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a r t i c l e
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Article history:
Available online 27 July 2013
Keywords:
Mobile addiction
Social networking services (SNS)
Mobile applications
Social networking mobile applications
a b s t r a c t
As the penetration of mobile phones in societies increases, there is a large growth in the use of mobile
phones especially among the youth. This trend is followed by the fast growth in use of online social networking services (SNS). Extensive use of technology can lead to addiction. This study nds that the use of
SNS mobile applications is a signicant predictor of mobile addiction. The result also shows that the use
of SNS mobile applications is affected by both SNS network size and SNS intensity of the user. This study
has implications for academia as well as governmental and non-for-prot organizations regarding the
effect of mobile phones on individuals and public health.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Information and communication technologies (ICT) have significantly changed the way we live and have become an inseparable
part of our lives. Many people, especially the youth, use these technologies on a daily basis and for various purposes. People use computers to study, to search for information on the internet, to play
games, and to communicate with others.
These days, most people have mobile phones and use them onthe-go. Recent statistics from December 2011 show that there are
331.6 million mobile phone subscribers in the United States which
indicates a penetration rate of 104% for mobile phones across the
country (CTIA, 2011). In 2011, the number of mobile phones worldwide exceeds 5.6 billion, showing an 11% increase compared to its
previous year and an average penetration rate of 79.86% worldwide
(Gartner, 2011).
Recent advances in hardware and software with the introduction of smartphones has augmented the use of ICT in daily life. In
2011, smartphone vendors experienced a sharp increase in their
sales, reaching 472 million units which showed 58% increase in
comparison to the previous year (Gartner, 2012). The sales for
smartphone also accounted for 31% of all mobile phone sales in
2011 (Gartner, 2012).
Nowadays, people use their mobile phones for a wide variety of
tasks ranging from calling and texting to playing games, navigation, and social networking. Online social networking services
(SNS) have gained rapid popularity in recent years. Social networking services are now more than mere websites. They provide their
users with several ways to connect others including web, email,
and mobile applications. Many SNS vendors have introduced mobile applications that can be installed on smartphones for fast
and easy access to SNS. Facebook, the most popular SNS, currently
has 955 million active users (Mashable, 2012) out of whom more
than half connect through mobile devices (SocialBakers, 2012).
Although mobile phones are very popular and bring lots of benets to their users, various social issues have arisen during their
adoption, including: use of mobile phones in banned and dangerous circumstances (Bianchi & Phillips, 2005), complaints about
the use of mobile phones in public places, compulsive use, and
even addiction (Toda et al., 2008). ICT has the potential to create
addiction in individuals. This is supported by the theory of optimal
ow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990) which posits that for some individuals, the experience with ICT is so enjoyable that they will try to
maintain the state even at high costs. Excessive mobile phone
use can even be seen as a type of technostress (Brod, 1984). By preventing people from working or studying, addiction can cause
harm to both individuals and the society (Park, 2005).
As Internet is becoming and indispensable part of peoples lives,
it is also becoming source of severe problems for both individuals
and organizations. Addiction to internet, as a technology, is an instance of addiction caused by technology (Grifths, 1999; Leung,
2004). Internet addiction not only is harming peoples personal
lives, it is also making organizations more concerned about their
employees productivity, network congestion, and corporate data
privacy (Chou, Sinha, & Zhao, 2010). This combined with the sharp
increase in the penetration rate of mobile devices, which allows
anytime-anywhere internet connectivity, along with widespread
use of social networking applications on mobile phones, would
exacerbate the social and personal problems associated with mobile phones and internet technology.
Although there has been extensive research on technology
addiction, mobile phone addiction has received little attention
from scholars (Belles, Beranuy, Carbonell, & Guardiola, 2009). This
study contributes to lling this gap by investigating the relationship between use of mobile phone for social networking and mobile phone addiction. Drawing on the theory of optimal ow, this
study focuses on how the use of social networking mobile applications can affect mobile phone addiction.
This study has three objectives: (1) to propose a research model
explaining how the use of social networking mobile applications
can be associated with mobile phone addiction, (2) to empirically
test the proposed model using data collected from smartphone
users, and (3) to give the academia and practitioners deep insight
about this effect and its implications. The following parts of this
paper are organized as follows: rst, we present the theoretical
background of the study. Then, we propose our research model
and hypotheses. Finally, we discuss the methodology, results and
implications of our study.
2. Theoretical background
2.1. Technology addiction
Addiction can be explained by oddly high dependence on a particular thing (Park, 2005). Addiction is characterized by repetitive
acts with a total negative sum of consequences (Waal & Mrland,
1999). The need for short-term satisfaction in an addict overshadows the long term implications of his/her actions (Waal & Mrland,
1999). While being over-attentive to instant satisfaction, addicts
usually have incorrect or distorted image of the future although
they have a degree of recognition about the costs incurred in the
future (ODonoghue & Rabin, 1999).
Theory of optimal ow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990) posits that
information technology can cultivate addiction among individuals.
The experience in this manner is so enjoyable for the individual
that they will try to maintain the state even at high costs
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Technology can cause addiction in several ways. For example, technology can facilitate work addiction.
A study on the effect of technology on work addiction showed that
technology can be intensely used by people within and outside
work requirements (Porter & Kakabadse, 2006). The study shows
that the use of technology in organizations can lead to sacrice
of other goals. These sacrices can be in the form of neglecting
other commitments, decrease in social activities and contact with
friends, and gaining weight as a result of giving up physical activity
(Porter & Kakabadse, 2006).
Media addiction is another type of addiction associated with
technology. People use media for seeking information, relaxation,
escape or companionship (Park, 2005). In general, motivations for
use of media can be categorized in two groups: instrumental use
(information seeking, arousal-seeking) and ritualistic use (habit,
passing time) (Rubin, 1981, 1984). Internet addiction is a type of
media addiction which is characterized by feelings of isolation
and loneliness, low self-condence and self-esteem (Douglas
et al., 2008).
Mobile phone addiction is another type of technology addiction.
Mobile phone addiction can be categorized as a problematic
behavior. The most prominent example of problematic use is use
of mobile phone in legally restricted, socially inappropriate, or
even hazardous circumstances such as while driving. Problematic
use has been shown to be related to age, extroversion, low selfesteem (Bianchi & Phillips, 2005), and high self-monitoring (Takao,
Takahashi, & Kitamura, 2009).
2633
2634
mobile addiction. Drawing on the theory of optimal ow, we propose that excessive use of social networking applications on mobile phone can lead to mobile addiction. Figure 1 shows our
research model. Network size is the number of people a person is
connected to through his/her social network. In this study we focus
on SNS network size rather than overall social network size of the
person which includes both online and ofine connections. As a result, we dene network size as the number of people an individual
is connected to through his/her online social network. Drawing on
Ellison et al. (2007), we dene SNS intensity as the extent to which
an individual is actively engaged in SNS activities. Finally, we
dene use of SNS mobileapplications as the degree to which an
individual utilizes mobile applications to connect to SNS.
Network size may be positively associated with SNS intensity
for two reasons. First, people who have larger network size tend
to have more people in their social circle and the larger the social
circle, the more the people to communicate with. Thus, larger network size is related to more communications and higher SNS
intensity. Second, larger SNS network size is associated with higher
levels of information disclosure (Young & Quan-Haase, 2009). High
levels of information disclosure may result in more communications because information disclosure on SNS usually results in
feedback from SNS friends. Users frequently respond to friends
feedbacks by means of liking or putting comments which may
create more interactions with their friends. Thus, larger network
size makes people to be more active on their SNS in order to keep
in touch with their large network. Considering the above argument, we hypothesize that:
H1. Network size positively affects SNS intensity
As we saw above, larger network size is associated with larger
social circle and consequently more communications. Since mobile phones provide easy, rapid and continuous connection, they
provide a very efcient means of communication for people that
need continuous connection with others. Mobile phones provide
instantaneous communication facility for people through different
channels, such as: voice communications, texting, and internet.
The diversity of communication channels for mobile phones
allows them to act as a vehicle that handles large volumes of communication with abundant number of people. As a result, the
more people need communications, the more they will use their
mobile phones.
People who have large number of connections on SNS can use
their mobile phones to maintain their SNS relationships. By simply
installing the mobile application associated with their SNS on their
mobile phones, individuals will have the opportunity to be always
2635
4. Methodology
H3. SNS intensity positively affects the use of mobile social
networking applications
Use of mobile SNS applications can lead to mobile phone addiction. There are three reasons for this argument. First, use of mobile
applications is associated with more frequent usage (Oulasvirta
et al., 2012) as well as more intense use (RuderFinn, 2010). At
the same time, addiction is characterized by repetitive habits and
behaviors (Waal & Mrland, 1999). Based on the theory of optimal
ow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990), this frequent and repetitive mobile
phone checking habit may ultimately lead to mobile phone addiction. Second, getting used to frequent checking of social networking application on mobile phones can grow as a habit (Oulasvirta
et al., 2012). In the long run, this habit can cause the person feel
uncomfortable and irritated when they do not have access to their
mobile phone or when they cannot use it. Such unpleasant feelings
are signs of mobile addiction (Park, 2005).
Finally, mobile social networking applications have special
characteristics that can aggravate the checking habit and lead to
addiction. In comparison to classic mobile applications, such as
calling and texting, SNS mobile applications have four important
characteristics that augment their potential to intensely engage
people. First, it is very likely for ones SNS network size to be larger
his/her mobile phone book size. The average Facebook network
size is 190 (Backstorm, 2011) which is very likely to be higher than
the network size of classic mobile uses such as calling and texting.
Second, most of the communications on SNS target general audience while classic mobile usage usually targets specic audience.
Third, SNS mobile applications provide higher levels of group discussion than classic applications. Fourth, in comparison to classic
mobile uses, people are more likely to use SNS mobile applications
rather than making international phone calls for cost saving. This
characteristic also allows people to nd an audience at any time
of the day because they can be connected to people in different
time zones all over the world. These four characteristics provide
SNS mobile application users with a wider range of audience for
communication. As a result, the user may get engaged with social
networking mobile applications more frequently and will have a
higher vulnerability toward mobile addiction. Thus, we hypothesize that:
4.1. Measurement
We adapted our measurement scales from prior studies and
made minor modications to t the context of our study. Our survey instrument is shown in Appendix A. For social network intensity, a variation of Ellison et al. (2007) instrument was used. To
measure network size, we simply asked respondents to choose
the number of their SNS friends from 7 choices (Less than 10, 10
49, 5099, 100199, 200299, 300399, More than 400). The scale
for mobile phone addiction was adapted from Negahban (2012).
Measure for use of mobile phones to access SNS was developed
by the authors. A panel of experts provided oral and written feedback on the instrument and their suggestions were incorporated
for better wording and re-ordering of some questions. SNS intensity
and mobile addiction constructs were measured using a sevenpoint Likert scale with anchors being strongly disagree and
strongly agree. The use of social networking mobile applications
construct was measured using 7-point Likert scale with anchors
ranging from never to every time (never, rarely, occasionally, sometimes, frequently, often, every time).
4.2. Data collection
We collected our data from students in a large public university
in southwest United States. A total of 214 responses were collected
from students. Students received some extra credit for participating in the survey. After removing incomplete answers, we ended
up with a sample of 209 respondents indicating a usable sample
rate of 97%. In terms of gender, 39% of respondents were females
and 61% were males. In terms of age, 90% of the respondents were
between the age of 18 and 30.
4.3. Measurement model
We used Partial Least Squares (PLS) to validate our model. Using
Smart-PLS software, we rst examined our measurement model and
assessed reliability and validity of the measurement items. Then we
examined the structural model to evaluate the signicance for each
of the hypothesis and calculate the R-square. After we removed one
of the items due to high cross loading, the remaining items loaded
2636
MPA1
MPA2
MPA3
MPA4
MPA5
SNMA1
SNMA2
SNMA3
SNMA4
SNMA5
SNI1
SNI3
SNI4
SNI5
NS
Mean
Std.
deviation
Mobile
addiction
Mobile
SNS Apps
SNS
intensity
Network
size
5.36
4.31
3.82
5.07
3.94
4.77
4.73
4.74
4.68
4.71
5.07
3.54
3.51
3.72
305
1.738
1.722
1.874
1.761
1.788
1.908
1.948
1.969
2.068
1.984
1.880
1.914
1.741
1.941
154.5
0.80
0.81
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.28
0.28
0.29
0.28
0.30
0.21
0.45
0.32
0.43
0.2468
0.20
0.22
0.29
0.20
0.25
0.98
0.99
0.98
0.95
0.99
0.68
0.51
0.48
0.47
0.4067
0.34
0.23
0.34
0.35
0.38
0.62
0.63
0.63
0.58
0.64
0.86
0.87
0.85
0.84
0.4321
0.19
0.23
0.24
0.17
0.16
0.40
0.40
0.42
0.36
0.41
0.41
0.34
0.39
0.33
1
Table 2
Reliability, correlations, and AVEs.
Addiction
Mobile SNS
SNS Intensity
Network Size
AVE
Composite reliability
Cronbachs alpha
Addiction
Mobile SNS
SNS intensity
0.67
0.96
0.73
1.00
0.91
0.99
0.92
0.88
0.99
0.88
0.82
0.29
0.40
0.25
0.98
0.64
0.41
0.86
0.37
1.00
Count
<10
1050
5099
100199
200299
300399
>400
10
10
10
32
25
33
89
phone addiction because a large percentage of SNS users are college students. Moreover, younger people are more likely to spend
excessive amount of time on their mobile phones than older people
which makes them more vulnerable to mobile phone-related problems (Bianchi & Phillips, 2005).
Second, the study has been conducted in a country which not
only has a very high mobile phone penetration rate (104%) but also
offers a very high coverage of high-speed mobile internet (3G and
4G). The effect of mobile social networking applications on mobile
addiction may be less signicant in countries with limited mobile
internet access. The results of our study may not be generalizable
to those countries. Future studies may investigate the impact of
mobile penetration as well as mobile network infrastructure and
quality on individuals mobile addiction.
Finally, our sample contained 39% female and 61% male. Future
studies may focus on gender differences in use of mobile social networking applications and its effect on mobile addiction.
2637
Finally, our study shows that large network size and high SNS
intensity drive people to install and use mobile social networking
applications. In this case, the need for constant connectivity is an
important motivation behind utilization of these applications.
Future research can look at other determinants of use of mobile
applications to give academia and practitioners a better understanding of the fast growing rate of popularity of such applications.
In terms of practical contribution, this study has three implications. First, the study shows that mobile social networking applications can be fairly addictive. This can be true about other types of
mobile applications. Considering the harm that such addiction can
cause to the individual and the society specially for the youth
(Hong et al., 2012), the related governmental and non-for-prot
organizations should seriously take this issue into consideration
and plan for taking preventive and corrective actions.
Second, although mobile application developers may benet
from extensive use of their applications, the current trend of addiction is harmful for the society. Complying with current norms
about prioritizing the benets of society over personal benets,
mobile application designers may want to look at the ways to prevent their users from becoming addicted by different means such
as designing built-in features that warn users about their excessive
use of the application.
Finally, this study shows that high SNS intensity is an important
driver of use of social networking mobile applications. These applications should be designed in a way that they support high levels
of SNS activity to be suitable for their users. The important related
design characteristics include high levels of reliability, availability,
accessibility, user friendliness, and short response time. Moreover,
considering the signicant positive effect of network size on the
use of social networking mobile applications, it is important for
these applications to provide users with quick and easy access to
their large network of friends.
6. Conclusion
In this study, we investigate how SNS intensity, network size,
and mobile social networking applications can be associated with
mobile addiction. The result of our study shows that mobile social
networking applications are signicant predictor of mobile addiction. The use of these applications can be inuenced by the network
size and SNS intensity of the user. SNS intensity is also affected by
network size which may be a sign of extensive use of SNS for connecting to weak ties. Overall, the study conrms the recent warnings about the adverse side-effects associated with excessive use
of mobile phones and social networking services and draws attention of academia, governments, and non-prot organizations to
the growing trend of using SNS and mobile applications.
Appendix A. Survey Items
SNI1
SNI2
SNI3
SNI4
SNI5
MPA1
2638
MPA2
MPA3
MPA4
MPA5
SNMA1
SNMA2
SNMA3
SNMA4
SNMA5
Appendix B. Figures
See Figs. B.1 and B.2.
Appendix C. Tables
See Tables C.1C.3.
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