Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
INTRODUCTION
A slope failure occurred after heavy downpour
in a water treatment plant. Tension cracks of
about 80m long can be observed at the top of the
slope. The perimeter fence and drains had also
been damaged. Figure 1 shows the conditions of
the slope after failure. As the slope is near to the
existing sludge lagoon, to prevent aggravation of
the failure which may affect the plant operation,
subsoil
investigation
was
carried
out
immediately after the incident to gather subsoil
information for remedial design.
SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION
The soil investigation program consisted of 2
numbers of boreholes located within the failure
zone as shown in Figure 2. Standard Penetration
Tests (SPT) were carried out at 1.5m depth
interval and disturbed soil samples were
obtained for soil physical properties tests.
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10
20
30
40
20
Ground surface
15
10
BH-2
SPT-N
(blows/300mm)
0
10
20
30
40
Medium stiff
clayey silt
-5
-10
p
enhances the stability of the slope. However, this
method should not be relied completely.
Normally this method is used in combination
with other options.
-15
-20
0
10
15
20
25
Distance (m)
Drainage Measures
The main reason to cause the slope failure was
the increase in pore water pressure and
saturation of subsoil after heavy downpour.
Proper surface and subsoil drainage system
could minimize the potential of building up pore
water pressure and saturation of subsoil thus
Chen
871
g
founding level, an investigation program by
using light dynamic cone penetrometer was
planned and implemented to ensure that the
geosynthetic wall was founded on suitable
subsoil. Any soft material found at or below the
founding level, it will be removed and replaced
by compacted suitable material.
The light dynamic cone penetrometer consists of
a cased harden steel pointer of 2.5cm diameter
with a cone having apex angle of 30 degree that
fixed onto a penetration rod. This penetration
rod is 1.25cm diameter and 1.2m long. When
more than a rod is required, the rods can be
connected by couplings. The driving is executed
using a 5 kg small hammer free fall through a
fixed height of 30cm along a guide rod. The total
number of blow counts for the pointer to
penetrate 30cm into the subsoil is recorded. The
consistency of subsoil can be assessed based on
the blow counts. Details of the light dynamic
cone penetrometer can refer to Ooi and Ting
(1975).
The construction work was carried out in section.
Once the excavation had reached to the design
founding level, a geotextile filter layer was laid
followed by a well compacted 500mm thick
granular base as shown in Figure 5.
ABSTRACT Today, HDPE geomembranes are gaining widespread popularity as a sealing system in cover
and bottom liner system of wastewater facilities, anaerobic/aerobic treatment ponds and evaporation ponds in
animal waste facilities. With its water-tightness and outstanding performance in many aspects, HDPE
geomembrane is a suitable material that meeting the Kyoto-driven greenhouse gas emission restrictions
and/or for Carbon Trading. The paper summarizes the experiences in Thailand that installed floating covers
on anaerobic lagoons to achieve benefits of using HDPE geomembrane for biogas collection and recovery,
energy production, odor control, protection against evaporation and contamination of groundwater.
INTRODUCTION
Geosynthetic lining system has been extensively
used particularly for liquid and wastewater
containments, sanitary landfill facilities, etc since
its introduction in the mid 1980s. Among the
plastic materials utilized for geomembranes
purpose, high density polyethylene (HDPE)
geomembrane, with its superior hydraulic and
mechanical properties in combination with its
greater chemical resistance and ultra violet (UV)
light degradation resistance, is the most widely
used geosynthetic lining materials adopted for
various containments applications. Not only
served as barrier to isolate leachates generated by
waste to prevent underground water contamination,
HDPE is commonly used to contain precious
products to prevent loss into the ground, to
prevent rain water from becoming leachate and
avoid the groundwater contamination. This paper
presents the application of HDPE geomembrane
on wastewater treatment systems in Thailand.
HDPE geomembrane was introduced as base liner
system and geomembrane floating cover in two
anaerobic waste lagoons at brewery facilities with
the main objectives to enhance the anaerobic
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Ng and Vengadasamy
875
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GENESIS
Ng and Vengadasamy
Weight
Pipe
Anchor trench
with back fill
877
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ABSTRACT In this study one small stretch in a road under construction have been selected where Geo-Jute
(Jute Geo-textile) in Woven and Non woven form have been placed in the various interfaces like SG-SB,
SB-BC with much more lesser thickness than the designed thickness in one side of the road and the other
side kept without JGT but with the same thickness of Pavement components. The Benkleman Beam
Deflection Tests have been conducted after completion of surfacing in regular interval and deflections were
observed where from requirements of overlay thickness have been calculated. It has been found that the
portion of road with Geo-Jute(JGT) have attained the deflection criteria for which no overlay required but
the other side are still in requirements of considerable overlay thickness . The results concluded with uses of
lesser thickness of road pavement with Geo-Jute in turns considerable saving in materials in the pavements.
INTRODUCTION
In the recent years the whole world has been
experiencing a great infrastructural development
in all regards. Road communication is one of the
basic components of this development. The Geotextiles are one of the most popular materials
which may be used in various road projects for
saving materials, time and providing durability
and longivity .Things are well enough if natural
Geotextiles can be used in solving the
construction problems as these are eco-friendly
and having no negative impact in the
surrounding environment. Jute Geo-textile
(JGT/Geo-jute) is one of the most wanting
natural geo-textile which can be used effectively
in solving various problems in road construction
and very much latest in terms of technology.
Experimental research projects have been
continuing by the researchers from various parts
of India and outside of the country for
approximately last twenty years where from
various results are coming out supporting the
6th
880
Type of tests
Type of Cloth
Stretch
Chainage
0.00 m
to
50.00 m
II
III
50.00 m
to
100.00
m
100.00
m to
150.00
m
Right
hand side
towards
Agartala
2
3
4
Without
JGT
5
Without
JGT
6
7
Without
JGT
Weight(g/sqm) at
20 % MR
Thickness(mm) at
2 Kpa
Porometry (AOS)
(micron) O95
i)Tensile Strength.
(KN/m)
(Strip
method
Gauge
Length 20 cm
speed
250mm/min) and
% of Extn. At
Maximum Load.
Bursting Strength
(KN/Sqm)
Permittivity (/Sec)
at 100mm constant
Water
Head
Pressure
Permeability(cm/s
ec) at 100 mm
Constant Water
Head Pressure
Puncture Strength
(N)
Non
JGT
Woven
woven
Character JGT
JGT
DW SandTwill, wiched
Cloth Type
2up- Scrin
1Dn Cloth
790
623
1.72
4.57
180
240
MD
45.1
2.74
% Extn.
5.74
2.23
CD
21.3
2.20
% Extn.
4.69
2.36
679
169
0.18
0.58
0.03
0.26
620
130
205
225
20PC
430
Plate 1,
IRC:372001
Name of Road:
Agartala-Mohanpur-Chebri
Section:
Cumulative Design
Traffic :
Rangacherra
1.00 msa
Binder Course
(mm)
Wearing Course
(mm)
Reference
Design CBR
(%)
Granular
Sub-base
(mm)
Granular Base
(mm)
Binder
Course
(mm)
Wearing
Course
(mm)
Total Pavement
Thickness
(mm)
Pavement Compositions
Bituminous
Surfacing
Reference
50
20PC
275
Plate
1,
IRC:37
-2001
9 & 10
(Assumed
an
increment
of about
200 % due
to
inclusion
of JGT in
the
interfaces
than the
125
normal
Sub-grade
and
pavement
layers
were
arranged
to near by
value
compared
to IRC 372001)
Granular Base
(mm)
Pavement Compositions
Bituminous
Surfacing
Granular Sub-base
(mm)
100
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882
Fig.1
Stretch
Characteristic
Deflection
(mm)
LHS
I
II
III
0.624
0.617
0.636
RHS
3.175
3.208
0.146
Percent of
Reduction Of
Deflection In LHS
Than RHS
(%)
80.34
80.76
-
Stretch
I
II
III
Characteristic
Deflection
(mm)
LHS
RHS
0.646
0.628
0.635
3.197
3.253
0.164
Fig.3
Installation of JGT
Percent of
Reduction Of
Deflection In LHS
Than RHS
(%)
79.78
80.68
-
Stretch
I
II
II
Fig.4
Stretch
LHS
I
RHS
LHS
II
RHS
LHS
II
RHS
NR-Not Required
0.624
3.175
0.617
3.208
0.636
0.146
0.646
3.197
0.628
3.253
0.635
0.164
Stretch
I
Characteristic
Deflection
(mm)
LHS
RHS
LHS
RHS
LHS
RHS
Design Overlay
Thickness
(mm) (Ref. IRC
81,1997, Fig.9)
For 1.0 msa
NR
145
NR
150
NR
NR
NR-Not Required
Pavement construction
Road
Side
Road
Side
Characteristi
c
Deflection
(mm)
Design Overlay
Thickness
(mm) (Ref. IRC
81,1997, Fig.9)
For 1.0 msa
NR
145
NR
145
NR
NR
II
III
I
II
III
Road
Side
LHS
LHS
LHS
LHS
LHS
LHS
RHS
RHS
RHS
RHS
RHS
RHS
Chainage FDD
(m)
(T/m3 )
15.00
30.00
75.00
90.00
135.00
145.00
5.00
45.00
60.00
95.00
130.00
145.00
1.73
1.67
1.65
1.66
1.67
1.66
1.65
1.67
1.67
1.65
1.96
1.94
FMC
(%)
19.07
16.49
21.14
13.86
13.09
13.46
15.64
22.00
18.12
22.02
10.81
11.75
III
25.00
40.00
70.00
55.00
140.00
140.00
1.79
1.69
1.79
1.70
1.73
1.98
FMC
(%)
II
LHS
RHS
LHS
RHS
LHS
RHS
Chainage FDD
(M)
(T/m3)
Net %
Decrease of FMC
Road
Side
Stretch
6.70
I
15.60
1.18
6.90
5.52 8.70
Stretch
7.80
II
19.34
1.76
3.00
6.04 16.34
Stretch
4.04
III
7.30
1.01
6.60
3.03 0.70
Stretch Designation
Stretch
Net %
Increment of FDD
Net %
Decrease of FMC
6th
Net %
Increment of FDD
884
13.91
20.48
17.05
17.56
12.14
10.97
With Geojute
Without
Geo-jute
Before
FMC
Just
Construction
Before
FDD
Just
Construction
Before
FMC
Just
Construction
Before
FDD
Just
Construction
Stretch Designation
Stretch I
1.67
1.79
16.49
13.91
1.67
1.69
22.00
20.48
Stretch II
1.65
1.79
21.14
17.05
1.67
1.70
18.12
17.56
Stretch III
1.66
1.73
13.09
12.14
1.96
1.98
11.75
10.97
CONCLUSIONS
Following Conclusion have been framed after
this stage of experiments and analysis:
i) Inclusion of Geo-Jute in different layers
in flexible pavement performs very well with
considerable saving in material costs in Subgrade, sub-base as well as in total thickness.
Fig.5
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REFERENCES
Chattopadhyay (1998 ) Application
of Geo Jute in Civil Engineering, ISTE,
B.E. College Chapter, 1998.
IRC:37-2001 Guidelines for the Design
of Flexible pavements, The Indian Road
Congress, New Delhi, 2001.
IRC:81-1997
Guidelines
for
strengthening of Flexible Road
pavements using Benkleman Beam
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889
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ABSTRACT Vertical columns are commonly used for the construction of embankments over soft soils to
reduce the settlement and improve the stability of embankments. The vertical columns are designed to
improve the bearing capacity of the soft soil and to transfer the load of the embankment through the soft
compressible soil layer to a firm foundation. To support the load transfer from the soft soil into the stiff
columns, especially if the layer thickness above the columns is small, geocell reinforced load transfer
platforms above the columns can be used.
INTRODUCTION
Vertical columns are designed to improve the
bearing capacity of the soft soil and to transfer the
load of the embankment through the soft
compressible soil layer to a firm foundation. If the
layer thickness above the columns is adequate and
the columns are placed close enough together, soil
arching occurs and the load is transferred to the
columns. If the distance between the single
columns is to large or the layer thickness above
the columns is too small, soil arching cannot be
mobilized In this case, load transfer platforms can
be used to transfer the applied loads into the
columns (figure 1). These load distribution
platforms consists for example of one or more
layers of geosynthetics reinforcement, which are
placed above the columns. Soil layers with a high
stiffness, for example hydraulic bonded base
layers placed above the columns are also possible
to transfer the loads to the columns. As an
alternative to these constructions geocell,
reinforced layers can be used as a load distribution
platform above the columns. Geocells are
honeycomb-interconnected cells that completely
encase the soil and provide all-around
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7,1 -14,2
11,1 - 16,0
Soil
organic, sandy silt
Soft organic sandy silt
interbedded peat layer with
thickness up to 30 cm
Stratification of sand and
clay
Holocene layers
Pleistocene sand layers
Stiffness
[MN/m]
1,0 - 5,0
0,9 - 4,0
0,3 - 0,9
8,0 - 45,0
30 - 100
15 - 25
Construction
For the construction of the bypass road, a backfill
on the existing area between 0.50 m and 1.50 m
was necessary. In the area of the bridge abutments
the thickness of the backfill rises up to 2.90 m.
Due to the backfill large settlements were
expected. During the planning of the construction,
it was considered to carry out a pre-consolidation
as an alternative to a ground improvement. The
dumping height of the ballast needs to be more
than 5.80 m to ensure the required vertical loads,
which caused in large dam dimensions and
therefore further constructions problems. To
reduce the dumping heights controlled modulus
columns in combination with a load transfer
platform of geocell stabilized sand was carried
out. In addition, vertical drains were installed in
some sections to reduce the consolidation time. In
the area of the bridge abutments, a vertical load
due to the ballast and the traffic of 81.5 kN/m was
expected after construction, which caused in a
load of 400 kN on each column. The columns
were installed in a raster of 2.2 on 2.2 m. The
standard construction consists of a 20 cm thick,
sand filled geocell layer above the vertical
columns. The geocells were made from high
density polyethylene (HDPE) (figure 6).
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Measurement results
After the installation of earth pressure cells the
vertical stresses beneath the geocell layers were
measured during and after the construction at
different times. The measurement results for the
one-layered geocell system are presented in figure
9. The results show that due to the installation of
the geocells the vertical stresses are transferred
from the soft subgrade material to the vertical
columns. While vertical stresses of 150 - 160
kN/m were measured above the columns due to a
ballast thickness of 2.2 m, vertical stresses of 25
kN/m were measured between the columns on the
soft subgrade.
500
400
vertical stresses directly
on the columns
300
200
100
installation
of sand layer
0
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
1.20 2.20 3.20 3.20 4.20 5.20 5.20
30.0 19.0 11.0 31.0 20.0 10.0 30.0
Fig. 9: measured vertical stresses beneath the onelayered geocell stabilization, ballast height 2.2 m
500
400
300
200
100
0
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
1.20 2.20 3.20 3.20 4.20 5.20 5.20
30.0 19.0 11.0 31.0 20.0 10.0 30.0
Fig. 10: measured vertical stresses beneath the twolayered geocell stabilization, ballast height 2.2 m
238,
Technische
Universitt
Braunschweig
Chaumeny, J. L.; Kirstein, J.F. (2005): Ein neues
Verfahren zur Bodenverbesserung: CMC
(Controlled Modulus Columns), GeotechnikKolloquium 2005, S 71 - 86. Technische
Universitt Freiberg
Cowland, J. W.; Wong S.C.K. (1993):
Performance of a road embankment on soft
clay supported on geocell mattress foundation,
Geotextiles and Geomembranes Vol. 12, S.
687 - 705
896
6th
q
(CVK)
Neue
Entwicklungen
der
Baugrundverbesserung, Heft Nr. 28, S. 85-101,
Technische Universitt Graz (TUG), 20-21.
April 2006
Meyer, N.; Emersleben, A.; Hartmann, I.;
Strauberger, D.: (2008): Tragverhalten
mineralischer Tragschichten im Straenbau
mit und ohne Stabilisierungsmanahmen,
Bauingenieur Band 83, Februar 2008, S. 71-78
ABSTRACT
Soil transfers the built up forces in earth to reinforcement by friction which develops tension in
reinforcement. Geosynthetics is used in locations where shear stresses are generated because shearing stress
between soil and reinforcement restrains the lateral deformation of the soil. Under dynamic shear excitations,
slip deformations occur along smooth geosynthetic interfaces. Preliminary shaking table test on smooth high
density polyethylene and geotextile showed the concept of using geosynthetics to isolate a structure from
incoming seismic waves. Building model placed on a selected geosynthetic liner results the benefits of
utilizing a special geosynthetics liner as an energy absorbing system that can reduce building response during
an earthquake. This paper presents a review of the existing work done in this field and identifies different
areas needing further attention.
INTRODUCTION
Geosynthetics include a broad range of synthetic
products:
Geotextiles,
geogrids,
geonets,
geomembranes, geocomposites are the largest and
most diverse group of geosynthetic materials and
include all fabrics produced from polymer bers.
reinforcement involve
surrounding soil.
interactions
with
the
USE OF GEOSYNTHETICS
Geosynthetics are widely used to reinforce soil
masses in the design of retaining walls,
embankment, shallow foundations, roads, railway
tracks and slopes. In mechanically stabilized earth
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SOIL GEOSYNTHETIC
INTERACTION
Soil- geosynthetic interaction is important for
behaviour of the reinforced soil which depends on
the factors like soil and reinforcement mechanical
characteristics; soil-reinforcement interaction
GEOSYNTHETIC
ISOLATION
FOR
BASE
899
Cyclic loading
The suitability of various synthetic materials
for the purpose of foundation isolation. The
dynamic interface properties of these materials
are being investigated using a shaking table to
identify the most promising material for this
application.
Now- a- days geotechnical engineers have
interested in research program that was focused on
exploring the technical feasibility of using
synthetic materials as an alternative low-cost
seismic isolation technique. A base isolator
provides a discontinuity between a footing and
the overlying column. A base isolator performs
two functions: (1) It shifts the natural period
of the building away from that of the earthquake.
(2) It provides additional damping to absorb the
energy.
Thusyanthana et. al. [2007] showed that moderate
earthquake loading (base acceleration between 0.1
and 0.3 g) can result in a permanent increase in
geomembrane tension of 525%.
Unnikrishnan et. al. (2002) indicate that a thin
layer of high-strength sand provided on both sides
of the reinforcement is effective in improving the
strength and deformation behaviour of reinforced
clay soils under both static and cyclic type
loadings.
Hazarika (2006) explained the hysteretic
behaviour during unload-reload cycles is
significant above 0.5% strain as shown in fig: 2
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REFERENCES
1) Ausilio E., Conte E., & Dente G. (2000)
Seismic stability analysis of reinforced
slopes Soil Dynamics and Earthquake
Engineering 19 159172
2) De, A., and Zimmie, T. F. (1997).
Factors inuencing dynamic frictional
behaviour of geosynthetic interfaces.
Proc. IGS (International Geosynthetic
Society) Geosynthetics97, Long Beach,
Calif., 837849.
3) Deb K., Chandra S. & Basudhar P. K.
(2005) Settlement response of a
multilayer
geosyntheticreinforced
granular
fillsoft
soil
system.
Geosynthetics International, , 12, No. 6
901
902
6th
23)
24)
25)
26)
27)
28)
29)
30)
The concrete shaft of bored cast-in-situ piles establishes contact with the ground water no sooner the guide
casings are removed i.e. within 15 to 20 minutes of the mixing. At that length of time concrete has not gained
even the initial set. And if the water is aggressive the pile shafts need a protective barrier preventing contact
of the freshly laid / concrete and water. When the piles are constructed in standing water column the steel
liners are obligatory but in all other cases the cost of the steel liner is prohibitive. It is for situations like this
polyethelyne liner is conceived and used successfully in Mumbai.
The paper deals with design, construction methodology of polyethelyne liner and outlines the limitation.
1. INTRODUCTION
The usefulness and versatility of concrete as a
construction material are due to the efforts of
many field and laboratory investigations, made
over the past century into its performance when
exposed to aggressive conditions. Quality of
concrete is not necessarily related to the
mechanical strength to fulfill the purpose for
which it was designed, but it will have to be
durable to resist attack and disintegration in
any environment in which it is placed. It is
essential that a concrete structure should continue
to perform its intended function to ensure the
required strength and serviceability during the
specified or expected service life.
The instability, induced in cast in situ piles as
consequence of certain elements like chlorides and
sulphate percentage is studied in depth. Here also
the study mostly relates to hardened concrete.
Moreover the harmful composition of water is not
completely revealed by the existing specification
of water testing procedure. Many a times the
damage is not due to chloride or sulphate
principally but some other phenomenon which
clears the ground for sulphate/chloride attack
leading to the disintegration of piles.
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liner/casings
serving
the
purpose
of
shiel/protective layer is more than 4 meter. In
most of the field situation, the liner to the tune of 6
meter and above is necessary to be purposeful.
Such hoop stress can easily be negotiated by steel
liner. But the polyethelyne liner comprises of
material which is weak as observed from the
properties of material and hence will give way.
Similarly in case of deep piles the bottom portion
of the shaft gets initial set and the socketing in
soil/rock formation renders partial fixity. With
effect the liner will be subjected to biaxial bending.
The polyethelyne liner is not capable of
negotiating either of these forces and shall give
way if exposed to these forces. It is in this
background one has to provide an oversize liner so
that it expands without being stressed and touches
the wall of bore. On getting the support of the bore
/soil wall the liner will not be required to negotiate
the induced stresses as, it becomes part of soil wall.
This aspect shall be reflected in procedure and
methodology of using/deploying the liner as
separation barrier. The subsequent paragraph
explains the method of construction which ensures
that the liner is not stressed.
iii Properties Of Liner:
The properties of polyethelyne are given in the
table below. From the properties it can be
observed that the liner has very small breaking
strength and hence the size of liner is of particular
importance. The dia of liner sack must be
preferably 5 % more than the pile dia so that the
liner expands and takes the shape of bore without
being subjected to hoop or bending stress exerted
by the semi fluid concrete.
TABLE 1 Properties of polyethelyne liner
p
p y
Parameter
Weight per sq, meter in gms
IS : 1964 -2001 R.A. 2006
Breaking strength in kgs.(Specimen
size: Ravelled strip of 5 x 20 cms)
Lengths wise
Width wise
% Elongation at break :
Length wise
Width wise
(IS : No. 1969 - 1985 RA 1999)
y
Sample No.
I
II
122.6
165.2
33.8
36.2
48.8
72.0
12.3
15.0
19.1
21.4
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INTRODUCTION
The geosynthetics are polymeric materials widely
applied in civil engineering infrastructures, some of
them of environmental nature, such as the waste
landfills. In their applications, the geosynthetics may
be exposed to many degradation agents, such as:
ultraviolet (UV) radiation and other weathering
agents, high temperatures, oxygen, acids, alkalis or
microorganisms. An extended exposure to these
degradation agents can cause a negative impact on
the properties of the geosynthetics, affecting their
durability and shortening their useful lifetime. In
some applications (for example, in waste landfills),
the premature failure of these materials may have
serious environmental consequences.
For the proper application of the geosynthetics, it is
necessary to take into account their degradation
throughout the time. In fact, in many cases, these
materials must maintain minimum values of some
properties (physical, mechanical and/or hydraulic)
during the entire lifetime of the structure where they
are inserted. Therefore, they must be highly resistant
against many damaging agents. This way, it is
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Tensile Tests
The mechanical properties - tensile strength (TS) and
elongation at maximum load (EML) - of the GNTs were
determined (in the machine direction of production)
according to the European standard EN ISO 13934-1
(Table 2; Fig. 2).
TABLE 1
Test time
(hours)
1000
2000
4000
104
207
415
Specimen width
50 mm
200 mm
Specimen length a
Number of specimens
5
Test speed
100 mm.min-1
a
between grips
(a)
(b)
22.6 (1.5)
34.5 (2.3)
34.7 (2.6)
23.8 (2.1)
32.4 (1.7)
33.8 (2.2)
12.7 (0.3)
13.2 (0.5)
13.4 (0.8)
13.6 (0.2)
14.4 (0.5)
14.6 (0.5)
28 Days
56 Days
15
-1
911
12
9
6
FIG.
3
0
0
20
40
Elongation (%)
60
80
912
6th
-1
Reference
15
102
91.3
90.6
99.3
81.6
71.8
1000 Hours
2000 Hours
4000 Hours
12
9
6
3
0
0
10
20
30
40
Elongation (%)
92.9
84.3
101
94.5
104
89.0
108
108
102
89.0
106
100
913
914
6th
REFERENCES
Carneiro, J.R., Almeida, P.J. and Lopes, M.L. (2006).
Durability of polypropylene geotextiles exposed
to several degradation agents Importance of the
incorporation of a chemical stabilizer on the
geotextiles formulation. Proceedings of the 8th
International Conference on Geosynthetics, vol.
4, pp. 1559-1562.
Carneiro, J.R., Almeida, P.J. and Lopes, M.L. (2008).
Thermo-oxidation of polypropylene geotextiles.
Proceedings of the 4th European Geosynthetics
Conference, 8 pages (CD-ROM Paper 180)
Carneiro, J.R., Almeida, P.J. and Lopes, M.L. (2009).
Natural weathering of geosynthetics in Portugal.
Proceedings of the XVII International Conference
on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Engineering, vol. 1, pp. 901-904.
EN ISO 13934-1 (1999): Textiles Tensile properties
of fabrics. Part 1: Determination of maximum force
using the strip method.
ABSTRACT: This paper presents results of a research which aimed at studying the possibility and the
efficiency to utilize geosynthetic in the drainage and filtering systems of Vales iron ore from Carajs. The
ore moisture content variation was monitored by moisture content and suction measurers. The performance
of geosynthetics-ore systems under high stress level was analyzed by Gradient Ratio tests (GR). Two kinds
of iron ore were analyzed a thicker one and a thinner one, sinter feed and pellet feed respectively. The
moisture content retention curves of the ores were determined through the filter paper method.
INTRODUCTION
Geosynthetics have achieved a prominent role
in filtration and drainage of geotechnical
engineering and environmental protection
works. The utilization of synthetic drainage and
filter systems in mining projects is particularly
interesting since these systems can be
constructed very quickly. However, in many
mining applications such as larger dams and
mining waste piles the drainage system faces
very severe conditions because of complex flow
regimes, iron ore heterogeneity, aggressive
construction and environment conditions and
high stress levels, for instance (Gardoni e
Palmeira, 2003, Heibaum et al., 2006 e Palmeira
et al., 2009).
916
6th
w
(%)
10,3
S
g/cm3)
4,75
k
(cm/s)
8,4x10-
eMx
eMn
1,4
0,84
1,2
0,72
SF
9,7
4,91
3,0x103
IRON
ORE
AND
GEOTEXTILES
CHARACTERISTICS.
Two types of iron ore produced in Carajas were
analyzed in this research: Sinter Feed (SF) and
Pellet Feed (PF). Grain size distribution of SF
and PF (with or without defloculant) and one
grain size distribution analysis utilizing laser
granulometer (with or without ultrasound) were
carried out. The grain size distribution of the
iron ores analyzed is presented in Table1.
Gardoni et al.
Gravimetric
Moisture
Content
Umidade
Gravimtrica
(%)(%)
10-2
10-1
10 0
101
102
103
104
105
106
Suco
Matricial
(kPa)
Matric
Suction
(kPa)
pellet-umedecimento-sem-ajuste-umid-gravimtrica
Trajetria
de Umedecimento
Wetting path
Trajetria
de secagem
Pellet-trajetria-de-sacagem-umid-gravimetrica
Drying path
Trajetria
mista
trajetria
-umidade
gravimtrica
Mixedmista
path
(part wetting,
part drying)
917
918
6th
REFERENCES
Umidades ao final dos ensaios
18,00
16,00
14,00
w(%)
12,00
10,00
8,00
6,00
4,00
2,00
0,00
1
2
GCFS1
3
Pontos
GCFS2
5
GCFS3
CONCLUSIONS
The main conclusions are summarised below:
x The findings obtained in the research
show that in the end of the GR tests,
moisture content 50% lower than the one
found in the field utilizing the existing
drainage system was obtained. Such
results preliminarily show the good
performance of the geotextiles utilized as
filters.
x In relation to the determination tests for the
characteristic curve, it was observed that the
limit humidity values found coincide with
limit values of the GR tests. Because the
mineral shows signs of pore distribution bimodal structure which is characterized by the
step observed on the retention curve.
x So far, the results obtained point out a
potential to utilize the geosynthetics in
vacuum associated drainage systems in order
to reduce the moisture content on the iron ore
produced in Carajas.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are indebted to the following
institutions: Universidade Federal de Minas
Gerais, University of Braslia, VALE mining
company, FAPEMIG and CNPq for supporting
this research programme.
ABSTRACT: This paper presents long-term permittivity tests results to evaluate biological clogging of
geotextiles. For the evaluation of the biological clogging, an experimental programme with three types of
non-woven geotextiles (mass per unit area varying from 150 g/m2 to 600 g/m2) was performed. The
properties of the leachate used in the tests were monitored by physical and chemical analyses. Microscopic
and microbiological analyses of the geotextile specimens showed the biofilm formation and the high level of
geotextile clogging. The results obtained at this moment have showed the reduction of geotextile
permeability due to a critical biological clogging.
INTRODUCTION
Nonwoven geotextiles have been used as filters
in many drainage applications in geotechnical
and environmental protection works. Many
studies of the geotextiles behaviour such as
drains and filters in engineering works can be
found in literature. However, the landfills
drainage systems may be subjected to the
complex biological clogging processes, caused
mainly by the heterogeneous nature of leachate
while simultaneous actions of physical and
chemical mechanisms can occur during the
work lifetime. The knowledge of these complex
clogging mechanisms that rules the biofilme
formation and the physical, chemical and
biological clogging of the geotextile filters has
been refered in many pioneer researches
(Koerner and Koerner, 1990; Bhatia et al., 1991,
Rowe, 2005 e Remgio, 2006. The main
objective of this paper is to evaluate the
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
Apparatus Using in the Test Programme
The permittivity tests were conducted using a
equipment developed at the Federal University
of Minas Gerais, Brazil, designed based on the
similar according to Brasilia University
(Remgio, 2006). The apparatus used in the
series of tests is schematically presented in Fig.
1 (a). It consists of a set of six permeameters,
made of acrylic, with 100 mm diameter and 125
mm high, and connected to leachate reservoir
systems. Ports are distributed along the cell
920
6th
pH
M A(b)
(g/m2)
Test duration up to 45
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Time (days)
50
921
G2
G3
1,0E01
RESULTS
Figure 3 shows the results of permeability of
geotextiles Gi, G2 and G3. The tests were
performed in three different periods (15, 30 and
40 days) with two repetitions of the three types
of geotextiles G1, G2 and G3. According to
Figure 3, greater variability can be observe in
the values of permeability and this may be
attributed to the initial unsaturated state of the
geotextile After this period it is observed that
the behavior of geotextiles is similar and the
reduction of permeability is less pronounced.
the geotextile G3 has a lower value of
permeability after 45 days of testing, which is
consistent with the analysis of scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) indicating a higher degree of
biological clogging in the geotextile.
It is important to note that the test duration of 30
days showed a decrease much less pronounced
than the others. This is due to the fact that the
leachate collected was first stored in a freezer
before being used in the test and the procedure
k (cm/s)
1,0E02
1,0E03
1,0E04
1,0E05
1,0E06
0
10
20
30
40
50
T ime(days)
CONCLUSIONS
The main conclusions of the study are
summarized below:
Great reduction of geotextile permeability
coefficient was observed since the beginning of
922
6th
REFERENCES
(a)
(b)
Fig.4 Bacteria films in the geotextiles after 15 days,
and 45 days of leachate flow.
INTRODUCTION
As the global population increases and many rural
communities migrate to the city centres the
management and subsequent treatment of the
resulting sewage sludge is an environmental
challenge for both industry and governments.
Sewage sludge management in the UK is the
responsibility on regional water companies.
Historical infrastructure and investment policies
have resulted in many of these wastewater plants
operating at near capacity.
Traditional methods of sewage sludge disposal
including disposal to land for agricultural uses has
many tight regulations associated with it and thus
it is often not the favoured option. Incineration or
lime treated sludge are two common methods of
sewage sludge disposal in the UK however neither
methods are favoured by the industry in their
current form. New technologies are trialled for
their effectiveness at dewatering whilst
6th
% dry solids
924
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
72.19
30V
28.1
7.94
50
0V
7.46
100
10.86
5.86
150
Sample thickness
FIELD TRIAL
Trials were conducted on 10 representative waste
water treatment samples consisting of a blended
mix of SAS and digested primary sludge and using
a small 300mm mobile plate filter press unit with
electrokinetic capability. The cells of this filter
press were configured to allow a direct
comparison between standard plate filter press
cells and those adapted to induce enhanced
electrokinetic dewatering (Fig. 2).
925
Parameters monitored
RESULTS
Conductivity
The conductivity of the feed was observed to be
138 to 463mS/m with an average of 223 mS/m.
The larger the proportion of SAS generally
reduced the electrical conductivity of the overall
feed.
Duration of electrical cycles
The cake temperatures varied from 45.5 to
91.0C. Although temperatures this high are
potentially useful in control of pathogens it was
observed that the maximum flow discharge
achieved from the 30min EK cycle was before the
end of the stage. Therefore there is potential for
further work in order to maximise the use of
power in this process.
Comparative dewatering performance
The results shown in Fig. 4 show that in general
terms, increasing proportion of SAS in the sludge
blend has the effect of reducing the dry solids
content of the dewatered cake for both the
electrokinetic and control tests. However the
effect is diminished for the electrokinetic tests
such that for the highest proportion of SAS in the
feed blend, the dry solids content of the cake was
above the minimum of 30%ds requirement as
identified as of economic interest to the industry.
926
6th
927
1) INTRODUCTION
The ground is normally excavated for water, waste
water, and gas pipeline installation and then backfilled. At first, the trench is excavated such that the
trench width is larger than the pipe diameter. The
bottom of trench is then stabilized and the pipe is
installed. The trench is subsequently filled with
soil. The trench soil should not settle significantly.
The buried pipelines may be damaged due to
insufficient quality control, resulting in poor
installation, little or no inspection and maintenance,
and a general lack of uniformity and improvement
in design, construction and operation practice.
Many researchers have focused on this topic and
developed the soil-pipe interaction experimentally,
numerically or presented the mathematical
relations or empirical equations. The original work
was carried out by Marston and Anderson (1913),
and a theory for calculating diametric change
under soil overburden, was used by Spangler (1941)
E (kN m )
c (kN m )
(degree)
2
( kN m 3 )
TABLE 2 Properties of
infill material
2
2E6
E (kN m )
40
c (kN m 2 )
M (degree)
10
0
18
Q
(kN m3 )
R
5E4
4.42E-3
h3b3
h 3b2
h 3b1
3.76E-3
3.26E-3
3.04E-3
TABLE 4. Influence of
dimension
on
total
displacements of soil after cut
of soil
h4b1
3.68E-3 (m)
h3b3
3.01E-3 (m)
h 3b2
2.44E-3 (m)
h 3b1
2.24E-3 (m)
0
35
0.25
18
0.7
929
930
6th
3) Influence
geosynthetics
of
soil
reinforced
with
With reinforcements
(With extension of reinforcement layers
to the trench wall is limited to 5 cm)
2.68E-3
Bending
moment
(kN.m/m)
970.83E-3
2.54E-3
947.68E-3
2.28E-3
863.34E-3
Displacemen
t (m)
4) Conclusion
In urban areas, the ground is normally excavated
for water, waste water, and gas pipeline
installation and then back-filled. To reduce the
settlement of the ground surface and the bending
moment in the pipe, the soil at the pipe crest is
reinforced using geosynthetic layers. A number of
numerical analyses were performed using PLAXIS
software. It has been shown that the use of
reinforcement layers can reduce the ground
settlement and bending moment in the pile
significantly.
5) References
Marston, A., & Anderson, A.O. (1913). The
theory of loads on pipes in ditches and tests of
cement and clay drain tile and sewer pipe. Bull.31,
Iowa Engineering Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa.
931
ABSTRACT This paper evaluates in-plane flow through various drains system (including three types of
Hybrid drain system- a geotextile layer with thin sand mat) while the soil (Kanto loam and Silty clay)
containing these drains undergoes time dependent settlement from slurry stage to 400 kPa. Variations of
internal pore water pressure during time dependent settlement were measured. Clogging status of the drain
layer and reduction of the flow capacity of the embedded drains in-situ vis--vis a performance criterion of
selected drain systems subjected to increasing confining pressure has been evaluated in terms of confining
pressure index and flow capacity index.
INTRODUCTION
For more than four decades extensive application
of earth reinforcement, in terms of steeped slope,
increased reliability, construction feasibility, safety
and economy are quite understood especially for
granular soil. Studies in the application of the
geosynthetics layer in fine grained soil have not
attracted many mainly due to the apparent
disadvantageous role played by clogging and weak
frictional resistance at the interface. However,
there is increasing demand for the geotextiles
functioning as filtration and separation in addition
to reinforcing action augmented by thin granular
mat at the interface between fine-grained soil and
geotextiles (Mitchell and Zornberg 1995).
Therefore, permeable geosynthetics layer confined
in fine-grained soils are required to transmit
dissipating water in its plane direction in coupled
with the same functioning as reinforcement
(Gardoni and Palmeira, 2002a, 2002b). There are
several standards available for specifying in-plane
and cross-plane flow capacity of geosynthetic
drain. However, most of these test standards are
933
934
6th
935
2.
3.
4.
5.
ABSTRACT The present situation is reviewed with respect to new developments in geogrids types, geogrid modelling,
and the geogrid specification. The most recent product development is the creation of more efficient structural framework
for the absorption and dissipation of strain in a mechanically stabilised layer. This fundamental review of a geogrids
physical and mechanical properties has brought forward a geogrid variant with triangular apertures; a development
beyond the more traditional rectangular shape. There is a trend towards performance specification and the geogrid
properties that govern performance are under investigation.
Historical background
As a geosynthetics type, the geogrids that were
specifically devised for ground stabilisation purposes
can be traced back to the later 1970s. Extruded net
technology was being exploited, principally in Japan,
where some of the heaviest duty nets, (formerly used
for agriculture, horticulture and packaging), were
deployed in ground stabilisation applications, Fig 1.
Hall
937
938
6th
Hall
939
84kN
0.0
0.0
-0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.4
-0.6
-0.6
-0.8
-0.8
10
12
14
16
18
20 22
24
26
Displacement (mm)
28 30
32
34 36
38
40
10
12
14
16
18
20 22
24
26
28 30
32
34 36
38
40
Displacement (mm)
Fig.10 Load distribution: Top - unstabilised fill, bottom stabilised fill with two layers of geogrid.
(For colour figure, refer to CD)
940
6th
Hall
941
REFERENCES
INTRODUCTION
943
Value
49%
17%
2.59
471%
2.5 kPa
0.06
11.56 kN/m3
CH
500 mm
Soft
Clay
Stones
210 mm
944
6th
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
Et
Applied load
Stone
column
Clay
Depth
=0.5 m
Encasement
R f 1 sin I V 1 V 3
V3
1
Kp a
2c cos I 2V 3 sin I
pa
(1)
Stone
250 0.7 0.3 0.7 0 41.5q
16
column
Foundation
15 0.5 0.45 0.7 2.5
17
0q
soil
Geosynthetic
Linear Elastic with Poissons ratio,Q = 0.3
encasement
100
Pressure (kPa)
200
300
400
Settlement (mm)..
10
20
ESC - 50 mm
ESC - 75 mm
ESC - 100 mm
OSC - 50mm
OSC - 75 mm
OSC - 100 mm
Clay
30
40
50
100
Pressure (kPa)
200
300
400
500
Settlement (mm) ..
945
10
20
30
40
50
ESC - 50 mm
ESC - 75 mm
ESC - 100 mm
OSC - 50 mm
OSC - 75 mm
OSC - 100 mm
Clay
946
6th
Pressure (kPa)
0
20
40
60
20
Diameter of Columns
Clay
50 mm
75 mm
100 mm
30
40
500
20
30
40
50
400
Experiment
Numerical
10
Settlement (mm)..
Settlement (mm)..
Pressure (kPa)
200
300
Experiment
Numerical
10
100
50 mm
75 mm
100 mm
Diameter of Columns
50
100
Pressure (kPa)
200
300
400
CONCLUSIONS
Experiment
Numerical
Settlement (mm)..
10
20
30
40
Diameter of Columns
50 mm
75 mm
100 mm
50
947
ABSTRACT The interaction between geosynthetics used for municipal solid waste landfills, both for basalliner and capping systems, is a very important issue. 230 direct shear tests including various types of
interfaces have been carried out to obtain strength parameters (geomembrane/geotextile,
geomembrane/geocomposite,
soil/geogrid/geocomposite,
geomembrane/soil,
geotextile/soil,
geomemembrane/Geosynthetic Clay Liner, geocomposite/GCL). These interfaces show particular features
concerning non-linearity of failure envelope and different failure and interaction mechanisms. The analysis of
the shear strength behaviour of the interfaces is based on different interaction mechanisms for each type of
contact, assessing the aspects that have a greater influence on the shear strength.
INTRODUCTION
One of the most important environmental issues
is the solid waste production management. The
municipal solid waste landfills are located near
the cities and villages, where the majority of
waste is produced. This involves different risks
as slope instabilities through the waste mass or
through the different interfaces (basal liner or
capping systems). In this last case, the
knowledge of the shear strength behaviour
between geosynthetics, used in landfills, is a
very important topic.
This paper presents an experimental research on
the
shear
strength
between
different
geosynthetics. A series of direct shear tests was
conducted on different geosynthetic interfaces
and also between a geosynthetic and soil.
Top surface
Bottom surface
MATERIAL TESTED
Although a lot different types of interfaces were
studied by Bacas (2009), only three types of
interfaces are presented in this paper:
geotextile/geomembrane
(GT/GM),
Geosynthetic
Clay
Liner/geomembrane
(GCL/GM) and soil/geomembrane (Soil/GM).
The geosynthetics tested are the following:
950
6th
Vn
Condi
tionb
thydc
(h.)
tconsold
(min.)
v.e
(mm/
min.)
5
range
(kPa)
GT/
14wet
24/0
10
GM
450
GCL
50wet
48/0
1440
0.055
/GM
500
dry
0/0
10
5
Soil/
100dry
0/0
10
1
GM
500
a
Normal stress range applied (kPa),
b
Wet conditions using tap water,
c
Hydration time inside humid chamber (hours),
d
Consolidation time inside machine (minutes),
e
Rate of shear displacement (mm/min)
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Each of the studied interfaces was analyzed for
at least three different values of the normal stress
The results of the tests were used to obtain the
strength parameter using the Coulomb failure
criterion, W=ca+VntanIwhere W is the shear
strength, ca is the adhesion, Vn is the applied
normal stress and I is the friction angle.
The majority of interfaces tested showed nonlinear failure envelopes, depending on the shear
behaviour of each type of contact, the normal
250
200
150
Vn (kPa)
450
100
300
50
100
25 50
14
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Geotextile
Geomembrane
(a)
(b)
Fig.5 Interaction mechanisms: (a) at low normal stress
(b) at high normal stress (after Hebeler et al., 2005)
GCL/geomembrane interface
A GCL together with a geomembrane act as a
barrier against seepage in basal-liner system of
the landfills. The geomembrane is waterproof
and the GCL absorbs liquids, increasing its
volume and decreasing its coefficient of
permeability.
The humidity conditions affect the shear
behaviour of GCL/GM interfaces, decreasing its
value with the water content. The shear strength
under dry conditions presents a strain-softening
behaviour (Fig. 6) in the same way as
500
400
300
Vn(kPa)
200
500
300
100
50
100
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
75
50
Vn(kPa)
50
100
500
300
25
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Soil/geomembrane interface
A geomembrane together with soil act as a
barrier against seepage in basal-liner system of
the landfills.
Figure 8 shows shear stress versus horizontal
displacement
curves
for
soil/smooth
geomembrane
(GMl)
and
soil/textured
geomembrane (GMr2) interfaces. It can be
observed that the roughness of the geomembrane
has a great influence on the direct shear strength
behaviour, with values about 200% higher for
the texture geomembranes than for smooth
geomembranes. Both interfaces show strain
softening behaviour for normal stresses higher
than 100 kPa. The textured geomembrane shows
a higher residual strength loss than the smooth
one.
The interaction mechanisms developed in the
soil/textured geomembrane interfaces are soilgeomembrane contact friction and internal soil
friction. So that, the method used to produce
textured surface on geomembranes has influence
on the shear resistance. Figure 9 shows the
failure envelopes, peak and residual, of different
types of interfaces: soil/GMl, soil/GMr1,
soil/GMr2 and single soil. It can be observed
that the shear strength for the tests carried out
only with soil is higher than those carried out
between soil and any of the tested
geomembranes.
The geomembrane GMr1, shows higher failure
envelopes than the GMr2. The manufacturing
GMr2
GMl
300
6th
Vn (kPa)
500
200
300
500
300
100
100
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
600
Shear stress (kPa)
952
500
a)
b)
400
300
200
100
0
GMr1
Soil
Soil
GMr2
GMl
GMr1
GMr2
GMl
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Fig.9
Shear
failure
envelopes
(soil
and
soil/geomembranes interfaces): (a) peak (b) residual
soil
b)
Shear direction
CONCLUSIONS
The study of the shear behaviour of the
interfaces: GT/GM, GCL/GM and soil/GM
presented in this paper led to the following
conclusions:
The designed steel texture plate properly grips
GCL and geomembranes, up to 500 kPa of
normal stress.
The sample size of 300 x 300 mm is good to
represent even non-uniform materials.
The
interaction
mechanisms
of
the
geotextile/geomembrane interface are hook and
loop and frictional, depending on the applied
normal stress.
The shear strength behaviour of the
GCL/geomembrane interface depends on the
humidity
conditions.
The
interaction
mechanisms, for dry conditions, are similar to
geotextile/geomembrane interface. However, for
wet conditions, the shear resistance is provided
by reinforced fibers of the GCL.
The
interaction
mechanisms
of
the
soil/geomembrane
interfaces
are
soilgeomembrane contact friction and internal soil
friction.
The shear strength behaviour of the
soil/geomembrane interfaces depends on the
method used to produce textured surface on
geomembranes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Financial support for this research was provided
by CESPA of Ferrovial Group and by a research
grant received from Deutscher Akademischer
Austausch Dienst (DAAD, Germany).
REFERENCES
ASTM, Standard D532102 (2004). Standard
test method for determining the coefficient of
soil and geosynthetic or geosynthetic and
geosynthetic friction by the direct shear
method.
Bacas B. M., (2009). Shear strength behaviour of
geosynthetics. Ph.D. thesis. Geotechnical
Group. University of Cantabria, Spain.
https://www.educacion.es/teseo/mostrarRef.do
?ref=837441
Gilbert, R. B., Scranton, H. B., Daniel, D. E.
(1997). Shear strength testing for geosynthetic
clay liners. Testing and acceptance criteria for
geosynthetic clay liners, ASTM STP 1308, L.
W. Well, ed., ASTM, Pa., 121-138
Hebeler G.L., Frost J. D., Myers A. T. (2005).
Quantifying hook and loop interaction in
textured geomembrane-geotextile systems.
Geotextiles and Geomembranes , 23, 77-105.
Nye, C. J. & Fox, P. J. (2007). Dynamic shear
behaviour of a needle-punched geosynthetic
clay liner. J. Geotech. and Geoenvir.Engrg.,
133(8), pp. 973 983.
Pasqualini E., Fratalocchi E., Stella M. (2002).
Stability of liners: some particular issues.
Proceedings 4th ICEG / Rio de Janeiro /
Brazil.
Sharma, J. S., Fleming I. R., Jogi M. B. 2007.
Measurement
of
unsaturated
soilgeomembrane
interface
shear-strength
parameters. Canadian Geotech. J. 44, 78-88.
Stark, T. D., Williamson, T. A., Eid, H. T., 1996.
HDPE geomembrane/geotextile interface
shear strength. J. Geotech. Engrg., ASCE,
122(3), 197-203.
Zornberg J. G., McCartney J. S., Swan R. H.
2005. Analysis of a large database of GCL
internal shear strength results. J. Geotech. and
Geoenvir. Engrg., ASCE, 131(3), pp. 367
380.
ABSTRACT In the past decade, geotextile tubes have emerged as a new technology for dewatering high
water-content sediments, by-products, and wastes. These slurry materials are often contaminated and
threaten environmental resources if improperly managed. Geotextile tubes present a means to manage these
materials in an environmentally responsible and sustainable manner for industrialized and developing
countries alike. The tubes are simple to transport and use and are significantly more economical than other
dewatering methods. This paper provides an overview of the use of geotextile tubes for dewatering waste
INTRODUCTION
The need to dewater sediments, slurries, byproducts, or wastes is one shared by numerous
industries today. Such materials include mine
tailings and mineral fines, municipal sewage
sludge, dredged sediments, and wastes from
agriculture, food processing, power generation,
and a variety of manufacturing processes.
Dewatering serves as a precursor to disposal or
further treatment by reducing the volume and
weight of slurry materials, rendering them more
easily transportable and disposable. As a result of
disposal fees and/or environmental regulations,
direct disposal of slurry materials is not often
economical or logistically feasible. A decade ago,
dewatering was performed almost exclusively with
settling ponds, mechanical presses, and centrifuges.
Settling ponds, driven by gravity, are relatively
simple to operate once constructed. However, a
very large surface area is required to create an
adequately long retention time and the pond will
require cyclic dredging to maintain its capacity
(e.g., Moo-Young et al., 2002). Mechanical
dewatering systems such as centrifuges, belt filter
presses, and screw-presses are especially common
t Th
t h l i
955
956
6th
957
958
6th
959
ABSTRACT. A conventional (C-GCL) and a dense prehydrated (DPH) GCL were permeated with an acidic
solution (pH=2) containing relatively high concentrations (0.025 M) of Pb, Zn, and Cu. Both GCLs were
permeated with distilled water prior to exposure to the metal solution. The DPH-GCL preserved hydraulic
conductivity about one order of magnitude lower than C-GCL. Breakthrough of metals occurred within some
months of permeation for the C-GCL whereas it was not complete after more than one year of permeation for
the DPH material. Cation exchange and precipitation of metals were the main retention mechanisms.
INTRODUCTION
Heavy metals such as Pb, Cu and Zn are
commonly found in leachate from landfills.
Geosynthetic Clay Liners, (GCLs), consisting of a
thin layer of bentonite sandwiched between two
geotextiles or glued to a geomembrane are
increasingly used as hydraulic barriers. The
hydraulic performance and the retention capacity
of metals by GCLs is thus of interest in barrier
applications.
GCLs
The conventional GCL (C-CGL) used in this study
is of needle-punched type. It consists of an upper
nonwoven polypropylene geotextile (300 g/m2)
and a carrier woven geoteotextile (200 g/m2),
encapsulating 4200 g/m2 of powdered natural
sodium bentonite. The upper geotextile is
impregnated with powdered bentonite (800 g/m2).
The CEC of bentonite is 98 meq/100g (methylene
blue method) and major exchangeable bases are
Na (77 meq/100 g) and Ca (18 meq/100g).
961
(1)
962
6th
1.E-10
eb=2.05
DPH-GCL
eb=2.70
-5
5
10
15
Net pore volumes, NT (-)
20
25
DW Metal solution
C-GCL
influent
pH=6.2
-5
eb=2.12
DPH-GCL
influent pH=2
5
10
15
Net pore volumes, NT (-)
20
25
1.2
Zn
Cu
0.8
C/Co
0.6
REFERENCES
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
10
15
20
Net pore volumes, NT (-)
Nitrate
1.2
Zn
Cu
25
Pb
1.0
0.8
C/Co
Pb
1.0
a)
963
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
b)
10
15
20
Net pore volumes, NT (-)
25
CONCLUSIONS
The permeability and retention properties of a
C-GCL and a DPH-GCL in the presence of a
metal-rich acidic solution were investigated.
Baseline k with DW was 1.5u10-9 cm/s and
3.7u10-10 cm/s for the C-GCL and the DPH GCL
respectively. At NTa21.5 with the metal solution,
k increased of about one order of magnitude for
both GCLs. Zn was the most mobile metal. Pb was
considerably retarded. Further insight is required
to fully explain the fate of Cu in DPH-GCL test.
From a practical standpoint, it is possible to
conclude that under the adopted conditions
ABSTRACT Chemical attack can destroy the hydraulic performance and the self-sealing capacity of
Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCLs), used as hydraulic barriers for waste disposals. For this reason, chemicallyresistant clays are studied here. In this research, a bentonite clay has been modified with different
concentrations of an anionic polymer, Sodium-CarboxyMethylCellulose (Na-CMC). The addition of NaCMC to the clay analyzed improved its swelling ability in presence of deionised water, sea water, KCl and
CaCl2 solutions, suggesting that the addition of this polymer enhances its swelling capacity. The addition of
Na-CMC improved also the hydraulic performance of the bentonite in presence of sea water and CaCl2.
INTRODUCTION
High concentrations of electrolytes and organic
molecules can increase the hydraulic conductivity
of GCLs, used as hydraulic barriers. This
behaviour is due to a reduction in the thickness of
the diffuse double layer of the clay. The diffuse
double layer thickness is compressed by permeant
solutions with high concentrations, high valence
of the ions and low dielectric constants (Mitchell
1993).
POLYMER TREATED CLAYS
To improve the chemical compatibility of clays to
aggressive permeants, several types of chemicallyresistant clays have been recently developed
(Lorenzetti et al. 2005, Kondo 1996, Simon &
Mller 2004, Flynn & Carter 1998).
Clays treated with anionic polymers
A product in this category introduced by Flynn &
Carter (1998) is the Dense PreHydrated GCL
(DPH GCL), densified by calendaring after
prehydration with a polymeric solution containing
Na-CMC, sodium polyacrylate and methanol. This
DPH GCL showed excellent performance in
counts
1000
500
0
0
10
2 theta
Electrolyte solutions
The solutions used in this study are deionised
water, natural sea water and a series of KCl and
CaCl2 solutions with concentration varying from
0.001 M to 0.5 M. The deionised water, used as
reference solution, was produced using a water
purification system PURELAB Option-R. The
electrolyte solutions were prepared by dissolving
salts in deionised water, CaCl22H2O and KCl
(>99.7%). Natural sea water was collected in the
Adriatic Sea (Ancona, Italy). The chemical
composition of the sea water is shown in Table 1.
Swell Index Test (ASTM D5890)
Swell Index Tests were performed to study the
effect of polymer treatment on the sealing
performance of clays. These tests were carried out
965
Na+
K+
Ca2+
Mg2+
Cl-
SO42-
0.547
0.027
swelling [ml/2g]
6th
80
60
Clay
Clay + 2% polymer
Clay + 4% polymer
40
20
0
0
0.01
0.5
Concentration [M]
(b) CaCl2 solutions
swelling [ml/2g]
966
80
60
Clay
Clay + 2% polymer
Clay + 4% polymer
40
20
0
0 0.01 0.01 0.1 0.5
Concentration [M]
Hydraulic Performance
The impact of polymer addition on the hydraulic
performance of the Clay was investigated. The
hydraulic conductivity to sea water and CaCl2
(5 mM) of the Clay decreased by adding a small
dosage of polymer (2% by dry weight), as shown
in Fig. 3. This improvement occurred even under a
low effective stress (14 kPa) and with direct
permeation with the contaminant solutions.
Although the swell index to sea water was similar
for the three clays (Table 2), the Clay+2%polymer
showed permeability to sea water one order of
magnitude lower than the untreated Clay. These
results suggest that the lower hydraulic
conductivity in presence of the polymer is
probably due also to other factors as well (for
example the higher water retention capacity not
revealed by the swell test).
Hydraulic conductivity
[m/s]
1.E-08
REFERENCES
1.E-09
1.E-10
1.E-11
Clay
Clay + 2% polymer
1.E-12
0
100
500
1.E-08
Hydraulic conductivity
[m/s]
967
Clay
1.E-09
Clay + 2% polymer
1.E-10
1.E-11
1.E-12
0
20
40 60 80
Time [days]
100
ABSTRACT An innovative approach for reduction in permeability of calcium bentonite lies in the
combined use of microorganisms, nutrients and biological process. The required maximum
permeability of bentonite to be used in geosynthetic clay liner is 10-9 cm/sec. There are about 10 9 to
10 12 organisms in a kilogram of soil near the ground surface. By temporarily regulating the
concentration of microorganisms and nutrients in bentonite, the hydraulic conductivity can be
reduced using the technique, bioclogging. Bioclogging is nothing but, the production of pore-filling
materials through microbial means so that the porosity and hydraulic conductivity of soil can be
reduced. The most suitable microorganisms for soil bioclogging are aerobic natural soil bacterium,
Bacillus pasteurii. This paper, presents an attempt made to reduce the permeability of bentonite
using the technique bioclogging for application as barrier layer in liner/cover systems. The microbes,
Bacillus pasteurii were introduced to the bentonite specimens in a liquid growth medium amended
with nutrients and dissolved calcium source for bioclogging. Bioclogged bentonite thus produced
has a reduction in permeability of the order of three.
INTRODUCTION
Bentonite is an industrial mineral, rich in clay
mineral called montmorillonite. Due to its unique
cation chemistry, high swelling, adsorption
capability and low permeability, bentonite is used
for the construction of liner in landfills. In a
landfill, waste is encapsulated by the liner and
cover system. Liner and cover system consists of
different layers such as gas collection layer,
barrier layer, leachate collection layer etc. Barrier
layers are traditionally constructed using local
clay soil or if clay soil is not available locally, a
mixture of local clay and imported low permeable
clay is used. Since 1980s clay barrier layers are
replaced fully or partially by Geosynthetic clay
liners (GCL). GCL is a prefabricated liner consists
of a layer of bentonite sandwiched between two
layers of geosynthetcs. The required permeability
BACKGROUND
There are 10 9 to 10 12 organisms in a kilogram
of soil near the ground surface. Single cell
microorganisms include all types of bacteria,
archea and eukarya. Some bacteria can make
spores to endure adverse environmental
changes. They vary in shape and may nearly
round to, rode like or spiral. The cell diameter
usually in the range of 0.5 to 3m and spores
can be as small as 0.2m. The size of bacteria
may decrease under stressed condition. They
can survive pH ranging from 2 to 10 and in
salinities much greater than that of sea water.
The growth of microorganisms is exponential.
Most bacterial cells have a negative surface
charge for ground water pH between 5 and 7,
which is typical for near surface soils. The
negative surface charge decreases with
increasing concentration and volume of ion in
the pore fluid. Thus there are some similarities
between bacteria cells and charged clay particle.
Although microorganisms are free to move in
the pore space between large soil grains and
aggregations, narrow pore throats formed by
small soil grains prevent their entry. Therefore
bacteria are not expected to enter through pore
throats smaller than ~0.4m (Mitchell et al
2005). There is growing evidence that
microbial activity plays an important role in
calcite precipitation. The microbial calcium
carbonate formation has been found in the
studies of Braissant et al (2003) and Baskar et
al (2006). Bacillus pasteurii is a common
alkalophilic soil bacterium with a highly active
urease enzyme (Ferris et al 1996). It uses urea
as an energy source and produces ammonia,
which increases pH in the proximal
environment, causing Ca2+ and CO3 2 to
precipitate as CaCO3 (Erole 2000). The local
rise in pH often causes the microbes
themselves to serve as nucleation sites for
crystallization. In calcite precipitation, the
overall equilibrium reaction is
Ca 2 CO32 l CaCO3 p
Microbiologically induced calcite precipitation
occurs according to the reactions
969
Ca 2 HCO3 OH o CaCO3 p H 2O
Ca 2 2HCO3 l CaCO3 p CO 2 H 2O
The high pH environment is provided by the
decomposition of urea according to the reaction
970
6th
TABLE 1.
Properties of Bentonite
Specific gravity
Liquid limit (%)
Plastic limit (%)
Plasticity index (%)
Coefficient of permeability
(cm/s)
Clay (%)
Silt (%)
Free Swell in ml/2g
pH
MICROBIAL TREATMENT
Oven drying may modify the chemical properties
which in turn affect the microbial growth, hence
the soil sample was air dried, powdered and filled
it a the specially fabricated acrylic container of
size 20 x 20 x 20 cm3. The introduction of the
microbial treatment solution was done through a
tube from the base at the rate of 4ml/min. The test
set-up is shown in Fig.1. The microbial treatment
solution was aerated while passing through the soil,
for proper mixing and for microbial process. The
aeration was provided to the soil, using electronic
Soil
Aerator
Drain
971
972
6th
Permeability (m/sec)
Untreated
@conc.of 2ml/g
@conc.of 1ml/g
@conc.of 3ml/g
1.E-12
1.E-11
1.E-10
1.E-09
1.E-08
1.E-07
0
200
400
2
Pressure (kN/m )
600
2ml/g
3ml/g
Liquid
limit (%)
281
155
154
155
Plastic
limit (%)
60
65
64
65
Plasticity
Index(%)
221
90
90
90
Free
Swell
16
16
16
16
y
x Ferris, F. G., Stehmeier, L. G., Kantzas, A.,
and Mourits, F. M. (1996). Bacteriogenic
Mineral Plugging J. Can. Pet. Technol.,
35(8), 5661
x Galinat J.K., Ramakrishnan V. and Bang
S.S. (2001). Concrete crack remediation
by polyurethane-immobilized Bacillus
pasteurii, South Dakota School of Mines
and Technology, Rapid City, SD
x Mitchell J.K. and Santamarina J.C.(2005),
Biological Considerations in Geotechnical
973
g
Engineering, Journal of geotechnical and
geoenvironmental engineering, Vol. 131,
No.10, pp. 1222-1233.
x Braissant O.,Cailleau G.,Dupraz C. and
Verrecchia
E.P.(2003).
Bacterially
induced
mineralization
of
calcium
carbonate in terrestrial environments: The
role of exopolysaccharides and amino
acids, Journal of Sedimentary Research,
73(3), 485-490
INTRODUCTION
For industrial structures, high rise
buildings, bridge pier etc. normally deep
foundations or rafts or rafts resting on piles
are adopted due to low bearing capacity of
soil in comparison to heavy loads imposed by
these structures. Such alternatives are very
costly in comparison to shallow foundations
such as isolated and combined footings.
Attempts were made to meet demand of
heavy loads by increasing bearing capacity of
soil by geogrid reinforcement. This technique
is very well established based on last thirty
years research (Binquet & Lee, 1975;
Akinmusuru et al.1981; Fragaszy & Lawton,
1984; Sridharan et al., 1988; Dixit & Mandal,
1993; Khing et al., 1993; Adams & Collin,
1997, Huang & Menq, 1997; Kurian et al.
1997; Dash et al., 2001;Kumar & Saran,
2003, Dash et al., 2004, Michalowski, 2004;
Deb et al., 2005; Basudhar et al., 2007; Dash
et al., 2007; Sharma et al., 2009.) on it.
Mittal
975
976
6th
200
400
600
0
5
10
(s/B) %
15
20
25
30
Unreinforced sand
Tire-chip 5% as replacement of sand
Tire-chip 10% as replacement of sand
Tire-chip 20% as replacement of sand
Tire-chip 30% as replacement of sand
Tire-chip 40% as replacement of sand
Tire-chip 50% as replacement of sand
Unreinforced sand
5% tire-chips as a
replacement of sand
10% tire-chips as
a replacement of sand
20% tire-chips as
a replacement of
30% tire-chips as
a replacement of sand
40% tire-chips as
a replacement of
50% tire-chips as
a replacement of sand
Bearing
Capacity
(kPa)
50.0
100.0
BCR
141.8
2.8
179.9
3.6
245.4
4.9
286.4
5.7
121.3
2.4
1.0
2.0
Mittal
(s/B) %
100
200
300
Unreinforced sand
Tire-chip 5% as replacement of sand
Tire-chip 10% as replacement of sand
Tire-chip 20% as replacement of sand
Tire-chip 30% as replacement of sand
Tire-chip 40% as replacement of sand
Tire-chip 50% as replacement of sand
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
CONCLUSIONS
An innovative approach using randomly
distributed tire-chip with sand is proposed as
an economical solution for shallow
foundations. By replacing sand with 5%,
10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% tire-chip up to
1B depth below footing BCR increased to 2.8,
3.6, 4.9, 5.7 and 2.4 respectively. A maximum
of 40% tire chip as a replacement of sand is
suggested. However, keeping in view of
practical aspects and working loads a
maximum of 20% tire-chip content as a
replacement of sand is suggested. Use of
randomly distributed tire-chips may prove to
be an economical solution for heavy loads by
enabling shallow foundations in place of other
costly alternatives. Further, huge growth of
used tyres may cause environmental hazard
and its disposal is one of the greatest
challenges today. Therefore, it will serve the
purpose of disposal of waste tire-chip in a
beneficial way as well as save sand by
partially replacing it with tire-chip.
977
REFERENCES
Adams, M. T. and Collin, J.G. (1997), Large
model spread footing load tests on
geosynthetic reinforced soil foundations,
Journal
of
Geotechnical
and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE,
123(1), 66-72.
Akinmusuru, J. O. and Akinbolade, J. A.
(1981). Stability of loaded footings on
reinforced soil. Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering Division, ASCE, 107, No. 6,
819827.
Basudhar, P.K., Saha, S., and Deb, K., (2007).
Circular footings resting on geotextile
reinforced sand bed. Geotextlies and
Geomembranes 25, 377384.
Bernal, A., Lovell, C.W., and Salgado, R.,
(1996), Laboratory Study on the Use of
Tire Shreds and Rubber-Sand in Backfills
and Reinforced Soil Applications.,
FHWA/IN/JHRP-96/12, Purdue University,
West Lafayette. Indiana.
Binquet, J. and Lee, K.L. (1975), Bearing
capacity tests on reinforced earth slabs,
Journal of Geotechnical Engg. Division,
ASCE, 101(12), 1241-1255.
Bosscher, P. J., Edil, T. B. and Eldin, N.
(1993) Construction and performance of
shredded waste tire test embankment.
Transportation Research Record No. 1345,
Transportation
Research
Board,
Washington, D.C., pp. 4452.
Bosscher, P.J., Edil, T.B., and Kurauka, S.
(1997). Design of highway embankments
using tire chips. Journal of Geotechnical
Geoenvironmental Engineering, 123(4),
295-304.
Cecich, V., Gonzales, L., Hoisaeter, A.,
Williams, J., and Reddy, K.(1996). Use of
shredded tires as lightweight backfill
material for retaining structures. Waste
Manage. Res., 14, 433451.
Consoli, N. C., Casagrande, M. D. T., Thom
A., Rosa, F. D. and
Fahey, M. (2009)
Effect of relative density on plate loading
tests
on
fibre-reinforced
sand.
Geotechnique, 59(5), 471476.
978
6th
Mittal
979
ABSTRACT With the alarming growth in vehicle population in world, scrap tyres are
beginning to pile up. The paper presents an engineering overview of use of shredded scrap
tyres. The properties of tyre shreds open up new possibilities in geotechnical engineering
applications. Tyre shreds possess interesting technical properties that could be beneficially
used in civil engineering applications. Some characteristic properties of tyre shred materials
are the low density, high elasticity, low stiffness, high drainage capacity, high thermal
insulation capacity and frost resisting properties.
INTRODUCTION
Plant roots stabilize soils, through reinforcement of
soil in nature, against erosion and failure of deep
slopes. Presently, reinforcement is an effective and
reliable technique for increasing strength and
stability of soils. The technique used today varies
in the applications ranging from retaining
structures and embankments to surged stabilization
and surface drainage systems. With globalization
of Indian economy and consequent development
process of infrastructure, the number of vehicles
on road is on the increase. Among 87, 22, 821
registered Non Transport vehicles contains
1,73,434 number of buses, 72, 67,174 cars and 12,
82,113 jeeps. Compared to this transport vehicles
are lesser in number and contains 74, 11,756
number of total vehicles. With an annual
cumulative growth rate of 8%, these figures were
estimated to rise 32 million. The earlier use of
waste tyres as fuel is now prohibited by
Indian Government due to its environmental
impact. Such an alarming growth in number of
981
982
6th
983
984
6th
985
Venkatappa
Rao
G,
.Dutta
R.K.(2006)
Compressibility and strength behaviour of
sand type chip mixture Journal Getechnical
and Geological Engg.24,711-7
Estaire, J.
Laboratorio de Geotecnia, CEDEX, Alfonso XII, 3-5, 28014 Madrid, Spain (jose.estaire@cedex.es)
ABSTRACT Tire derived aggregate (TDA) with three different nominal sizes (25, 50 and 100 mm)
were tested to determine the main mechanical properties that can be used in the design of road fills such
as size gradation, exposed wires, water absorption, density, specific gravity, permeability, shear strength
(in 1x1 m and 30x30 cm boxes) and deformability (oedometric test in a 1m3 box). Accessibility of TDA
potentially toxic components to the surrounding environment was determined by analysing a leachate
from the shredded tire samples, and comparing the obtained concentrations to the maximum values
required by the Spanish and European legislations.
INTRODUCTION
Tire disposal has become an environmental
problem of growing importance in the
developed countries. The European Council
Directive 99/31/CE on the Landfill of Waste
stipulated that whole tires can no longer be
deposited in landfills since 2003, and shredded
tires since 2006. The Spanish Second National
Plan on Waste Tire (2007) set a minimum
recycling objective of 50% of the waste tire total
weight: 40% as rubber in asphaltic pavements
and 10% in other industrial applications.
In the last two decades, tires have often been
used in civil engineering applications after being
shredded to small pieces between 50 and 300
mm in size. Shredded tires were used as
lightweight fill material in many embankments
(Bosscher et al, 1997; Edil et al, 2004; Yoon et
al, 2006; Botello et al, 2008), and various
retaining
structures
(Humphrey,
1999).
However, tire derived aggregate (TDA) with
sizes under 25 mm are not recommended,
987
initial
moisture
content
and
water
988
6th
Sample
W c + VI(kPa)
c (kPa) I q
1x1 m
30x30 cm
r2
25x25 mm
15
26.5 0.9160
50x50 mm
34
0.9999
100x100 mm
10
29
0.9890
25x25 mm
26.5 0.9850
989
990
6th
Fe
Leachate
(mg/L)
Day Day
7
30
9.30 10.9
0.03 31.2
1.40
Ca
Maximum values
(mg/L)
R.D.
Decision
140/2003
33/CE**
*
0.2
-
Mn
0.93
0.26 0.47
0.14 1.21
0.05
Na
2.00
1.40
200*
Zn
0.27
0.77
Mg
Cl
1.90
1.70
250
275
NO3-
0.89
1.40
50
SO42*
5.30
4.60
250
280
: Recommended values
: Required for leachates obtained from inert wastes
using a L/S ratio of 2 L/kg
**
geotechnical parameters
Parameter
Initial moisture content (%)
Water absorption (%)
Permeability (m/s)
Specific gravity
Initial density (t/m3)
Cohesion (kPa)
Friction angle ()
Deformability modulus for
a normal stress (kPa)
Value
0.9
3.9
510-4
1.25
0.50
10
27.5
200 ( = 10)
1400 ( = 400)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Spanish
Ministry of Public Works for funding this
research work, as well as Acciona and Signus
for providing the TDA material, and to Marcos
Arroyo (UPC) for having introduced us in the
study of TDA materials and for his helpful
comments and ideas.
REFERENCES
Arroyo, M., Estaire, J., Sanmartn, I. & Lloret,
A. (2006). Size effect on TDA mechanical
properties. International Workshop on Scrap
Derived Geomaterials, Yokosuka, Japan.
Bosscher, P.J., Edil, T.B. & Kuraoka, S. (1997).
Design of highway embankments using tire
chips. Jl. of Geotech. and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, April, 295-304.
Botello, F., Guedella, E., Domingo, A. & Del
Amo, E. (2008). Empleo de NFU triturados
como relleno de terrapln. Rutas, 127, 42-47.
Council
Decision
2003/33/CE
(2002).
Establishing criteria and procedures for the
acceptance of waste at landfills. Official Jl. of
the European Communities. L 11/27.
Edil, T.B., Park, J.K. & Kim, J.Y. (2004).
Effectiveness of scrap tire chips as sorptive
drainage material. Jl. of Environmental
Engineering, July, 824-831.
991
ABSTRACT In this paper, the main purpose is to assess the stress-strain behavior and shear strength parameters
of dense mixtures of scrap tire crumbs, having diameters between 5 and 0.07 mm and reinforced with scrap tire
chips in 13 different sizes. Large direct shear test apparatus with dimensions of 3030 cm has been used to
evaluate shear strength parameters of the mixtures having various percents of chips. It has been found that the
failure envelopes are non-linear and concaved up. In addition, by adding the scrap tire chips to scrap tire crumbs,
the shear strength parameters increase.
INTRODUCTION
Sustainable development needs all the governors,
organization and scientist to act as one unit.
Management of waste including recycling, reusing
or safely discarding is a key for sustainability.
Scrap tires as one of the hazardous solid waste can
be a threat to green environment. A lot of disaster
can be listed as scrap tire dangers including huge
fire, harboring disease carrying insect and pests,
instability of landfills and many others. This waste
material can be reused in civil engineering
application according to ASTMD6270-98
(Reapproved 2004). One of the defects of scrap
tire derived aggregates is low shear strength.
Much research work has been done to investigate
how to improve this deficiency and reinforcing
these materials.
In the present paper, some tests have been done to
check the reinforcement effect of scrap tire chips
in the scrap tire crumbs. The mixtures were tested
under a dense situation to evaluate the stress strain
behavior of dense mixture.
MATERIALS
Scrap tire was used in two different forms in this
study including scrap tire crumbs and scrap tire
chips. Scrap tire crumbs are rounded and relatively
uniform without any metal (Fig.1).
993
PROCEDURE
Large shear box with dimension of 303015 cm
was used. The tests were done according to ASTM
D 3080-03. Three normal stresses of 24.0, 43.7
and 63.5 kN/m2 were chosen. These normal
stresses were added to the previous normal stress
that was used to keep the density. The samples
were assumed to be dry because water absorption
of the tire chips and crumbs is negligible. Since
the samples were dry and on the other hand the
hydraulic conductivity of these materials is high,
there was no excess pore water pressure occurred
during the tests. Thus the shear speed can be high
and was set to 1.72 mm/min. this is the same
speed that used by Ghazavi & Mahmoudipour
(2009).
These materials have no apparent failure under
shearing, thus a maximum shear deformation of
30mm is set to be the limit to calculate shear
strength. To check the accuracy and repeatability
of the tests, 10% of the tests were repeated and
results were compared to ensure that the results
are indicative.
RESULTS
More than 130 tests were done on specimens
having different percentage of tire chips with
different sizes and with three different normal
stresses. Aspect ratios of tire chips were used as a
basis to evaluate the results.
Some charts were selected to present the overall
results. Figures 4 to 6 shows the relation between
the aspect ratio and internal friction of the dense
mixture for tire chips with width of 2, 3 and 4
respectively. According to these figures, it can be
said that:
In fig 4, in dense mixture of tire chips with width
of 2cm, the peak internal friction angle can be
seen at the point where tire chips aspect ratio is
994
6th
995
CONCLUTIONS
In this study, reinforcing effect of the scrap tire
chips on scrap tire crumbs in dense mixture was
investigated. The mixtures of tire crumbs having 0,
15, 30 and 40% tire chips were tested. It has been
found that the main properties that have the main
role in shear strength parameters are tire chips
percentage in the mixture, tire chips width, aspect
ratio of tire chips and normal stress.
In almost all tests, the Mohr-Coulomb failure
envelope was non-linear and concaved up. The
ABSTRACT Water-swelling material is a fluid sealant obtained by blending high absorbency polymer, a
filler and a solvent by using a synthetic resin elastomer. In this research, we have studied the composition of
water-swelling material, the extent of swelling and strength of the water swelling-material used as jointed
water cut-off treatment material, by conducting various experiments. One of the examples of the results is that
the adjustment of the degree of etherification of high absorbency polymer which is a component of the
water-swelling material and the resin content of the synthetic elastomer contribute to the improvement of
swelling and strength of the swelling material.
INTRODUCTION
Water-swelling material is a fluid sealant obtained
by blending high absorbency polymer, a filler and
a solvent by using a synthetic resin elastomer as
the base material. In the field of civil engineering,
water-swelling materials are widely used as water
cut-off treatment material for increasing water
cut-off properties at the joint section of steel sheet
piles or steel pipe sheet piles (see Fig. 1) (Oki et
al., 2003). Further, the water-swelling material
coated or pasted to the joint section swells on
contact with ground water, blocks the water
passage gaps and allows water cut off at the joint
section.
Recently, the H-jointed steel pipe sheet piles
with an H-H joint, which is one of the newly
developed methods for high water cut off, is
being tried for application of water-swelling
material for water cut-off treatment of the joints
section. In a series of research projects, one can
see a number of reports regarding the
performance of water cut-off steel pipe sheet piles
swelling
swelling
997
30
Swelling ratio
6th
25
20
Soak in artificial sea water (3% saline)
15
10
5
Current value
0
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
30
Swelling ratio
998
25
20
Soak in artificial sea water (3% saline)
15
10
5
0
20.0
Current value
25.0
30.0
40.0
45.0
50.0
Swelling ratio
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Swelling ratio
30
25
20
Water temperature: 20 degrees
DS value of
high absorbency polymer: 0.6 M/c6
Addition ratio of
high absorbency polymer: 32.5%
10
5
STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS
0
0
35
15
999
10
pH of soaking water
15
1000
6th
Water-swelling material
Elastomer
Elastomer A
Elastomer B
Elastomer C
Strength (N)
Plain
Artificial
water
sea water
0.3
1.0
0.6
1.3
1.0
1.8
2.0
DS value of
high absorbency polymer: 0.6 M/c6
Addition ratio of
high absorbency polymer: 32.5%
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
2.0
1.5
1.0
DS value of
high absorbency polymer: 0.6 M/c6
Addition ratio of
high absorbency polymer: 32.5%
0.5
10
15
0.0
0
1001
20
25
30
35
ABSTRACT The objective of this paper is to examine the influence of discrete and randomly
distributed fibers on the integrity of clay-based waste containment systems at the onset of
artificially induced non-uniform settlements in a large beam centrifuge. Modeling considerations
pertaining to simulation of discretely mixed fibers in a centrifuge are discussed. A short series
of centrifuge tests were carried-out on a 1.2 m thick clay barrier with and without fiber
reinforcement subjected to differential settlements. moist-compacted at its standard Proctor
compaction. It was observed that the fiber reinforcement has a significant affect in restraining
cracks of a clay barrier subjected to continuous differential settlements.
INTRODUCTION
Compacted clayey soils are commonly used as
hydraulic barriers in waste containment systems
such as in liners and covers for landfills,
impoundments, hazardous liquid wastes, reservoirs,
and ponds. According to Daniel (1983), two
predominant causes of failures of clay-based waste
containments are: (i) Desiccation cracking due to
moisture fluctuations, and (ii) Cracking due to
excessive non-uniform settlements. A variety of
research efforts have been attempted to address the
problem of cracking of clay-based waste containment
systems due to non-uniform settlements and
desiccation. The problem of cracking of clay-based
waste containment is more pronounced in capping
systems than bottom lining systems. As per
guidelines of Municipal Solid Waste Management
in India (MSW Rules, 2000), the landfill cover shall
meet the following specifications, namely, the final
cover shall have: a) an impermeable soil layer
comprising of a 600 mm thick clay or amended soil
with a coefficient of permeability less than 1 x 10-9 m/
sec, b) on top of an impermeable soil layer there
Soil matrix
l/2
1003
Wb
l/2
1004
6th
MODELPREPARATION, EXPERIMENTAL
METHODOLOGYAND DISCUSSION
The model soil barrier material was found to have a
liquid limit of 38%, plastic limit of 16%, coefficient of
permeability of 0.410"9 m/s, maximum dry unit weight
of 15.9 kN/m3 and optimum moisture content of 22%
(standard Proctor compaction test). The selected
soil is classified as CL type according to Unified
soil Classification system and represents soil barrier
characteristics of landfill covers (Benson et al. 1999).
Polypropylene tape fibers 1.2 mm width, 0.021 mm
thickness, breaking load of 48.54 N, and 22 %
elongation at break were used. A fiber dosage of 0.5
% by dry weight of soil and aspect ratio of 45 was
used. This was fixed based on the results reported
by Viswanadham et al. (2009). Aspect ratio is defined
as ratio of length to breadth of the fiber. This implies
that the aspect ratio of 45 indicates 90 mm long fibers.
Detailed discussion of on model preparation and
test procedure are discussed in detail by
Viswanadham et al. 2009. Figure 3 shows front
elevation of the model before commencement of
centrifuge test. Centrifuge tests were performed at
40 g by subjecting the model to a constant angular
velocity of 93 revolutions per minute.
polymeric fibers) reinforcement subjected to nonuniform settlements. In this section, results of two
models, namely SSL4 and BFL2 were discussed. Both
the models were moist-compacted at their maximum
dry unit weight and optimum moisture content and
were tested without any cover soil. Though cover
soil imposes a confinement of the order of 20 kPa, in
order to observe the strain at crack initiation and
crack propagation in the clay barrier with and without
fiber reinforcement, presence cover soil was not
considered. In the case of model BFL2, the model
soil barrier was mixed randomly with fibers with a
dosage of 0.5 % and having length of 90 mm was
used. Long fibers were considered to prevent pullout failure (Viswanadham et al. 2009). Even after
subjecting to a central settlement equal to a = amax.
=25 mm (1.0 m in prototype dimensions), in the case
of geofiber-reinforced clay barrier, partial penetration
of cracks at the zone of maximum curvature can be
noted (Fig.4). In comparison, an un-reinforced soil
barrier experienced cracks extending up to full-depth
at the zone of maximum curvature.
1005
SSL4
Strain (%)
BFL2
SSL4 (crack initiation)
2
1
0
10
100
1000
ABSTRACT Thermal conductivity is one of critical parameters with regards to an anti-frost fill. This study
presented the effects of mixing ratio and frost action on the thermal conductivity of a newly developed antifrost fill, which comprises mixture of waste foundry sand (WFS), fly ash (FA), expandable polystyrene
(EPS) beads, Portland cement and water. Test results show that the increase of EPS, FA or cement results in
the decrease of mixture thermal conductivity. Thermal conductivity of the mixture is favorably less than that
of conventional geomaterial, which leads the mixture an attractive geomaterial if frost mitigation is desirable.
INTRODUCTION
Thermal conductivity is unanimously recognized
as one of critical parameters for geomaterials used
as anti-frost earth fills. The parameter relates to
the heat transport volume through the fills and the
thermal impairment, e.g., frost heave, imposed to
the infrastructures when subjected to frost action
(Radhakrishna et al. 1989, Yu & Deng 2008).
Typical infrastructures include embankment,
approach abutment, and backfills for trench and
retaining structures, which are located in seasonal
frost regions.
It is desirable to propose an earth fill taking the
advantage of thermal conductivity reduction
without comprising its structural behavior. In this
context, a cementitious anti-frost fill was formed
by blending waste foundry sand (WFS), fly ash
(FA), expandable polystyrene (EPS) beads,
cement (C) and water in proportions, which is
known as WFS-FA-EPS mixture. EPS beads are
used to reduce both the thermal conductivity and
unit weight of the mixture. Cement is used to
binder the mixture and yield designated strength.
The other components (WFS and FA) are
processed solid waste materials which are reused
WFS
FA
1-5
1.248
2.5
1.259
1.577
22.3
0.598
2.2
0.605
0.867
Deng and Yu
Finer
percentage (%)
%
100
FA
80
WFS
60
40
20
0
10
0.1
0.01
Size
(mm)
(mm)
Fig. 1 Gradation of WFS and FA Samples.
1.1
7d
28d
28d F
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.3
20
25
30
35
40
Water Content (%)
1007
45
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
6.15
7.69
11.54
15.38
15.38
15.38
15.38
15.38
15.38
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
T10
T11
T12
T13
T14
15.38 30
15.38
0
15.38 13.04
15.38 52.94
15.38 30
1.08
1.08
1.08
0
0.62
1.08
1.54
1.85
1.08
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
25
1.13
1.14
1.16
1.70
1.35
1.17
1.04
0.97
1.14
1.08
1.08
1.08
1.08
1.08
35
30
30
30
40
1.18
1.23
1.19
1.12
1.21
1.8
6th
Thermal Cond. (W/mK)
1008
7d
1.5
28d
1.2
28d F
0.9
0.6
0.3
0
0.5
1
1.5
EPS Content (%)
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.3
0
10
20
30
40
FA Content (%)
0.7
0.5
0.3
50
60
9
11
13
Cement Content (%)
15
17
Thermal Cond.(W/mK)
7d
28d
28d F
7d
28d
28d F
0.9
1.1
7d
1.6
28d
1.2
28d F
0.8
0.4
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Water-Solid Ratio
1.2
Deng and Yu
1009
ABSTRACT The use of Voids / Cement factor (Vv/Vce) for soil-cement dosages,
supplies the necessary subsidies to reach the characteristics required to the soil, with
trustworthiness. The materials are uniform fine sand and Portland cement of high initial strength
named CP V-ARI. Through preliminary tests of unconfined compressive strength were obtained
the Vv/Vce curves for three different void ratios, for different cement percentages. With these
results were obtained one trend curve for different dosages of this sand. In other words, using
this curve, the engineer can choose the amount of cement and the compaction effort appropriate
to provide an optimum mixture.
INTRODUCTION
The use of traditional techniques in geotechnical
engineering often faces problems because of high
costs and/or environmental issues. An example is
the construction of foundations in soils with poor
bearing capacities, where the costs of a deep
foundation solution can be incompatible with the
overall costs for low-budget building projects. In
these cases, an alternative is the improvement of
local soil by the addition of cementitious materials
[Porbaha et al. (1998), Thom et al. (2005),
Consoli et al. (2003, 2007, and 2008), Rattley et al.
(2008)].
In spite of the numerous applications, there are no
dosage methodologies based on rational criteria as
in the case of the concrete technology, where the
water/cement ratio plays a fundamental role in the
assessment of the target strength or stiffness. In
recent work the soil-cement ratio has been assessed
Materials
The sand used in the testing was obtained from the
region of Osorio near Porto Alegre, in Southern
Brazil, being classified [ASTM D 2487-93 (1993)]
as non-plastic uniform fine sand (SP) with specific
gravity of the solids 2.65. Mineralogical analysis
showed that sand particles are predominantly
quartz. The grain size (see Fig. 1) is purely fine
sand with a mean effective diameter (D50) of 0.17
mm, being the uniformity and curvature
coefficients of 2.11 and 1.15, respectively.
2500
q u (kPa)
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0
10
12
14
350
1.18
[R = 0.99]
1.29
[R = 0.98]
300
1.38
[R = 0.97]
250
q t (kPa)
Ce me nt (%)
200
150
Methods
The unconfined compressive strength tests were
carried out following NBR 5739/80 standard and
the splitting tensile strength tests were carried out
following NBR 7222/83 standard.
100
50
0
0
10
12
14
Ce me nt (%)
Experimental Program
The molding points were choosed considering the
void cement of 0.64, 0.70 and 0.78, with moisture
content of 10%. Each point was molded with seven
6th
1012
2500
3% cement (STS)
5% cement (STS)
7% cement (STS)
9% cement (STS)
2000
2500
q u (kPa)
2000
-5.34
1% cement
qu = 4.4x10 []
[R = 0.94]
2% cement
3% cement
5% cement
7% cement
9% cement
12% cement
q u and q t (kPa)
3000
10
1% cement (UCS)
-1.30
2% cement (UCS)
q u = 28327[/C v ]
1500
3% cement (UCS)
R = 0.98
5% cement (UCS)
7% cement (UCS)
9% cement (UCS)
1000
q t = 4266[/C v ]
2
1500
R = 0.97
500
1000
500
0
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
40
60
80
100
45
(% )
400
350
1% cement
2% cement
3% cement
5% cement
7% cement
9% cement
12% cement
300
q t(kPa)
20
/ Cv
250
200
150
100
50
0
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
(% )
CONCLUSIONS
Can be observed qualitatively, as expected, that
this material shows a similar trend of behavior for
both tests, unconfined compressive strength and
splitting tensile strength in the comparisons as a
percentage of cement and porosity. Turning to a
quantitative analysis of the results, it is observed
that the ratio between splitting tensile strength and
unconfined compressive strength were about 15%.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to express their gratitude to
Brazilian MCT/CNPq (projects Produtividade em
Pesquisa, Edital Universal 2008 and PNPD), to
ANEEL (project CEEE-UFRGS) and to ProDoc
CAPES for their financial support to the research
group.
REFERENCES
American Society for Testing and Materials
ASTM (1993). Standard classification of soils
for engineering purposes. ASTM D 2487-93,
Philadelphia.
Brazilian Standard Association (1980). Mortar
and concrete - Test method for compressive
strength of cylindrical specimens. NBR 5739,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (in Portuguese).
Brazilian Standard Association (1983). Mortar
and concrete - Test method for splitting tensile
strength of cylindrical specimens. NBR 7222,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (in Portuguese).
Chandler, R. J., Crilly, M. S. and MontgomerySmith, G. (1992). A low-cost method of
assessing clay desiccation for low-rise
buildings. Proc., Institute of Civil Engineers,
Civil Engineering, 2(2), 8289.
Chang, T. S. and Woods, R. D. (1992). Effect of
Particle Contact Bond on Shear Modulus.
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, New
York: ASCE, 118 (8), 1216-1233.
Clough, G. W., Sitar, N., Bachus, R. C. and Rad,
N. S. (1981). Cemented Sands Under Static
Loading. Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering Division, New York: ASCE, 107
(6), 799-817.
Consoli, N.C., Prietto, P.D.M., Carraro, J.A.H.
and Heineck K.S. (2001). Behavior of
Compacted Soil-Fly Ash-Carbide Lime-Fly
Ash Mixtures. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 127,
774-782.
Consoli, N. C., Vendruscolo, M. A. and Prietto, P.
D. M. (2003). Behavior of Plate Load Tests
on Soil Layers Improved with Cement and
Fiber. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 129
(1), 96-101.
Consoli, N. C., Rotta, G. V. and Prietto, P. D. M.
(2006).
Yielding-compressibility-strength
relationship for an artificially cemented soil
ABSTRACT The present article contains the main results of a pilot study conducted by the author, for evaluating the interaction
that develops at the interface granular soil-composite. To evaluate this interaction has been tested in direct shear apparatus using
two types of soil, and plates of composite made from fiberglass and polyester resin. In these tests it was determined the effect of
surface roughness of the plates and the degree of soil compaction, the friction that is created between the two materials. The
composite plates were subjected to a surface treatment, which defined three types of roughness.
Introduction
From a geotechnical perspective, the structural
behavior of many projects is defined by the soil
structure interaction. The interaction that is created in
this interface is mainly due to friction between these
two materials.
This article presents the results of an experimental
work developed at the Geotechnical Laboratory of the
Polytechnic University of Madrid, to evaluate the
friction at the interface between soil and composites,
as part of development of the Doctoral Thesis
conducted by the author.
The Laboratory tests to determine the friction of the
composite-soil interface were conducted in a
conventional direct shear device adapted for this
research, according to the recommendations made by
Potyondy (1961), Rao et al (1998) and Frost and Han
(1999). To complete these tests, two types of soils
have been selected. These soils are commonly used in
Madrid filling projects, and are composed of
fiberglass plates and polyester fiber with different
surficial roughness.
Composite materials
Composite materials (also known as composites), are
fibers reinforced with metallic materials, polymers
and ceramics. It was introduced in the 1950s by the
aerospace industry. The applications of composites in
civil engineering projects have grown steadily in the
last 40 years, for instance: strengthening of concrete
with fiberglass, the construction of building
structures, piles sleeves used in aggressive media and
bridges made of these materials, among others.
Jara
R mx =
Rn =
1015
The two soils selected for this study are the tosquiza
sand and the crumb sand, characteristics the city of
Madrid, which have been characterized both from a
physical, chemical, and mechanical standpoint, as
well.
Manufacture of composites
The plates of composite materials used in direct shear
tests are made out of fiberglass and polyester resin.
All plates are made of the same size, with a square
section of 5,9 5,9 cm and a thickness of 4 mm.
For the study of friction at the interface, the
composite plates were manufactured with three types
of surface roughness, which were identified as GFPRB (fiberglass plate with low roughness), GFP-RI
(plate fiberglass intermediate roughness), and; PFVRA (fiberglass plate with high roughness)
Images were taken from each of the plates, including
a digital camera and an electronic microscope. One
example is shown in Figure 1. The images allows the
assessment of surface texture achieved in each plate,
which was confirmed by the profile heights obtained
with the profilometry device (Figure 2).
R mx
D50
where
with
the
Fig. 1 Images of glass fiber plates for testing the
friction and detail in the electronic microscope (PFVRA)
1016
6th
(a)
All tests for the crumb and Tosquiza sand have been
executed in drained conditions with preliminary
consolidation. The shear loading rates were set to
0.03 and 0.06 mm/min based on consolidation curves
of the soil samples. It is apparent from the tests that
the rate of loading has no significant influence in the
results.
(b)
( )
Crums sand
( )
c t m 2
0,15
c t m
92% PM
38
95% PM
39
0,15
41
0,25
100% DR
43
Triaxial test
95% PM
35
3,0
37
Results
Influence of soil type and surface roughness in the
friction tests
To assess the influence of soil type and the surface
roughness of the composite specimens, the results of
the test are presented in Figures 5 and 6 in terms of
the standard roughness Rn determined for each
sample, which is a function of the mean particle size
(D50).
As shown in figure 5, the values of friction of all
specimens tested correspond to values of Rn within
0.18 and 1.8 approximately. Accordingly, the
roughness of the composites specimens designed for
this study can be classified as intermediate to rough
(Paikowsky et al, 1995), values which are
considerably higher to those obtained by Frost and
Han (1999). This is primarily due to a larger sand
mean particles size than those used by Frost and Han,
and secondly, to a lower peak roughness of the FRP
specimens. As a result, the friction developed in the
interface () is 1.25 to 1.5 higher than those obtained
by these researchers.
Figure 6 show the relationship
normalized roughness Rn y
relationship /. The latter is
in geotechnics to estimate the
Jara
1017
1,2 PN
PM
p ( )
Rmx D50
p ( )
Rmx D50
p ( )
1,2 PM
DR
Rmx D50
2
a
3
Conclusions
Rmx D50
1018
6th
References
ABSTRACT The great generation of urban solid has been a concern in several countries. This work presents
a study with two materials: the asphalt binder oil residue accumulated in the bottom of asphalt tanks and the
municipal solid waste ash, to be used, respectively, as a substitute of conventional binder in asphalt mixtures
and for soil stabilization in pavements base layers. Were evaluated properties as the mechanical behavior of
the mixtures through experimental tests. The results show the potential of incorporating these residues for
low traffic roads, allowing the construction of low cost roads and an environmental use of the residue.
1020
6th
6 0 % A C 50 /7 0 +
4 0% R e si du e
7 .0
1 9.7
4 .1
7 9.3
2 .29
79 .4
2.2 9
10 0%
A C 5 0/ 70
6 .9
1 9.5
4 .1
1 00 %
Res id ue
6 .8
19 .1
3 .8
BV R (%)
A pp arent d ens it y
7 9.1
2 .29
79 .9
2. 30
M ix tu re
0.84
Mixture
10 0 % A C 50 /7 0
1 00 % R e s id ue
4 0% A C + 60 % R e s id u e
( 2) R e s il ie n t
M o du lu s ( M P a )
3, 07 3
2, 23 2
2, 52 0
6 0% A C + 40 % R e s id u e
2, 72 9
M ix tu re
Casagrande et al.
1021
1022
6th
Casagrande et al.
1023
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
1024
6th
ABSTRACT The construction and demolition waste (CDW) is a material proceeding from same wastefulness in
workmanships or of demolitions. This is discarded many times in dispossessed places that can provoke illnesses
through the junction with the urban garbage and this, to contaminate the water under the floor or the ground
existing. The main objective of this work is to study the properties of the RCD and its use in geotechnical
workmanships. In such a way, the study of the RCD with the fiber addition becomes interesting through the
characterization, of assays of direct shear, CBR and compacting with Normal Proctor soon after the improvement.
The result of this research was sufficiently positive; therefore it was possible to verify the improvement of the CDW
with the addition of fiber in the use in geotechnical workmanships.
INTRODUCTION
The industry of the civil construction is very
important for the life style of the modern society,
therefore the world-wide population grows to each
day, in a very fast form. With this, it is necessary
the construction of buildings, industries, in a
generalized manner, installations of sanitary
exhaustion, among others.
This advance and growth of the civil construction
are come from some imperfections, generated for
the lack of techniques of organization, production
and execution, causing wastefulness of materials,
transformed into residues of the construction and
demolition (CDW).
METHODOLOGY
The material used for this research was the
construction and demolition waste (CDW), that it
was collected from a workmanship located in the
city of Recife, in Pernambuco, where it was found
in the structure phase.
1026
6th
AMOUNT
07
01
16
24
RESULTS
Physical and chemical characterization
The real density of the grains was of 2,686,
confirming, thus, the absence of limit of liquidity
(LL) and limit of plasticity (LP), disclosing the
predominance of arenaceous material in the sample
of RCD.
The chemical analysis of the sample was carried
through the assay of pH in water, with a gotten
value of 9,4, demonstrating to be a material of
alkaline liquid constitution which had the cement
presence and whitewash in the composition of the
CDW grains.
1027
Gravimetrical composition
The materials found in bigger percentages had
been of concrete, mortar and small material, being
equivalent 41%, 26% and 16%, respectively.
Through this gravimetrical composition the biggest
percentage of present concrete in the searched
sample could be confirmed that the studied phase
is really of structure, had.
Granulometria
The graph of figure 3 states the values in
percentage of the constituent materials of the
sample, as silt, clay and sand. Through this it was
verified that the sample is typically arenaceous.
Mineralogy
The mineralogy was carried through in the
LAGESE (Laboratory of Geology Sedimentary) of
the UFPE, where it was verified through a
binocular magnifying glass that the RCD grains,
according to Valena (2009), are composites for
materials badly selected, with format of subangular the angular ones, with the presence of
muscovite and biotite, bigger predominance of
quartz and in lesser portion of oxide and hydroxide
mica of iron, as it is presented in figure 4.
Compacting
By means of the compacting assay (Normal
Proctor) the excellent humidity results of with 14%
and apparent specific weight had been gotten dry
maximum of 1,75 g/cm .
After the compacting assay, was made with the
resultant material of this assay a new grain sized
analysis. In such a way, it was possible to perceive
that it did not have significant alteration of the
grains of the sample of CDW, when this last grain
sized curve (material resultant of the compacting)
was compared to the first one (material not
compact), as it shows the graph of figure 5. In
accordance with Santos (2007), it means,
according to some processes of production of the
CDW, since its generation until its storage. With
this, the CDW reveals that is a material capable to
resist the impacts came from the compacting assay
and the process of improvement.
6th
Shear strength
The used bodies of test for the accomplishment of
the assays of shear strength had been molded from
the joined parameters of the compacting assay, as
the excellent humidity and the apparent specific
weight dry maximum.
Through these values amount of water and
material was calculated it to be molded. This assay
was carried through using the tensions of 50KPa,
100KPa, 150KPa and 200KPa, with speed of
0,24mm/min, in the forms natural (with and
without fibers) and saturated (with and without
fibers). The amount of fibers was of 0,5% of the
total of the weight measured for the molding of the
test body.
220
150 kPa
160
200 kPa
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
10
50 KPa
100 KPa
150 KPa
140
100 kPa
150 kPa
140
50 kPa
160
100 kPa
180
50 kPa
200
1028
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
200 kPa
120
100
2
4
6
8
Horizontal Displacement (mm)
10
80
60
40
250
50 KPa
100 KPa
150 KPa
200 KPa
0
0
10
20
200
150
100
50
0
0
10
250
200
Nat without
fibres
Sat without
fibres
150
Nat with
fibres
100
REFERENCES
Conama Conselho Nacional de Meio Ambiente
(2002). Resoluo n. 307 de 5 de julho de
2002. Estabelece diretrizes, critrios e
procedimentos para a gesto dos resduos da
construo. Dirio Oficial da Repblica
Federativa do Brasil.
Orpec.
Disponvel
em:
<
www.orpecengenharia.com.br > acesso em 03
de julho de 2008.
Sat with
fibres
50
1029
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Takayuki Adachi
Civil Engineering Research Institute for Cold Region, Sapporo, Japan (ziban511@ceri.go.jp)
Satoshi Nishimoto
Civil Engineering Research Institute for Cold Region, Sapporo, Japan (84107@ceri.go.jp)
Atsuko Sato
Civil Engineering Research Institute for Cold Region, Sapporo, Japan (81152@ceri.go.jp)
ABSTRACT Road gutters formed using crushed stones, scallop shells and other high-drainage materials
(known as permeable gutters) were installed in a section where highly permeable ground was distributed to
allow surface water to infiltrate the ground through the gutters themselves.
Since permeable gutters can maintain natural and sound water circulation to a higher degree than artificial
concrete troughs as well as removing the risk of small animals falling in, they are considered to represent
environmentally friendly drainage systems. They can also reduce construction costs since the flow rate is
lower and the drainage section is smaller than systems that channel water through concrete troughs.
INTRODUCTION
Plans are currently under way to optimize the
collection of storm water and other surface water
discharge within road areas and channel it to rivers
or drains as much as possible. At the present time,
concrete trough gutters are generally installed on
the banquettes or toes of slopes to collect water at
their inlets and send it to existing drains at the flow
end. However, if there are no flow-end drains
within road areas, infiltration inlets may be used.
A ground condition necessary for the installation
of such inlets is the presence of a layer with
relatively high permeability near the surface. This
means that permeability can also be expected in
surrounding sections with concrete trough gutters.
Against this background, an attempt was made to
allow surface water to filter through road gutters
themselves by adopting high-drainage structures
(infiltration gutters) using crushed stone and
scallop shells in areas where highly permeable
ground is distributed.
Infiltration gutters are also considered to offer
environmentally friendly drainage, since they
maintain a sounder, more natural water circulation
system than artificial concrete troughs.
This study focuses on the creation of conditions
closer to those of the original natural water
circulation system as opposed to the artificial
concept of drainage water collection. To
demonstrate the effect of infiltration gutters, onsite test construction was conducted and the results
of visual and instrumental observation were
examined.
APPLICATION CONDITIONS OF
INFILTRATION FACILITIES
The conditions of application for infiltration
facilities are outlined beow.
Judgment from soil properties
Soil with properties for which high permeability
cannot be expected is not suitable for the
installation of infiltration gutters. Specifically,
these are areas where:
a) the coefficient of permeability is lower than
10-7 m/s;
b) air porosity is 10% or lower and soil is highly
compacted;
c) clay (with a grain size of 0.05 mm or smaller)
accounts for 40% or more of the grain size
distribution (except in weathered volcanic ash
or Kanto loam formation).
Judgment from groundwater levels
Reduced infiltration capacity is expected in areas
with high groundwater levels. Groundwater is
likely to rise significantly following rainfall and
1031
1032
6th
Preliminary survey
The following three tests were conducted at the
test sites:
a) Boring test
b) Grain-size test
c) Infiltration test
Follow-up
a) Visual observation
Regular observation (three to four times a year)
was conducted to monitor the surface infiltration
conditions of infiltration gutters and weed growth
conditions.
b) Soil moisture measurement
To confirm underground infiltration conditions,
soil moisture was measured hourly using soil
moisture meters placed at three points (GL -0.50, 0.75 and -1.00 m) in the depth direction near the
infiltration gutter at Maruseppu. The term soil
moisture here refers to the volume of water
content, i.e., its proportion in comparison to the
overall volume. GL refers to the bottom of the
infiltration gutter.
c) Water level measurement
Water levels were measured hourly using
groundwater level gauges placed near the
infiltration gutters. Two were placed at Shuen (for
each of the normal and weed-protection types).
TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Soil conditions at the infiltration gutter
installation sites
Table. 1 shows the preliminary survey results.
The coefficient of permeability was higher in
Maruseppu, which has a thickly distributed gravel
layer and a low fine-grain fraction. As the
groundwater level was 0.5 m or more from the
bottom of the gutter, the infiltration capacity was
presumed to be sufficient.
At Akita, Ubaranai and Tanaka, volcanic ash
layers are thickly distributed, and the standard
values were satisfied for the coefficient of
permeability, fine-grain fraction and porosity. The
groundwater level was especially low in Tanaka,
indicating high infiltration capacity. At Ubaranai,
infiltration capacity was presumed to be sufficient,
as the values were slightly higher than the standard.
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Bottom layer
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Shuen (normal)
Humic soil1.0
Silt/peat4.0
Shuen(weed
Humic soil0.9
Silt/peat4.0
Standard value
* The coefficients of permeability for Shuen (normal/weed prevention) are those provided by the Association for
Rainwater Storage and Infiltration Technology.
Table.2 Visual observation results for individual sites with infiltration gutters
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1034
1035
ABSTRACT Defluoridation is coined as removal of excess fluoride from water. The present study has
been conducted to investigate the role of geo-technical properties of the non conventional materials like
sludges of conventional water and waste water treatment plants and their products, employing
adsorption technique. The grain size and permeability have been found to have remarkable impacts on
the efficacy of removal by the adsorbent materials. The adsorption kinetics has been found mainly to
follow first -order mechanism as well Freundlich isotherm model for bio adsorbents and BET,
Langmuir Isotherm models for others. Keywords: adsorption, defluoridation, sludges, geo-technical,
isotherm, permeability.
100
200
-0.04
Sample
B.D (gm/cc)
WTPS
1.76(av)
WTPSB
1.78(av)
D.D(gm/cc)
1.33(av)
1.48(av)
W.C (%)
28-34
20-22
-0.10
L.L (%)
P.L (%)
45-48
18-19
15-16
58-60
25-26
1.4x10-5
36-37
11-14
25-30
56-59
14-16
3.8x10-4
-0.12
Sand (%)
Silt (%)
Clay (%)
Permeability(cm/s)
1037
300
400
R2 = 0.955
-0.06
-0.08
Tim e in m initues
STPS
1.41(av)
1.11(av)
15-17
36-38
NP
25-28
61-65
10-11
3.6x10-4
STPBN
1.53(av)
1.23(av)
25-26
45-47
17-19
14-16
64-67
19-20
1.25x10-5
Ln(1-Ut)
-0.02
-0.04
50
100
150
R2 = 0.9005
-0.06
-0.08
-0.10
tim e in m initues
200
1038
6th
0.00
100
200
300
400
-0.04
-0.06
R2 = 0.9534
-0.08
-0.10
-0.12
-0.14
Tim e in m initues
Ln(1-Ut)
Ln(1-Ut)
-0.02 0
100
200
300
400
-0.06
-0.08
-0.10
R2 = 0.8916
-0.12
STP
-0.14
-0.16
STPB
WTP
WTPB
STP
STPB
0.988
WTP
0.964
0.967
WTPB
0.931
0.916
0.962
PS
-0.95
-0.96
-0.98
-0.95
-0.18
PS
Tim e in m initues
and
WTP
sludge
1039
g
determining fluoride removal efficacy of
adsorbent material, permeability determines
suitability of the adsorbent material with respect
to its field applications.
.
REFERENCES
1. ASCE Task Committee on Application of
Artificial Neural Networks in Hydrology,
Artificial neural networks in Hydrology I:
Preliminary
concepts,
J.
Hydrologic
Engineering, Vol.5 (2), 115-123, 2000
2. Capper, P.l.CASIER, W.f.AND Geddles J.D.
(1966); Problems in Engineering Soil, E.and
F.N.Spon Ltd London.
3. Earth Manual (1960) U.S.Bureau of
Reclamation.Denver, Denver, Colorado.
4. Khosla, A.N., Bose, N.K. and Taylor, E.M
(1936) Design of weirs on permeable
foundation, Publication No 12, Central Board of
Irrigation, India.
5. Means, R.E. and Parcher J.N. (1963) Physical
properties of Soil, Carles E. Merill Book Co.,
Columbus, Ohio.
6. Muskhar M. (1946) The flow of
Homogeneous fluids through porous media,
McGraw
Hill
Book
Co,
1937;
J.W.Edward.1946.
ABSTRACT This paper presents the study of physical characteristics, permeability, retention curve, and
contraction of waste paper sludge in Rio de Janeiro. This material consists of lignocellulosic materials, a
matrix of calcium carbonate (calcite and aragonite). It has high moisture content in the order of 300%, an
organic matter content of 30% and a specific gravity 2.08. The main feature of this waste is that it suffers
large contractions without cracking. The WPS has an optimum moisture content of 70% and a maximum dry
density of 0.79g/cm3. The saturated permeability is between 10-9 m/s - 10-5 cm/s and depends on the moisture
content of compaction and morphology. The retention curve of the waste is produced by using the paper
filter method; air entry value of suction (AEV) is 800kPa. Both properties make this waste a good candidate
for use as oxidative and capillary barrier in the final cover for municipal solid waste landfills.
INTRODUTION
Waste paper sludges (WPS) were characterized by
different authors (e.g. NCASI 1989, Zimmie et al.
1993, Mo-Young & Zimmie 1996, 1997, Kraus
et al. 1997, Quiroz et al. 1998, Cabral et al. 1999,
2002, Kamon et al. 1999, 2002, Teixeira 2002, Lo
et al. 2002, Iberio 2007). The WPS have been
investigated by a variety of researchers who have
analyzed its capabilities of being used as a final
cover for municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills,
as a capillary or oxidative barrier (e.g. Cabral et al.
2000, Parent & Cabral 2006, Massood et al.
2008).
In this paper, the results of characterization
attempts are presented along with a discussion of
its use as a material for final covers. The
difficulties regarding the execution of this
procedure are also discussed.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
A WPS from a Paper Industry from Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, was tested in the Geotechnical and
Environmental Laboratory of PUC-Rio. Such
industry produces special types of paper, some of
them used to manufacture cigarettes in different
(%)
30
60
4.5
3.5
2
1041
Fig.1
1042
6th
Gs
wp (%)
wL (%) wn (%)
wop (%)
2.08
78
172
310-340
70
Gs = specific gravity; wP = plasticity limit; wL =
liquid limit; wn = natural water content; wop =
Proctor optimum moisture content
In the sieved material through the sieve 200 (0.076
mm), it was observed that the fibers were retained
and minerals passed. Fig.2 presents these
materials after drying in the oven. The gravity
specific value of these mineral particles was 2.74,
a lot higher than the WPSs. Beyond that, this
material began cracking after being in the oven at
110C while the WPS did not.
Retained
wi = 171%
Fig.3
wi = 128%
wi = 65%
Fig.2
Present paper
Klaus et al. (1997)
Moo-Young & Zimmie (1996)
Teixeira (2002)
Cabral et al. (1999)
Iberio (2007)
S=100% for Gs=2.08
S=70% for Gs=2.08
Passed
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
0
50
100
150
200
250
Fig.4
300
350
w = 114%
w = 50%
Fig.5
1043
Hydraulic conductivity
Internal morphology differences were observed
between samples with a water content of 300%
and a water content of 170% (Fig.8a and 8b). This
could explain the ksat difference between both
samples. The sample with water content of 300%
has a greater ksat, probably because the
compactation was not efficient for this humidity.
The image of the sample with a water content of
54% presents empty spaces of great dimensions
and high values of ksat (Fig.9c).
a
w=300%,ksat=1.10-8 m/s
b
100
80
w=170%,ksat=5.10-9m/s
60
40
wi = 162%
wi = 130%
20
wi = 76%
0
1
10
100
1000
10000
100000
Suction (kPa)
Fig.6
w=54%,ksat=4.10-6 m/s
Fig.8
1044
6th
1,E-04
1,E-05
1,E-06
1,E-07
1,E-08
1,E-09
1,E-10
0
40
80
Fig.7
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
CONCLUSIONS
The shrinkage of material without the presence of
cracks is a beneficial characteristic for its use as
final cover for MSW landfills.
The low hydraulic conductivity on the wet branch
of the compactation curve is an advantage for the
use of the material as part of a cover system for
MSW landfills. The material in its natural
condition presents high water content and could be
used without the need of long drying processes.
The material needs high suctions in order to
desaturate. For this reason it shows favourable
conditions to be used as oxidative barrier.
The internal morphology is linked to the saturated
hydraulic conductivity. The binocular magnifier
image technique ended up being of great use on
the understanding of hydraulic properties.
The physical characteristics of WPS can be
studied separating the mineral and organic part
with the sieve 200, to improve its realization.
1045