1. What are the important non-aerospace applications of wind tunnels?

Non-Aero applications in
Civil Engineering
Automobile Engineering
Calibration of instruments

2. Define Buckingham Pi theorem method

The application of this theorem provides a fairly easy method to identify dimensionless parameters (numbers).
However identification of the influencing parameters is the job of an expert rather than that of a novice.

3. Define THE PRINCIPLE OF DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY

The principle is basic for the correctness of any equation. It states If an equation truly expresses
a proper relationship between variables in a physical phenomenon, then each of the additive terms
will have the same dimensions or these should be dimensionally homogeneous.
4. Define model.
In the engineering point of view model can be defined as the representation of physical system
that may be used to predict the behavior of the system in the desired aspect.
5. Define prototype.
The system whose behavior is to be predicted by the model is called the prototype.
6.WHAT IS MEANT BY SIMILARITIES?
Model and prototype have similar properties or model and prototype are
similar
7. Define Geometric Similarity
Some of the PI terms involve the ratio of length parameters. All the similar linear dimension of the
model and prototype should have the same ratio. This is called geometric similarity. The ratio is
generally denoted by the scale or scale factor.
8. Define Dynamic Similarity.
Similitude requires that PI terms like Reynolds number, Froude number, Weber number etc. be equal for the
model and prototype. These numbers are ratios of inertia, viscous gravity and surface tension forces. This
condition implies that the ratio of forces on fluid elements at corresponding points (homologous) in the
model and prototype should be the same. This requirement is called dynamic similarity.

9. Define Kinematic Similarity.

When both geometric and dynamic similarities exist, then velocity ratios and acceleration ratios will
be the same throughout the flow field. This will mean that the streamline patterns will be the same
in both cases of model and prototype. This is called kinematic similarly.
What are the Non- Dimensional Numbers?
Reynolds number, Froudes number, Webers Number, Mach number, Eulers Number.
REYNOLDS NO
Its defined as the ratio of an inertia force of the flowing fluid and the
viscous force of the fluid

EULERS NO?
Its defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force of a
flowing fluid to the pressure force
WEBERS NO?
Its defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force of a
flowing fluid to surface tension force
FROUDES NO?
Its defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force of a
flowing fluid to the gravity force

11.Define Model Law.

For the dynamic similarities between the model and prototype, the ratios of corresponding force
acting on the corresponding points should be equal. The ratio of the forces of non-dimensional
numbers it means that for the dynamic similarity between model and prototype , the dimensionless
number should be same for model and prototype. The law on which the model are designed for
dynamic similarity are called model laws or similarity laws.
12.Define Reynoldss model law.
It states that the Reynolds number for the model and prototype must be equal where the viscous
force is predominant in addition to the inertia force.
13Write the Froules model law equation.

14What are the Types of Models?

i). Undistorted model

ii). Distorted model

15What is Undistorted model?

An undistorted model is one which is geometrically similar with its prototype. The condition of
similarities are completely satisfied for such models hence the results obtained from the model test
and easily used to prevent the perform of prototype.
16What are Geometrical Distortion types?
Distortion of dimension- adoption of different scale for vertical and horizontal
Distortion of Configuration Model does not be an resemblance of its Prototype.
17What is Material Distortion?
Adoption of different material for model and prototype.

What is Scale Effect?

The behavior of the prototype as predicted by two models with different scale ratio is generally not the
same. Such an difference in the prediction of behavior prototype is known as Scale Effect.

UNIT II
WIND TUNNELS
What are the two basic types of wind tunnels?
Open Circuit wind tunnels
Closed circuit wind tunnels
What are the advantages of Open circuit tunnels?
Construction cost is less
There is no purging problem
What are the disadvantages of open circuit wind tunnels?
More energy to run
Tunnel is noisy
It Cause environmental problems and limits on hours of operation.
What are the advantages of closed circuit wind tunnels?
Less Energy is required.
Less noise when operating
What is variable density tunnels?
In this type of tunnels, we can use different density working fluids for tunnel operations.

Explain Propulsion Tunnels?

These types of tunnels are used for testing aircraft engines, either reciprocating or jet; requires simulation of both flight
velocity and the variation of atmospheric pressure and temperature.

What is smoke tunnels?

Smoke tunnels are used primarily for flow visualization. Smoke tunnels used for research rather than
demonstration purposes tend to have large contraction ratios.

Explain automobile tunnels?

These types of tunnels are used for test aerodynamic parameters that affects an automobiles
performance and stability.
What is meant by viscosity?
The property which characterises the resistance that a fluid offers to applied shear force is termed
as viscosity

10. Explain specific heat of a medium.

The specific heat is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit
mass of a medium by one degree.
Which are the factors affecting the surface tension of a fluid?
The nature of the fluid
The nature of the substance with which it is in contact at the surface.
The temperature and pressure.

What are the two methods of fluid analysis?

Lagrangian method
Eulerian method.
Explain the pathline.
Pathline may be defined as a line in the flow field describing the trajectory of a given fluid particle.
Explain the term streakline.
Streakline may be defined as the instantaneous locus of all the fluid elemnts that have passed
the point of injection at some earlier time.
Explain streamlines.
Streamlines are imaginary lines in a fluid flow drawn in such a manner that the flow velocity is
always tangential to it.
Explain the term simple vortex.
A simple or free vortex is a flow in which the fluid elements simply move along concentric circles,
without spinning about their own axis.
Explain the lower critical Reynolds number.
The lower critical Reynolds number is that Reynolds number below which the entire flow is
laminar.
Explain the streamlines and bluff bodies.
Lowe drag shapes are called streamlined bodies and high drag shapes are termed bluff bodies.

Explain the term shear drag.

Drag due to the friction between the body surface and the fluid is known as shear drag.

What is meant by Fanno flow?

Fanno flow is an adiabatic flow with no external work.
UNIT III

CALIBRATION OF WIND TUNNELS

What are the factors concerning selection and mounting of strain gauges in wind tunnels?
Adequate strain must be provided in the measuring elements under the design loads
Match gauges for gauge factors and resistance.
How the internal strain gauge are balances are calibrated?
Internal sting balances are generally calibrated outside the tunnel.
The Calibrations use a calibration rig upon which the balance is mounted.
What are the purposes of Calibration?
To proof load the balance
To determine calibration slopes for air component
To determine component sensitivity.

What are the importance observations made from pressure distributions?

The reaction of the minimum pressure point and its strength.
The load that the skin is to withstand and its distribution.
What are the factors considering in the flutter testing?
Critical flutter speed
Flutter frequency
Wing Empennage interaction.
What is solid blockage?
The presence of the model in wind tunnel testing reduces the area, so increase the velocity this
effect is called the solid blockage.
What are the commonly used scattering instances?
Micro polythene spheres
Diluted milk droplets
Aerosal
Fine alumina powder.
What is fringe system?
In the fringe system the fringes obtained during interference of the two beams are made use of
for the measurement of flow velocities.
9. What is vortex shedding technique?
Measurement of low velocities, below 2m/s, are difficult to do with instrument like a pitot-static
probe in conjunction with a manometer, for measuring such low velocities, vortex shedding
techniques could be used.
10. What is fluid jet anemometer?
The deflection of the jet strongly depends on the ratio of flow velocity to jet velocity. This kind of
instrument has been used successfully in various industrial processing plants.

11. What is Beckmann Thermometer?

It is used for accurate determination of a small temperature changes, such as that encountered
while using the bomb calorimeter.
12. What is net flap span ratio?
It is the ratio between flap span and wing span 13. What is flap at out ratio?
It is the ratio between total flap at out area and total wing area.
What is the limitations of Dimensional Analysis?

Dimensional Analysis does not give any clue regarding the selection of Variables.
The complete information is not provided by the dimensional analysis.
Name the different similarity laws?
Reynolds Similarity law
Froude similarity law
Euler similarity law
Weber similarity law
Mach similarity law
What is Weber similarity law?
In a fluid system, where surface tension effects predominate in addition to inertia force, the
dynamic similarity is obtained by equating the weber number for the model and its prototype,
which is known as weber model law.
17. What is laser velocimetry?

The most common laser Doppler velocimeter uses optics to split the laser beam into two parallel
beams that are focused to cross at the point where measurements are to be made.
What are the advantages of forward scatter mode?
It can use low power lasers, such as helium, neon output .5 to 3.00 mv.
The laser does not need cooling
The signal to noise ratio is large.

What is the diaphragm type pressure transducer?

The most commonly used pressure transducers are of the diaphragm type. Generally they are of the differential
pressure type and a preselected reference pressure is applied to the reference side.

When the fluorescence photography is used?

Ultraviolet fluorescence photography is used when the medium used for visualizing the flow has been treated with a
dye that radiates in the visual spectrum when excited by long wave ultraviolet light. The wavelength of the long wave
ultraviolet light is 320-400 millimicrons and it is transmitted by optical glass.

UNIT IV
WIND TUNNEL MEASUREMENTS
What are the fundamental qualities to be measured in fluid flow experiments? Pressure,
temperature, velocity and density.
What is the main group of pressure measuring devices? Manometers and pressure transducers.
Give the examples for manometers.
U tube manometers
Multitube manometers
Betz type manometers.
Give the examples for pressure transducers.
Electrical type transducers
Mechanical type transducers
Optical type transducers.
What is the basic principle of manometers?
The pressure applied is balanced by weight of a liquid column. The sensitivity of the instrument
depends on the density of the manometric fluid used.
What is LDA?
LDA is laser Doppler are mometry; it is used to measuring velocities in fluid flows.

What are the advantages of LDA?

The measurement with LDA is absolute
It has high frequency response.
Explain the term temperature.
Temperature is a measure of the intensity of hotness or coldness.
What are the factors considering for the temperature measurements?
Increase or decrease of size
Change of colour
Generation of electromotive force.
What is thermometer? Give examples for thermometer.
A thermometer is a general name given to thermometric measuring devices. Some of the commonly used
thermometers are the mercury in glass thermometer. Beckmann and gas thermometer.

Give the examples for Electrical thermometers/

Thermocouples
Resistance temperature detectors
Thermistors
What is the principle of pyrometers?
When temperature of the metal increases, it emits different colours.

What is wind tunnel balances?

Wind tunnel balance is a device to measure the actual force and moments acting on a model
placed in the test section stream.
What are the classifications of wind tunnel balances?
Wire type balance
Strut type balance
Yoke type balance
What is wire type wind tunnel balances?
In wire type wind tunnel balances only wires are used to support the model. All the load
components are transmitted to the measuring device by these wires.
What is the classification of strut type wind tunnel balances?
Yoke type
Platform type
Pyramid type
What are the advantages of strut type balances?
The strut being rigid, their deflection can be kept at a very small value.
Weight of the support structure can be kept very low.
What is pyr4amid type wind tunnel balances?
In pyramid type balances, the model mounting is about one point connecting the model to the
platform by four arms.
What are the types of strain gauge wind tunnel balances?
Internal strain gauge wind tunnel balance

Semi-Internal strain gauge wind tunnel balance

External strain gauge wind tunnel balance.
What is strain gauge wind tunnel balances?
Balances with strain gauges as the load sensing element are termed strain gauge wind tunnel balances.

UNIT V
HIGH SPEED WIND TUNNELS
Explain high speed wind tunnels?
High speed wind tunnels are those, with test section speed more than 650 kmph.
What are the advantages of blow down wind tunnels?
They are simplest among the high speed tunnel types
Most Economical to build
Running time of considerable duration can be achieved.
What are the disadvantages of the blow down wind tunnels?
Charging time to running time ratio will be very high
Starting load is high.
What are the advantages of Induction type tunnels?
Stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature are constants.

Starting and shut down operations are simple.

What are the disadvantages of Induction type wind tunnels?
Vaccum tank size required is very large
Reynolds number is very low.
What are the advantages of continuous supersonic wind tunnels?
Only a small capacity drier is required.
Better control over the Reynolds number is possible.
What are the disadvantages of continuous supersonic wind tunnels?
Power required is very high
Requires large size cooler.
What are the losses in supersonic tunnels?
Frictional losses
Expansion losses
Losses in cooling system
Losses in guide vanes.
What is the need for second throat in supersonic wind tunnels?
The second throat is used to provide isentropic deceleration and highly efficient pressure
recovery after the test section.
What is the pressure and temperature range in the hypersonic wind tunnels?
The pressure range of hypersonic wind tunnels are 10 to 100 atmosphere and stagnation
temperatures are 223K to 2273K.
Explain why heated and dry air is used in hypersonic wind tunnels.
Use of dry and heated air is necessary for hypersonic operation to avoid condensation effects and liquefaction
during expansion to the high Mach numbers and corresponding low temperatures.

Explain surging in wind tunnels.

It is a low frequency vibration in velocity that may run as high as five percentage of the
dynamic pressure.
What are the disadvantages of the surging?
Surging makes the validity of assigning a Reynolds number to the test doubtful.
It usually makes the dynamic testing impossible.

Give the examples for high speed wind tunnels.

Hotshot tunnels, Plasma jets, shock tubes, shock tunnels and light gas guns.
What is hot shot tunnels?
Hotshot tunnels are devices meant for the generation of high speed flows with high
temperatures and pressures for a short duration.
Explain plasma Arc tunnels.
Plasma arc tunnels are devices capable of generating high speed flows with very high temperature.

What is shock tubes?

The shock tubes is a device to produce high speed flow with high temperatures by traversing
normal shock waves that are generated by these rupture of a diaphragm which separates a
high pressure gas form a low pressure gas.
Explain shock tunnels.
Shock tunnels are wind tunnels that operate at Mach numbers of the order25 or higher for time

intervals up to a few milliseconds by using air heated and compressed in a shock tube. 19.
What is Gun tunnels?

The gun tunnels are similar to the shock tunnels in operation. It has a high pressure driver section
and a low pressure driven section with a diaphragm separating the two.
What are the advantages of the Ludwig Tube tunnel?
No regulation of pressure and temperature during the run is necessary.
It is suitable for transient heat transfer tests.

6 MARKS
UNIT-I
PRINCIPLES OF MODEL TESTING
Discuss about Rayleighs method of analysis.
Explanation about Rayleigh method
Formulation of relationship of variables
Solving by using dimensional homogeneity Example
Explain the types of similarity.
Types of similarity- geometric, kinematic, dynamic
Geometric similarity- definition, formulae, explanation Kinematic similarity- definition, formulae, explanation
Dynamic similarity- definition, formulae, explanation

Explain the types of models.

Model- definition
Types of models- distorted, undistorted
Distorted- definition, example, types of distortion Undistorted- definition, example.
Explain any two similarity laws.
Similarity law- definition
Types of laws- Reynolds , Froudes, Eulers, Webers , Mach Explanation for any two laws
Definition of law
Basic equation of law

Discuss about Scale effect.

Scale effect- definition Explanation

Importance of scale effect

Advantages
Disadvantages

UNIT II
Wind Tunnels
Explain the types of wind tunnels.
Wind tunnel- definition
Types- open circuit, closed circuit Classification according to speed

Low speed and high speed tunnels- definition

Types of high speed tunnels- transonic, supersonic, hypersonic

Explain the role of honey combs and guide vanes in wind tunnel design.

Honey combs- function and graph

Different honeycomb structures and K values Guide vanes- function and
its shape

Different shapes with K values

Explain the general features of wind tunnel.
Wind tunnel- definition
Features of wind tunnel- effuser, test section, diffuser, driving unit
Effuser- function, contraction factor
Test section- function, shapes
Diffuser- function, kinetic energy conversion
Driving unit- function, problems of starting a tunnel
Discuss about the term energy ratio.

Energy ratio- definition

Power losses in wind tunnel
Calculation of percentage of energy loss Estimation of energy
ratio
Explain about hypersonic tunnel layout.
Hypersonic tunnel- definition Layout of hypersonic tunnel

Working of tunnel Hypersonic nozzle

Advantages and disadvantages

UNIT III
Calibration of wind tunnels
Explain about wire type balances.
Definition of wire type balance Diagram
Arrangements of wire type balance Six component equations

Advantages
Disadvantages
Discuss about strut type balances.
Definition for strut type balance Diagram
Arrangement explanation
Types of strut type balance- platform type, yoke type, pyramid type
Advantages
Disadvantages
Explain about strain gauge balances.
Definition of strain gauge balance
Types of strain gauge balance- internal, semi internal, external Operation
theory
Strain gauge diagram, installation procedure Basic equations

Explain about measurement of turbulence.

Turbulence- definition Explanation

Turbulence factor
Turbulence equation
Measuring methods- turbulence sphere, pressure sphere, hot wire anemometer

Explain the working principle of hotwire anemometer.

Function of hot wire anemometer Turbulence equation

Equation of rate of heat dissipation Applications

Advantages Limitations

UNIT IV
WIND TUNNEL MEASUREMENTS
Write note on balances.
The Balance should be capable of measuring the various loads acting on the model with the
very high degree of accuracy.
The interaction between the different load components should be kept small.
The balance should have provisions to vary the angle of incidence, pitch, yaw, roll and so on.
The balance and the supporting structures should be designed for very high rigidity The deflection of
the parts under the influence of maximum load is negligible. Damping devices should be incorporated
in the measuring system.

Use of bearing should as far as possible be avoided in as much they cause large hysteresis
and zero error.
What are the types of Balances.
Wire Type Balance
Strut type Balance
Plat form type balance
Yoke type balance
Strain Gauge type balance
Clasify the struct type balance.
Based on the structural construction, strut type balances are broadly classified into
Yolk Type
Platform Type Pyramid Type

Struts are used to support the model and transmit the loads to the measuring device. Models are
mounted on the balance with 3 mounting mountings

The strut being rigid, there deflection can be kept at a very small value
4. Clasify the types of balances

Wind tunnels balances with strain gauges as the load sensing element are termed strain
gauge wind tunnel balances.
Based on strain gauge fixing on the mode, the train gauge balances are classified as,
Internal strain gauge wind tunnel balance
Semi Internal strain gauge wind tunnel balance External Strain Gauge Wind Tunnel Balance.

Write a note about the Manometer.

The basic measuring principle of the liquid manometer is that the pressure applied is balanced
by the weight of the liquid column.
The sensitivity of the instrument depends on the density of the manometric fluid used.

Some of the commonly used manometric liquids are water, alcohol and mercury.
Pressure measurements in compressible flows with high subsonic and supersonic Mach
Numbers mercury is the suitable liquid.
The reason is that fluids like water and alcohol are unmanageable in column heights for the
pressure associated with such speeds.
UNIT V
HIGH SPEED WIND TUNNELS
1.Write note on Hypersonic Wind Tunnels
It operate with Mach Number above 5.
They operate with stagnation pressure in the range from 10-100 atmosphere
The Stagnation range from 223K to 2273K
Models that can be tested in hypersonic tunnel are usually larger than those meant for testing
supersonic tunnels.
The model frontal area can go up to 10% of the test section cross sectional area.
Explain about chocking.
The Phenomenon of chocking occurs when the local Mach No. in a high speed tunnel reaches unity.

This may happen at points where the effective area of cross section of the tunnel is reduced as
a result of boundary layer thickening.
Induced separation or simply the presence of a model which is too thick or at too high incidence.

Chocking leads supersonic flow in the working section and finally breaks down.
This condition sets a limit to the range of operation of the tunnel.
A limit which may vary according to the model under test and its altitude
Write about Transonic Wind Tunnel
It is usually impossible to achieve flow at a Mach Number above 0.9 with ordinary parallel sided
liners.
It is also difficult to achieve supersonic flow at a Mach Number below 1.1
A Convergent divergent nozzle with solid walls because of chocking difficulties special liners
are required to cover the transonic range of Mach Number .85 to 1.15.
The design of such liners is loosed on a working section whose walls are not sold but perforated.

The area of the perforations increasing with distance along the length of the sections.
Write about blow through tunnels.
Wind Tunnels for intermittent operation may be of the blow through or suction type.
In the flow through tunnel the arrangement is such as the one similar to the supersonic wind
tunnels.
Air is compressed to a very high pressure in a reservoir

It is subsequently released through a valve into the nozzle and is eventually discharged into the
atmosphere
Since the reservoir can be charged up relatively slowly by means of a compressor which does
not have to be especially highly powered.
The running time is generally short, because of the limited amount of air in the reservoir.

5. Write note on Suction type Tunnel .

In this type of tunnel, instead of air flowing out of a compressed air reservoir, it is sucked into a
previously evacuated chamber.
Through out the run the stagnation condition remain constant at atmospheric value. The flow through
tunnel originates in the atmosphere outside the tunnel

High pressure ratios are easily achieved and this implies that high Mach Numbers can be
obtained without the use of a chamber which can withstand high pressurisation.
The advantage is that the running time likely to be even shorter than that of a flow through tunnel
especially at high Mach Numbers.
10 MARKS
UNIT I
PRINCIPLES OF MODEL TESTING
1. Write about the Similitude and types of Similarities.
Similitude is defined as the similarities between the model and its prototype in every aspect which
means that the model and prototype have similar properties.
Three types of similarities must exist between the model and prototype. They are
Geometric Similarity Kinematic Similarity Dynamic Similarity

Geometric Similarity
The Geometric Similarity is said to exist between the model and prototype if the ratio of all corresponding linear
dimension in the model and prototype are equal.

Kinematic Similarity
It mean the similarity of motion between model and prototype.
Thus the kinematic similarity is said to be exist between the model and the prototype if the ratios
of the velocities and acceleration at the corresponding points in the prototype are the same.

Also the directions of motions in the model and prototype should be same. Dynamic
Similarity
It means the similarity of forces between the model and prototype.
Thus dynamic similarity is said to exist between model and prototype if the ratios of
the corresponding forces acting at the corresponding points are equal
Also the directions of the corresponding forces at the corresponding points should
be same.
Write a note about the Dimensionless numbers.
Dimensionless numbers are those numbers which are obtained by dividing inertia force
by the pressure or gravity or viscous or surface tension or elastic force.
As this is a ratio of one force to another force, it will be a dimensionless number.

It has no units
These dimensionless numbers are also called non-dimensional parameters.

The non dimensionless numbers are the following,

Reynolds Number
It is defined as the inertia force of a flowing fluid to the viscous force of the fluid.

Froudes Number
The Froudes Number is defined as the square root of the ratio of inertia force of the
flowing fluid to the gravity force.
Eulers Number
It is defined as the square root of the inertia force of the flowing fluid to the pressure
force.
Webers Number
It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force of the flowing fluid to
the surface tension force.
Mach Number
Mach Number is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force of the
flowing fluid to the elastic force.
3. Write principle and the rules for selecting repeating variables in Bucking pi theorem.

Principle of Bucking pi theorem

It states that if there are n variables in a physical phenomena and these variables
contains m fundamental dimensions the variables could be arranged into (n-m)

dimensionless terms.

Bucking pi theorem is more advantageous if there are more number of variables than
the fundamental variables.
The Number of repeating variables are equal to the Number of fundamental
dimensions of the problem (M,L,T).
The choice of repeating variables is governed by the following considerations.
As far as possible, the dependent variable, the dependent variable should not be
selected as repeating variable
The repeating variables should be chosen in such a way that one variable contains
geometric property, other variable contains flow property and the third variable
contains fluid property.
The repeating variables selected should not form a dimensionless group.
The repeating variables together must have the same no. of fundamental
dimensions.
No two repeating variables should have the same dimensions.
Write a detailed note about the shock tubes.
The shock tube is a device to produce high speed flow with high temperatures by
traversing normal shock waves.
They are generated by the rupture of a diaphragm which separates a high pressure
gas from a low pressure gas.
The shock tube is a very useful research tool for investigating not only the shock
phenomena.
But also the behaviour of materials and bodies when subjected to at very high
pressures and temperatures.
The diaphragm on the high and low pressure section is ruptured and the high
pressure drives gas rushes into the driven gas section setting up a shock wave that
compresses and heats the driven gas.
The pressure variation through the shock tube at the instant of diaphragm rupture
and at too short intervals.
When the shock wave reaches the end of the driven tube, all of the driven gas will
have been compressed and will have a velocity in the direction of the shock wave
travel.
Upon striking the end of the tube the shock is reflected and starts travelling back
upstream.
As it passes through the driven gas and brings it to rest, additional compression and
heating are accomplished.
The heated and compressed gas sample at the end of the shock tube will retains its
state except for heat loses until the shock wave reflected from the end of the tube
passes through the driver gas driven gas interface and sends a reflected wave back
through the stagnant gas sample.
Write about the Gun Tunnels.
The gun tunnel is quite similar to shock tunnel in operation.

It has a high pressure driver section and a low pressure driven section with a diaphragm
separating the two.
A piston is placed in the driver section adjacent to the diaphragm so that the diaphragm ruptures.
The piston is propelled through the driven tube, compressing the gas ahead of it.

The piston used is so light that it can be accelerated as the velocities significantly above the
speed of sound in the driven gas.
This causes a shock wave to proceed the piston through the driven tube and heat the gas.
The shock wave will be reflected from the end of the driven tube to the piston, passing further
heating of gas.
The piston comes to rest with equal pressures on its two sides, and the heated and compressed
driven gas ruptures the diaphragm and flows through the nozzle.
Gun tunnels are limited in the maximum temperature that can be achieved by piston design.
The maximum temperature normally achieved are about 2000K.
Run times of an order of magnitude higher than the shock tunnels are possible in gun tunnels.
UNIT II
WIND TUNNELS
Write the advantages and disadvantages of Open and Closed Circuit Wind Tunnels.
OPEN CIRCUIT WIND TUNNELS Advantages:
Construction cost is less
If one intends to do much flow visualization via. Smoke, there is no purging problem. If both inlet
and exhaust are open to atmosphere.
Because of low initial cost, an open circuit is often ideal for schools and universities where a tunnel is
required for class room work, for research and high utilization is not required.
Disadvantages:
If located in room, depending on the size of tunnel to the room size, it may require extensive
streaming at the inlet to get high quality flow.
The same may be true if the inlet or exhaust is open to the atmosphere, when wind and cold
weather affect operation.
For a given size and speed the tunnel will require more energy to run.
In general a tunnel is noisy for large tunnel noise may cause environmental problems. CLOSED
CIRCUIT WIND TUNNELS
Advantages:
Through the use of corner turning vanes and possibly screens the quality of the flow can be easily
controlled.
Less Energy is required for a given test section size and velocity.

This can be important for a tunnel used for developmental testing with high utilisation.
Less noise when operating.
Disadvantages:
Higher initial cost due to return ducts and corner vanes.
Used extensively for smoke test or running of inertial combustion engine there must be a way to
purge tunnels.
If tunnel has high utilisation it may have to have an air exchange or some other method of cooling
during hot summer months.
Write about the Straight through Subsonic Wind Tunnel.
The diffuser serves to slow down the air leaving the fan, so that it flows at low speed through a
region called the settling chamber.
In this region, the slowly moving air settles to fairly uniform and low turbulence conditions, with the
help of a series of Honey Combs
A flow is then contracted to give a fast jet in the working section.
All the Kinetic Energy of the fast moving air in the working section is wasted and the consequent
high power requirement makes such an arrangement impracticable, except on a fairly small scale.
The air is sucked through by a fan downstream of the working section.
The entry to the tunnel should be clear off walls and other obstacles in the tunnel room.
There is a large contraction ratio and a small angle diffuser.
Such an arrangement gives reasonably low turbulence and constitute a useful general purpose
tunnel.
There is still considerable power wastage because the Kinetic Energy of the air leaving the tunnel
is not recovered.
But it is clearly better since the speed at the exit is less.
Write about the Return Circuit Subsonic Wind Tunnel.
In a return circuit tunnel the air leaving the diffuser is not simply discarded but collected
It travels around the closed circuit to be passed through the working section again.
The kinetic Energy of the jet is recovered, not wasted and the power required is reduced.

It has all the features of the straight through tunnel with an addition of corners.
The diffuser is not immediately downstream of the working section, though it could easily be so.

Here it serves to reduce the speed of the flow in part of the tunnel circuit
Corner vanes are fitted to enable the air to flow smoothly round the corners
It is difficult to obtain uniform, steady flow and the tunnel is best suited to demonstration work and

fairly rough measurement.

There is a breather slot downstream of the working section which serves to main the pressure at
or near the atmospheric values.
Write about the Annular Type Return Circuit Subsonic Wind Tunnel.
It has a section through the axis of the tunnel, which is a body of revolution.
It is difficult to achieve uniform steady flow without elaborate arrangements of corner vanes etc.

This arrangement is therefor only used for variable density tunnels

It has an advantage when pressurisation is used or when the working fluid is other than air

A variable density tunnel generally consists of an annular type tunnel enclosed in a large pressure
vessel.
By increasing the pressure and hence the density, it is possible to achieve relatively high Reynolds
Number.
Pressurisation also results in power economy
Some tunnels are also designed to operate at much reduced pressures
Hence it can work at low density and at high speeds.
What are the types of forces acting in a moving fluid.
There are six types of forces acting in a moving fluid. They are,
Inertia Force
Inertia force is equal to the product of mass and acceleration of the flowing fluid and act in the
direction opposite to the direction of acceleration.
It is always existing in the fluid flow problems.
Viscous Force
Viscous force is equal to the product of shear stress due to viscosity and the surface area of the flow. It is
present in the fluid flow problems where viscosity is having an important role.

Gravity Force
Gravity force is equal to the product of mass and acceleration due to gravity of the flowing fluid. It is
present in case of open Surface flow.
Pressure Force
Pressure force is equal to the product of pressure intensity and cross sectional area of the flowing
fluid. It is present in the case of flow in a pipe.
Surface Tension Force
It is equal to the product of surface tension and length of the surface of the flowing fluid.
Elastic Force
It is equal to the product of elastic stress and area of the flowing fluid.

UNIT III
CALIBRATION OF WIND TUNNELS
Write about the optical methods of flow visualization.
Several methods of flow visualization consist in utilizing the changes in the refractive index of air
caused by changes in density.
They may be used to investigate the flow in boundary layers
But their main application is to the visualization of high speed flow.
When light passes through a region of a gas in which the density varies, the changes in the
refractive index of the gas associated with these density changes causes the direction of the
rays to be altered.
The amount of the deflection is proportional to the density gradient, and the sense of the
deflection is determined by the sign of this gradient.
In the high speed flow, the density of the fluid changes throughout the field of flow, and the
above principle may be utilised in order to show up these variations.
There are three commonly used methods of doing so,
the shadowgraph,
schlieran and
*interferometer systems.
All are based on the same principle, but, whereas, the first two are mainly useful simply for flow
visualization, the third may also be used for quantitative measurement, though it is much more
difficult to interpret than the other two.
The Shadowgraph system is simplest, but the schlieran system is more effective, and is the
most effective and is the most commonly used of all three methods
Write about the Shadowgraph system.
The Shadowgraph system is the simplest of all the methods.
Light from a point source is collimated by a lens
A parallel beam passes through the working section of the wind tunnel onto a screen, where an
image of the working section then appears.

If there is no model on the tunnel, the screen will be uniformly illuminated

If a model is introduced its shadow will appear on the screen.
If the tunnel is run, there will be density changes in the air in the working section associated with
the flow past the model.
If light passes through a region of increasing density gradient, the rays will diverge more and
more, and the corresponding region on the screen will be lightened.
The area on the screen corresponding to regions of reducing density gradient in the working
section will be darkened.

The sensitivity of the system is low

The variations in intensity of illumination clearly depend on the second derivative of the density.

However, the system is adequate to show up the location of shock waves as dark lines on the
screen, and it is cheap and easy to construct.

Write about the Schlieran System

The Schlieran system is the most effective method of optical visualization.

Light from a point source is collimated by a lens
A parallel beam passes through the working section of the wind tunnel onto a screen, where an
image of the working section then appears.
It is collected by another lens and brought to a focus at B, then passes through yet another lens
to project an image of the working section onto a screen.
At the focus position B, a knife edge is introduced, which can be moved into or out of the beam
to cut out some or all of the light.
When the tunnel is empty, the intensity of illumination on the screen may be varied by moving
the knife edge, but it remains uniform over the whole image area.
When a model is introduced into the working section appears on the screen and if the tunnel is
now run, variations in density produce refraction of the light rays.
Light passing through regions of positive density gradient normal to the knife edge are deflected
towards the knife edge are deflected toward the knife edge, and the corresponding area on the
screen are lightened.
Thus shock waves appear as dark lines, expansion regions as light regions on the screen.
Write about the interferometer.
A interferometer is a flow visualization device concentrating on the quantitative measurement.

Light from a source S is split into two beams by a semi-permeable mirror at A.

Some light travels on to a totally reflecting mirror at B
The remaining is reflected to another totally reflecting mirror at C.
Both these beams are then reflected to another semi-permeable mirror at D
One of the two beams has passed through the working section.
Its speed changes by virtue of the changes in refractive index associated with the density
changes in the tunnel.
As a result it arrives out of phase with the other beam, and so interference fringes appear on the
screen.
These fringes may be photographed

These can be measured to give detailed and quantitative information concerning the density
distribution in the working section.
The interpretation of this information is difficult.
A visualization ot the flow, the pictures obtained are much harder to assimilate than are
schlieran pictures.
The system is very sensitive to even slight mechanical vibrations and it is essential to mount the
optical components on a rigid frame independent of the tunnel mounting.

Write about the smoke Techniques.

This technique simply consists in introducing into the working section of a wind tunnel a number
of fine some filaments
It is done usually in the plane of the section of the model wing under test.
As the particles of smoke move downward the filaments define the particle paths.
By this a stream line pattern may be observed.
Many different phenomena may be demonstrated such as trailing vortices, or the breakdown of
the streamline flow in a region of separated flow.
The principle requirements of a smoke tunnels for uniform flow with low turbulence.
If this is not achieved, the smoke will quickly become diffused.
The speed must not be too low or gravity will affect the paths of the smoke particles, curving
these paths downwards.
If the speed is too high, the smoke filaments may become attenuated, even when large
quantities of smoke are introduced.
Good lightning is needed if te smoke filaments are to be clearly seen, and an open circuits
tunnel is required in order to get rid of smoke.
The main disadvantage is that is usually only isolated span wise positions can be examined, and
not the flow over the whole wing
UNIT IV
WIND TUNNEL MEASUREMENTS
1. Write about the Wind Tunnel Balances
Basically a wind tunnel balance is a device to measure the actual forces and moment, acting on
a model placed in the test section.
Based on the construction details, the wind tunnel balances are broadly classified into
Wire Type Balance
Strut type Balance
Plat form type balance
Yoke type balance
Strain Gauge type balance
Irrespective of its type of construction, a wind tunnel balance should have certain basic features
and characteristics for proper measurements
They are the following
The Balance should be capable of measuring the various loads acting on the model with the

very high degree of accuracy.

The interaction between the different load components should be kept small.
The balance should have provisions to vary the angle of incidence, pitch, yaw, roll and so on.
The balance and the supporting structures should be designed for very high rigidity The deflection of the parts under
the influence of maximum load is negligible.

Damping devices should be incorporated in the measuring system.

Use of bearing should as far as possible be avoided in as much they cause large
hysteresis and zero error.
Write about the Wire type wind Tunnel Balances.
In wire type wind tunnel balances only wires are used to support the mode.
All the load components are transmitted to the measuring device by this wires.

Wire type balances are probably the simplest and easiest to build.
But they have several disadvantages due to the use of too many bearings and bello crank
system, friction of the wires and high damping requirements.

They are extremely bulky because the support system should be very rigid.

Large tare drag because of the exposed wires.

It is difficult to streamline the wires and hence it is difficult to determine the magnitude
of tare drag accurately.
Bearings and linkages cause zero error.
Wires have the tendency to crystallize and break
Write about the Strut Type Balance.
The strut type balances are proved to be suitable for such tunnels.
Based on the structural construction, strut type balances are broadly classified into

Yolk Type
Platform Type Pyramid Type

Struts are used to support the model and transmit the loads to the measuring device.

Models are mounted on the balance with 3 mounting mountings

The strut being rigid, there deflection can be kept at a very small value
The arrangement enables the strut to be fair so that the tare and inference drag are
minimised.
By using a cross spring pivot instead of knife edge, ball bearings, a the like in the beam
the zero error can be minimised.
By choosing proper linkages, interaction loads can be reduced to a small value.
Weight of the support structure can be kept very low, because efficient members can
be easily adopted
Write about the Strain Gauge Wind Balance
Wind tunnels balances with strain gauges as the load sensing element are termed
strain gauge wind tunnel balances.
Based on strain gauge fixing on the mode, the train gauge balances are classified as,

Internal strain gauge wind tunnel balance

Semi Internal strain gauge wind tunnel balance External Strain Gauge Wind Tunnel Balance.

iii. In an internal balances, all the measuring elements are located inside the model.
iv. In an semi internal balance the measuring elements are located partially inside and
partially outside
iv. In an external balance all the measuring elements are located outside the model

The gauges consists of a grid of very fine wire or very thin foil embedded in a seat of Bakelite
having a thickness comparable to that of a thick paper
The grid material is usually Nichrome with small addition of iron and aluminium.
The grid length varies about 1mm to several centimetres.
Write a note about the Manometer.
The basic measuring principle of the liquid manometer is that the pressure applied is balanced
by the weight of the liquid column.
The sensitivity of the instrument depends on the density of the manometric fluid used.

Some of the commonly used manometric liquids are water, alcohol and mercury.

Pressure measurements in compressible flows with high subsonic and supersonic Mach
Numbers mercury is the suitable liquid.
The reason is that fluids like water and alcohol are unmanageable in column heights for the
pressure associated with such speeds.
In addition to these manometers, an accurate barometer is essential for pressure measurements
The pressures are invariably measured in terms of a difference in pressure from some known
reference.
Most common reference is the local atmospheric pressure.
Therefore for pressures measured with reference to atmospheric pressures conversions to absolute
pressure requires the local atmosphere to be known.

UNIT V
HIGH SPEED WIND TUNNELS
Write about the Blow through Intermittent Operation.
Wind Tunnels for intermittent operation may be of the blow through or suction type.
In the flow through tunnel the arrangement is such as the one similar to the supersonic wind
tunnels.
Air is compressed to a very high pressure in a reservoir
It is subsequently released through a valve into the nozzle and is eventually discharged into the
atmosphere
Since the reservoir can be charged up relatively slowly by means of a compressor which does
not have to be especially highly powered.
The running time is generally short, because of the limited amount of air in the reservoir.
Once the pressure in the reservoir drops below the certain value the pressure retain across the tunnel will no longer
be sufficient to give supersonic flow in the working section.

It is then necessary to stop the tunnel and recharge the reservoir

The changing time between the runs may be considerable.
A further dis advantage is that the total temperature and total pressure, velocity may vary during
run.

Write about the Suction type Intermittent Operation.

In this type of tunnel, instead of air flowing out of a compressed air reservoir, it is sucked into a
previously evacuated chamber.
Through out the run the stagnation condition remain constant at atmospheric value.

The flow through tunnel originates in the atmosphere outside the tunnel
High pressure ratios are easily achieved and this implies that high Mach Numbers can be
obtained without the use of a chamber which can withstand high pressurisation.
The advantage is that the running time likely to be even shorter than that of a flow through tunnel
especially at high Mach Numbers.
Air is compressed to a very high pressure in a reservoir
It is subsequently released through a valve into the nozzle and is eventually discharged into the
atmosphere
Since the reservoir can be charged up relatively slowly by means of a compressor which does
not have to be especially highly powered.
Write about the Induced Flow Tunnels.
The induced flow usually occurs in Supersonic Wind Tunnels.
In this type of tunnel a high speed jet is forced through a narrow annular slot downstream of the
working section.
This jet induces a flow through the working section which if the flowing pressure is high enough
will be supersonic
The jet through the slots is provided either by means of a compressor or more usually from a compressed air
reservoir which as in the case of blow through tunnel is the effective power supply.

The pressure ratio is maintained with a compressed variable throttle valve.

These tunnels may be operated subsonically or supersonically
It is generally impossible because of the difficulties involved in the mixing of two jets to achieve
Mach Number much above the value 1.8
Their main advantage is that while they have the advantage of the blow through over the suction
type tunnels in term of running time.
They dont suffer from the disadvantage of varying stagnation condition.
The air which flows through the Wind Tunnel comes out from the reservoir but from the
atmosphere
Write about the Transonic Wind Tunnel.
It is usually impossible to achieve flow at a Mach Number above 0.9 with ordinary parallel sided
liners.
It is also difficult to achieve supersonic flow at a Mach Number below 1.1
A Convergent divergent nozzle with solid walls because of chocking difficulties special liners are
required to cover the transonic range of Mach Number .85 to 1.15.
The design of such liners is loosed on a working section whose walls are not sold but perforated.

The area of the perforations increasing with distance along the length of the sections.
The principle is that the excess air associated with boundary layer growth or the presence of the
model can escape through these perforations.
Thus eliminating the efforts of an narrowing channel and preventing chocking.

The detail positioning, size and shape of the holes or slots is often crucial to the successful
operation of the tunnel
It is largely a method of trial and error.
What is Chocking in High Speed Wind Tunnels and say about Hypersonic Wind Tunnels

Chocking in High Speed Tunnels

The Phenomenon of chocking occurs when the local Mach No. in a high speed tunnel reaches unity.

This may happen at points where the effective area of cross section of the tunnel is reduced as
a result of boundary layer thickening.
Induced separation or simply the presence of a model which is too thick or at too high incidence.

Chocking leads supersonic flow in the working section and finally breaks down.
This condition sets a limit to the range of operation of the tunnel.
A limit which may vary according to the model under test and its altitude

Hypersonic Wind Tunnels

It operate with Mach Number above 5.
They operate with stagnation pressure in the range from 10-100 atmosphere
The Stagnation range from 223K to 2273K
Models that can be tested in hypersonic tunnel are usually larger than those meant for testing
supersonic tunnels.
The model frontal area can go up to 10% of the test section cross sectional area.