PIPEFISH

Pipefishes are a subfamily of small fishes, which, together with the seahorses, form the family
Syngnathidae.
Pipefishes look like straight-bodied seahorses with tiny mouths. The name is derived from the
peculiar form of the snout, which is like a long tube, ending in a narrow and small mouth which
opens upwards and is toothless. The body and tail are long, thin, and snake-like. They each have
a highly modified skeleton formed into armored plating. This dermal skeleton has several
longitudinal ridges, so a vertical section through the body looks angular, not round or oval as in
the majority of other fishes. A dorsal fin is always present, and is the principal (in some species,
the only) organ of locomotion. The ventral fins are consistently absent, and the other fins may
or may not be developed. The gill openings are extremely small and placed near the upper

posterior angle of the gill cover. Many are very weak swimmers in open water, moving slowly
by means of rapid movements of the dorsal fin. Some species of pipefish have prehensile tails,
as in seahorses. The majority of pipefishes have some form of a caudal fin (unlike seahorses),
which can be used for locomotion. Some species of pipefish have more developed caudal fins,
such as the group collectively known as flag tail pipefish, which are quite strong swimmers.
Most pipefishes are marine dwellers; only a few are freshwater species. They are abundant on
coasts of the tropical and temperate zones. Most species of pipefish are usually 3540 cm in
length and generally inhabit sheltered areas in coral reefs or sea grass beds.
Pipefishes, like their seahorse relatives, leave most of the parenting duties to the male, which
provides all of the postzygotic care for its offspring, supplying them with nutrients and oxygen
through a placenta-like connection. It broods the offspring either on distinct region of its body
or in a brood pouch. Brood pouches vary significantly among different species of pipefish, but
all contain a small opening through which female eggs can be deposited. The location of the
brood pouch can be along the entire underside of the pipefish or just at the base of the tail, as
with seahorses. Pipefish in the genus Syngnathus have a brood pouch with a ventral seam that
can completely cover all of their eggs when sealed. In males without these pouches, eggs
adhere to a strip of soft skin on the ventral surface of their bodies that does not contain any
exterior covering. Courtship between male and female pipefish involves lengthy and
complicated shows of display. For example, in Syngnathus typhle, copulation is always preceded
by a ritualized dance by both sexes. The dance involves very conspicuous wriggling and shaking
motions, especially in comparison to the species' otherwise extremely secretive lifestyle. Under
the threat or presence of a predator, pipefish are more reluctant to perform their dances. In
addition, when risk of predation is high, they copulate less frequently, dance less per
copulation, and females transfer more eggs per copulation. Although S. thyphle males normally
prefer to mate with larger females, they mate randomly when potentially threatened by
predators. During pipefish copulation, which signifies the termination of the courtship dance,
the female transfers her eggs through a small ovipositor into the male brood pouch or onto the
special patch of skin on the males ventral body surface. While the eggs are being transferred,
the mating pair rises through the water until copulation is complete. At this point, the male
assumes an S-shaped posture and fertilizes the eggs, all the while travelling back down the
water column. Males possessing brood pouches release their sperm directly into them; the
pouches are then vigorously shaken. The ventral seams are not opened until weeks later when
the male pipefish give birth. A physical limit exists for the number of eggs a male pipefish can
carry, so males are considered to be the limiting sex. Females can often produce more eggs
than males can accommodate inside their brood pouches, resulting in more eggs than can be
cared for. Other factors may restrict female reproductive success, including male pregnancy
length and energy investment in progeny. Because the pipefish embryos develop within the

male, feeding on nutrients supplied by him, male pipefish invest more energy than females in
each zygote. Additionally, they invest more energy per unit time than females throughout each
breeding season. As a result, some males may consume their embryos rather than continuing to
rear them under situations in which their bodies are exhausted of resources, to regain energy.
Pregnant male pipefish can absorb nutrients from their broods, in a manner very similar to filial
cannibalism found in many other families of fish. The smallest eggs in a brood of various egg
sizes usually have lower survival rates than larger ones, due to the larger eggs being
competitively superior and more likely to develop into mature adults. In other instances, some
pipefishes may consume the embryos of mates that seem less fit or desirable, as each male
generally copulates with more than one female. Young are born free-swimming with relatively
little or no yolk sac, and begin feeding immediately. From the time they hatch, they are
independent of their parents, which at that time may view them as food. Some fry have short
larval stages and live as plankton for a short while. Others are fully developed but miniature
versions of their parents, assuming the same behaviors as their parents immediately. Pair
bonding varies wildly between different species of pipefish. While some are monogamous or
seasonally monogamous, others are not. Many species exhibit polyandry, a breeding system in
which one female mate with two or more males. This tends to occur with greater frequency in
internal-brooding species of pipefishes than with external-brooding ones. Polyandrous species
are also more likely to have females with complex sexual signals such as ornaments.