Aeroelasticity

Lecture 3:
Unsteady Aerodynamics
Theodorsen

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Unsteady Aerodynamics
! As mentioned in the first lecture, quasi-steady
aerodynamics ignores the effect of the wake
on the flow around the airfoil
! The effect of the wake can be quite significant
! It effectively reduces the magnitude of the
aerodynamic forces acting on the airfoil
! This reduction can have a significant effect on
the values of the flutter

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

2D wing oscillations
! Consider a 2D airfoil oscillating sinusoidally in an
airflow.
! The oscillations will result in changes in the circulation
around the airfoil
! Kelvins theorem states that the change in circulation
over the entire flowfield must always be zero.
! Therefore, any increase in the circulation around the
airfoil must result in a decrease in the circulation of
the wake.
! In other words, the wake contains a significant amount
of circulation, which balances the changes in
circulation over the airfoil.
! It follows that the wake cannot be ignored in the
calculation of the forces acting on the airfoil.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Kelvins Theorem
! The theorem states that:
!"
=0
!t

! For the oscillating airfoil problem, this

means that:
!airfoil ( t ) + !wake ( t ) = !0

! Where !0 is the total circulation at time t=0.

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Pitching and Heaving

Wake shape of a
sinusoidally pitching
and heaving airfoil.
Positive vorticity is
denoted by red and
negative by blue

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Experimental results
Wake vorticity is a realworld phenomenon.
Here is a comparison
between numerical
simulation results (top)
and flow visualization in
a water tunnel (bottom)
by Jones and Platzer.

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

How to model this?

! The simulation results are useful but

! Not always accurate (there can be problems

concerning starting vortices for example)
! Not practical. If the motion (or any of the parameters)
is changed, a new simulation must be performed.

! Analytical mathematical models of the problem

exist. They were developed in the 1920s and
1930s.
! Most popular models:
! Theodorsen
! Wagner

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Simplifications
! In Theodorsens approach, only three major
simplifications are assumed:
! The flow is always attached, i.e. the motions
amplitude is small
! The wing is a flat plate
! The wake is flat

! The flat plate assumption is not problematic. In

fact Theodorsen worked on a flat plate with a
control surface (3 d.o.f.s), so asymmetric wings
can also be handled.
! If the motion is small (first assumption) then the
flat wake assumption has little influence on the
results.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Basis of the model

! The model is based on elementary
solutions of the Laplace equation:
! 2" = 0

! Such solutions are:

! The free stream:
! The source and the sink:
! The vortex:
! The doublet:
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

! = U cos"x + U sin "y

"
"
2
2
ln r =
ln ( x $ x 0 ) + ( y $ y 0 )
2#
2#
& y " y0 )
#
#
! = " % = " tan "1 (
+
2$
2$
' x " x0 *
cos #
x
!=
=
2" r
2" x 2 + y 2
!=

Circle
! Theodorsen chose to model the wing as a
circle that can be mapped onto a flat plate
through a conformal transformation:

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Joukowskis conformal
transformation

! Define the complex variable z as z=x+iy.

! Then consider the new complex variable
za, given by:
R2
za = x a + iy a = z +
z
y!

ya!

R!
x!

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

-2R!

2R!

xa!

Singularities
! Theodorsen chose to use the following
singularities:

! A free stream of speed U and zero angle of

attack
! A pattern of sources of strength +2! on the top
and surface of the flat plate, balanced by
sources of strength -2! on the bottom surface
! A pattern of vortices +"! on the flat plate
balanced by identical but opposite -"!
vortices in the wake

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

y
2!

2!

Complete flowfield
2!
x1,y1

Black dots: sources and sinks

Red dots: vortices

b
+"!

-"!

b2/X0,0

X0,0
x1,-y1

-2!
-2!

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

-2!

The circle radius, b, is equal to

the wings half-chord, b=c/2.

Complete flowfield flat

y
plate
Wing
-b

Wake
b

Points inside the circle are transformed

outside the flat plate. Therefore, the
vortices inside the circle are mapped on the
wake.
The wings chord should have been 4b but
this has been divided by 2 because we are
using sources of strength 2!.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

About the wing and wake

! The wing is a flat plate with a source
distribution that changes in time.
! The +2! and -2! source contributions do
not cancel each other out.
! The wake of the wing is a flat line with
vorticity that changes both in space and in
time.
! The +"! and -"! vorticity contributions do
not cancel each other out.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Wing and wake are slits

! Different parts of the circle map to different
parts of the wing
y

Circle upper surface

-b

b
Circle lower surface

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Outside circle

Inside circle

Boundary conditions
! As with all attached flow aerodynamic
problems there are two boundary
conditions:
! Impermeability: the flow cannot cross the solid
boundary
! Kutta condition: the flow must separate at the
trailing edge

! Kelvins theorem must also be observed.

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Boundary conditions 2
! The impermeability condition is fulfilled by
the source and sink distribution
! The Kutta condition is fulfilled by the
vortex distribution
! Kelvins theorem is automatically fulfilled
because for every vortex +"! there is a
countervortex -"! . Therefore, the total
change in vorticity is always zero.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Impermeability
! Impermeability states that the flow normal to
a solid surface is equal to zero.
! For a moving wing, the velocity induced by
the source distribution normal to the wings
surface must be equal to the velocity due to
the wings motion and the free stream, i.e.
!"
= #w
!n

! Where n is a unit vector normal to the surface

and w is the external upwash.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Impermeablity (2)
! Across the solid boundary of a closed
object the source strength is given by
#$
! ="
#n

! (assuming that the potential of the internal

flow is constant)
! Therefore, !=w
! This means that the strength of the source
distribution is defined by the wings
motion.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Wing motion
! Assume that the wing has pitch and
plunge degrees of freedom.
! The total upwash due to its motion is equal
to

))

w = ! U" + h + b( x1 + 1) ! x f "

! where xf is the position of the flexural axis

and x1 goes from -1 to +1.
x
x=
b

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

and x is measured from the half-chord

Potential induced by sources

! The potential induced by a source at x1 , y1 is given
by
"
"
2
2
2
2
ln ( x $ x1 ) + ( y $ y1 ) =
ln[( x $ x1 ) + ( y $ y1 ) ]
d! ( x1, y1 ) =
2#
4#

! By noting that we are using sources of strength 2!,

the potential induced by a source at x1 , y1 and a
sink at x1 , -y1 is given by
2
2
" % ( x $ x1 ) + ( y $ y1 ) (
d! ( x1, y1 ) =
ln '
*
2# '& ( x $ x1 ) 2 + ( y + y1 ) 2 )*
! The value of this potential does not change if we
use non-dimensional coordinates
2
2
" % ( x $ x1 ) + ( y $ y1 ) (
d! ( x1, y1 ) =
ln '
*
2# '& ( x $ x1 ) 2 + ( y + y1 ) 2 *)
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

where x =

x
, y = 1! x 2
b

Total source potential

! The total potential induced by the sources
and sinks is given by
2
2
%
x $ x1 ) + ( y $ y1 ) (
b
(
! ( x, y ) =
# ln '
2
2 *dx1
+
2" $1
'& ( x $ x1 ) + ( y + y1 ) *)
1

! Substituting for ! from the upwash

equation we get
2
2
%
x $ x1 ) + ( y $ y1 ) (
b
(

! ( x1, y1 ) =
U# + h + b( x1 + 1) $ x f # ln '
2
2 *dx1
+
2" $1
'& ( x $ x1 ) + ( y + y1 ) *)
1

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

))

After the integrations

! A long sequence of hardcore integration
sessions has been censored. Such scenes
are unsuitable for 3rd year B. Eng students
and engineering lecturers.
! The result on the upper surface is:
2
b
"
2

( x + 2) 1# x 2 (1)
! ( x, y ) = b(U" + h # x f " ) 1# x +
2
! The result on the lower surface is
! ( x, y ) lower = "! ( x, y )
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Pressure on the surface

! From the unsteady Bernoulli equation:
% q 2 #$ (
p = ! "' + * + Constant
& 2 #t )

! Where p is the static pressure, " the air density

and q the local air velocity
! For calculating the forces on the wing we need to
apply this equation to the wings surface.
! The local velocity on the surface is tangential to
the surface. As the wing lies on the x-axis:
"#
"#
$U +
q = U cos! + u = U cos ! +
"x
"x

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Pressure difference
! The pressure on the upper surface is then
2
%1%
#$ ' #$ '
pu = ! ") U +
+ * + Constant
#x (
#t (
&2&

! And on the lower surface:

2
%1%
#$ ' #$ '
pl = ! ") U !
! * + Constant
#x (
#t (
&2&

! The pressure difference is simply

& $% $% (
& U $% $% (
= "2 #
+
+
!p = pu " pl = "2 # U
' $x $ t )
' b $x $t )
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Non-circulatory lift
! The non-circulatory lift is given by
c

#1

lnc = " !pdx = b" !pdx

! Substituting for "p we get

1 #$
1 #$
1
% U #$ #$ '
dx = !2 "b$ !1 ! 2 "b )
lnc = !2 "b )
+
dx = !2 "b )
dx
!1 & b #x
!1
!1
(
#t
#t
#t
1

! Because we set that "(1)="(-1)=0.

Carrying out the integrations we get
c&
$ $
&
lnc = !"b ) h # x f # ( + U( *
% %
'
2'
2

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Non-circulatory moment
! The non-circulatory moment around the flexural axis is given
by:
c

mnc = # !p x " x f dx = b # !p b( x + 1) " x f dx

0

"1

! Substituting for "p we get

1 #$
#$
mnc = !2 "bU % x dx ! 2 "b %
xb + b ! x f dx
!1 #x
!1 #t
1
1 #$
= 2 "bU % $dx ! 2 "b %
xb + b ! x f dx
!1
!1 #t

! where the first integral was evaluated by parts. Carrying out

the integrations we get:
4
c
c
!"
b
$
&
$
&
$
&
( + !"b 2Uh + !"b 2U 2(
mnc = !"b 2 x f # ) h # x f # (* #
%
2' % %
2' '
8
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Circulatory forces
! Up to now weve only satisfied the
impermeability condition.
! Now we need to satisfy the Kutta condition
using the vortex distribution.
y

+"!
b2/X0,0

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

-"!
X0,0

Potential induced by vortices

! The potential induced by the vortex pair at
(X0,0) and (b2/X0,0) is
! "#

)
"# & %1 y
y
%1
=
% tan
( tan
+
2$ '
x % X0
x % b2 / X 0 *

! As before, non-dimensional coordinates can

be used ! = "# & tan%1 y % tan%1 y )
(
+
2$ '
x % X0
x % 1/ X 0 *
X 0 + 1/ X 0 = 2x 0 or X 0 = x 0 + x 02 ! 1
"#

! Define
! And remember that on the circle y =
2
2
! Then:
"# $1 1$ x x 0 $ 1
! "# = $

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

2%

tan

1$ xx 0

1! x 2

(2)

Pressure difference
! The pressure difference caused by this
potential is, as before
& $% $% (
!p = pu " pl = "2 # U
+
' $x $ t )

! Theodorsen assumes that the vortices

propagate downstream at the free stream
velocity. Then !" = !" U
where x 0 = bx 0
!t

! So that
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

!x 0

& $% $% )
U & $% $% )
!p = "2 #U ( +
+ = "2 # ( +
+
x
x
x
x
$
$
b
$
$
'
'
0*
0*

Pressure difference (2)

! After obscene amounts of algebra and
calculus we obtain
)
!$ &
x0 + x
!p( x, x 0 ) = " #U
(
+
b% ' 1" x 2 x 02 " 1 *

! But this is the contribution to the pressure

difference at one point on the flat plate by
only one vortex. In order to obtain the full
circulatory aerodynamic loads we need to
integrate for all vortices over all the wing.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Lift - Integrate over wing

! Integrating over the wing is easy
c

#1

lc ( x 0 ) = " !p( x, x 0 )dx = b " !p( x, x 0 )dx

! Substituting:

"U#$

& x0 + x )
dx
lc ( x 0 ) = !
(
,
2+
2
!1 '
% x0 ! 1
1! x *
1

! This is an uncharacteristically easy integral

leading to
lc ( x 0 ) = ! "U#$

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

x0

x 02 ! 1

Lift - Integrate over the wake

! Integration over the wake starts at the
trailing edge and extends to infinity
lc = ! "U &

! We can define

x0

x !1
2
0

#$

!" = bVdx 0

(3)

! So that the circulatory lift becomes

lc = ! "Ub $

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

x0

x !1
2
0

Vdx 0

Circulatory Moment
! The circulatory moment around the
flexural axis becomes
c
1
mc ( x 0 ) = # !p( x, x 0 )( x " x f )dx = b # !p( x, x 0 )(b( x + 1) " x f )dx
0
"1
! After substituting for "p, the integrals
become much more complicated.
! Heres the result:
mc = ! "Ub *

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

#b
%
%$ 2

x0 + 1
x0 &
! ec
(Vdx 0
2
x0 ! 1
x 0 ! 1 ('

The nature of V
! V is a non-dimensional measure of vortex
strength at a point x0 in flat plate space.
! As weve assumed that vortices dont change
strength as they travel downstream, V is a
function of space.
! In fact, it is stationary in value if we use a
reference system that travels with the fluid.
! If we use a fixed system, then V is a function
of both time and space, i.e.
V = f (Ut ! x 0 )
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Kutta condition
! Nevertheless, we still dont know what value to give to
V.
! This value can be obtained from the Kutta condition.
! One of the forms of the Kutta condition is that the
local velocity at the trailing edge must be finite.
! We can restrict this to the horizontal velocity
component since the wing lies on the x-axis.
! In mathematical form:
!" tot
= finite
!x x =1
! Where "tot stands for the total potential caused by both
the sources and vortices.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Kutta condition (2)

! From equations (1), (2) and (3), the total
potential is
2
"
b
2

( x + 2) 1# x 2
! tot ( x ) = b(U" + h # x f " ) 1# x +
#

b
2$

&

tan #1

1# x 2 x 02 # 1
Vdx 0
1# xx 0

! The horizontal airspeed is

!" tot
= #b U$ + h # x f $
!x

b
+
2%

'

&

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

x 02 # 1

1# x ( x # x 0 )
2

b 2$ 2x 2 + 2x # 1
#
2
2
1# x
1# x 2

Vdx 0

Kutta condition (3)

! The total potential can be written as
1
!" tot
=
!x
1# x 2

b
+
2(

2
%
b
$
2

#b
U
$
+
h
#
x
$
x
#
2x
+ 2x # 1)
(
f
'
2
&

+
x 02 # 1
Vdx 0 ( x # x0 )
-,

! At the trailing edge x = 1 . Therefore, the

denominator becomes zero there.
! For the horizontal velocity to be finite, the
numerator must also become zero at the trailing
edge. Therefore:
2
3b!
1

=
U! + h " x f ! +
2#
2

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

x0 " 1
Vdx 0
1" x 0

Kutta condition (4)

! Cleaning up we get
1
!
2"

x0 + 1
& 3c
(

Vdx 0 = U% + h +
! xf %
'
)
4
x0 ! 1

(4)

! Now we have a relationship that gives us

the necessary vortex strength for the Kutta
condition to be satisfied.
! This is the most important result of
Theodorsens approach.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Circulatory lift
! Remember that the circulatory lift is given by
lc = ! "Ub $

x0

x !1
2
0

Vdx 0

! Divide this lift by equation (4) to obtain:

! Where

%
% 3c
' '

$ x f #*
lc = !"UcC )U# + h +
&
( (
&
4
"
x0
#1 x 2 ! 1 Vdx 0
0
C=
"
x0 + 1
#1 x 0 ! 1 Vdx 0

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Circulatory moment
! Similarly:
mc = ! "Ub *

#b
%
%$ 2

x0 + 1
x0 &
! ec
(Vdx 0
2
x0 ! 1
x 0 ! 1 ('

! Divide by equation (4) to obtain

$b
&$
$ 3c
& &

! x f ( *
mc = !"#Uc ! ecC ) U( + h +
%2
'%
%4
' '

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Total lift
! The total lift, both circulatory and noncirculatory is easily obtained by adding the
two contributions:
c&
$ $
&

l = lnc + lc = !"b ) h # x f # ( + U(*

%
%
'
2'
2

$
$ 3c
& &

# x f (*
+"!UcC ) U( + h +
%
' '
%
4

(5)

! Notice that the non-circulatory terms are

the added mass terms.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Total moment
! The total moment is again obtained from the sum of the two
contributions:
4
!"
b
c
c
$
&
$
&
$
&
(
m = mnc + mc = !"b 2 x f # ) h # x f # (* #
%
2' % %
2' '
8

$ 3c
& &
$b
&$
2 2

+ !"b Uh + !"b U ( # "!Uc # ecC )U( + h +

# x f (*
%4
' '
%4
'%
2

! Happily, some terms drop out:

4
!"
b
c
c
$
&
$
&
$
&
&
2
2 $ 3c

( # !"b
# x f (
m = !"b x f # ) h # x f # (* #
%
%4
'
2' % %
2' '
8

$
$ 3c
& &

+"!Uec C) U( + h +
# x f (*
%4
' '
%
2

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

(6)

Discussion
! Theodorsens approach has led to equations
(5) and (6) for the full lift and moment acting
on the airfoil.
! The main assumptions of the approach are:
! Attached flow everywhere
! The wake is flat
! The wake vorticity travels at the free stream
airspeed

! In all other aspects its an exact solution

! However, its not complete yet. What is the
value of C?
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Prescribed motion
! In order to carry out the integrals and
define C we need to know V.
! The only way to know V is the prescribe it.
! However, prescribing V directly is not
useful.
! Its better to prescribe the wings motion
and then determine what the resulting
value of V will be.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Sinusoidal motion
! The most logical choice for prescribed
motion is sinusoidal motion.
Slowly pitching and
plunging airfoil
Vorticity
variation with x/c
in the wake. It is
sinusoidal near
the airfoil

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

More about sinusoidal motion

! For small amplitude and frequency
oscillations, the form of V(x0,t) is sinusoidal
near the airfoil.
! Notice that V(x0,t) is periodic in both time
and space:
! V(x0,t)=V(x0,t+2#/$) =
! V(x0,t)=V(x0+U2#/$,t) =

! This means that phase angle of V(x0,t) is

given by $t+$x0/U.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Vortex strength
V(x0,t)

!(t)
x0
h(t)
The vortex strength of the wake behind a pitching and plunging airfoil can
have any spatial and temporal distribution, V(x0,t).
There are two special motions for which Theodorsens function can be
evaluated: steady motion and sinusoidal motion
For sinusoidal motion:

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

! = ! 0e j"t
h = h0e j"t

V = V0e

" &
#
j % "t + x 0 (
$
U '

= V0e

b" &
#
j % "t +
x (
$
U 0'

Theodorsen Function
For sinusoidal motion
Theodorsens function
can be evaluated in
terms of Bessel
functions of the first
and second kind.
A much more practical,
approximate,
estimation is:

With k="c/U
or

k="b/U

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Usage of Theodorsen
! Theodorsens lift force is now given by
%
% 3c
' '

$ x f #*
lc = !"UcC ( k )) U# + h +
&
( (
&
4

! Theodorsens function can be seen as an

analog filter. It attenuates the lift force by an
amount that depends on the frequency of
oscillation
! Theoretically, Theodorsens function can only
be applied in the case where the response of
the system is exactly sinusoidal
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Example
Consider the circulatory
lift of a purely pitching
flat plate, h=h0exp j$t.
Quasi-steady lift:

lc = !"Uch0 j# exp j#t

Theodorsen lift:

lc = !"UcC ( k ) h0 j# exp j#t

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Lift and moment

! The full equations for the lift and
moment around the flexural axis using
Theodorsen are:

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Aeroelastic equations
! The full aeroelastic equations are:
" m S % ( h+ " K h
$
') , + $
# S I! & *! - # 0

0 % ( h + (.l( t )+
,
') , = )
K! & *! - * m( t ) -

! For sinusoidal motion they become:

$ !" 2 m + K h
&
% !" 2 S

!" 2 S ' * h0 - j"t *!l( t ).

) +# .e = +
2
!" I# + K# ( , 0 /
, m(t ) /

! Substituting for l(t) and m(t) yields

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Equations of motion?
! As the system is assumed to respond
sinusoidaly there is no sense in writing out
complete equations of motion.
! Combining the lift and moment with the
structural forces gives

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Validity of this equation

! This algebraic system of equations is only valid
when the wing is performing sinusoidal
oscillations.
! For an aeroelastic system such oscillations are
only possible when:

! The airspeed is zero and there is no structural

damping free sinusoidal oscillations
! There is an external sinusoidal excitation force
forced sinusoidal oscillations
! The wing is flying at the critical flutter condition selfexcited sinusoidal oscillations

! The last case is very useful for calculating the

critical flutter condition.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Flutter Determinant
! For the equation to be satisfied non-trivially, the 2x2
matrix must be equal to zero, i.e. D=0, where

! D is called the flutter determinant and must be solved

for the flutter frequency "F and airspeed, UF.
! As the determinant is complex, Re(D)=0 and Im(D)=0.
Two equations with two unknowns.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Solution
! The flutter determinant is nonlinear in " and U.
! It can be solved using a Newton-Raphson scheme
! Given an initial value "i, Ui, a better value can be
obtained from

! Where F=[Re(D) Im(D)]T.

! The initial value of "i is usually one of the wind-off
natural frequencies
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Effect of Flexural Axis

Since sinusoidal
motion is assumed the
Theodorsen equations
are only valid at the
flutter point (or when
there is no damping at
all). Therefore, the
variation of the
eigenvalues with
airspeed cannot be
calculated.
The flutter speeds
calculated from
Theodorsen are less
conservative than the
quasi-steady results.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity