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ASSIGNMENT #11 DUE 11/19/14

TJ BARRY

Exercise (9.4.1). Determine whether the following polynomials are irreducible in the rings
indicated. For those that are reducible, determine their factorization into irreducibles. The
notation Fp denotes the finite field Z/pZ, p a prime.
(a) x2 + x + 1 in F2 [x].
Note that 02 + 0 + 1 = 1 6= 0, and 12 + 1 + 1 = 3 1 6= 0, so the polynomial has
no roots in F2 [x]. By Proposition 9.4.10, it is then irreducible in F2 [x].
(b) x3 + x + 1 in F3 [x].
Note that 1 is a root since 13 +1+1 = 3 0 mod 3. So, (x1) is a factor. By long
division, we get (x1)(x2 +x+2), or equivalently (x+2)(x2 +x+2). Note that x2 +x+2
is irreducible since it has no roots in F3 [x]. Thus, x3 + x + 1 = (x + 2)(x2 + x + 2)
is the factorization into irreducibles.
(c) x4 + 1 in F5 [x].
Note, (x2 +3)(x2 +2) = x4 +5x2 +6 x4 +1 in F5 [x]. Also, note that these factors
are irredicible in F5 [x] since none of x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 are roots of x2 + 3 or x2 + 2.
(d) x4 + 10x2 + 1 in Z[x].
Lets assume that it factors into the polynomials below,
x4 + 10x2 + 1 = (x2 + ax + b)(x2 + cx + d),
and determine what the coefficients must be. Note,
(x2 + ax + b)(x2 + cx + d) = x4 + (c + a)x3 + (d + b + ac)x2 + (ad + bc)x + bd,
1

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and hence
c+a=0
d + ac + b = 10
ad + bc = 0
bd = 1.
First, we note that c = a. Since we want integer coefficients, bd = 1 implies that
either b = d = 1 or b = d = 1. If b = d = 1, d + ac + b = 10 implies a2 = 8, which
has no integer solutions. If b = d = 1, this would imply a2 = 12, which again has
no integer solutions. So we conclude that no factorization exists, so x2 + 10x + 1 is
irreducible over the integers.
Exercise (9.4.2). Prove that the following polynomials are irreducible in Z[x]:
(a) x4 4x3 + 6
Proof. Note that the prime 2 divides -4 and 6, but 22 does not divide 6. By Eisensteins criterion, the polynomial is irreducible.

(b) x6 + 30x5 15x3 + 6x 120


Proof. Note that the prime 3 divides the coefficients 30, -15, 6, and -120, but 32 does
not divide -120. By Eisensteins criterion, the polynomial is irreducible.
(c) x4 + 4x3 + 6x2 + 2x + 1 [substitute x 1 for x.]
Proof. If we let f (x) = x4 + 4x3 + 6x2 + 2x + 1, and define
g(x) = f (x 1) = (x 1)4 + 4(x 1)3 + 6(x 1)2 + 2(x 1) + 1
= x4 + (4 + 4)x3 + (6 12 + 6)x2 + (4 + 12 12 + 2)x + (1 4 + 6 2 + 1)
= x4 2x + 2.

ASSIGNMENT #11 DUE 11/19/14

Note that 2 divides both terms, but 22 does not divide the constant term. By
Eisensteins Criterion, g is irreducible, and hence f is irreducible.
(d)

(x + 2)p 2p
, where p is an odd prime.
x
Proof. Note that by the binomial theorem,
 
 
 
p p 0
p p1 1
p p2 2
(x + 2) =
x2 +
x 2 +
x 2 + ...
0
1
2




 
p
p
p 0 p
2 p2
1 p1
... +
x2
+
x2
+
x2
p2
p1
p
p

= xp +
... +

p!
p!
2xp1 +
4xp2 + . . .
(p 1)!
2(p 2)!

p!
p!
2p2 x2 +
2p1 x + 2p .
(p 2)!2
(p 1)!

Hence,
(x + 2)p 2p
= xp1 + 2pxp2 + 2pxp3 + . . . + p(p 1)2p3 x + p2p1 .
x
Note that the prime p divides each coefficient except the leading one, but p2 does not
divide the constant term since p 6= 2 by assumption. Thus, by Eisensteins Criterion,
(x + 2)p 2p
the polynomial
is irreducible.

x
Exercise (9.4.5). Find all the monic irreducible polynomials of degree 3 in F2 [x], and the
same in F3 [x].
Proof. In F2 [x], note that the linear monic polynomials x and x + 1 are irreducible. Higher
degree polynomials are irreducible if and only if they do not have a root. Note that any
irreducible polynomial must have a constant term of 1, since a constant term of 0 would make
0 a root. Hence, the irreducible polynomials of degree 3 are of the form x3 + ax2 + bx + 1
or x2 + cx + 1 for some a, b, c F2 . This gives 6 potential polynomials, and by testing each
for a root x = 1, we find that the ones without a root, and hence irreducible to be x2 + x + 1,
x3 + x + 1, and x3 + x2 + 1.

TJ BARRY

In F3 [x], again the linear polynomials x, x + 1, and x + 2 are irreducible F3 [x]. Again, the
irreducible polynomials are the ones without a root in F3 . For each the constant term must
be nonzero, otherwise 0 would be a root. So, the polynomials are of the form x3 +ax2 +bx+c,
or x2 + dx + c, where c = 1 or 2, and a, b, d F3 . This gives us 24 polynomials to check. By
exhaustively testing each remaining polynomial for the roots x = 1 and x = 2, we find the
irreducibles to be:
x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 2,
x3 + x2 + 2,

x3 + 2x2 + x + 1,
x3 + 2x + 2,

x3 + 2x2 + 1,

x3 + 2x + 1,

x3 + x2 + 2x + 1,

x2 + 2x + 2,

x3 + x2 + x + 2,

x2 + x + 2,

x2 + 1


Exercise (9.4.6). Construct fields of each of the following orders:

(a) 9, (b) 49, (c) 8,

(d) 81 (you may exhibit these as F [x]/(f (x)) for some F and f . [Use 9.2.2, 9.2.3] By
Exercise 9.2.2, if F is a finite field of order q, and f (x) is a polynomial in F [x] of degree
n 1, then F [x]/(f (x)) has q n elements. By Exercise 9.2.3, this space F [x]/(f (x)) is a field
when f (x) is irreducible.
(a) Note that 9 = 32 , so let F = Z/3Z, and f (x) = x2 + x + 2, which was shown in
Exercise 9.4.5 to be irreducible in F [x]. Then F [x]/(f (x)) is a field of order 9.
(b) Note that 49 = 72 , so let F = Z/7Z, and f (x) = x2 + 1. Note that f (x) is irreducible
in F since it has no roots in F . Then, F [x]/(f (x)) is a field of order 49.
(c) Note that 8 = 23 , so let F = Z/2Z, and f (x) = x3 + x2 + 1, which was shown in
Exercise 9.4.5 to be irreducible in F [x]. Then F [x]/(f (x)) is a field of order 8.
(d) Note that 81 = 34 , so let F = Z/3Z, and f (x) = x4 + 2x2 + 2. Note that since
the prime 2 divides both the coefficient of x2 and the constant term, but 22 does
not divide the constant term, so f (x) is irreducible by Eisensteins Criterion. Thus,
F [x]/(f (x)) is a field of order 81.
Exercise (9.4.18). Show that 6x5 +14x3 21x+35 and 18x5 30x2 +120x+360 are irreducible
in Q[x].

ASSIGNMENT #11 DUE 11/19/14

Proof. Since the coefficients are elements of Z, which has the fraction field Q, we can apply
Eisensteins Criterion to show that these polynomials are irreducible. In the case of 6x5 +
14x3 21x + 35, note that the prime = 7 does not divide the leading coefficient of 6,
but it does divide all others. Since 72 does not divide the constant term, that polynomial is
irreducible in Q[x].
As for the polynomial 18x5 30x2 + 120x + 360, we note that the prime = 5 does
not divide the leading term of 18, but does divide all others. Since 52 does not divide the
constant term, the polynomial is irreducible in Q[x].

Exercise (9.5.1). Let F be a field and let f (x) be a nonconstant polynomial in F [x]. Describe
the nilradical of F [x]/(f (x)) in terms of the factorization of f (x). (cf. 7.3.29)
Proof. Let g(x) be an element of the nilradical of F [x]/(f (x)), so there is a positive integer
n such that (g(x))n = 0. That is, (g(x))n (f (x)), and hence (g(x))n = f (x)h(x) for
some h(x) F [x]. These polynomials have a factorization into irreducibles, g(x) = g1 (x)
g2 (x) gr (x), f (x) = f1 (x) f2 (x) fs (x), h(x) = h1 (x) h2 (x) ht (x). Thus,
g1n (x) g2n (x) grn (x) = f1 (x) f2 (x) fs (x) h1 (x) h2 (x) ht (x)
By Exercise 9.2.1, g(x) has order strictly less than f (x), so r < s. These factorizations are
unique up to associates, so up to a possible reordering, we have gi (x) = ui (x)fi (x) for each
1 i s. That is, each irreducible factor of f (x) divides an irreducible factor of g(x), and
therefore divides g(x). Thus, each element of the nilradical of F [x]/(f (x)) is divisible by
every irreducible factor of f (x).

Exercise (9.5.3). Let p be an odd prime in Z and let n be a positive integer. Prove that
xn p is irreducible over Z[i]. [Use Prop 18 in Ch. 8 and Eisensteins Criterion.]
Proof. Since p is an odd prime in Z, either p 1 mod 4, or p 3 mod 4.
If p 1 mod 4, then Proposition 18 in Chapter 8 says that p = a2 + b2 = (a + bi)(a bi),
where a and b are unique up to sign change or interchanging a and b, and the factors a + bi
and a bi are irreducible in Z[i]. Then, xn p = xn (a + bi)(a bi). Note that (a + bi) is a

TJ BARRY

prime ideal of Z[i]. Since p is an element of the ideal (a + bi) but not an element of (a + bi)2 ,
xn p is irreducible by Eisensteins Criterion.
If p 3 mod 4, then Proposition 18 in Chapter 8 says that p is irreducible. Then (p)
is a prime ideal of Z[i], and p (p) but p
/ (p)2 . By Eisensteins criterion, xn p is
irreducible.

In these exercises R is a ring with 1 and M is a left R-module


Exercise (10.1.1). Prove that 0m = 0 and (1)m = m for all m M .
Proof. Let m M be arbitrary. Since M is an abelian group, it has an identity 0 where
0 + 0m = 0m. Hence,
0 + 0m = 0m = (0 + 0)m = 0m + 0m.
By cancellation in the abelian group, we have 0 = 0m.
In the ring, 0 = 1 + (1), and hence
0 = 0m = (1 + (1))m = 1m + (1)m = m + (1)m,
since 1m = m by definition. By adding m to this equation we have m = (1)m, as
desired.

Exercise (10.1.8). An element m of the R-module M is called a torsion element if rm = 0


for some nonzero element r R. The set of torsion elements is denoted
Tor(M ) = {m M | rm = 0 for some nonzero r R}.
(a) Prove that if R is an integral domain then Tor(M ) is a submodule of M (called the
torsion submodule of M ).
Proof. Let m, n Tor(M ) be arbitrary. Then there are some nonzero r, s R such
that rm = 0 and sn = 0. Note that since R is an ID it is commutative and rs 6= 0.
Note,
rs(n + m) = (rs)n + (rs)m = r(sn) + s(rm) = r0 + s0 = 0,

ASSIGNMENT #11 DUE 11/19/14

so n + m Tor(M ). Now, let x R be arbitrary and note,


r(xm) = (rx)m = (xr)m = x(rm) = x0 = 0,
and hence xm Tor(M ). Thus, Tor(M ) is a submodule of M since it is a closed
group and closed under the ring operation.

(b) Give an example of a ring R and an R-module M such that Tor(M ) is not a submodule. [Consider the torsion elements in the R-module R.]
Proof. Let R = Z/6Z. Note that 2, 3 Tor(R) since 2 3 = 6 0 mod 6. However,
2+3
/ Tor(R) since x5 6= 0 for all x R. Thus, Tor(R) is not a submodule because
it is not a subgroup.

(c) If R has zero divisors show that every nonzero R-module has nonzero torsion elements.
Proof. Let r, s R be nonzero such that rs = 0. Let m M be nonzero. If sm = 0,
then m Tor(M ), and we are done. Otherwise, note that
r(sm) = (rs)m = 0m = 0,
so sm Tor(M ). Thus, the R-module always contains nonzero torsion elements. 
Exercise (10.1.9). If N is a submodule of M , the annihilator of N in R is defined to be
{r R | rn = 0 for all n N }.
Prove that the annihilator of N in R is a 2-sided ideal of R.
Proof. Let A denote the annihilator of N in R. Let a A. Then for any r R and n N ,
an = 0, and hence (ra)n = r(an) = r0 = 0, so ra is in A. Now, note that since N is a
submodule, rn N , and hence (ar)n = a(rn) = 0, since a A. Thus, ar A, and we
conclude that it is a two-sided ideal.

TJ BARRY

Exercise (10.1.10). If I is a right ideal of R, the annihilator of I in M is defined to be


{m M | am = 0 for all a I}.
Prove that the annihilator of I in M is a submodule of M .
Proof. Let m and n be in the annihilator of I. That is, am = an = 0 for all a I. Clearly
this is closed under addition since a(m + n) = am + an = 0 + 0 = 0. Now, let r R be
arbitrary, and we want to show that rm is in the annihilator of I. Note that for any a I,
a(rm) = (ar)m = 0 since ar I as I is a right ideal, and m is in the annihilator of I. Thus,
rm is in the annihilator, and we conclude that it is a submodule.

Exercise (10.1.11). Let M be the abelian group (i.e., Z-module) Z/24Z Z/15Z Z/50Z.
(a) Find the annihilator of M in Z. (i.e., a generator for this principal ideal). Let
(a, b, c) M . The annihilator of M in Z is a nonzero integer such that (a, b, c) =
(0, 0, 0). That is, a = 0 24`, b = 0 15m, and c = 0 50n for some
`, m, n Z. Taking = lcm(24, 15, 50) = 600 suffices, and this is the generator for
the annihilator of M .
(b) Let I = 2Z. Describe the annihilator of I in M as a direct product of cyclic groups.
Proof. The annihilator of I in M would be the set {m M | am = 0 for all a I.
That is, all ordered triples (a, b, c) such that x(a, b, c) = 0 for even integers x. That
is, we require xa = 24`, xb = 15m, and xc = 50n for some `, m, n Z. Thus, we
see a = 12, b = 15, and c = 25 are the least such numbers, and hence generate the
annihilator. Thus, the annihilator is (12Z) (15Z) (25Z).

Exercise (10.2.1). Use the submodule criterion to show that kernels and images of R-module
homomorphisms are submodules.
Proof. Let M and N be R-modules, and : M N a R-module homomorphism. Note
that is also a homomorphism on the abelian groups M and N , and so ker is known to

ASSIGNMENT #11 DUE 11/19/14

be nonempty. Let x, y ker , and r R be arbitrary. Then,


(x + ry) = (x) + (ry) = (x) + r(y) = 0 + r0 = 0,
so x + ry ker , and thus it is a submodule.
Now, consider the image (M ). Note it is nonempty since (0) = 0 by properties of the
group homomorphism. Let x, y (M ). Then there are a, b M such that (a) = x and
(b) = y. Note that a + rb M , and hence
(a + rb) = (a) + (rb) = (a) + r(b) = x + ry,
so x + ry (M ), and we conclude that the image (M ) is a submodule.

Exercise (10.2.2). Show that the relation is R-module isomorphic to is an equivalence


relation on any set of R-modules.
Proof. Let denote the relation is R-module isomorphic to, and let M , N , and L be Rmodules. Clearly M M since the identity map i : M M is an R-module isomorphism.
Now, if M N , there is a R-module isomorphism : M N . Note that is bijective,
so the inverse function 1 exists, and this inverse is a R-module homomorphism. Thus,
N M so the relation is symmetric.
Finally, if N M and M L, then there are R-module isomorphisms : N M , and
: M L. Note that the composition : N L is a bijection, and a R-module
homomorphism. Thus, N L, and hence the relation is transitive. The relation is
reflexive, symmetric, and transitive, and we conclude that it is a equivalence relation

Exercise (10.2.3). Give an explicit example of a map from one R-module to another which
is a group homomorphism but not an R-module homomorphism.

Proof. Let R be the Hamilton quarternions, and M = R the R-module of R on itself. For
the element i R, let : M M be left multiplication by i, x 7 ix. Note that this map

10

TJ BARRY

is a bijection, and it is a group homomorphism since for any x, y M ,


(x + y) = i(x + y) = ix + iy = (x) + (y).
Note that (j) = ij = k. If were a R-module homomorphism, we would have (rm) =
r(m), and hence
(j) = (j 1) = j(1) = j(i 1) = ji = k.
That is, (j) = k and (j) = k, a contradiction. Thus, is not a R-module homormorphism.

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