MODULE 10

BEEF CATTLE

For purposes of adaptation to geographical areas and products desired, cattle breeds
have differentiated into three general groups beef, dual purpose, and dairy.There are now in the
world nearly 1000 breeds of cattle, including 250 major breeds.
Beef cattle differ from dairy and dual-purpose cattle in that they are primarily
intended for the production of meat. Their milk yield is of secondary importance; indeed for
many purposes they are satisfactory when they produce just sufficient milk to raise their own
calves.
Beef cattle are well adapted to rough land and sparse grazing; they are suitable for
unimproved and arid areas.In arable belts it is sometimes difficult and costly to market corn and
cattle may be kept to convert it into beef; in other cases they are kept to consume by-products
such as straw.
Quality must necessarily depend upon the purpose for which the animal is required,
and is best considered from the view points of the farmer, the butcher, the consumer.
The farmer requires an animal that will make rapid gains of weight on a minimum of
food: docility and high digestion capacity are associated with this quality. The animal should put
on fat while it is still growing, so that, in order to obtain the high prices offered in normal times
for small animals in prime condition, it may be marketed before it has reached maturity.The
beast should have the conformation and finish which enable it to command the highest price per
unit of weight..
The rapididy with which an animal will make gains is nothing to the butcher. He
wants a bullock which carries a high proportion of the most expensive cuts, and the score card is
a fairly true reflection of his requirements.He wants the animal to kill well , i. e. he wants a
carcass with a minimum of offal. A well finished bullock will dress about 58 per cent of its live
weight; very highly finished show specimens may produce even more than 70 per cent of carcase
to live weight.
A well - finished animal has a marbled appearance owing to the deposition of fat
between the bundles of muscle fibres, and when cooked it has fine flavour and juiciness. A joint
from an animal of a dairy breed or an animal fattened after it has grown to maturity has not the
same quality, because the fat is put on externally and internally without developing the requisite
marbling of the flesh.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
Words and Phrases
beef = (carne de ) vit
cattle = vite
many head of cattle = multe capete de vite
meat = carne (ca aliment)
fresh/frozen meat = carne proaspt / congelat
meat grower = cresctor de vite
meat eating = carnivor
POINTS OF THE COW ( REGIUNILE CORPORALE LA VAC )
poll = cretet
forehead = frunte
bridge of nose and muzzle = puntea nasului i botul
mandible = mandibula
nape, back of the neck = ceaf, spatele gtului
throat = gtlej, grumaz
dewlap = salb
brisket = piept
withers = greabn
shoulder point = articulaia umrului
elbow = cot
forearm = antebra
knee = genunchi
shank = gamb
pastern = chii
hoof = copit
dew claw = pinten
ribs = coaste
back = spinare
loins = ale
rear flank = panta, coarda flancului
milk or mammary veins = venele mamare
mavel = ombilic
udder = uger
teats = mameloane
hip bone = old
rump = crup
pin bone or catch = coad
thigh = coaps
stifle = articulaia genunchiului
hock = jaret
switch = prul cozii

EXERCISES

PROGRESS TEST

Answer the following questions:

1. How do we classify cattle ?

2. What kind of animal does the farmer require ?
3. What is the efficiency of an animal ?
4. What kind of an appearance has a well finished animal ?

Fill in the blanks with the prepositions:

1. It depends the size .. the animal.

2. A great quantity water is necessary growing animals.
3. The cow belongs the class .. ruminants.
4. The stomachs .. mature animals vary capacity.
5. The lactation period lasts ten months.

DAIRY CATTLE AND DUAL - PURPOSE

Turning to milk production, it is of course true that large cows on the average, yield
more milk than small ones.Moreover, it seems to be true that , on the average, large cows yield
more milk in proportion to their total food consumption than small ones.
If we look for the causes of unsatisfactory yields it is obviously possible that these
may be of three kinds.Firstly, certain cattle milk well for a short time, but soon drop off in
yield.Here it seems that the mammary capacity may be ample, but the digestive organs are not
able to work at sufficiently high pressure to supply the necessary raw materials.
Secondly, there is the type represented in many cows of good beef form. They have
ample feeding capacity but the surplus food is converted into body fat instead of into milk. If a
heavy ration be fed to such an animal it continues to fatten up to a certain point, when the
appetite declines, the maintenance energy requirement rises, and a balance between the income
and expenditure of energy is restored. In this type it may simply be that the mammary system is
not of sufficient capacity to deal with the available nutrients, and that, the surplus nutrients are
converted into body fat.On the other hand it is possible that there is a kind of competition for the
available nutrients between the fat-storing cells of the body and the mammary cells, and that in
animals that have a marked tendency to fatten, the process of storage tends to take precedence
over that of milk production. In this last case we should have to regard the fattening tendency as
definitely opposed to high milking capacity.
Thirdly, the activity of the mammary tissues depends on the stimulus of parturition,
and a new cycle begins with each calving.The yield during the lactation may be determined, to a
considerable extent, by the amount of response to this stimulus, which is caused by internal milk

capacity. It has in fact been shown that milk production can be stimulated by the injection of
hormones, particularly synthetic substances such as hexoestrol and stilboestrol.
Experiments have shown that it is possible, by feeding thyroxin, to increase milk
yields by several pounds per day over a period of several weeks; but the effect on the total
lactation yield is very small.
It will obviously be difficult to translate into terms of bodily points the physiological qualities
that go to make a good cow, and, as a matter of fact, the judging of milk cattle from their
appearance is at best rather an unsatisfactory business.The real test is actual performance, with
due allowance for age and the other conditions that are known to affect yield. The mean yield
over a series of lactation and under ordinary farm condition is the best kind of evidence.
Of the outward signs of milking capacity the most reliable are the size and quality of
the udder. The udder should be large, exdending well forward along the belly and well
backwards and upwards.It should also be wide and deep.A a pendulous udder , if short and
narrow, is often far less capacious than it appears.After the udder, the size of the milk veins,
which extend forward from the udder along the belly, is probably the surest guide among the
external qualities. A capacious middle as showing ability to feed, is also a point of some
importance, and a quiet, docile temperament as indicated by the head, eye, and general
behaviour, is desirable.
The ideal dairy cow has many other points thar are considered to be indications of
deep milking qualities, but the value of many of thses is doubtful, and these is no conclusive
evidence in favour of them.Many cows of dairy type are good milkers, but others that are poor,
as judged by the accepted standards, will milk nevertheless.
The very productive strains of dairy cattle, like the early-maturing strains of beef
cattle, demand a very high level of nutrition.If this is not provided the cows high productive
capacity becomes a danger to herself.
The dual purpose type represents anendeavour to combine milk production in the
breeding cow with good fattening qualities in the oxen and non-milking cows of the breed.The
recent development of dual-purpose types have been regarded by some as a retrograde step: they
regard the specialization of a type as an essential to the progressive improvement of live stock
and look upon the dual purpose animal as at best an unsatisfactory compromise between two
essentially opposite types.But there is no proof of actual incompatibility between deep-milking
qualities and the tendency to fatten when not in milk, and it is , in fact, possible to combine to a
considerable extent beef qualities and milking tendencies in the same animal.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
Words and Phrases
dairy = laptrie
dairy cattle = vaci de lapte
dairy farm = ferm de lapte
dual-purpose = scop dublu

EXERCISES

PROGRESS TEST

Match the terms on the left with their definitions on the right:

1. freemartin
2. calf
3. stag
4. steer or stot
5. stirk
6. bullock
7. heifer or quey
8. maiden heifer
9. cow heifer
10. bull
11. cow
12. vealer
13. herd

a. a cow calf born as a twin with a bull calf, and often barren
b. a young ox from birth to 6 or 9 months old;if a male, a bull calf; if
a female, a cow or heifer calf
c. a male castrated late in life
d. a young male ox, usually castrated, and between the ages of 6 and
24 months
e. a young female of 6 to 12 months old, sometimes a male of the
same age, especially in Scotland
f. two-year - old ( or more ) castrated ox
g. a year-old female up to the first calving
h. an adult female that has not been allowed to breed
i. a female that has calved once only
j. an uncastrated male
k. a female having had more than one calf
l. bovine under three months of age (intended for slaughter)
m. a group of cattle

Fill in the blanks with the proper terms from the list:

dam, sire, fertilize, semen, lactation, service, udder, Holstein

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

is the production of milk by a cow.

The fluid of a male used to fertilize the female is .
Another name for the bag of a cow is . .
The is the father.
The is the mother.
To a female is to cause her to produce young.
7. is a breed of dairy cattle.
8. When a male breeds a female he is said to her.

PIGS

Pigs are valued almost solely as meat producers, but the meat may be utilized in
different ways, and different types of pigs have been bred to meet the varying
requirements.There are two well defined types of pigs that of pork type and bacon type.
Of all farm animals the pig has the greatest capacity to accumulate body fat, more
especially in early life. Hence early maturity, which is one of the chief objective of the breeder of
beef cattle, and sheep can,in the case of the bacon pig, be very easily carried to excess. It is
therefore well that the selection of breeding stock, with the object of the right degree of early
maturity, should be made when animal have reached market weight e.g. in the case of bacon
breeds, at about six or seven months old. An animal which attains the desired body proportions
at , say, five months old on normal feeding, will be too short and blocky, and will tend to yield
an over-fat carcass when it reaches bacon weight.
Pork and bacon are the main products of pig farming. They are produced from three
classes of pig: (a) pork pigs, (b) Wiltshire baconers, (c) manufacturing pigs (heavy hogs).
Pork pigs. These fall into two groups, light and heavy. Light porkers are usually
killed at 55-65 kg liveweight. These must be well fleshed, particularly in the hind quarters and
loins which give the high priced cuts. They are used to produce small, untrimmed joints which
are ideal for the demands of todays housewife. Slightly heavier pigs, sometimes called cutters,
are killed at 65-85 kg liveweight.These produce larger joints which may need some of the fat
trimmed from them.
Wiltshire bacon pigs refer to system of curing. They are usually killed at 86-96 kg
liveweight at 22-28 weeks of age. Housewives dislike bacon rashers with excessive fat. Bacon
carcasses are therefore, graded according to the thickness of their backfat. The length of the pig
is also measured, because this is thought to have some association with lean content.The ideal
pig is long, well fleshed around the hams and has a comparatively light head. It should also have
a well-sprung rib cage, i.e. almost round appearance in section behind the front legs.
Heavy hogs are pigs which are usually killed at llo - ll2 kg liveweight. They are used
to produce cooked hams, sausages, pies ets.,but their loins are made into bacon. Preferably they
should have a high lean content.However, their carcasses are not subjected to intensive grading
found in the Wiltshire trade. This is because the backfat and rind are cut from the loins and the
bacon is then put into cellophane packets. These lean rashers are very attractive to the
housewives buying in the self-service store.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
Words and Phrases
shoat = purcel
pork = carne de porc
porker = porc tnr pus la ngrat
bacon = slnin
ham = unca, jambon
fat = grsime, osnza, untur
lard = untur

POINTS OF THE PIG ( REGIUNILE CORPORALE LA PORC )

snout = rt
jowl = maxilar inferior
poll = cretet
loins = ale
side = abdomen
rump = crup
fore flank = flancul anterior
belly = burt
rear flank = flancul posterior
fore leg = membrul anterior
pastern = chii
dew claw = pinten
toe = deget
hind leg = membrul posterior
tail = coad

EXERCISES

PROGRESS TEST

Match the terms on the left with their definitions on the right:

1. store pig
2. hog
3. stag
4. gilt
5. boar
6. sow
7. barrow

a) male pig (porcine or swine) castrated before secondary sex

characteristics develop.
b) a breeding female after the first litter
c) an uncastrated male pig
d) a female intended or breeding
e) a male castrated late in life
f) a male pig after being castrated
g) a pig between the time of weaning and being fattened

Translate into Romanian:

The conformation desired in a pork pig, to be finished at four or five months of age, is
comparable to that of a beef type of cattle. The highest priced cuts are obtained from the back
and loin and the ham ( leg of pork ). Hence a wide, thickly fleshed back and a heavy ham are
wanted. At the age indicated pigs are still in rapid growth and if fed on a well balanced diet,
are unlikely to be over fat. In the selection of breeding stock at porker weight a blocky
conformation and thick fleshing should be the main criteria. Great length of body is incompatible
with the degree of early maturity required.

MODULE 11

SHEEP

Sheep are valued comercially for their mutton and wool, and occasionally also for
milk. With some breeds, such as Merino, wool is the primary product, while other breeds are
kept mainly for mutton wool being a secondary, if still an important consideration.
The points of the mutton sheep correspond rather
closely to those of the beef
ox.The valuable qualities being a tendency to fatten early in life (early maturity) a thick
covering of lean meat and an even and not wasteful distribution of the fat..The head varies
greatly with the breed, but should be of good depth and width, strong of jaw and with a broad
nose; the neck moderately short, and thick at its junction with the body; the body deep, wide, and
square; the shoulder top wide, level, and well covered with flesh; the chest deep and wide, and
the ribs well sprung or rounded; the shoulder thickly covered, and the region behind the shoulder
well filled up; the hind quarters long; broad and level; the gigot or leg of mutton thickly fleshed
and the flesh well carried down both inside and out.The back should be wide and level
throughout, thickly covered with firm, muscular flesh; the legs moderately short and well set
apart, the bone neither too coarse nor too fine, clean and hard.The thickness of the tail is also a
useful measure of condition or fatness.
Sheeps wool is commercially by much the most important fibre of its kind, although
other wools and hairs for example mohair, cashmere, alpaca and camels hair are all used as
textiles.Wool is used in the manufacture of a great variety of articles. The chief are, of course,
articles of clothing for inhabitants of colder regions of the world, but carpets, tapestries, and
blankets form also a considerable quantity of wool products.
The British breeds are commonly classified as Long-wools, Downs, other
Shortwools, and Mountain breeds.
The long-wools have, with certain exceptions that will be noted later, the following
characteristics in common: they are of large size, have white faces and legs, and are hornless.
The fleece is heavy, consisting of long strong combing wool of good lustre. In conformation the
long-wools are distinguished by great breadth of back, which is flat and thickly covered with
meat; the leg is, however, less well developed than in, for instance, the Downs. The longwools
are adapted to the more fertile types of farm, where pastures are productive and food
plentiful.They are quiet in temperament and less active than the other types.
The Downs, as a class, are smaller than the longwools, although the largest
representatives are larger than the smallest of the longwool group. They have dark faces and
legs, and are hornless. The fleece consists of fine shortwool with a fine crimp. The colour of
the wool is creamy, and black or brown fibres occur in some breeds rather frequently. The back
is not so broad as in the longwools, but the hindquarter is well developed and the leg is large and
thick. The Down breeds are suited to the lighter and drier types of soil at moderate clevations
with a high proportion of arable.

The mountain breeds are of small size; active and hardy, are somewhat slower in
maturing than the other classes. They tend to be narrower of back, particularly at the shoulder,
than Down or lowland breeds.In respect of fleece and other characteristics the mountain breeds
have little in common.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
Words and Phrases

sheep =oaie, oi
sheep breeding = creterea oilor
sheep run = pune pentru oi
mutton chop = cotlet de berbec
wool = ln, fir de ln
woollen = din / de ln; pl. confecii de ln
fleece = ln
wether = berbec castrat
ram = berbec

POINTS OF THE SHEEP ( REGIUNILE CORPORALE LA OAIE )

forehead = frunte
nostril = nar
lower lip = buza inferioar
breast = piept
top of shoulders = greabn
fore leg = membrul anterior
fore flank = flancul anterior
back = spinare
ribs = coaste
belly = burt
loins = ale

hip bone = old

rear flank = flancul posterior
rump = crup
dock = partea crnoas a cozii, ciot de coad
hock = jaret
pastern = chii
foot = laba piciorului
dew claw = pinten

EXERCISES

PROGRESS TEST

Match the terms on the left with their definitions on the right:

1. wether

a. a male ovine (sheep) castrated when young, and prior to developing the
secondary sex characteristics of a ram

2. ewe

b. an immature ovine under 14 months of age

3. lamb

c. a female ovine of any age

4. yearling

d. an uncastrated male ovine

5. ram

e. an ovine between one and two years of age, that has cut its first pair
of permanent incisor teeth but not the second pair

6. stag

f. a male ovine castrated after it has developed or begun to develop the

secondary physical characteristics of a ram

7. sheep

g. an ovine, usually over 24 months of age, that has cut its second pair of
permanent incisor teeth.

10

Complete the following sentences:

1. Mountain sheep have .

2. A male sheep is called
3. The period of gestation in sheep lasts ....
4. The longwools are adapted to
5. Wool is used in the manufacture of

Fill in the blanks with the proper terms from the list:

fleece, ram, lambing, Merino, twins, barn, bleating, ewe.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

A is a male sheep.
is a breed of sheep.
A building used to shelter animals is called a . .
A is a female sheep.
The call of a sheep is its .
The season of is the time when the females reproduce their young.
The lambs born at the same time are called .
is the covering of a sheep.

HORSES

Since the horse was domesticated about 5,000 years ago, breeding and selection have
resulted in a variety of types and breeds developed for different purposes.Whereas in cattle,
sheep, and hogs, all animals of one breed are usually the same colour and colour is nearly always
a primary differentiating factor among breeds, this is not necessarily true in horses.
Horsemen often have strong preferences for certain colors and color is generally the
primary trait used to describe or identify individual horses. There are five basic coat colors and
five major variations.The five basic colors are:
bay.A mixture of red and yellow, much the color of a loaf of well-baked bread.A light
bay shows more yellow, a dark bay more red. The darkest is the mahogany bay. Bays
always have black points (mane, tail and legs).
Black.True black without light areas.A black horse almost invariably has black eyes,
hoofs and skin. The points are always black.
Brown.Body brown, usually with light areas at muzzle, eyes, and flank.Many brown
horses are mistakenly called black because they are so dark. The mane and tail are
black.
Chestnut (Sorrel). The coat is basically red, varies from a bright yellowish red to rich
mahogany red. The mane and tail are normally the same shade as the body. If the
mane and tail are lighter, the horse is termed a flax or flaxen chestnut. The mane and
tail are never black.

11

White.The true white horse is born pure white and dies the same color.Very little, if
any, seasonal change takes place in his coat color. Age does not affect it.
The major variations of color are:dun and buckskin, grey, palomino, pinto, roan.
Feeding and Management
The horse is a nonruminant, so mastication and enzymatic digestion are similar to that
of the pig, Pasture or hay is the backbone of the ration for nearly all horses. Grass or a grasslegume mixture is satisfactory for pasture; hay should be green and leafy. Grain, commonly oats,
barley, corn, provides a more concentrated energy source.The amount fed depends on how hard
and how long the horse is worked each day , and on age. A young horse continues to grow until
about five years of age, so the energy and protein requirements are relatively high during this
period. A race horse in trening or one used for long daily trail rides in hilly terrain will require
considerable grain. Generally a horse will eat two to three percent of its live weight per day, and
will drink five to ten percent of its weight in water.
Because many horses are maintained in urban areas where all dry feed is purchased,
concentrate mixtures are increasingly common. These contain grain or grain by-product, highprotein source, and any needed supplemental vitamins and minerals.
When grain is fed to horses on good pasture, one feeding per day is sufficient.Where
the horse is confined, feeding two times per day is recommended.Regularity of feeding is
important, and water should be freely available. Also salt should be available; a horse will
usually consume about two ounces of salt per day.
Exercise is important for the horse. Many are confined to stalls 90 percent or more of
the time, so riding and running help to keep them in good condition.Where available and during
the summer, open and luxuriant pasture provides both exercise and a part of the nutritional
needs.Disease and parasite prevention, care of the hoofs, proper shoeing, and grooming are all
part of good management.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
Words and Phrases
horseback = clare
horse breaker = dresor de cai
horseman = clare
horseshoe = potcoav
horse power = cal putere
horse race = curs de cai
hoof = copit
withers = greabn
bay = cal murg
team = pereche de cai
gelding = cal castrat
quarter horse = cal de vitez
saddle = ea

12

EXERCISES

PROGRESS TEST

Translate into Romanian:

The horse is a nonruminant., so mastication and enzymatic digestion are similar to that of the
pig. Between the small intestine and large colon, however, is a large blind pouch, the cecum, in
which considerable microbial digestion occurs, as in the rumen of a cow or ewe. This microbial
digestion continues as the ingesta moves into the colon.The cecum and colon are considered to
be parts of the large intestine. B vitamins are formed by the bacterial action of the large intestine.
Because of this and the normal levels of these nutrients in horse rations, B vitamin deficiencies
are not common.

Match the terms on the left with their definitions on the right:

1. foal
2. colt
3. filly
4. rig
5. yearling
6. stallion
7. mare
8.mule
9. hinny
10. janet
11. jenny
12. a stud horse

a. a breeding stallion
b. a female ass
c. a female mule
d. a horse whose testicles have been retained in the abdominal cavity
instead of descending into the scrotum
e. the offspring from the stallion and the female ass
f. the offspring from the male ass and the mare
g. an adult female over 4 years old
h. an adult male uncastrated horse over 4 years old
i. a year-old horse of either sex
j. a young male
k. a young female
l. a young horse from birth to a year old ; if a male it is called a colt or
horse foal

13

GOATS

In some parts of the world goats are used as beasts of burden to pull small carts. In
most places though they are raised for their meat, milk, skin, or hair. The skin of a kid makes
very fine leather. Milch goats are important dairy animals in some parts of Europe. Goatsmilk is
higher in albumin than cowsmilk and for this reason is sometimes used for feeding children with
digestive trouble.
In some European countries a family with two milking does can obtain their milk
supply the year around. The gestation period is five months and the period of lactation is six
months; if one doe has her kid in the spring and the other in the fall, the milk supply is assured
the year around. Does often have two kids and sometimes three. They usually produce 5-6 quarts
of milk a day. The udder of the milch doe is relatively large and the two teats are also large for
the size of the animal.
Angora is a popular breed of goat produced primarily for its fleece. Both the does and
the bucks have horns. They have long hair which hangs in small curls and often grows 10 inches
per year . The goat must be clipped in the spring because it will shed its fleece each year.
The wool beneath the hair of some goats is known as mohair and is used in weaving
cloth of the same name. Cashmere is a type of cloth made form the very soft wool found
underneath the hair covering of certain breeds of goats. The Angora goat is useful in clearing
areas of brush because they eat enough of the tender branches to kill the plants

EXPLANATORY NOTES
Words and Phrases
goat = capr
kid = ied
mohair = ln de Angora, mohair
fleece = ln; claie de pr
fleecy = lnos
cloth = pnz, postav, stof
doe = cpri
curl = crlion

14

EXERCISES

PROGRESS TEST

Fill in the blanks with the required prepositions:

1. Milk is rich . both calcium and phosphorus.

2. The cow can draw . the reserves . calcium and phosphorus . her skeleton.
3. . dairy cattle the critical periods are . growth and when secreting milk.
4. The cow . milk uses a large amount . calcium . comparison . other
domestic animals.
5. Phosphorus deficiency . the soil occurs . many parts . the world.
6. Sheep can withstand cold temperatures because . the covering . wool.
7. Owing . the wool . the sheep becomes infested . ticks.
8. . summer the sheep suffer . heat.
9. Sheep are usually born . the middle . Aprilie and the middle . May

MODULE 12

POULTRY

Poultry are kept for flesh and eggs. They include hens with chickens, turkeys with
polts, cocks, ducks with ducklings and geese with goslings. The breeds of poultry are numerous.
Private breeders and some breeder hatcheries maintain pure groups of the major
breeds as a continuing source of genes for line or strain development. The lines or strains are
developed by breed-crossing, inbreeding and selection . In broiler or egg production units,
therefore, the commercial name or number of the egg-producing or broiler stock has
significance, rather than the breed.
The Leghorn is considered to be the backbone of commercial egg-producing stock. Its
small size early sexual maturity and high egg production incorporated into lines or strains permit
production that is efficient in terms of feed, time and space (housing). Also the eggshell is white,
preferred by most consumers.

15

Breeders maintain chicken flocks of many breeds, and selected individuals are
employed in the continued development of breeding strains or lines which in turn are used to
produce stock for efficient meat and egg production.
As there are no teeth in the mouth of the fowl, the food is swallowed whole and
passes into the crop, which is a dilated portion of the gullet. It remains there for a short interval
during which the fluids of the crop exert a softening influence and some digestion of starch.
The heart of the fowl beats quicker and respiration is more rapid than in other
animals. The fowl is able to digest its food and absorb the food nutrients much more rapidly than
other farm stock.

EXPLANATORY NOTES

Words and Phrases

poultry = psri de curte, ortnii; carne de pasre
hatchery = incubator; cresctorie de pui
broiler = pui
brooder = incubator, clocitoare
plumage = pene, penaj
beak cioc
comb = creast
fowl = ortnii
hen = gin
cock = coco
chick = puior
chicken = carne de pasre
layer = gin outoare
pullet = puic
turkey = curcan
duck = ra
goose = gsc
duckling = boboc de ra
gosling = boboc de gsc
gizzard = pipot
gullet = esofag
crop = gu

16

EXERCISES

PROGRESS TEST

Translate into Romanian:

The digestive organs of the fowl differ considerably, both structurally and physiologically, from
those of mammals. The alimentary canal of the fowl is anatomically divide into: mouth, pharynx,
upper, esophagus, crop, lower, esophagus, gizzard, small intestine, large intestine.
The crop is similar in general structure to the esophagus.

Fill in the blanks with the required words:

1. The heart of the fowl beats . and respiration is more .. .

2. The fowl is .. to digest its food slowly.
3. The gizzard is a very organ.
4. The fluids of the crop exert influence on the food.
5. There are . breeds of poultry.

FISH

Biologist put all true fish in the class Osteichthyes. These have a bony skeleton with
gills as respiratory organs. Limbs are in the form of fins. Most fish have an outer covering of
overlapping scales or plates. Fish are ideally suited to aquatic life. In a wide variety of forms,
they live in practically every water environment of the earth.
The body of a fish is divided into three regions: 1. head; 2.trunk; 3.tail. In most cases,
the body is perfectly streamlined-tapered at both ends, or spindle-shaped. The lack of a neck is
no disadvantage to a fish. In can turn its body as easily as other animals can move their heads.
Scales cover the body of most fish. The exceptions, however are the head and fins
which lack scales. In some cases, the scales are large and loose. Trout have extremely small
scales. The coloring of a fish lies in the skin whose scales are transparent. These animals are
perfect examples of counter-shading because the upper part of the body is usually colored to
blend with the bottom of a lake or stream. The lower part is light in colour and blends with the
sky overhead.
Structure of the head of a fish. The head is usually pointed and is covered with
plates instead of individual scales. The mouth is usually at the extreme anterior end. Many fish
have numeruos sharp teeth arranged in three sets of jaw bones. The teeth sland inward making it
easy for the fish to swallow its prey, but hard for the prey to escape. The fish has two nasal
cavities, each with two nostrils. The nostrils serve for smelling only. The eyes are large and
somewhat movable. Eyelids are lacking because the eyes do not need to be kept moist. The ears
are embedded in the skull and have no external openings. They probably function as balancing
organs and are used to detect vibrations carried by the bones of the skull.

17

The gills are the organs of respiration. At each side of the head is a crescent-shaped
slit which marks the rear border of the gill cover. These slits almost meet on the ventral side,
leaving only a narrow space at the throat region.They expose the gills to water which the fish
takes in through its mouth. The gill arches have fingerlike projection called gill rakers on the side
toward the throat. These prevent food or dirt from getting into the filaments and keep the arches
separate to allow free circulation of water. In the gills, as in all organs of respiration, we find a
large surface, thin membranes and rich blood supply.
The trunk of the fish and its structure. If we examine the sides of a fish closely,
we shall notice a row of pitted scales extending from the head to the tail fin. This is the lateral
line. Nerve endings lie under the pitted scales. The nerves of the lateral line probabliy aid the
ears in feeling vibrations. The lateral line functions also as a pressure organ, indicating the depth
at which a fish may be swimming. The number and form of fins vary in different kinds of fish.
However, all fish have two kinds of paired fins. The pectoral fins are nearest the head. They
correspond to the front legs or arms of other animals. The fish swims by lashing the tail back and
forth. Dorsal fins are attached along the top middle line of the trunk. Both dorsal fins serve as a
keel and keep the fish on its course while swimming. Many fish have a single dorsal fin, while
others, like the cod, have three. The anal fin like the dorsal fin serves as a keel in maintaining
balace.
The digestive system in the fish. Many fish are vegetarians and feed on algae and
other water plants. Carnivoruos species eat other animals such as crayfish, frogs, other fish and a
wide variety of invertebrates. Some fish, like the bass and pike, swallow fish almost as large as
themselves. Especially in carnivorous fish, the mouth is a large trap for capturing prey. Food is
swallowed whole through a short esophagus, into the stomach. Here, powerful fluids partially
digest the food.
The blood of the fish is like that of other vertebrates. It contains both red and white
corpuscles. The heart lies in a cavity on the lower side, just behind the gills. This heart consists
of two chambers a receiving chamber, or auricle, and a pumping chamber, or ventricle.
How do fish reproduce ? The reproductive organs (gonads) lie in the posterios
region of the body cavity. Tubes from them lead to an opening just behind the anal opening.
Eggs develop in the ovary of the female fish over a period of several months. Sperm develops in
the testes of male fish. Soon after the female lays her eggs or sprawns, the male swims over them
and discharges a sperm-containing fluid. Sperm swim to the eggs and fertileze them, and the
development of the young fish begins. This development may require from two to six weeks or
more, depending on the temperature of the water. The developing fish is nourished by a large
quantity of nonliving material, the yolk, which is present in the egg. Part of the yolk remains
attached to the young fish a short while after hatching and is known as the yolk sac.
The economic importance of fish. Of the 13,000 known species of fish, at least
5,000 have food value. Among the most important salt-water food fish are the cod, haddock,
mackerel, herring, halibut, sole, tuna and sea perch. Fresh-water species, taken from lakes and
the larger rivers include the yellow perch, whitefish, lake trout, carp, catfish and others. Fish
supply many products in addition to food.
Cod liver oil is one of the best sources of vitamins D and A. Fish oil is used in the
manufacture of certain paints. Many cat , dog, poultry and other livestock feeds contain fish
meal, made from fish not generally used as human food. Glue is make from the waste parts and
bones of fish. The scales of certain fish are used in making artificial pearls.

18

EXPLANATORY NOTES
Words and Phrases
fish = pete, peti
fresh water fish = pete de ap dulce
salt water fish = pete de mare
bream = pltic
carp = crap
craw fish = rac, langust
lobster = homar
mackerel = scrumbie
perch = biban
pike = tiuc
sheat fish = somn
shrimp = crevete
sturgeon = nisetru
trout = pstrv
zander = alu
white/great sturgeon or beluga = morun
sterlet = ceg
dried fish = pete uscat
fried fish = pete fript
salt fish = pete srat
smoked fish = pete afumat
grilled fish = pete la grtar

EXERCISES

PROGRESS TEST

Fill in the blanks with proper words:

1. The meat and fish by products are excellent protein supplements .. swine and
poultry.
2. The proteins of eggs and fish are . to milk proteins.
3. Animal tissues are of lower nutritive . than muscles.
4. Casein is inferior in to the entire mixture of proteins that milk contains.
5. The percentage of casein in milk is of great in cheese making, since the yield
of . depends not only upon the percentage of fat but also upon the percentage
of casein.
6. Fish meal .. contains from 50 60 per cent of protein and 15 25 per cent of
mineral matter, whitch is chiefly fish bones.

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BEES AND SILKWORMS

Bees. A well known family of insects, belonging to the order Hymenoptera, an order
which also includes the wasps, ants, and gallflies. This family includes several genera of solitary
bees among which are the mining bees that make their nests in the ground and carpenter bees
that bore tunnels in the pith of plants or in solid wood. The social bees include our native
bumblebees and the domestic honey bee which was originally a European species.
The queen bumblebee lays her eggs on little ball of pollen which she has deposited in
a deserted mouse nest. From these eggs the young bees hatch and form a colony. In the autumn
all the bees except the young queens perish. These pass the winter in some sheltered spot and
found new colonies in the following spring. The honey bees produce the honey of commerce.
During the greater part of the year the population of our hives is composed
exclusively of two sorts of individuals, namely the female or mother bee, called also the queen
bee, and the workers which are, properly speaking, females imperfectly developed. A third kind
of individuals, the males, called also drones, are generally not met with except from May two
July. The working bees constitute essentially the bee community. They are recognized by their
small size, dull black colour and above all, by the palettes and brushes with which the hind legs
are furnished. The males or drones are broader and blunter than the working bees; they emit a
buzzing sound, have know palettes and no sting. The female, or queen has a longer body than
the workers and the wings are shorter in proportion. The only part she has to play is that of
laying eggs, and so she has no palettes or brushes. Only one queen lives in each hive stup, of
which she is perfect sovereign, all the workers submissively obeying her. The number of males is
scarcely one-tenth that of the working bees and they live only about three months. The wax of
which the cells of the honeycomb are constructed is secreted in little pockets situated in the
abdomen, or belly of the bee; but in addition to wax, another substance much resembling it, but
not identical, called propolis, is elaborated from the resin which the bees collect from the buds of
poplar and other trees and use to cement crevices in the hive. Bee bread is made from the pollen
of flowers and is brought in on the legs of the bees. The cells of the comb are hexagonal in
shape, that is having six equal sides--the most economical form as regards spaceand are of two
kinds, namely storecells which are filled with honey, as a reserve store of food, and cradle cells
in which the eggs are deposited.
SILKWORMS. A term applied to the larvae, or caterpillars, of several species of
moths . The common silkworm moth, Bombyx mori is the most important of the silk-producing
moths, and is a native of China, where it has been cultivated from a remote period. The mature
insect is of a cream color with two or three faint brownish lines across the fore wings. The
silkworm when first hatched is black or dark grey, becoming lighter each time it sheds its skin
and cream colored after the last molt. It feeds upon the white mulberry, and will also eat the
black mulberry and the lettuce, but the silk produced by larvae fed on the latter is of an inferior
quality. The silk is produced in a pair of specially-constructed vessels which contain a gelatinous
substance and become much anlarged at the time when the animal is about to spin. These silk
organs unite at the mouth to form a common duct termed the spinneret; through this tube the
semifluid substance is ejected, and in coming in contact with the air hardens into the soft fiber
which is so largely used in commerce. The cater pillar employs the silk in constructing a cocoon
in which it assumes the pupa state.The pupa is usually killed by heating gently in an oven
because the natural exit of the moth is injurious to the silk .

20

EXPLANATORY NOTES
Words and Phrases
bee = albin
comb = fagure; pieptene; creast de coco
honey = miere de albine; lucru dulce, dulcea; drgu, iubit
honey comb = fagure de miere
wax = cear; parafin
silk = mtase; (pl.) mtsuri
silk breeder = sericicultor
silkworm = vierme de mtase
pupa (pl.) pupae = pup, crisalid

EXERCISES

PROGRESS TEST

Match the terms on the left with their definitions on the right :

1. chrysalis
2. cocoon
3. drone
4. entomology
5. larva
6. maggot
7. propolis
8. pupa
9. queen
10. worker

a. a hard case containing the pupa stage of a butterfly

b. a silken case containing the pupa stage of a moth
c. the stage which follows the egg in the development of certain
animals
d. the male bee
e. the specialized study of insects
f. the reproductive female in colonies of social Hymenoptera
g. the larva stage of a fly
h. resinous substance from buds or leaf axils of certain trees, utilized
by worker bees to fasten comb portions and fill up crevices
i. the stage in a complete metamorphozis of an insect following the
larva
j. non-fertile female in a colony of social insects.

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MODULE 13

COMPANY FORMATION

A company is also called a firm or a business. While it is producing goods or trading, it is

said to be business. A firm which is just starting up is going into business and a company which
stops operating goes out of business. If a company gets bigger, it expands. The expansion or a
firm means it can produce more goods or sell more products.
A manufacturing company produces goods. The goods it makes are its products. When a
manufacturing company expands, it usually increases production. If one year it produces a
hundred tonnes and the next year it produces a hundred and ten tonnes, it has increased
production by ten percent.
A company which sells goods in large quantities (in bulk) is called a wholesale
distributor (or wholesaler). A company or person buying goods in bulk and selling them in small
quantities is a retailer. Most local shops are retailers and sell goods retail.
Two or more companies which sell or manufacture the same product are competitors.
They are in competition and they compete for customers. It is important to keep ahead of
competition by selling at competitive prices. If one company has an advantage over its
competitors, it gives them an edge on the market.
An area where there is a demand for certain goods is called a market. A company which
markets (sells) goods locally caters for the local market. A company which sells goods abroad is
an exporter. An export company sells goods on the international (or overseas) market. A
company which starts selling goods overseas is said to go into exporting (or to go into the export
business).

22

The money needed to start a business is called capital. If a person does not have enough
capital he may borrow some from the bank in the form of a loan or an overdraft. Before the bank
will give him a loan he must put up some security (such as his house) in case he cannot pay back
the money. Security is also called collateral. If a business owned by one man (a sole trader or
proprietor) runs into trouble, the owner is liable to pay all the debts to his creditors, even if he
has to sell his private possessions. A sole trader is personally liable to his creditors.
Sometimes two or more people own and run a business. This is called a partnership.
People who invest money in a business are called investors or backers. The backers in a
partnership are all partners and owners. Usually all the partners have personal unlimited liability
for debts to creditors.
A partner who invests money in a partnership but who does not run the business is called
a sleeping partner.
All the investors in a limited company have limited liability. Investment in a Ltd. is in the
form of shares. Everyone who buys shares in the company is a shareholder. The liability of each
shareholder is limited to the amount of his investment. If a person has shares in a company, he is
said to have stake or holding in the company. If he holds 20 % of the shares, he has a 20 % stake.
If a shareholder hs more than 50 holding, he is a majority shareholder and he has a majority for
controlling interest in the company.
Capital which is borrowed is called loan capital. Capital obtained from investment is
called share capital or equity capital. The ratio between the loan capital and the equity capital
determines whether a company has a high gearing or a low gearing. A company which is highly
geared has a high proportion of loan capital. A company which is low geared has proportionately
more equity capital.

EXPLANATORY NOTES

Words and Phrases

to go into business = a se lansa n afaceri
to run a business = a conduce o afacere
to go out of business = a se retrage dintr-o afacere
wholesale = the sale of goods in large amounts as to retailers rather than the consumers
directly (opposed to retail) s. = vnzare angro
wholesaler = angrosist

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retail = the sale of goods to ultimate consumers, usually in small quantities

to sell at retail = a vinde cu amnuntul / cu bucata
to sell in bulk = a vinde cu ridicata
retailer = negustor detailist (cu bucata)
to compete (with, for) = a se lua la ntrecere
competitor = concurent, rival, competitor
overdraft = the amount of money owed to a bank by a person, usually an amount agreed by
the bank and the customer
to cater = a procura, a deservi
caterer = furnizor, persoan care aprovizioneaz
liability = money owed, debts or pecuniary obligations = rspundere, responsabilitate,
garanie
barker = a person or organisation that supports a bussines, idea with money
1. susintor, sprijinitor, adept; 2. girant
sleeping partner = comanditar
share = one of the equal parts into which the money (capital) needed for starting or running
a company is divided = participare, aciune
shareholder = a holder or owner of shares, especially in a company or corporation
= acionar
to hold shares in a company = a fi acionar al unei societi
holding company = a company which controls one or more companies (by owning more than
half the ordinary shares in them)
loan holder = creditor ipotecar
equity capital = capital propriu
gearing = the relationship between the value of a companys fixed interest loan capital and its
ordinary shares. If the amount of these loans is greater than the value of the
ordinary shares,the company is said to be highly-geared. If less, it is low-geared.

24

EXERCISES
SELF EVALUATION

Match the following:

1. shareholder

a. utility

2. retail

b. pecuniary obligations

3. to sell at retail

c. owner of shares

4. electric light system

d. to sell directly at the consumer

5. liability

e the sale of goods in large amounts

6. wholesale

f. the sale of goods to ultimate consumers, usually in

small quantities

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

PROGRESS TEST

Translate into Romanian:

Winners of the future will be those who can best understand the environment in which
they operate and who have the ability to exploit changing market conditions by anticipating
correctly future trends and demands. They will be those organisations which anticipate the
future by understanding the present and which are adept at managing the process of change.

25

In modern business, information is vital to decision-making. The quality of any decision

depend on the relevance, accuracy and timeliness of the information available. Paraphrasing the
saying Knowledge is power, today business world steps forward and says: Information is
power. Information is the essential word in a business environment and the key to progress.
These are only a few reasons for which one should sense the importance of both
professionalism and knowledge/information as key features a person or a business taken as a
whole is supposed to possess in the business world of the future.
(According to: The Times and Business Planning, by Bill Richardson,
Roy Richardson, 1992, page 122)

TYPES OF BUSINESS
The best way of classifying businesses is according to the business ownership. The most
common forms of business ownership are:

sole proprietorship;

partnership;

corporation.
Each form of ownership has a characteristic internal structure, legal status, size, and field

to which it is best suited. Each has key advantages and disadvantages and offers the employees a
distinctive working environment with its own risks and rewards.
A sole proprietorship is a business owned and usually operated by a single individual.
It is the easiest form of business to start with limited funds. As a sole proprietor, you work for
yourself, you are the only one who decides when to work, how many hours a day, whom to hire,
in a word you are independent. But you also have unlimited liability and restricted financial
resources. A proprietorship has a limited life. When the proprietor dies, the business often dies,
too. A proprietor who wants to make sure his business will grow and continue without him,
generally forms a partnership or merges with a larger business.
A partnership is an unincorporated business owned and operated by two or more
individuals under a voluntary legal association. There are general partnerships, in which all
partners are legally equal and are liable for businesss debts, and limited partnerships, in which
one or more people act as general partners, the other partners are passive investors whose
liability is limited to the amount of their capital contribution.

26

A partnership has an increased capital and credit sources, greater profit potential,
unlimited life span; but the general partners have an unlimited liability, they might have
management problems, etc. Thats why, many professionals (such as doctors, accountants,
lawyers) prefer establishing corporation to partnerships.
A corporation is a legally chartered enterprise with most of the legal rights of a person,
including the right to conduct a business, to own and sell property, to borrow money and to sue
or be sued. There are different types of corporations: public corporations (that is, companies
owned by large numbers of public investors; these investors buy stock on the open market,
thereby providing public corporations with large amounts of permanent capital; in return, the
shareholders receive the chance to share in the profits if the corporation succeeds); private
corporations (corporations whose stock is not available to the general public; they withhold their
stock from public sale, preferring to finance any expansion out of their own earnings or to
borrow from some other source); nonprofit corporations (are incorporated institutions whose
owners have limited liability and that exist to provide a social service rather than to make a
profit); etc.
(Adapted from Business Today, by David J.Rackman & co., 1990, p.39)

EXPLANATORY NOTES

Words and Phrases

proprietor = an owner, especially of a business
liability = (1) debit; sum of money that has to be paid
(2) the state of being legally responsible for loss, damage, a debt,etc.
investor

= a person who puts money into a company, or who buys shares to make a profit, or
who paid money on deposit at a bank to earn interest

interest

= money paid to a lender of cash for the use of it.

to charter = to hire (a ship, a plane,etc.) for a special purpose

to sue

= to bring a claim against a person in a court of law

27

EXERCISES
SELF EVALUATION

Complete the following sentences:

1.

A sole proprietorship is a business owned by , although it may have

many employees
a. a family
b. an under-aged person
c. just one person
2.

Shareholders are . of a corporation.

a. the employees
b. part of the managerial staff
c. the owners

3.

A partnership is a . association of two or more individuals as co-

owners of a business for profit

a. loyal
b. legal
c. lawyer
4.

is benefit of sole proprietorships.

a. Secretary
b. Secret
c. Secrecy.

28

PROGRESS TEST

Translate into Romanian:

The economies of eastern Europe have been transformed during the 1990s. Marketoriented systems have replaced the old command economies. In the most countries of the region,
more than half of GDP is now generated by the private sector. The governments in the bulk of
the region have comprehensively liberalised prices, external trade and currency arrangements,
and privatised small-scale economic units. It has proved essential that these should have been the
first areas of change. Many have also privatised a substantial share of their larger enterprises.
All transition countries also still face other substantial

challenges of reform for

example, in the areas of banking supervision, the development of banking skills, capital market
development, competition policy, labour market regulation, social security, secured transactions
and broad areas of the legal structure. The ownership transformation has in some places been
focused on industry and services, while leaving the organisational structure in agriculture largely
unchanged. Some key prices, notably those for energy and housing, are still centrally controlled
in many countries at levels that fail to cover production costs (in the case of energy) or clear the
market (in the case of housing).
Despite impressive advances in market-oriented reform, further major challenges lie
ahead in much of the region, including in those countries that have moved the furthest in their
market-oriented transition, such as those that have become members of the NATO and are
prospective members of the European Union.
(Slightly adapted from Transition Report 1996, European Bank for Reconstruction
and Development, Royal Print Limited London)

Put the verbs in brackets into the right tense in the text below:
Romanian firmly (express) . its option for integration into the

European Union and (file) an official application for accession to E.U. on

June 22, 1995. This accession (become) . a nation strategic objective toward
which the priorities
and aspirations of all the countrys social and political forces regarding Romanias destiny are
converging.

29

MODULE 14

FARM MANAGEMENT ( 1 )
In an agriculture which is highly mechanized, uses many technological innovations, and
operates with large amounts of borrowed capital, management takes on a new dimension and
importance.
Why do some farmers make more money than others? Why do some farm businesses grow
and expand while others struggle to maintain their current size? Good or bad luck can not
explain all the differences observed in the profitability of farms and ranches even among those
which have about the same amount of land and capital available. Farm business records from
many states show the top one-third of the farms to be highly profitable while the bottom one
third are often operating at a loss. Why the difference? Observation and analysis often lead to the
same conclusion. The difference is due to management.
These differences in management can show up in three areas: production, marketing and
financing. Production differences include the choice of agricultural commodities to be produced
and how they are produced. Marketing includes the when, where and how of purchasing inputs
and selling commodities. Differences here are reflected in different prices paid and received.
Financing covers not only borrowing money and the related questions of when, where, and how
much, but also the entire area of how to acquire the resources necessary to produce agricultural
commodities. There is risk to be considered in all three areas how farm managers adapt to and
handle this risk can have a major impact on profit.
If management is so important, we must ask even more questions. What exactly is
management? What do managers do? What is the difference between management and labor?
There are some differences in the management of a farm or ranch and the management of a farm
business corporation. The obvious differences arc in size, type of business, and the products or
services produced. Other differences include the relationship between labor and management and
the setting of goals.

30

EXPLANATORY NOTES
commodity = something sold for profit
marketing = examining products and markets so that the right product reaches the right market at
the right price and is supported by the right advertising and sales promotion
farm management = deciding how plant, machinery, materials, men, money, should be used so
that a companys financial aims can be reached

EXERCISES
PROGRESS TEST
Read the text above and answer the following questions:
1. Why has farm management taken on a new dimension and importance ?
2. Does luck account for the success or failure of farms ?
3. What factor does account for the success or failure of farms ?
4. In what three areas does the farm manager face ?

FARM MANAGEMENT (2)

DEFINITIONS
There are many different textbook definitions of farm and ranch management, but several
common points run through all of them. One of more concise definition is: Farm management is
concerned with the decisions which affect the profitability of the farm business. This broad
definition contains several important points. First, it identifies profitability as a major objective
of the business but not necessarily to the exclusion of other objectives. Second, this definition
specifically identifies decisions and decision making as part of the management process.
Other farm management texts contain alternative definitions but with many of the same
concepts or ideas. There is usually sonic reference to decisions or decision making as being part
of the management process. Also, some mention is made of goals or objectives. This may be
done in general terms, or a more specific goal such as profit maximization may be identified as
being an important end to which the management effort is directed. Finally, some mention of the
organization and operation of the farm or ranch business is included in many definitions.
Farm and ranch management can be thought of, then, as being a decision making process.
It is a continual process because of the continual changes taking place in our economy and in
individual business. The decisions are concerned with allocating the limited resources of land,

31

labor, and capital among alternative and usually competing uses. This allocation process forces
the manager to identify goals and objectives to guide and direct the decision making.
The following definition identifies most of the characteristics of the management activities
found on farms and ranches: Farm and ranch management is the decision-making process
whereby limited resources are allocated to a number of production alternatives to organize and
operate the business in such a way as to attain some objectives.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
profitability = the measure of the profit of a product or service in relation to the money invested
in it
goal = object of effort; destination
to operate to = (cause to) work or to be in action or to have effect

EXERCISES
PROGRESS TEST
Translate into Romanian:
In a corporation, the board of directors sets policies and goals and hires managers to
achieve them. It is generally easy to separate corporation employees who are managers from
those who provide the labor necessary to produce a product or provide a service. On a typical
farm or ranch, one individual or a family group sets the goals, provides the management and
performs much or all of the labor required. This makes difficult to separate the management
activity from labor because the same individual(s) are involved and both tasks may be performed
at the same time. For example, a farmer may be mentally planning a marketing strategy or
developing next years cropping program while operating a tractor or combine. When one person
performs both the management and labor functions, there is a danger that the immediate need for
labor to perform some task will place management in a secondary role, with management
decisions postponed or delayed.

32

FARM MANAGEMENT (3)

FUNCTIONS
Earlier management was discussed in terms of the functions performed by managers.
Included were the functions of planning, implementation and control which may be considered
to be the basic or primary functions of management.
PLANNING. The planning function contains a number of steps, including the
identification and definition of the problem, acquiring the initial information, identifying
alternative solutions, and analysing each alternative. Planning is the most basic management
function as it means deciding on a course of action, procedure or policy. Nothing can happen
until a plan or course of action is selected. The analysis of potential plans makes use of economic
principles and budgeting techniques.
Even for the same problem, planning can he a continual process. New information
requires a new evaluation. The control function is a source of new information as the results of
the initial plan become known. This how of new information, including some from outside the
system, requires a continual evaluation and analysis of alternatives.
IMPLEMENTATION. Once the planning process is completed, the best alternative must
be selected and action taken to place the plan into operation. This requires the acquisition and
organization of the necessary land, labor, machinery, livestock, and annual operating inputs. An
important part of the implementation function is the financing of the necessary resources. Since
implementation can take time, it must begin early enough that all required resources are available
at the proper time and place.
CONTROL. The control function provides for observing the results of the implemented
plan to see if the specified goals and objectives are being met. Many things can cause a plan to
go off its track. Price and other changes which occur after the plan has been implemented can
cause the actual results to deviate from the expected. Some deviation should be expected because
of many uncertainties connected with agricultural production, but it is necessary to identify the
type and magnitude of the deviations as soon as possible. This information can be used to keep
the plan and the desired results from moving outside an acceptable range.
Control is more than just record keeping. It requires a system for making regular checks on
the plan and monitoring progress and results as measured against the established goals. Without
some feedback procedure, the information obtained by the control system is of no use in making
corrections to the existing plan or improving future plans. This feedback sets up a continuous
cycle of planning, implementation, monitoring, and recording progress, followed by a
reevaluation of the plan and the implementation procedures using the new information obtained

33

through the control function.

The importance of control must be stressed continuously. A good control system requires
an accurate record-keeping system and the ability to use it. Without detailed records, a business
is like a ship without a compass. There is no way to know where it has been, where it is going, or
how long it will take to get there.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
feedback = any kind of response which will show whether something will have to be changed
and in what way
to implement = to complete (contract); fulfil (undertaking); put (decision, plan, etc.) into effect;
fill up, supplement
to monitor = to cheek; to control

EXERCISES
PROGRESS TEST
Explain the following words:
monitoring progress
feedback procedure
reevaluation
Answer the following questions:
What happens if no plan is chosen ?
What should you do with the new information ?
What do you do when you have finished the planning process ?
What part of implementation is important ?
What does the control function enable you to do ?
Is record keeping enough to ensure control ?
What do you need in order to have a good control system ?

34

MODULE 15

BASIC PROBLEMS OF THE MANAGER (A)

The allocation of limited resources among a number of alternative uses requires a manager
to make decisions. This is one of the reasons, if not the most important one, for some mention of
decisions or decision making in a definition of farm and ranch management. Without decisions
nothing would happen. Even allowing things to continue as they are implies a decision, perhaps
not a good decision but a passive decision nevertheless.
The process of making a decision can be formalized into a logical and orderly series of
steps. Important steps in the decision-making process are:
a. identify and define the problem
b. collect relevant data, facts, and information
c. identify and analyse alternative solutions
d. make the decision select the best alternative
e. implement the decision
f. evaluate the results and bear responsibility for the outcome.
Following these steps will not ensure a perfect decision. It will however, ensure that the
decision is made in a logical and organized manner.
Many problems confront a farm or ranch manager: how much to produce, how to produce,
and what to produce. These are basic problems faced by all managers.
Problems also result from identifying something that is not as it should be. This may be a
goal that is not being attended or a deficiency in the organization or operation of a business
identified by finding a difference between what is and what should be.
A manager must constantly be on the alert to identify problems and to identify them as
quickly as possible. Most problems will not go away by themselves and represent an opportunity
to increase the profitability of the business through wise decision making. Once identified, the
problem should he concisely defined. Good problem definition will minimize the time required

35

to complete the remainder of the decision-making steps.

Once the problem has been identified and properly defined, the next step should be to
gather data, information and facts and to make observations which pertain to the specific
problem. A concise definition of the problem will help identify the type of data needed and
prevent time being wasted gathering information which is not useful to the particular problem.
Data may be obtained from a number of sources, including the local county extension office;
bulletins from state experiment station and agricultural colleges; dealers; salespersons of
agricultural inputs; radio; TV; farm magazines. Whatever the source, the relative accuracy and
reliability of the information obtained should be considered.
Decisions typically require information about future events since producing crops and
livestock takes time. Information about future prices and yields is often needed and may require
the decision maker to formulate some estimates or expectations. Past prices and yields provide a
starting point hut will often need to be adjusted based on the best current information and the
judgement of the decision maker.
It is important to make a distinction between data and information. Data can be thought
as an unorganized collection of facts and numbers obtained from various sources. In this form,
the data may have very little use. To be useful these data and facts need to be organized, sorted
and analysed. In formation can be thought of as the final product obtained from analysing data in
such a way that useful conclusions and results are obtained.
Gathering data and facts and transforming them into information can be a never-ending
task. Too much time spent gathering and analysing data may result in a cost which cannot be
justified by extra income received from continual refinement of data collection and information
processing.

EXERCISES
PROGRESS TEST
Translate into Romanian:
Management is not only a problem-solving activity but also a decision-making activity.
Many farm problems fall into one of three types. The first one is: How much to produce ?
Production may be decided by the number of inputs. Inputs, of course, means the things you put
into the farm. And not just the number of inputs, but also the level of inputs. Fertilizer is an
input. And the manager is faced with the problem of how much fertilizer to use. Irrigation is

36

another input. Other examples are: seeding rates, feeding levels, labor, and of course machinery
use. The input levels the farmer decides on will decide his level of production.
The second question is: How to produce ? Many agricultural products can be produced
in a number of different ways. For example, beef can be produced by a high-gain ration for the
animals, or by a high roughage ratio. Crops, no matter what they are, or nearly no matter what
they are, can be produced with large machinery and little labour. On the other hand, they can
also be produced by small machinery and more labour. Its a problem and the manager must
decide on the best combination of inputs, so that he can keep his costs down as far as possible
but at the same time produce a certain amount, a given quantity, of a particular commodity.
The third question is :What to produce ? This problem involves deciding, choosing,
what combination of crops and livestock he should produce. The manager, the farmer must
choose from among the many alternatives he has which combination will suit him best.

BASIC PROBLEMS OF THE MANAGER (B)

Once the relevant information is available, the manager can begin listing alternatives
which are potential solutions to the problem. Several may become apparent during the process of
collecting data and transforming data into information. Others may take considerable time and
thought, and all possible alternatives should be considered. This is the time to brainstorm and list
any idea which comes to mind.
Each alternative should be analysed in a logical and organized manner to ensure accuracy
and to prevent something from being overlooked. Good judgement and practical experience may
have to substitute for information which is unavailable or available only at an additional cost that
is greater than the additional return from its use.
Choosing the best solution to a problem is not always easy, nor is the best solution always
obvious. Sometimes the best solution is to do nothing or to go back, redefine the problem, and go
through the decision-making steps again. There are legitimate decisions, but they should not be
used as a way to avoid making a decision when a promising alternative is available.
After all the pros and cons of each alternative are weighed, one may not appear to be
definitely better than the other. The one showing the greatest increase in expected profit would
normally be selected. However, this selection is often complicated by uncertainty about the
future, particularly future prices. If several alternatives have nearly the same potential effect on
profit, the manager must then assess the chances or Probability that each will have the expected
or identified outcome and the risk associated with it.

37

Selecting the best alternative will not give the desired results unless the decision is
correctly and promptly implemented. Resources may need to be acquired and organized, which
requires some physical action to be taken. Of course, doing nothing is an alternative and a
potential solution to a problem. However, the manager who decides to do nothing or to
implement no new alternative should do this only after enough analysis of the problem to be sure
that this is the correct decision. Too often doing nothing results from not allocating enough time
to the decision-making process or a reluctance to make a decision.
Responsibility for the outcome of a decision rests with the decision maker. A reluctance to
bear responsibility may explain why some individuals find it so difficult to make a decision.
However, since it is difficult for managers to avoid decision making, it follows that they must
bear the responsibility. it goes along with the job.
Not every decision will be a perfect one. For this reason the results of each decision should
be carefully evaluated to gather any data or information which can be used to modify the
decision and to assist in making better decisions. Careful observation and analysis will result in
additional information, allow corrections to he made, and improve future decisions. Managers
who learn from their past mistakes may soon find people talking about their good luck. While
good luck may occasionally bless some managers, most is the result of hard work and good
decision.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
reliable = able to be trusted
reliability = the state of being reliable
brainstorm = spontaneous discussion in search of new ideas
outcome = result, visible effect

EXERCISES
PROGRESS TEST
Which are the main ideas in the following text:
Charles Turner, a consultant for a firm that promotes worker ownership projects, has
elaborated a series of requirements for success:

38

LEADERSHIP. There must be at least one person in the community who knows the
resource situation, the people and their interests, and understands the potential of worker
ownership as an alternative.
RESOURCE BASE. There must be something to work with. The existing resources can be
mobilized to secure those that are lacking. A responsibility of the leadership will be to identify
needs capital, technical assistance, communication technology, or political support to
coordinate procurement efforts.
MARKET. There must be a demand for the product. Some applied research should be
conducted to make sure that there is an available clientele to be served now and in the
foreseenable future. It may also be necessary to make product adjustments to assure satisfactory
market performance.
INFRASTRUCTURE. A sound legal structure is critical for effective action besides
serving as a guarantee to maintain the confidence of community participants. A systematic
accounting system is also vital for all to be aware of exact details of the economic situation, their
duty to it and their part of the benefits.
SKILL AND DETERMINATION. Responsibility, for a salaried worker, is principally for
his or her own performance. Responsibility is no longer for the use of personal skills alone, but
involves accountability to each other. It may not he possible to just walk away from the plant at
the end of the day. There may be meetings. Negotiation , dedication and a generous dose of
goodwill are required.
MANAGEMENT. Managers need two critical skills: they must be able to build an
organization that can compete efficiently in the market place and they need to be able to
stimulate workers to assume responsibility for the development as well as the day-to-day activity
of the firm.
EDUCATION. In addition to the necessary recycling of skills that is especially important
with accelerated rates of change, there is also general information about other aspects of the
production process that are not usually encountered by a salaried worker. The holistic
approach often cited in recent times provides every employee with insight into the workings of
the whole firm and furnishes a forum for individual suggestions.
(Adapted from Beyond the Market and the State: New Directions for Community
Development, by Charles Turner, 1987, pp 64-78)

39

THE IMPORTANCE OF MARKETING FOR THE ORGANIC

FARMER
Many organic growers have the mistaken belief that the organicness of what they grow
should be enough in itself to sell their produce. As a result, their grading and quality control is
negligible and they push on to the customer a product that leaves a lot to be desired. We have a
quality product to sell . Let that be reflected as far as possible in its external quality as well.
Organic farming is no longer in the dark ages of technology or experience, so it is perfectly
possible to produce most crops without pest damage or blemishes.
The next logical extension to this point is presentation. Good packaging is, however
essential for both presentation and preservation of the produce, especially if it has to travel any
distance.
On the livestock side, the situation is more critical. Livestock products are less likely to be
selling predominantly on their organic merits, and will be in more direct competition with
conventional equivalents. Luckily their very nature requires good packaging and presentation
and there is little room for manooeuvre which would lower standards. Quality is not so much a
matter of careful grading, but more a matter of cleanliness and good management in the
processing stage.
The next important aspect of good marketing is attention to detail. This really runs through
all areas of organic farming, not to say all farming. even all businesses. To grow quality and to
carry that through to the consumer requires attention to every detail. One bad batch of produce
damages the reputation for an awful lot longer than that produce lasts. When dealing with
supermarkets, one bad box in a load, even slightly underweight or oversized, might very well
mean the rejection of the whole load.
What are the options for marketing? These are basically two: either selling directly to the
public or to some kind of middle man or wholesaler. Within each there are many subdivisions.
DIRECT SALES. The organic farmer can reach the public direct by several methods,
ranging from a farm shop on site, through a market stall or retail round , or even stretch to his
own shop in town. He will need a reasonable range of produce to attract customers and, very
important, he will need good continuity of supply. The main advantage of selling direct is that
farmers mark up can be higher, with prices pitched nearer the retail level. He is also in contact
with his customers, which can be valuable both in terms of feedback and his social life, as
farming is a rather lonely occupation. Another benefit is that his packaging can perhaps be less
sophisticated., or even non-existent.
There are however just as many disadvantages. All direct selling requires time, which will

40

leave less time for actual farming. The organic farmer may find himself almost entirely taken up
with marketing. There are other expenses too. The farmer may have to embark on a heavy
advertising program in the local press. The cost of converting a farm building and equipping a
shop, renting a market stall or paying running costs for a mobile shop, the cost of carrying stock
and covering wastage must all be taken into account. He may also travel some distances to obtain
the right products to go alongside his own on the shelves, and the mark-up that he can put on
these may hardly justify the expense of the extra time and work. These are all considerations
involving economics and time, and must be weighed up carefully. The organic farmer must
always keep one eye on the competition. There is a plethora of mobile shops these days and an
increasing number of market stalls sell organic produce or at least wholefoods. Many areas are
fairly saturated with farm shops and unless the farmer is in a particular good position, right to a
town or on a main road, his organic advantage may not be enough of a draw.
The Marketing Co-operative. It is important to understand what is meant by a marketing
co-operative. The first point to stress is that it has nothing to do with common ownership or other
aspects of ordinary co-operatives. It is only to do with marketing. Members of a co-operative sell
their produce together, thus enjoying economies of scale, and co-operation not competition. It
gives the producer the security of the best possible market, assuming the co-operative is doing its
job, without the hassles and time involved in doing it all himself. The main advantage of a
marketing co-operative for the small producer is therefore that, together with others in the area,
he has a combined size that has clout and selling power way above what he would have alone.
The decision as to what is grown must be also taken co-operatively, for the members should only
grow what the cooperative has markets for. This does, however, allow members to concentrate
on what they can produce best, thus gaining the benefits of specialization without the
disadvantages of marketing it on a small scale.
Two important points must be remembered. First, the co-operative, although owned by its
members, never actually buys or owns the produce itself. It only sells it on the behalf of its
members. Second, the co-operative should not make a profit. If it does, then its commission
charges are too high. Its job is not to make money itself, hut to achieve maximum returns for its
members.

41

EXERCISES
PROGRESS TEST
Ask 6 wh questions based on the above text. Use the prompts below.
1. What...........................................................................................?
2. When..........................................................................................?
3. Which.........................................................................................?
4. Where.........................................................................................?
5. How............................................................................................?
6. Why............................................................................................?

WRITING TASKS
TEME DE CONTROL

REFERAT NR. 1

( modulele 10 12 )

Rezolvai testele de la urmtoarele pagini: p. 3, p. 5, p. 7, p. 10, p. 13, p. 15, p. 17, p. 19, p. 21

REFERAT NR. 2

( modulele 13 15 )

Rezolvai testele de la urmtoarele pagini: p. 25, p. 28, p. 31, p32, p. 34, p. 36, p. 38, p. 42

42

BIBLIOGRAPHY
ALEXANDRESCU C., ndreptar practic de limb englez pentru ingineri zootehniti i
medici veterinari, Ed. Ceres, Bucureti, 1982.
BLAKE FRANCIS, Organic Farming and Growing, WBC Book Mnufactures Ltd.,
Bridgend, Mid Glamorgan, 1990
CALLUT JEAN PAUL, Business Vocabulary Based on English for Managers (a
selection of texts ), Louvain la Neuve 1988
CICIUC OLEA, TNSESCU EUGENIA, English for Business Purposes, Ed. Teora,
Bucureti, 1998
DAVID FRANCIS

, Family Agriculture (Tradition and Transformation), Earthscan

Publications Ltd., London, l994

GAVRIL, V. T. , Anatomia i fiziologia animalelor domestice, Ed. Didactic i
pedagogic, Bucureti, 1964
HALGA P. , STAN GH. , Dicionar de nutriie i alimentaie animal, Ed. Remus, ClujNapoca, 1999
HOHAN, LUCIA TRANCOT, tii s redactai o scrisoare n limba englez ?,

Ed. Albatros, Bucureti, 1984

JULES N. PRETTY, Regenerating Agriculture (Policies and Practice for Sustainability
and Self-Reliance), Earthscan Publications Ltd., London, l995
LEVICHI LEON, Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. Stiinific, Bucureti, 1967
NEGRUIU, E. , PETRE A. , Ameliorarea animalelor domestice, Ed. Didactic i
pedagogic, Bucureti, 1975
NORTON, GEORGE W., JEFFREY ALWANG , Introduction to Economics of
Agricultural Development, (McGraw-Hill Book Co.), l993
PIPERNEA P. , nbuntirea structurii genetice a populaiilor de animale, Ed. Ceres,
Bucureti, 1982.
YATES, C. ST., Agriculture (English for Academic Purposes Series), Cassel Publishers
Limited, l989

43

DICIONARE

Dicionar englez romn, Ed. Acad. Romn, 1974

Dicionar romn englez, Ed. tiinific, Bucureti, 1973
Dicionar agricol n opt limbi, Praga, 1970
The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English, Oxford, 1964
Collins Business English Dictionary, London 1989`

44

CONTENTS
CUPRINS
MODULE 10 1
BEEF CATTLE . 1
Exercises 2
DAIRY CATTLE AND DUAL PURPOSE... 3
Exercises 5
PIGS ... 6
Exercises 7
MODULE 11 8
SHEEP ... 8
Exercises .. 10
HORSES .. 11
Exercises .. 13
GOATS 14
Exercises .. 15
MODULE 12 . 15
POULTRY ... 15
Exercises .. 17
FISH . 17
Exercises .. 19
BEES AND SILKWORMS . 20
Exercises .. 21
MODULE 13 . 22
COMPANY FORMATION 22
Exercises .. 25
TYPES OF BUSINESS ... 26
Exercises .. 28
MODULE 14 . 30
FARM MANAGEMENT ( 1 ) 30
Exercises .. 31

45

FARM MANAGEMENT ( 2 ) 31
Exercises .. 32
FARM MANAGEMENT ( 3 ) 33
Exercises .. 34
MODULE 15 . 35
BASIC PROBLEMS OF THE MANAGER ( A ) ... 35
Exercises .. 36
BASIC PROBLEMS OF THE MANAGER ( B ) ... 37
Exercises .. 38
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARKETING FOR THE ORGANIC FARMER . 40
Exercises .. 42
WRITING TASKS . 42
BIBLIOGRAPHY .. 43

46