The Developmental Stages of Erik Erikson ARE WE GIVEN

By Arlene F. Harder, MA, MFT

A SECOND
"It is human to have a long childhood; it is civilized to have CHANCE TO
an even longer childhood. Long childhood makes a
technical and mental virtuoso out of man, but it also leaves LEARN?
a life-long residue of emotional immaturity in him." While the first premise
— Erik Homburger Erikson (1902-1994) of Erik Erikson's
developmental stages,
Our personality traits come in opposites. We think of i.e., the world gets
ourselves as optimistic or pessimistic, independent or bigger and more
dependent, emotional or unemotional, adventurous or complex as we go along,
cautious, leader or follower, aggressive or passive. Many of is fairly obvious, but we
might take exception to
these are inborn temperament traits, but other
the last, i.e., failure is
characteristics, such as feeling either competent or inferior, cumulative.
appear to be learned, based on the challenges and support
we receive in growing up. It is true that in many
cases an individual who
The man who did a great deal to explore this concept is has to deal with
Erik Erikson. Although he was influenced by Freud, he horrendous
believed that the ego exists from birth and that behavior is circumstances as a child
not totally defensive. Based in part on his study of Sioux may be unable to
Indians on a reservation, Erikson became aware of the negotiate later stages as
massive influence of culture on behavior and placed more easily as someone who
emphasis on the external world, such as depression and didn't have many
wars. He felt the course of development is determined by challenges early on. For
the interaction of the body (genetic biological example, we know that
programming), mind (psychological), and cultural (ethos) orphans who weren't
held or stroked as
influences.
infants have an
He organized life into eight stages that extend from birth to extremely hard time
death (many developmental theories only cover childhood). connecting with others
Since adulthood covers a span of many years, Erikson when they become
divided the stages of adulthood into the experiences of adults and have even
died from lack of human
young adults, middle aged adults and older adults. While
contact.
the actual ages may vary considerably from one stage to
another, the ages seem to be appropriate for the majority of However, there's always
people. the chance that
somewhere along the
Erikson's basic philosophy might be said to rest on two
major themes: (1) the world gets bigger as we go along and way the strength of the
(2) failure is cumulative. While the first point is fairly human spirit can be
obvious, we might take exception to the last. True, in many ignited and deficits
cases an individual who has to deal with horrendous overcome. Therefore, I
circumstances as a child may be unable to negotiate later like the concept of
stages as easily as someone who didn't have as many development as a
challenges early on. For example, we know that orphans spiraling cycle rather
who weren't held or stroked as infants have an extremely than as stages through
hard time connecting with others when they become adults which we pass, never to
and have even died from lack of human contact. visit again.

However, there's always the chance that somewhere along You can see how this
the way the strength of the human spirit can be ignited and concept of
deficits overcome. Therefore, to give you an idea of another developmental stages
works in Words of
developmental concept, be sure to see Stages of Growth for Encouragement for
Children and Adults, based on Pamela Levine's work. She Everyone . . .
saw development as a spiraling cycle rather than as stages Especially Parents
through which we pass, never to visit again. Who Want to Know
As you read through the following eight stages with their How to Encourage
Their Children, a four-
sets of opposites, notice which strengths you identify with
minute presentation of
most and those you need to work on some more. how affirmations
1. Infancy: Birth to 18 Months appropriate to each
period of growth is the
Ego Development Outcome: Trust vs. Mistrust best way to navigate
Basic strength: Drive and Hope developmental cycles.
Erikson also referred to infancy as the Oral Sensory Stage Also see Integrating
(as anyone might who watches a baby put everything in her All of Life's Lessons
mouth) where the major emphasis is on the mother's developed for the
positive and loving care for the child, with a big emphasis Childhood
on visual contact and touch. If we pass successfully through Affirmations website.
this period of life, we will learn to trust that life is basically And be sure to listen to
okay and have basic confidence in the future. If we fail to an excerpt from a CD
experience trust and are constantly frustrated because our titled Words of
Encouragement
needs are not met, we may end up with a deep-seated
Everyone Needs
feeling of worthlessness and a mistrust of the world in
general. [Note: If you don't have
a Flash player, click
Incidentally, many studies of suicides and suicide attempts
point to the importance of the early years in developing the here for a FREE
basic belief that the world is trustworthy and that every download.]
individual has a right to be here.
As you examine the
Not surprisingly, the most significant relationship is with legacy given to you by
the maternal parent, or whoever is our most significant and your parents and
constant caregiver. grandparents, you may
discover strengths you
2. Early Childhood: 18 Months to 3 Years
underestimated. You
Ego Development Outcome: Autonomy vs. Shame may also realize you
Basic Strengths: Self-control, Courage, and Will didn't hear important
affirmations you would
During this stage we learn to master skills for ourselves. benefit from today. But
Not only do we learn to walk, talk and feed ourselves, we it's never too late to
are learning finer motor development as well as the much learn what you may
appreciated toilet training. Here we have the opportunity to have missed.
build self-esteem and autonomy as we gain more control Incidentally, several
over our bodies and acquire new skills, learning right from people have been
wrong. And one of our skills during the "Terrible Two's" is credited with organizing
our ability to use the powerful word "NO!" It may be pain the stages of growth in
for parents, but it develops important skills of the will. this way. I first learned
about this cycle of
It is also during this stage, however, that we can be very stages from material
vulnerable. If we're shamed in the process of toilet training written by Pam Levine
or in learning other important skills, we may feel great and expanded by Sheryn
shame and doubt of our capabilities and suffer low self- Scott, Ph.D. Later I
esteem as a result. discovered these
concepts further
The most significant relationships are with parents.
elaborated by Jane
3. Play Age: 3 to 5 Years Illsley Clarke and
Connie Dawson in
Ego Development Outcome: Initiative vs. Guilt Growing Up Again:
Basic Strength: Purpose Parenting Ourselves,
During this period we experience a desire to copy the adults Parenting Our
Children.
around us and take initiative in creating play situations. We
make up stories with Barbie's and Ken's, toy phones and
miniature cars, playing out roles in a trial universe,
experimenting with the blueprint for what we believe it
means to be an adult. We also begin to use that wonderful
word for exploring the world—"WHY?"
While Erikson was influenced by Freud, he downplays
biological sexuality in favor of the psychosocial features of
conflict between child and parents. Nevertheless, he said
that at this stage we usually become involved in the classic
"Oedipal struggle" and resolve this struggle through "social
role identification." If we're frustrated over natural desires
and goals, we may easily experience guilt.
The most significant relationship is with the basic family.
4. School Age: 6 to 12 Years
Ego Development Outcome: Industry vs. Inferiority
Basic Strengths: Method and Competence
During this stage, often called the Latency, we are capable
of learning, creating and accomplishing numerous new
skills and knowledge, thus developing a sense of industry.
This is also a very social stage of development and if we
experience unresolved feelings of inadequacy and
inferiority among our peers, we can have serious problems
in terms of competence and self-esteem.
As the world expands a bit, our most significant
relationship is with the school and neighborhood. Parents
are no longer the complete authorities they once were,
although they are still important.
5. Adolescence: 12 to 18 Years
Ego Development Outcome: Identity vs. Role Confusion
Basic Strengths: Devotion and Fidelity
Up to this stage, according to Erikson, development mostly
depends upon what is done to us. From here on out,
development depends primarily upon what we do. And
while adolescence is a stage at which we are neither a child
nor an adult, life is definitely getting more complex as we
attempt to find our own identity, struggle with social
interactions, and grapple with moral issues.
Our task is to discover who we are as individuals separate
from our family of origin and as members of a wider
society. Unfortunately for those around us, in this process
many of us go into a period of withdrawing from
responsibilities, which Erikson called a "moratorium." And
if we are unsuccessful in navigating this stage, we will
experience role confusion and upheaval.
A significant task for us is to establish a philosophy of life
and in this process we tend to think in terms of ideals,
which are conflict free, rather than reality, which is not. The
problem is that we don't have much experience and find it
easy to substitute ideals for experience. However, we can
also develop strong devotion to friends and causes.
It is no surprise that our most significant relationships are
with peer groups.
6. Young adulthood: 18 to 35
Ego Development Outcome: Intimacy and Solidarity vs.
Isolation
Basic Strengths: Affiliation and Love
In the initial stage of being an adult we seek one or more
companions and love. As we try to find mutually satisfying
relationships, primarily through marriage and friends, we
generally also begin to start a family, though this age has
been pushed back for many couples who today don't start
their families until their late thirties. If negotiating this
stage is successful, we can experience intimacy on a deep
level.
If we're not successful, isolation and distance from others
may occur. And when we don't find it easy to create
satisfying relationships, our world can begin to shrink as, in
defense, we can feel superior to others.
Our significant relationships are with marital partners and
friends.
7. Middle Adulthood: 35 to 55 or 65
Ego Development Outcome: Generativity vs. Self
absorption or Stagnation
Basic Strengths: Production and Care
Now work is most crucial. Erikson observed that middle-
age is when we tend to be occupied with creative and
meaningful work and with issues surrounding our family.
Also, middle adulthood is when we can expect to "be in
charge," the role we've longer envied.
The significant task is to perpetuate culture and transmit
values of the culture through the family (taming the kids)
and working to establish a stable environment. Strength
comes through care of others and production of something
that contributes to the betterment of society, which Erikson
calls generativity, so when we're in this stage we often fear
inactivity and meaninglessness.
As our children leave home, or our relationships or goals
change, we may be faced with major life changes—the
mid-life crisis—and struggle with finding new meanings
and purposes. If we don't get through this stage
successfully, we can become self-absorbed and stagnate.
Significant relationships are within the workplace, the
community and the family.
8. Late Adulthood: 55 or 65 to Death
Ego Development Outcome: Integrity vs. Despair
Basic Strengths: Wisdom
Erikson felt that much of life is preparing for the middle
adulthood stage and the last stage is recovering from it.
Perhaps that is because as older adults we can often look
back on our lives with happiness and are content, feeling
fulfilled with a deep sense that life has meaning and we've
made a contribution to life, a feeling Erikson calls
integrity. Our strengt h comes from a wisdom that the
world is very large and we now have a detached concern for
the whole of life, accepting death as the completion of life.
On the other hand, some adults may reach this stage and
despair at their experiences and perceived failures. They
may fear death as they struggle to find a purpose to their
lives, wondering "Was the trip worth it?" Alternatively,
they may feel they have all the answers (not unlike going
back to adolescence) and end with a strong dogmatism that
only their view has been correct.
The significant relationship is with all of mankind—"my-
kind."
© Copyright 2002, Revised 2009, Arlene F. Harder, MA,
MFT

http://www.learningplaceonline.com/stages/organize/Erikson.htm

The Oral Stage

During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the
mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for
eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying
activities such as tasting and sucking. Because the infant is entirely dependent upon
caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child), the infant also develops a sense
of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.

The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less
dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the
individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in
problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail biting.

The Anal Stage

During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on
controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet
training--the child has to learn to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this
control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.

According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents
approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at
the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and
productive. Freud believed that positive experiences during this stage served as the
basis for people to become competent, productive, and creative adults.

However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need
during this stage. Some parents' instead punish, ridicule, or shame a child for
accidents. According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative
outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an
anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful,
or destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early,
Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is
stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.

The Phallic Stage

During the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. Children also
discover the differences between males and females. Freud also believed that boys
begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections. The Oedipus complex
describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace the
father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these
feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.

The term Electra complex has been used to described a similar set of feelings
experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience
penis envy.

Eventually, the child realizes begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of
vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis
envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this
stage. Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both
inaccurate and demeaning to women. Instead, Horney proposed that men experience
feelings of inferiority because they cannot give birth to children.

The Latent Period

During the latent period, the libido interests are suppressed. The development of the
ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage begins around the time
that children enter into school and become more concerned with peer relationships,
hobbies, and other interests.

The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is still present, but
it is directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This
stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and self-
confidence.

The Genital Stage

During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong
sexual interest in the opposite sex. Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on
individual needs, interest in the welfare of others grows during this stage. If the other
stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced,
warm, and caring. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various
life areas.

http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/ss/psychosexualdev_6.htm

Freud's Psychosexual Stage Theory

Explanations > Learning Theory > Freud's Psychosexual Stage Theory
The stages | Fixation | So what

Sigmund Freud developed a theory of how our sexuality starts from a very young ages and
develops through various fixations. If these stages are not psychologically completed and
released, we can be trapped by them and they may lead to various defense mechanisms to
avoid the anxiety produced from the conflict in and leaving of the stage.

The stages

Age Name Pleasure source Conflict

Weaning away
Mouth: sucking, biting,
0-2 Oral from mother's
swallowing
breast

Anus: defecating or
2-4 Anal Toilet training
retaining faeces

Oedipus (boys),
4-5 Phallic Genitals
Electra (girls)

Sexual urges sublimated

6-
into sports and hobbies.
pubert Latency
Same-sex friends also help
y
avoid sexual feelings.

Physical sexual changes

pubert reawaken repressed needs.
y Genital Social rules
onward
Direct sexual feelings
towards others lead to sexual
gratification.

Fixation
Strong conflict can fixate people at early stages.
Oral fixation
Oral fixation has two possible outcomes.
• The Oral receptive personality is preoccupied with eating/drinking and reduces
tension through oral activity such as eating, drinking, smoking, biting nails. They
are generally passive, needy and sensitive to rejection. They will easily 'swallow'
other people's ideas.
• The Oral aggressive personality is hostile and verbally abusive to others, using
mouth-based aggression.

Anal fixation
Anal fixation, which may be caused by too much punishment during toilet training, has two
possible outcomes.
• The Anal retentive personality is stingy, with a compulsive seeking of order and
tidiness. The person is generally stubborn and perfectionist.
• The Anal expulsive personality is an opposite of the Anal retentive personality, and
has a lack of self control, being generally messy and careless.

Phallic fixation
At the age of 5 or 6, near the end of the phallic stage, boys experience the Oedipus Complex
whilst girls experience the Electra conflict, which is a process through which they learn to
identify with the same gender parent by acting as much like that parent as possible.
Boys suffer a castration anxiety, where the son believes his father knows about his desire for
his mother and hence fears his father will castrate him. He thus represses his desire and
defensively identifies with his father.
Girls suffer a penis envy, where the daughter is initially attached to her mother, but then a shift
of attachment occurs when she realizes she lacks a penis. She desires her father whom she sees
as a means to obtain a penis substitute (a child). She then represses her desire for her father and
incorporates the values of her mother and accepts her inherent 'inferiority' in society.
This is Freud, remember. He later also recanted, noting that perhaps he had placed too much
emphasis on sexual connotations.
http://changingminds.org/explanations/learning/freud_stage.htm

Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage Characterised by

Sensori-motor Differentiates self from objects

(Birth-2 yrs) Recognises self as agent of action and begins to act
intentionally: e.g. pulls a string to set mobile in motion or
shakes a rattle to make a noise
Achieves object permanence: realises that things continue to
exist even when no longer present to the sense (pace Bishop
Berkeley)

Pre-operational Learns to use language and to represent objects by images and

 (2-7 years) words
Thinking is still egocentric: has difficulty taking the viewpoint of
others
Classifies objects by a single feature: e.g. groups together all
the red blocks regardless of shape or all the square blocks
regardless of colour

Concrete operational Can think logically about objects and events

Achieves conservation of number (age 6), mass (age 7), and
(7-11 years) weight (age 9)
Classifies objects according to several features and can order
them in series along a single dimension such as size.

Formal operational Can think logically about abstract propositions and test
(11 years and up) hypotheses systemtically
Becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and
ideological problems

http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/piaget.htm

Discussion
Piaget’s theory identifies four developmental stages and the processes by which children
progress through them. The four stages are:
1. Sensorimotor stage (birth - 2 years old)–The child, through physical interaction with his
or her environment, builds a set of concepts about reality and how it works. This is the
stage where a child does not know that physical objects remain in existence even when
out of sight (object permanance).
2. Preoperational stage (ages 2-7)–The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and
needs concrete physical situations.
3. Concrete operations (ages 7-11)–As physical experience accumulates, the child starts to
conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain his or her physical experiences.
Abstract problem solving is also possible at this stage. For example, arithmetic equations
can be solved with numbers, not just with objects.
4. Formal operations (beginning at ages 11-15)–By this point, the child’s cognitive
structures are like those of an adult and include conceptual reasoning.
Piaget outlined several principles for building cognitive structures. During all development
stages, the child experiences his or her environment using whatever mental maps he or she has
constructed so far. If the experience is a repeated one, it fits easily–or is assimilated–into the
child’s cognitive structure so that he or she maintains mental “equilibrium.” If the experience is
different or new, the child loses equilibrium, and alters his or her cognitive structure to
accommodate the new conditions. This way, the child erects more and more adequate cognitive
structures.
http://www.funderstanding.com/content/piaget
Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to the question of whether Heinz
was wrong or right, but in the reasoning for the participants decision. The responses
were then classified into various stages of reasoning in his theory of moral
development.

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

• Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment

• The earliest stage of moral development is especially common in young children, but
adults are capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, children see
rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to
avoid punishment.
• Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange
• At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view
and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma,
children argued that the best course of action was whichever best-served Heinz’s
needs. Reciprocity is possible, but only if it serves one's own interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

• Stage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships

• Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of moral
development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an
emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence
relationships.
• Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Order
• At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole
when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the
rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

• Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights

• At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs
of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members
of the society should agree upon these standards.
• Stage 6 - Universal Principles
• Kolhberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles
and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of
justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.
http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/kohlberg.htm

KOHLBERG'S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

A. PREMORAL OR PRECONVENTIONAL STAGES: Behavior motivated by anticipation
of pleasure or pain.
STAGE 1: PUNISHMENT AND OBEDIENCE:
Avoidance of physical punishment and deference to power. Punishment is an automatic response
of physical retaliation. The immediate physical consequences of an action determine its goodness
or badness. The atrocities carried out by soldiers during the holocaust who were simply "carrying
out orders" under threat of punishment, illustrate that adults as well as children may function at
stage one level.
STAGE 2: INSTRUMENTAL EXCHANGE:
Marketplace exchange of favors or blows. "You scratch my back, I'll scratch yours." Justice is:
"Do unto others as they do unto you." Individual does what is necessary, makes concessions only
as necessary to satisfy his own needs. Right action consists of what instrumentally satisfies one's
own needs. Vengeance is considered a moral duty. People are valued in terms of their utility.
B. CONVENTIONAL MORALITY: Acceptance of the rules and standards of one's group.
STAGE 3: INTERPERSONAL CONFORMITY:
Right is conformity to the behavioral expectations of one's society or peers. Individual acts to
gain approval of others. Good behavior is that which pleases or helps others within the group.
"Everybody is doing it." One earns approval by being conventionally "respectable" and "nice."
Sin is a breach of the expectations of the social order. Retribution, however, at this stage is
collective. Individual vengeance is not allowed. Forgiveness is preferable to revenge.
Punishment is mainly for deterrence. Failure to punish is "unfair." "If he can get away with it,
why can't I?"
STAGE 4: LAW AND ORDER:
Respect for rules, laws and properly constituted authority. Defense of the given social and
institutional order for it's own sake. Responsibility toward the welfare of others in the society.
"Justice" normally refers to criminal or forensic justice. Justice demands that the wrongdoer be
punished, that he "pay his debt to society," and that law abiders be rewarded. "A good day's pay
for a good day's work." Injustice is failing to reward work or punish demerit. Right behavior
consists of maintaining the social order for its own sake. Authority figures are seldom
questioned. "He must be right. He's the Pope (or the President, or the Judge, or God)."
Consistency and precedent must be maintained.
STAGE 4 ½:
Between the conventional stages and the post-conventional Levels 5 and 6, there is a transitional
stage. College-age students that have come to see conventional morality as relative and arbitrary,
but have not yet discovered universal ethical principles, may drop into a hedonistic ethic of "do
your own thing." This was well noted in the hippie culture of the l960's. Disrespect for
conventional morality was especially infuriating to the Stage 4 mentality, and indeed was
calculated to be so.
C. POSTCONVENTIONAL OR PRINCIPLED MORALITY: Ethical principles
STAGE 5: PRIOR RIGHTS AND SOCIAL CONTRACT:
Moral action in a specific situation is not defined by reference to a checklist of rules, but from
logical application of universal, abstract, moral principles. Individuals have natural or inalienable
rights and liberties that are prior to society and must be protected by society. Retributive justice
repudiated. Justice distributed proportionate to circumstances and need. "Situation ethics." The
statement, "Justice demands punishment," which is a self-evident truism to the Stage 4 mind, is
just as self-evidently nonsense at Stage 5. Retributive punishment is neither rational nor just,
because it does not promote the rights and welfare of the individual. Only legal sanctions that
fulfill that purpose are imposed-- protection of future victims, deterrence, and rehabilitation.
Individual acts out of mutual obligation and a sense of public good. Right action tends to be
defined in terms of general individual rights, and in terms of standards that have been critically
examined and agreed upon by the whole society--e.g. the Constitution. The freedom of the
individual should be limited by society only when it infringes upon someone else's freedom.
STAGE 6: UNIVERSAL ETHICAL PRINCIPLES:
An individual who reaches this stage acts out of universal principles based upon the equality and
worth of all human beings. Persons are never means to an end, but are ends in themselves.
Having rights means more than individual liberties. It means that every individual is due
consideration of his interests in every situation, those interests being of equal importance with
ones own. This is the "Golden Rule" model. A list of rules inscribed in stone is no longer
necessary.
At this level, God is understood to say what is right because it is right; His sayings are not right,
just because it is God who said them. Persons at this level have accepted God's invitation to
"come and let us reason together".
THE FOLLOWING ARE OBSERVATIONS THAT WERE MADE BY KOHLBERG
FURTHER EXPLAINING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN STAGES.
1. STAGE DEVELOPMENT IS INVARIANT.
One must progress through the stages in order, and one cannot get to a higher stage without
passing through the stage immediately preceding it. A belief that such a leap into moral maturity
is possible is in sharp contrast to the facts of developmental research. Moral development is
growth, and like all growth, takes place according to a pre-determined sequence. To expect
someone to grow into high moral maturity overnight would be like expecting someone to walk
before he crawls.
2. IN STAGE DEVELOPMENT, SUBJECTS CANNOT COMPREHEND MORAL
REASONING AT A STAGE MORE THAN ONE STAGE BEYOND THEIR OWN.
If Johnny is oriented to see good almost exclusively as that which brings him satisfaction, how
will he understand a concept of good in which the "good" may bring him no tangible pleasure at
all. The moral maxim "It is better to give than to receive" reflects a high level of development.
The child who honestly asks you why it is better to give than to receive, does so because he does
not and cannot understand such thinking. To him, "better" means better for him. And how can it
be better for him to give, than to get.
3. IN STAGE DEVELOPMENT INDIVIDUALS ARE COGNITIVELY ATTRACTED TO
REASONING ONE LEVEL ABOVE THEIR OWN PRESENT PREDOMINANT
LEVEL.
The person has questions and problems the solutions for which are less satisfying at his present
level. Since reasoning at one stage higher is intelligible and since it makes more sense and
resolves more difficulties, it is more attractive.
For example, two brothers both want the last piece of pie. The bigger, stronger brother will
probably get it. The little brother suggests they share it. He is thinking at level two, rather than at
level one. The solution for him is more attractive: getting some rather than none. An adult who
functions at level one consistently will end up in prison or dead.
4. IN STAGE DEVELOPMENT, MOVEMENT THROUGH THE STAGES IS
EFFECTED WHEN COGNITIVE DISEQUILIBRIUM IS CREATED, THAT IS, WHEN
A PERSON'S COGNITIVE OUTLOOK IS NOT ADEQUATE TO COPE WITH A
GIVEN MORAL DILEMMA.
The person who is growing, will look for more and more adequate ways of solving problems. If
he has no problems, no dilemmas, he is not likely to look for solutions. He will not grow
morally. In the apple pie example. The big brother, who can just take the pie and get away with
it, is less likely to look for a better solution than the younger brother who will get none and
probably a beating in the struggle.
5. IT IS QUITE POSSIBLE FOR A HUMAN BEING TO BE PHYSICALLY MATURE
BUT NOT MORALLY MATURE.
If a child is spoiled, never having to accommodate for others needs, if he is raised in an
environment where level two thinking by others gets the job done, he may never generate enough
questions to propel him to a higher level of moral reasoning.
6. KOHLBERG BELIEVED THAT ONLY ABOUT 25% OF PERSONS EVER GROW
TO LEVEL SIX, THE MAJORITY REMAINING AT LEVEL FOUR.
The Bible enjoins principles of modesty, humility, and wise stewardship of the money.
Application of these principles might preclude the purchase of expensive jewelry, furs, flashy
cars, or other items primarily for show. A person functioning at level six would have no problem
applying these principles. Persons functioning at a level four on the other hand, might make rules
about "jewelry" (in a church for instance) or red dresses, or cosmetics. But they might not even
notice a flashy car or the lady who wears a new dress every single week. Those things aren't on
the list. If Kohlberg's observation is true, then level 6 thinkers would be in the minority. They
might even be misunderstood and persecuted by a level 4 majority (Christ being the primary
example).
http://www.aggelia.com/htdocs/kohlberg.shtml