Discipline course -1

Semester -1
Paper Geomorphology
Lesson- Cycle of Erosion (Davis)
Lesson Developer:
Dr.Prabuddh Kr. Mishra
College /Department: Bhim Rao Ambedkar College
University of Delhi

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Table of Contents
3. Geomorphic Process
3.3 Cycle of Erosion (Davis)
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5

Introduction
Origin and Evolution of the Concept
Geographical Cycle of Davis
Theory
Evaluation of the Davisian Model of landforms Development

Summery

Exercise

References

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Cycle of Erosion (Davis)

1.1 Introduction
James Hutton propounded the concept of cyclic nature of the earth history and the dictum
of no vestige of a beginning; no prospect of an end and present is the key of past. The
concept of cyclic nature of the earth history was later on transferred into the concept of
uniformitarianism which states that the same physical processes and laws that operate
today, operated throughout geological time, although not necessarily with the same
intensity as now. Based on the concept of Hutton and uniformitarianism, Davis introduced
the idea of recognizable landscape stages of evolution in his cyclic model, stating that
landscape is a function of structure, process and stage. By this he meant that the
landforms which make up the landscape are the resultant of the interaction of the structure
and character of rocks, of the various denudative processes which modify these, and of the
degree of transformation (i.e. the stage) to which they have been subjected.

DID YOU KNOW

Charles Darwins theory of biological evolution, introduced in his book Origin of Species
in 1859, influenced earth scientists. It contributed to the idea that landscapes gradually
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evolved from one form to another.

Though, up to this day there have been no geomorphological theories, which would, by
undeniable facts, present and prove the whole geomorphological development of the earth
relief. The history of geomorphology is familiar with five such theories, which represent a
very significant step forward; moreover, we can say a revolutionary progress in
geomorphological idea development. They havent provided a complete answer about
global relief development, but showed themselves as appropriate for explanation and
interpretation of particular cases and parts of developmental regularity. The first of those
theories is connected with W. M. Davis (1899), the second one with W. Penck (1924), the
third one with K. K. Markov (1948), the fourth one with I. P. Gerasimov and J. A.
Mescerjakov (1970), and, finally, the fifth one with L. C. King (1962).

In the framework of his theory William Morris Davis tried to represent the relief form
development and the whole Earths relief evolution in a very progressive way. In this
connection he developed his theory from a simple and logical equation based on three basic
keystones: structure + stage (span of time) + cycle (process).

1.2 Origin and Evolution of the Concept

W.M. Davis (1850-1934 AD) American geomorphologists presented his concept of cycle of
erosion under the title geographical cycle of erosion in the year 1889 through the concept
of complete cycle of river life. This is the most popular theory of landform development
and provided a genetic classification and systematic description of landforms. A landscape
has a definite life history during which it shows a series of gradual changes, whereby the
initial forms pass through a series of sequential forms to an ultimate form. We may broadly
group the many successive stages into major stages of youth, maturity and old age.
Landscape evolution is thus envisaged as a cycle which runs through a definite course of
developments.
Davisian View
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1. Landforms like organic forms shall be studied in view of their evolution.

2. The landforms initial uplift is the chief source of energy in the form of potential
energy and that; thereafter there is an irreversible equalization of energy levels.
Throughout the landform assemblage, leading ultimately to a spatially uniform
terrain which Davis called Peneplain.
3. The uplift of the land is rapid and while the landmass is being uplifted there is very
little or no erosion.
4. Uniform lithology.
5. Davis divided stages into youth, mature and old. These were however, relative time
scale and cannot be related to any particular time framework.
The initial stage in the Earths relief cyclic development is represented by a gently
undulating area, denuded to the sea level, the so-called peneplain, defined as almost plane
surface i.e., plain. The plain is broken down by valleys with gentle and homogenous slopes;
Davis has described his model of geographical cycle through a graph (Fig. 1). The earth's
surface is affected by two types of forces size (i) endogenetic force (ii) exogenetic forces.
Endogenetic forces create vertical irregularities and exogenetic forces create horizontal
irregularities (i.e. Peneplain).

1.3 Geographical Cycle of Davis

From the time when the sculpture of a newly emerged uplands beings and rock waste as
well as water streams away from every part of it in turn, the rivers, valleys and associated
landforms should pass through distinctive stages, provided that there has been no
significant interference by earth movements or by changes of sea-level or climate. This
idealized concept of landscape evolution was introduced to geomorphology more than sixty
years ago by W.M. Davis, who referred to the whole sequence of stage as a Cycle of Erosion.
Davis is regarded as father Geomorphology. The basic goal of Davisian model of
geographical cycle and general theory of landform development was to provide basis for a
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systematic descriptions and genetic classification of landforms. According to this concept a

landscape has a definite life history, and as the processes of land structure operate on it the
surface features are marked by several changes in its life time. Thus, the evolution of
landscape passes through a cycle, and cycle follows a definite sequence of development.
The successive stage of developmental sequences can be divided into three parts and may
be identified as youth, maturity and old age. Davis presentation of scheme was both
vigorous and vivid and his colourful analogy of the human life and landscapes both passing
through the stages of youth, maturity and old age caught the imagination of scientific world.
In order to understand the evolution of a particular landscape it is extremely important to
know the stage of development. But the geographical structure and the nature of rocks also
exert an important influence on the fashioning of landscapes is a function of structure,
process and time (as called as stage by the followers of Davis). These three factors are called
as Trio of Davis.
Structure means lithological (rock types) and structural characteristics (folding, faulting,
joints etc.) of rocks. Time was not only used in temporal context but it was also used as a
process itself leading to an inevitable progression of change of landform. Process means the
agent of denudation including both, weathering and erosion (running water in the case of
geographical cycle).

1.4 Theory
When the different agents of erosion work on the earth's surface, there is a gradual and
systematic evolution of the landscape. Davis has described his model of geographical cycle
through a graph (Fig. 1).

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The horizontal scale, to , indicates the passage of time (from Davis, 1899).

Fig. 1 Davis schematic diagram of the change in relief through time of the idealized cycle of
erosion
The cycle of erosion begins with the unpliftment of land mass. There is a rapid rate of shortperiod upliftment of landmass of homogenous structure. This phase of upliftment is not
included in the cyclic time as this phase is in fact, the preparatory stage cycle of erosion.
The above graph represents the model of geographical cycle wherein UC (Upper curve) and
LC (Lower crust) denote the hill tops of crests of water divided (absolute relief from mean
sea level) and valley floors lowest relief (from mean sea-level) respectively. The horizontal
line denotes time whereas vertical axis depicts altitude from sea-level. AC represents
maximum absolute relief whereas BC denotes initial average relief. Initial relief is defined as
difference between upper curve (summits of water divides) and lower curve (valley floors)
of a landmass. In other words, relief is defined as the difference between the highest and
the lowest points of a landmass ADG line in denotes base level of erosion which represents
sea-level. No river can erode its valley beyond base levels (below sea-level).
The upliftment of the landmass stops after point C as the phase of upliftment is complete.
Now, erosion starts and the whole cycle pass through the following three stages.
1)

Youthful stage

The upliftment is complete and has stopped and erosion starts after the completion of the
upliftment of the landmass. The top-surfaces or the summits of the water divides are not
affected by erosion because the rivers are small and widely spaced. Small rivers and short
tributaries (consequent streams) are engaged in headward erosion due to which they
extend their length. Because of steep slope and steep channel gradient rivers actively
deepen their valleys through vertical erosion and thus there is gradual increase in the depth
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of river valleys. The valley becomes deep and narrow characterized by steep valley side
slopes of convex plan.
The lower curve falls rapidly because of valley deepening but the upper curve remains
almost parallel to the horizontal axis because the summits or upper parts of the landmass
are not affected by erosion. Increased relief heralds the beginning of mature age, indicated
by widening of the gap between lines A and B.
2)

Mature Stage

The early mature stage is herald by marked lateral erosion and well integrated drainage
network. Vertical erosion or valley deepening is remarkably reduced or vertical erosion
slows down and horizontal actions increases. The summits of water divides are also eroded
and hence there is marked fall in upper curve (UC) i.e. there is marked lowering of absolute
relief, both decreases. The lateral erosion leads to valley widening which transforms the Vshaped valleys with uniform or rectilinear valley side. The coming closer of lines A and B
indicates emergence of gentle slope. The subsequent streams gain importance now.The
marked reduction in valley deepening (vertical erosion or valley incision) is because of
substantial decrease in channel gradients, flow velocity and transporting capacity of the
rivers.
How soon youth will turn into maturity depends to a large extent on the texture of the
drainage. The number of streams and their relative distances will determine the speed with
the inter steam areas are being denuded.
3)

Old age

A gentle gradient, accentuated by horizontal action and deposition, reduces the erosion
intensity. Old age in characterized by almost total absence of valley incision but lateral
erosion and valley widening is still active process. Water divides are more rapidly eroded. In
fact, water divides are reduced in dimension by both, down wasting and backwasting. Thus,
upper curve falls more rapidly meaning thereby, there is rapid rate of decrease in absolute
height. Relative or available relief also decreases sharply because of active lateral erosion
but no vertical erosion. Near absence of valley deepening in due to extremely low channel
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gradient and remarkably reduced kinetic energy. The valley becomes almost flat or get
mellowed lines A and B run parallel to each other with concave valley side slopes. The
entire landscape is dominated by a graded valley sides and divide crests, broad, open and
gently sloping valleys having extensive flood plains, well developed meanders, residual
Monadonocks (residual hills, Davis called such residual hills by this name after mountain
Monadonock in New Hamshire. Thus, the entire landscape is transformed into Peneplane
sometimes duration of old stage in many times as long as you maturity combines together.

1.5 Evaluation of the Davisian Model of landforms Development

Davisian Model of landform development involving progressive changes in landforms
development through time and his concept of geographical cycle received worldwide
recognition and the geomorphologists readily applied his model in their geomorphological
investigations.
Positive Aspects

The Davisian cycle affords a genetic classification and nomenclature of landscape, as

compared to a morphological one and provides the means of expressing texture and
the build of a landscape. Davis Model of geographical cycle is simple and applicable.

Davis presented his Model in a very lucid, compelling and disarming style using very
simple but expressive language and his model is based on detailed and careful field
observation.

The consideration of Davis of change in base level as indication of initiation of a new

cycle has certain advantages. One, the base level change can be considered a unit of
time compared to the geologists stratigraphical time unit. Two, the base level
changes during glaciations are accommodated.

This model is capable of both predictions and historical interpretation of landform

evolution. This model also synthesized the current geological thoughts.

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Davis ideas have been overthrown in the second half of this century. Though the model
faces many challenges, and being criticized from the very beginning of its postulation. One
of the main critics of Davis was Walther Penck, followed by S. Judson and C.G. Higgins.
Criticism
1. For the sake of simplicity and according to Davis, erosion is insignificant during the
phase of upliftment, Davis has assumed in his theory that erosion begins only after
the uplift has taken place and that upliftment occurs very rapidly and then ceases for
the rest of the period of time. But it is natural facts (process) that as land rises,
erosion begins and In fact erosion and upliftment goes hand in hand. As soon as a
landmass begins to be formed by uplift erosion immediately starts working on it.
2. There is no logical ground for the assumption that flat slopes are old and steep
slopes are young. Other variables controlling the slope are nature of soil material
and the bedrock, climate, vegetation and downslope factors acting at the slopefoot.
3. An ideal Davisian cycle would take millions of years to complete, what about the
earth movement during the cycle? (The Davisian Model requires a long period of
crustal stability for the competition of cycle of erosion but such eventless long period
is tectonically not possible as in evidenced by plate tectonics according to which
plates are always in motion and the crust is very often affected by tectonic events.
Davis has also offered explanation of this objection. According to him crustal stability
for desired period is not possible, the cycle erosion is interrupted and fresh cycle of
erosion may start).
4. Too much of generalization in the Davisian cycle presents an inadequate framework
for landform interpretation.
5. There is little evidence to prove that landforms actually evolve to an end product
called peneplane.
Davis has over emphasized time. His interpretation of geomorphic processes was entirely
based on empirical observation rather than a field instrumentation and measurement.
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Did You Know

William Morris Davis

William Morris Davis (1850-1934) is perhaps the dominant figure in

American academic geography in the late Nineteenth and the early
Twentieth Centuries. He was instrumental in establishing geography as an
independent scholarly discipline in the United States and his theories of
landform development dominated geomorphology for more than half a
century.
Although his ideas on stages on development have been challenged, most
of his work is still very use ful. Davis was a master at presenting his
interpretations of landscapes in clear descriptin and fine sketches. His
geolographical essays were published in 1909.
(Source: http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/151654/)
Though Davis described the structural control on landforms but he failed to build any
lithological adjustment of landforms.
Although some people have criticized his theory, there is no denying the fact that this
theory is still a torch bearer in the field of cycle of erosion. Finally, it can be said that his
work provided an enormous impetus to the science of geomorphology and stimulated the
development of alternative models by many other geoscientists. Such research is still
continuing, but evidences suggest that no simple generalized model of the sequential stages
of landscape development can be sufficiently accurate to be useful.

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Summary

Davisian concept is approached from the viewpoint of a geomorphologist.

The primary goal of geomorphic studies was the effective description of the
earth and its surface features.

Definition: Landscape is the function of structure, process and stage.

Upliftment stops before the start of erosion, i.e., erosion and upliftment do not
occur side by side.

Time of upliftment is very short i.e., upliftment process is very fast.

Cycle begins on different units from structural point of view.

Cycle begins and ends in three stages- youth, mature and old.

Erosion does not occur in the first stage.

Slopes do not occupy important place in landform evolution.

Landscape evolution show evidence down wearing.

Cycle ends in peneplane.

Exercises

Explain the following terms:

a) Structure; b) Process; and c) Stage

According to the Davis Cycle of erosion which landscape attains maximum

relief and why?

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In Davis Cycle of erosion, name the erosive agent which is most powerful and
why?

Comment on the different stages of cycle of erosion with suitable examples.

Carefully distinguish between the youthful and old stage as described by

Davis.

W. M. Davis contradicted himself when he combined the concept of

progressive change with the concept of grade (an equilibrium concept) in his
geographical cycle of erosion
A.

True

B. False

References
Berner, E. B., and R. A. Berner. 1996. Global Environment: Water, Air, and Geochemical
Cycles. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Ollier, C.and Pain, C. 2000. The Origin of Mountains ,Routledge.
Singh. S.1998. Geomorphology, Prayag Pustak Bhawan, Allahabad.
Dayal, P. 1976. A Text Book of Geomorphology, Shukla Book Dept, Patna.
A.N. Strahler & A.R. Strahler 1978. Modern Physical Geography, John Wiley.
J.A. Steers, 1961. The Unstable Earth, Lyell Book Dept, Ludhiana.
Kale V. and Gupta, A. 2001. Elements of Geomorphology. Oxford University Press, Calcutta.
Bharatdwaj, K. 2006 Physical Geography: Introduction to Earth.Discovery Publishing
House,Delhi.
Leong G.C. 2006. Certificate Physical and Human Geography, Oxford India.
Bunnett, R.B. 1965. Physical Geography in Diagrams, Pearson Education, India.
Lake, P. 1959. Physical Geography, Macmillion and Co Limited.
Bloom, Arthur L., (2003) Geomorphology: A Systematic Analysis of Late Cenozoic Landforms.
First Indian Reprint. Delhi: Pearson Education (Singapore) Pvt. Ltd.
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Chorley, Richard J., Schumm, Stanley A. and Sugden, David E., (1984) Geomorphology.
London: Methuen & Co. Ltd.
Engeln, O. D. von, Geomorphology. (1960) New York: The Macmillan Company.
Suggested Readings
Thornbury, W. D. (2004) Principles of Geomorphology, CBS Publishers, Delhi.
Strahler, A. and Strahler, A. (2002) Physical Geography: Science and Systems of the
Human Environment, John Wiley and sons, New York.
Web Links
1. http://giam.zrc-sazu.si/zbornik/bognar41.pdf
2. http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/daviswilliam.pdf
3. http://www.ees.lehigh.edu/ftp/retreat/outgoing/preprints_and_reprints/Pazzaglia_200
3_landscape_evolution_paper_final_printable.pdf
4. http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/content/64/7/721.full.pdf

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