Topic X Thinking

Skills

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.

Define thinking;

2.

Explain the different thinking styles;

3.

Distinguish key elements between a good and poor thinker;

4.

Describe the importance of thinking;

5.

Compare the two phases in the thinking process; and

6.

Describe the functions and roles of the right and left brain.

X INTRODUCTION
William James (1842-1910), often referred to as the father of American
psychology, once stated that, "A great many people think they are thinking when
they are merely rearranging their prejudices." According to him, the fact that
there is mental activity taking place in the minds of individuals does not mean
that they are thinking. In his book, entitled "You Were Born Rich," Bob Proctor
(1997) wrote, "Thinking is the highest function of which a human being is
capable." He added that many people link thinking to simple mind activities like
refreshing of the faculty of memory, playing old movies and remembering events
in the past. Obviously, this is not what Rodin's great work of art portrays.
We are all constantly thinking almost involuntarily and compulsively. The
reason many people dont delve deeper into their thought processes because it
requires us to be receptive and to be challenged to reach further depths of our
thinking. This is the reason why so few people actually think. Edison once stated,
There is no expedient to which a man will go to avoid the real labour of
thinking," and according to Emerson, the hardest task in the world is to think.

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One of the main reasons why people do not think more or in depth is because
they are so busy with other things that they do not have time to conceive,
cogitate and consider. Human beings today are so used to being entertained and
bombarded with so much information that they hardly have any time to reflect
on even just a fraction of their thoughts.

Rarely do we find men who willingly engage in hard, solid thinking. There
is an almost universal quest for easy answers and half-baked solutions.
Nothing pains some people more than having to think.
(Martin Luther King)

It is a natural process to think. We are constantly reminded by authoritative

figures to think and to "use our brains when in fact what we really have to
know how to do is to engage deeper into our thinking processes, to be thinking
skilfully and reflectively. Since, individuals today are so used to quick answers
and ready-made solutions when in fact, the problems and challenges of our lives
are difficult and complex. Thus, these problems actually require fostering a more
thoughtful reflection that goes beyond thinking on a surface level.
It should be understood that the greatest value of reading is not the information
but rather what we think and how we process this information while reading,
which makes the choice of reading material an important factor to take into
account. A person should understand that the main objective of reading is not to
fill the mind with information but to arouse the mind to think and ponder. A
reader should pause from time to time to contemplate and reflect on what has
been read. This will help in stimulating the thinking process, as well as in
applying what has been read in everyday life. Clarity is power, and it emerges
from thinking.
Human beings do not just need to think but should think carefully about the
choices and direction of their lives. Time is the most precious resource that
individuals have and it is believed that the life of a person is the sum total of
what he does with that time. Hence, it would be definitely worth it to spend
more of our time in constructive and in-depth thought processes.

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5.1

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DEFINITION OF THINKING

Thinking is defined by Ruggiero. V. R. (2008) as a purposeful mental activity over

which we have some power or control. This can be understood by looking at the
scenario where a person sitting in the driver's seat of a car is driving only when
he holds the steering wheel in his hands and controls the movements of the car.
Thus, the activity in the minds of individuals becomes thinking only when it is
being directed such as shown in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1: The activity of the human's mind becomes thinking only when it is directed
Source: http://www.sonic.net

SELF-CHECK 5.1
A mental activity must be purposeful, directed and controlled, and
must be carried out by the conscious exercise of will before it is
considered as 'thinking'.
Do you agree with the statement above? To answer this, ask yourself
whether a mental activity can be purposeful, directed and controlled,
and yet be carried out subconsciously.

There are as many different purposes of thinking as there are of travelling. Many
times, we may be on a relaxing drive through a scenic road without any
particular destination in mind. In the same way, we may travel in different
conditions and with different degrees of competence. Although we may be
travelling in darkness or light, slowly or fast, in the correct or wrong path, as
long as we are navigating in our minds, we are thinking.
However, this does not suggest that thinking must always be carried out in a
conscious state of mind. Evidence shows that the sub-conscious or non-conscious

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thinking can also produce great results. As many of us have experienced,

constructive thoughts and ideas come to us when we are in the midst of doing
something not related to the problem under investigation. There may have been
times when we faced a particular problem but chose not to solve it then and
shelved it for a few days, even though we could see glimpses of the solution.
Then one fine morning, while walking or jogging, the solution to the problem
suddenly emerges out of nowhere. This is indeed an example of sub-conscious
thinking. According to a study, decisions made intuitively or by instinct go
through the brain. Such intuitive decisions depend on past experiences and
external signals and are regarded as sub-conscious thinking. Reflex actions,
however, are fast and done without thinking. They involve signals that bypass
the brain and are carried out on a non-conscious level.
Ruggiero, V. (2008) has formally defined thinking as any mental activity that
helps formulate or solve a problem, make a decision or fulfil a desire to
understand.

SELF-CHECK 5.2
Consider the formal definition of thinking in the preceding paragraph.
How is this different from the definition that thinking is a purposeful
mental activity over which we have some power or control? Discuss.

Among the most important mental activities included in the thinking process are:
x

Careful observation

Remembering

Wondering

Inquiring

Imagining

Evaluating

Judging

Interpreting

In solving a problem or making a decision, a combination of the abovementioned

activities is normally required. When dealing with problems, we often question
ourselves and carefully analyse the situation before arriving at a conclusion or
decision.

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Several attempts have been made to describe the nature of thinking. The most
popular view (currently regarded as unimportant) is that thinking is completely
verbal. This theory suggests that individuals arrange words in their minds or
silently whisper to themselves when they think. However, if this is true, then
Albert Einstein could not be considered a thinker, as his thinking comprised
mostly images rather than words. Many current authorities believe that the form
of thought that occurs in the minds of individuals is usually verbal, although it
may not be necessarily so. These experts feel that just as an idea can be expressed
in mathematical symbols or diagrams besides words, individuals may also
conceive thoughts in the same ways.

Figure 5.2: Albert Einstein

Source: http://www.widelec.org/zdjecie,albert-einstein,2644,9.html

Albert Einstein (1879-1955), (Figure 5.2) was a German-born American physicist

who developed the special and general theories of relativity and received the
Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921. He said, "Imagination is more important than
knowledge. For knowledge is limited to all we now know and understand, while
imagination embraces the entire world and all there ever will be to know and
understand."

5.2

IMPORTANCE OF THINKING

To successfully analyse a problem or issue, one requires factual knowledge

(which includes knowing the historical context of the problem or issue) and an
understanding of the relevant principles and concepts.
Factual knowledge is something that is already known, while in most cases, the
solutions are not only unknown to the individual facing the problem but are also
brand new and specifically designed to fit a particular issue. Thus, it can be
concluded that having factual knowledge does not mean that a person is
guaranteed of being able to solve the problem. Many of us may regard ourselves
as "walking encyclopaedias" but when the time comes, we may not be able to

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solve a particular problem. To become a successful problem solver, an individual

has to possess both factual knowledge and good thinking skills.
The importance of having the ability to think well can only be appreciated when
an individual is faced with various situations in his life where the circumstances
require skills like analysing, solving problems and making the correct decisions.
For instance, these include deciding and evaluating on aspects such as:
x

What degree to pursue in University;

How to invest wisely;

How to handle children in certain situations;

How to work with difficult bosses;

What to do when parents are incapable of taking care of themselves; and

Which political candidate to vote for in the elections.

Today, individuals with skills in problem solving, issue analysis and decision
making have a better chance at employment and are regarded as assets within
the organisation they are working for. In the past, most of the thinking was
carried out by executives and other employees had only to execute the tasks
assigned to them. Now, however, employees with thinking power who are
capable of generating ideas for the improvement of the organisation are greatly
valued by their employers.
This has become so because of the following three developments:
x

Knowledge explosion;

Communications technology; and

Rise in the global economy.

(a)

Knowledge explosion
Increase in research findings has increased the amount of information
available in all fields, making it impossible for any individual to completely
master a single discipline.

(b)

Communication technology
Likewise, in the area of communications, technology is developing so fast
that within less than two decades after the invention of the personal
computer, thousands of different software and hardware products have
been launched in the market. The growth of organisations such as
Microsoft, Intel, Dell and several dot.coms has brought instability to
many companies, including established and successful ones. In such an era,
individuals who possess problem solving and good decision making skills

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will survive and less likely become victims of downsizing. Even if they are
retrenched, they will be able to find other employment.
(c)

Rise in the global economy

Many changes have led to the development of global economy. This
include the satellite transmission of television programmes, the rise in
business competition from different countries, the opening of former Soviet
countries to trade and the signing of a new generation of trade agreements
such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). In order to meet
challenges and grab opportunities offered by global economy, expertise in
critical and creative thinking is vital. This means that individuals with those
skills will be in higher demand than those without them.

ACTIVITY 5.1
1.

State the formal definition of thinking.

2.

List the mental activities included in the thinking process.

3.

Explain the importance of the thinking process.

4.

Do you agree with Einstein that Imagination is more important

than knowledge? Why?

5.3

INCREASING THINKING POWER

As far as the thinking process is concerned, the human mind has two distinct
phases, namely, the production phase and the judgement phase (Figure 5.3).
Expertise in thinking requires the mastery of all approaches suitable to each
phase, and the skill to move back and forth between them.

Figure 5.3: The thinking process of the human mind has two distinct phases

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5.3.1

Production Phase

The production phase is closely linked with creative thinking. At this stage, the
mind generates different conceptions of a problem, various methods of handling
it and possible solutions to it. In short, this phase refers to thinking out-of-thebox.
It is believed that good thinkers are capable of producing more and better ideas
compared to poor thinkers. This is because good thinkers are more innovative,
which enables them to produce more ideas. Moreover, good thinkers tend to
view a problem from different angles before choosing an appropriate one and
consider many different approaches to a problem. They are able to generate
many ideas before making a decision. Better still, they are also more prepared to
take intellectual risks, are more adventurous and imaginative.
On the other hand, poor thinkers view a problem from a limited number of
standpoints, hastily adopt the first approach their minds perceive as a solution,
make hurried judgements and rarely think of more ideas. Most of the time, they
make decisions that would be expected.

5.3.2

Judgement Phase

The judgement phase is more closely linked with critical thinking, where the
mind studies and evaluates what it has generated, makes its decision, and where
necessary, modifies it.
At this phase, good thinkers are very careful and analytical. They assess their
first impressions, make important distinctions and support their conclusions
based on facts instead of emotions and feelings. Since they are aware of their
limitations and predispositions, they re-check the logic of their thinking and the
workability of their solutions. They refine their ideas by identifying any
imperfection and complication, and predict any negative response that may arise
from their decision.
Conversely, poor thinkers are known to make judgements too fast without
thinking critically and to make decisions based on emotions and feelings rather
than on evidence. They are also unaware of their limitations and predispositions,
thus creating a possibility that there may be several flaws in their thought
processes.
All thinkers have their own share of confusions, mental blocks and failures.
However, good thinkers have mastered ways to face their frustrations while poor

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thinkers have the habit of mourning over their situation and allowing failure to
make them feel incapable and incompetent.
Table 5.1 lists the various differences observed between good and poor thinkers.
Table 5.1: Characteristics of Good and Poor Thinkers
Good Thinkers

Poor Thinkers

Study a problem thoroughly and

implement constructive plans to solve
it.

Uncertain on how to approach a problem.

Apply their knowledge in solving the

problem accordingly.

Have the notion that their knowledge is

insufficient.

Are reflective and research extensively

where needed.

Are overly confident of the correctness of

initial ideas.

Solve a problem systematically and

analytically.

Jump from one stage of a problem to

another without thorough planning and
thinking.

Have faith and trust in their reasoning

power and confidence level.

Have no faith in their reasoning power and

lack in confidence.

Are
determined
and
focused
throughout the period of problem
solving.

Lack a serious attitude and take things

lightly and for granted.

Revise goals when necessary.

Do not revise goals.

Are open to different possibilities and

outcomes.

Do not seek alternative routes to solutions

or those that are different from the initial
ones.

Did you know...

Good thinkers are willing to think and may even find thinking enjoyable.
They can carry out searches when necessary and suspend judgement. They
value rationality, believing that thinking is useful for solving problems,
reaching decisions, and making judgements. Poor thinkers, in contrast, need
certainty, avoid thinking, must reach closure quickly, and rely too heavily on
intuition.
Adapted from Kjos, B.(1995)

Many people believe that good thinkers are born rather than made. However,
this is not entirely factual for several reasons. Many a time, we come across

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people who have better thinking abilities than others. However, an individual
can improve his or her thinking capability within a period of time. Thinking
effectively is a skill that anyone can develop progressively if guided and trained
accordingly.
In order to be a good thinker, you do not need a high IQ. In fact, it was proven by
E. Paul Torrance that 70% of creative people actually have an IQ score of below
135 (as quoted in Mackall, D. D. (1998)).

ACTIVITY 5.2
Do you agree or disagree with the statement, Good thinkers are born
rather than made? Justify your argument.

People trying to increase their thinking skills face the problem of changing their
old ways and mindset. However, if an individual has a burning desire to
improve himself and is eager to apply the knowledge he has so far obtained,
thinking becomes interesting and achievable. We must understand that nothing
is impossible in life.

ACTIVITY 5.3
1.

Identify the two phases involved in the thinking process. Give an

example of activity found at each phase.

2.

Compare and contrast the characteristics of a good and a poor

thinker in both the phases involved in the thinking process.

5.4

ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE RIGHT

AND LEFT BRAIN

Brain research carried out by medical scientists revealed that the structure of the
brain is actually more complex than imagined. The first breakthrough was when
a neurosurgeon started to treat patients with epilepsy in a new manner. In the
treatment, he cut the corpus callosum, the thick band of nerve fibres that
connected the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex, in order to relieve the
symptoms of the disease. This separation of the two hemispheres was important
because it allowed scientists to study the respective roles played by the right and
left hemispheres (Figure 5.4).

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Figure 5.4: Right and left hemispheres of the human brain

Source: http://creativitymeansbusiness.com/images/brain.gif

ACTIVITY 5.4
Surf the web and find out as much as you can about the human brains
anatomy. Discuss your findings with your classmates.

Neuroscientists believe that the right hemisphere is involved in the learning

process and controls non-verbal, symbolic and intuitive responses. In contrast,
the left hemisphere controls the use of language, logical reasoning, analytical
power and the performance of sequential tasks (Figure 5.5).
This led to the idea that there are individuals who are "left-brained" and those
who are right-brained." So far, the data obtained suggest that no individuals use
only one side of the brain at a particular time and the presence of corpus
callosum reinforces the fact that there is a significant integration between these
two hemispheres.

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Figure 5.5: It is generally accepted that the dominant functions of the right hemisphere
include imaginative and intuitive features while the left hemisphere relates to
organisational and analytical skills.
Source: http://theswash.com/tag/monarchy/

Medical scientists believe that both sides of the brain are capable of reasoning out
a problem but by employing different strategies, one side may be dominant
compared to the other. In solving a particular problem, the left brain uses the
analytical approach whereas the right brain uses the holistic or global approach.
A left brain user, who is also known as a successive processor, tends to learn in a
step-by-step sequential manner beginning with details and arriving at a
conceptual understanding of a skill. In contrast, a right brain user (a
simultaneous processor) tends to master a skill starting with the general concept
and then moving on to the details.

ACTIVITY 5.5
Consider the activities (sports, hobbies etc) that you enjoy doing. List
the thinking processes required of you to carry out these activities.
From that, explore which side of your brain is more dominant.
(To confirm your answer, try the quiz at this website address:
http://web-us.com/brain/braindominance.htm).

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ACTIVITY 5.6
1.

State the functions of the right and left hemispheres of the human
brain.

2.

Compare and contrast the approaches employed by right and left

brain users in solving a problem.

3.

Are you a left or right brain user?

Thinking is a purposeful mental activity over which we have power and

control. Evidence shows that thinking can still be carried out in a
sub-conscious and non-conscious state of mind.

Several attempts have been made to describe the nature of thinking, and the
most popular view that is currently regarded unimportant is that thinking is
completely verbal.

The importance of thinking is appreciated only when an individual faces

situations in life which require them of skills such as analysing, solving
problems and making correct decisions.

The thinking process has two distinct phases; production and judgement.

Expertise in thinking requires the mastery of all approaches suitable to each

phase and the skill to move back and forth between them.

Overall, good thinkers have mastered how to face their frustrations whereas
poor thinkers mourn their situation and allow failure to make them feel
incapable and incompetent.

Medical scientists believe that both sides of the brain could reason out a
problem but by employing different strategies, one side may be the dominant
one compared to the other.

In solving a problem, the left brain uses the analytical approach whereas the
right brain uses the holistic or global approach.

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Cerebral

Mental blocks

Communications technology

Neuroscientists

Corpus callosum

Non-conscious

Creative thinking

Poor thinkers

Distinct phases

Production phase

Factual knowledge

Reflex actions

Good thinkers

Simultaneous processor

Intuitive

Sub-conscious

Judgement phase

Successive processor

Knowledge explosions

1.

Analyse the following statement and decide whether it is reasonable and, if

so, to what degree. Explain your thinking thoroughly.
The results of a recent national examination revealed that 75% of
America's high school students are below average in reading ability.

2.

Read the following dialogue carefully. Then decide whether what is stated
(or implied) makes sense. Explain your reasoning thoroughly.
John : Do you think the masses really have any power in the Unites
States today?
Bill : That depends on what groups you include in "the masses." Would
you include professional people  doctors, lawyers, teachers?
John : Teachers? They don't make that much money.

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Butterworth, J., & Thwaites, G. (2005). Thinking skills. Cambridge International

Examinations (Paperback).
De Bono, E. (2005). Thinking course. Revised Edition (Hardcover).
Elder, L. (2007). Critical thinking: Tools for taking charge of your professional
and personal life. Kindle Edition.
James, W. (1890). Principles of Psychology. New York: Holt
Kjos, B. (1995). Brave new schools. Harvest House Publishers.
King, M. L. (2011). Brainy Quote. Thinking Quotes. Retrieved from

http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/keywords/thinking.html.
Mackall, D. D. (1998). Problem solving (2nd. ed.). Ferguson Publishing.
Paul, R. W. & Elder, L. (2007). Critical thinking: Tools for taking charge of your
professional and personal life. USA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Proctor, B. (1997). You were born rich. LifeSuccess Productions.
Ruggiero. V. R. (2008). The art of thinking: A guide to critical and creative
thought. (9th ed.). Essex, UK: Longman Publishing Group.