 = 1.58.

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NPTEL- Advanced Geotechnical Engineering

Where 8 = 0.935 (average settlement).

average = 21,000 1 0. 32 951 = 0.0124 = 12.4

Part (c): From equation (20),

NPTEL- Advanced Geotechnical Engineering