ARTICLE IN PRESS

Optics and Lasers in Engineering 41 (2004) 801812

Design and operation of a ber optic sensor for

liquid level detection
Hossein Golnabi*
Institute of Water and Energy, Sharif University of Technology, P.O. Box 11365-8639, Tehran, Iran
Received 1 March 2002; received in revised form 1 September 2002; accepted 1 March 2003

Abstract
Design and construction of an optical ber sensor for liquid level detection are reported.
This sensor operates based on light intensity modulation, and such modulation results from
alteration of total internal reection into partial reection at the interface. The modulated
intensity has been measured by using a pair of bers, one transmitting source light, another
acting as receiving ber, and a glass prism providing the total and partial reections. During
the level measurements, when a liquid in a vessel touches the 45
faces of the 45-90-45
prism,
the total internal reection is disturbed, and the reected light is modulated. The performance
of this sensor is tested with different source lights including a light emitting diode (LED), a
diode laser, and a HeNe laser. Extinction ratio has been measured for different liquids, and
compared. This ratio for water using LED source is about 0.03, for diode laser is 0.006 and for
HeNe laser is 0.003. Although this device was tested as a liquid level sensor, but the distinct
results obtained for samples with different index of refractions demonstrate that the reported
sensor can also be used as a liquid refractometer.
r 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Sensor; Optical ber; Liquid level; Detection

1. Introduction
Liquid level control and measurement, in general, can be based on principles such
as capacitive, hydrostatic, ultrasonic, radiometric, and electro-mechanical measurements. Vibrating probes, conductivity switches, and microwave barriers can be used
as liquid level switches. Now there are a variety of such devices in market including
*Tel.: +98-21-918-3498; fax: +98-21-601-2983.
E-mail address: golnabi@sina.sharif.ac.ir (H. Golnabi).
0143-8166/03/$ - see front matter r 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0143-8166(03)00035-6

ARTICLE IN PRESS
802

H. Golnabi / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 41 (2004) 801812

intrusive and non-intrusive level sensors based on RF capacitance technology,

infrared pulse excitation, vertical buoyant level sensors based on contact tuning fork,
and non-contact ultrasonic level sensors (see for example [1]). Point level switches
based on a magnetostrictive device, as well as a capacitance change, have been
fabricated for on/off control of liquids.
Many monitoring instruments concern switching at prescribed values of
measurands and optical switches can replace electrical switches in such applications.
An optical level switch consists of a source light, an optical dipstick, and optical
detector [2]. Source light is transmitted to an optical prism and the detector measures
the reected light from the prism. When there is air around the prism most of the
light is reected up in the dipstick while there is liquid, a considerable amount of
light is lost through the prism into the uid. In this way the probe acts as a level
switch, changing state at one particular level.
On the other hand optical ber sensors have found many applications in recent
years [36]. Physical and chemical effects have been used to develop a variety of
sensors for monitoring displacement [7], pressure [8], high temperature [9], and other
parameters [1013]. Recently, a sensor design using a coated lens optic for
displacement measurements was reported [14]. In recent years, ber optic sensors
so advanced to become a good candidate for smart structure technology [15]. With
such mentioned abilities, it seems that optical ber sensors have the potentials to be
used in design and construction of liquid level sensing devices.
In any ber optic probe used for measuring refractive index or liquid level, the
transmitted or reected light in the ber is a function of the refractive index of the
probe and the refractive index of the liquid to be measured. Using this principle
researchers have been able to measure the index of refraction of liquids [16]. Optical
refractometer using attenuation of cladding modes also have been reported [17]. In
this respect evanescent sensors rely on the measurable loss of guidance from an
optical ber as a means of detecting external changes. Such sensor is an intensity
type device in which guided light is lost due to the evanescent wave at the interface.
For example, when the effective refractive index of surrounding material around an
optical ber changes, the intensity modulation can be measured. At a liquidair
interface the change of refractive index can be used for measuring the specic gravity
of the liquid or measuring chemical parameter such as pH of a solution.
A typical design has been the use of ber guidance with inverted tip to provide
internal reection at the tip of the ber [18]. The ber coil immersed in the liquid is
employed to design a refractometer for refractive index measurements. In another
example, in the leak detection method, evanescent light loss from specially clad bers
is used to detect liquid nitrogen leaks in an industrial environment. In this case, the
refractive index of the polymer coating of a plastic-clad silica-ber cable reaches that
of the ber core (at low temperature) and light guidance is lost [18]. Changes in
refractive index of the liquid have been used for detection of hydrocarbons in water
[19]. One can use these sensors to measure the liquid level [20,21], absorption
temperature, PH factor, and temperature. The ber refractometer technique can be
used to measure specic gravity of storage batteries [22]. In a similar way ber optic
sensors have been used for liquid mixture composition determination [23,24]. Using

ARTICLE IN PRESS
H. Golnabi / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 41 (2004) 801812

803

this method they have been able to measure the local concentration of liquid
mixture.
Choice of appropriate level sensor or probe depends on the type of liquid and the
application requirements. Although, as described above, there are a variety of
sensing devices for level sensing, but they are costly, and researchers in this eld
continue to work on new devices. The ultimate goal has been to develop new sensing
devices; in particular, optical ber sensors with better qualities at possible lower
costs. Developing such devices that could offer some advantages motivated us to
design and test the reporting sensor. In this study we have used the same principle of
the total and partial reection sensing and intensity modulation technique. For the
given optical geometry we checked the ability and performance of each sensing
device using a different light source.

2. Sensor design
The experimental arrangement used to test the constructed sensor is illustrated in
Fig. 1. It includes a light source, a transmitting ber, a xture containing the glass
prism, a receiving ber, and digital voltmeter as a read out module. The test xture
shown in Fig. 1 is made of either Plexiglass or Teon block with dimensions of
20 mm  25 mm  40 mm, but for special applications Teon material is preferred. A
pair of optical bers (step-index multimode) with a core diameter of about 450 mm
and overall diameter of 1.5 mm is closed coupled as shown in Fig. 1. The glass prism

Fig. 1. Block diagram of the experimental arrangement including a light source, a test xture, a glass
prism, transmitting and receiving bers, and a digital voltmeter for output reading.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
804

H. Golnabi / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 41 (2004) 801812

Fig. 2. Shows the optical path lengths and related intensities in the coupling 45-90-45
glass prism for the
normal incident ray.

is a 45-90-45
type as shown in Fig. 2 with a dimension of 31 mm  22 mm  16 mm.

In this design, source light is transmitted by a ber, and collected from a receiving
ber by means of total or partial internal reections in a glass prism. The second
ber transmits the reected light to the photodetector (PHD), which is mounted in a
proper holding piece.
Different light sources are tested in this experiment. At rst a light emitting diode
(LED) at red wavelength region provides the transmitting light. A diode laser
(Electron Diode Laser Modules, ALA12-3.5-650) operating at 650 nm wavelength
with auto-optical output power control (a 3-element glass lens) is used for the second
experiment. The nominal output power of this laser with its front cover aperture (4mm diameter) in place is 50% of maximum power (about 3.5 mW). For the last study
we used a small HeNe laser operation at 632.8 nm. The nominal power for such
laser at the red wavelength is about 2 mW and has a divergence of about 2 mRad.
The visible red light is easier to work with but an infrared source at wavelength of
about 850900 nm is more efcient source because of the detector higher responsivity
at that wavelength range.
The power supply provides the required voltages (5 V for LED and 12 V for diode
laser) and a digital voltmeter (precision of 1 mV) is used for the output voltage
measurements. By employing beam-splitting optics between the light source and the
ber one can use a single optical ber. A 3-dB coupler may be used for the light
splitting as indicated by other reports [25]. The PHD used in this experiment is a
planar silicon PIN diode type (Centronix, BPX 65). Typical characteristics of this
detector are: active area of 1 mm2, responsivity of 0.2 A/W at 450 nm, 0.55 A/W at
900 nm and 0.4 A/W at 632.8 nm (HeNe laser red wavelength).
The main contribution of the noise to the output signal for such system can be due
to the detector noises (the shot noise and Johnson noise), the amplier noise, and a
term arising from source amplitude noise. The source uctuation noise (general
purpose sources) and amplier noise are often greater than either of Johnson or shot

ARTICLE IN PRESS
H. Golnabi / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 41 (2004) 801812

805

noise sources. Therefore, shot-noise performance cannot be achieved if a noisy

optical source is used and most conventional sources have amplitude noise
component in their outputs that usually dominate detection performance. For
special applications, however, more advanced shot noise limited detection systems
can be devised.

3. Sensor operation
The characteristic of the reported sensor can be compared with the case of two
similar collinear bers coupled through a prism. The beam path in the prism is
shown in Fig. 2. The power-coupling factor depends on the incident angle F; relative
index of refraction, n; and transmission functions of the bers and the prism, and
nally the characteristics of the detection system. The photocurrent intensity, I;
resulted by the PHD is
IF; n Po ZTF; n;

where, T is the net transmittance function of the sensor. Po is the source optical
power (W ) incident on the PHD when T 1; and Z is the detector responsivity at the
source light wavelength (A=W ).
The transmission function T given in (1) depends on the state of the polarization
of light and the incident angle at each interface. As shown in Fig. 2, the light path
can be considered at four points. The source light at normal angle at point 1 feels a
loss due to reection at airglass interface, so if we assume the initial source light
intensity to be I0 then the transmitted intensity at this point is TI0 : The intensity of
the light at point 2 is TRI0 ; at point 3 is TR2 I0 ; and nally at point 4 is given by
I4 T 2 R2 I0 :

For the case of total internal reection (glassair interface at points 2 and 3) the
reected power coefcient is about one and for other material surroundings (glass
liquid) there are some losses at points 2 and 3, as well as points 1 and 4. The value of
T is equal to
T

4n1 n2
n1 n2 2

where n1 is the index of refraction for the air (1) and n2 for the glass (1.5) and the
value of T is 0.96. The averaged value of R for the unpolarized light can be written as
8"
#2
 1< cos F  n2  sin2 F1=2
1

RF; n Rs Rp
2
2: cos F n2  sin2 F1=2
"
#2 9
n2 cos F  n2  sin2 F1=2 =

;
4
n2 cos F n2  sin2 F1=2 ;

ARTICLE IN PRESS
H. Golnabi / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 41 (2004) 801812

806

Fig. 3. Variations of the reection coefcient (R) at airliquid interface as a function of liquid index of
refraction for polarized (s; p) and unpolarized light.

where n is the liquid/glass index ratio and F is the incident angle at glassliquid
interface, which is 45
. The rst term in the bracket shows the reection power Rs (spolarized beam) and the second term represents Rp (p-polarized beam). The reected
power R as a function of the liquid index of refraction is shown in Fig. 3. As can be
seen from Fig. 3, the maximum value of R is for the case of glassair total internal
reection, which is equal to one. By increasing the index if refraction of the
surrounding material (liquid) this reection power is decreased. For example for
water (index of refraction of 1.33) it is about 0.0096. For higher index of refraction
values this factor reduces considerably and for an index refraction of 1.45 this
reection factor is only 0.0006.
In the next study the refracted angle for the beam in the liquid is computed and the
results are compared. The refracted angle for water (1.33) is about 52.91
and by
increasing the index of refraction to 1.45 this angle reduces to 47.03
. The extinction
ratio (ER) can be obtained by considering the ratio of the reected intensity for the
case of partial internal reection (wet sensing) to the case of total internal reection
(dry sensing) such as
ER

I4
R2
I0

since Ro1; then R2 is much less than unity, and as a result, the theoretical extinction
ratio value is very small.

4. Result and discussion

In the rst experiment we have measured the output signal as a function of the
liquid level height, which is shown in Fig. 4. To test the system for liquid ow two

ARTICLE IN PRESS
H. Golnabi / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 41 (2004) 801812

807

Fig. 4. Shows the performance of the sensor for different light sources. The reected light signals as a
function of the liquid level height with respect to the probe are plotted for LED, diode laser, and HeNe
laser light sources.

methods can be used. First case requires a regular up ow of the liquid in a vessel
when the sensor probe is xed at a vertical position. The second method is to
immerse the sensor probe in a vessel containing the constant level liquid. In this
experiment since it was easier to measure the liquid height accurately in the second
method, therefore, we used this immersion method. The vertical movement of the
sensor probe is possible by a xyz-translation stage and its relative height is measured
with a vernier mounted on the stage. The result of this study for water level
measurement is shown in Fig. 4, which shows a dry output signal of 28 mV and a wet
signal of about 1 mV.
For the next experiments we replaced the LED source with a coherent light source.
For this purpose a diode laser and a small HeNe laser, in turn, replaced the diode.
The rest of the system remained unchanged for a better comparison. The reected
power measured for this case is also shown in Fig. 4. In another experiment we used
the HeNe laser for the same type of measurements. The result of this study is also
presented in Fig. 4. As can be seen in Fig. 4, there is a great enhancement in the
output signal as we use a coherent source. This is because of two facts, rst the laser
power is much higher than the LED, and second has a better beam quality. The
divergence of the laser beam is much lower than the incoherent LED source. As a
result, a great improvement in the output signal occurs by this replacement.
This observation suggests that for more sensitive experiments such coherent light
sources provide higher sensitivity and output voltages. The difference on the wet and
dry output voltages for the HeNe is about 3488 mV, for diode laser is about 328 mV
and for the LED is only 27 mV. By using better ber coupling means these output
signals can be improved considerably. The voltage difference by using a diode laser is
improved by one order of magnitude while for HeNe laser is better than two orders
of magnitude. However, as we improve the sensor performance by using a laser, the

ARTICLE IN PRESS
808

H. Golnabi / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 41 (2004) 801812

Fig. 5. Shows the repeatability of the results obtained with the diode laser source. At the same scale the
performance of sensor using the LED light source is also shown for comparison.

cost is higher for a laser source sensor and some justication is required for the
optimum applications.
As can be seen in Fig. 4, since the output signal of the LED case is too low it is
hard to see the switching effect and the drop of its output signal in scale shown in
that gure. In order to see the performance of the sensor with the LED light source,
in Fig. 5 we show again its output response in mV scale. It is noted that this sensor
shows a similar response curve, however, in comparison with the diode laser has a
lower output signal.
To check the repeatability of the sensor, in Fig. 5 the results for two different runs
for the diode laser source, are plotted together. The choice of such a diode laser for
checking the repeatability of the results is that sensor using coherent light source
provides higher sensitivity in comparison with the incoherent LED source.
Therefore, the repeatability of the sensing device is tested with the most sensitive
arrangement, at higher sensivity, which is more reliable. As can be seen in Fig. 5, the
reported results for this sensor are quite reproducible and the minor difference in the
two runs is due to the difference in speeds of immersing the probe in the liquid and
the laser uctuation itself. This uctuation for the HeNe laser is about (5%) and for
the diode laser is around (6%).
In Fig. 6 the normalized reection signals for different liquids are presented. The
reection signal is normalized for different samples with respect to water signal. The
indexes of refractions for these samples quoted from Ref. [26] are given in Table 1.
As can be seen the output signal is reduced for samples that have index of refraction
higher than water. For example for ethanol alcohol (sample #3) with the index of
refraction of 1.359 the relative signal is 0.855 while for carbon tetrachloride (sample
#9) this ratio is 0.362. As expected as we increase the n value (see Eq. (4)) the
reection power is reduced (see Fig. 3) and the corresponding signal is reduced
accordingly.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
H. Golnabi / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 41 (2004) 801812

809

Fig. 6. Normalized reection signals for different liquid samples are presented. Samples are (#1) water,
(#2) water+ethanol, (#3) ethanol, (#4) NaCl dissolved in water, (#5) CaCl2 dissolved in water, (#6)
ethylene glycol+water, (#7) sugar dissolved in water, (#8) ethylene glycol, (#9) CCl4, and (#10) C6H6.

Table 1
Index of refraction for different liquid samples, Ref. [26]
Number

Sample

Index of refraction

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Water
Water+ethanol
Ethanol
NaCl
CaCl2
Ethylene glycol+water
Sugar+water
Ethylene glycol
CCl4
C6H6

1.33
1.331.359
1.359
1.341.37
1.371.44
1.331.43
1.331.45
1.43
1.45
1.49

The experimental extinction ratio accounted for the ratio of the wet signal to dry
one is plotted for different samples in Fig. 7. Comparison of the experimental results
for ten samples shows that among tested samples water has the highest extinction
ratio while Benzene has the lowest ER value. We tried to compare this ratio with the
theoretical ones calculated from Eq. (5). However for some reasons the theoretical
ER value is much lower than the measured values.
The relation given in (5) is proportional to R2. Since R-value is less than one the R2
value drops quickly for higher index values. So the experimental ER is about two
orders of magnitude higher than the predicted values that suggest some of the
measured reected signal could be due to noise signal. The noise signal consists of

ARTICLE IN PRESS
810

H. Golnabi / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 41 (2004) 801812

Fig. 7. Shows the measured extinction ratios for different liquid samples obtained with the HeNe laser
source. Samples are (#1) water, (#2) water+ethanol, (#3) ethanol, (#4) NaCl dissolved in water, (x5)
CaCl2 dissolved in water, (#6) ethylene glycol+water, (#7) sugar dissolved in water, (#8) ethylene glycol,
(#9) CCl4, and (#10) C6H6.

the dark current signal and the stray light. Another reason for this discrepancy could
be due to the fact that the lowest detectable output voltage with the present detection
system is limited to only 1 mV, which is not good enough to detect lower signal
values. Since the low wet voltage output is composed of such noises, thus makes it
difcult to measure the true wet output signal. For comparing data we subtracted the
collective dark and background noise for each detection measurements. For all the
cases a total dark current noise signal of about 20 mV (dark current of 2 nA for the
detector) is subtracted from the output signal.
Performance of such sensors is usually specied in terms of accuracy, repeatability,
voltage input, and current or voltage output. Other characteristics include the
controller and output processing and programming facilities. The exibility of the
sensor, ability to be used with all kind of liquids, and the remote sensing are other
features that should be considered in design and operation of such systems. In our
system the input voltage for LED diode is 5 V dc, for diode laser 12 V dc, and the
HeNe laser operates with the 220 V ac input voltage. Considering Fig. 5 the
accuracy of the LED system for water level measurement is about 71 mm,
repeatability of 70.5 mm, dry output voltage is 28 and wet voltage is about 1 mV,
respectively. According to Fig. 5 for the diode laser system, the accuracy is better
than 71 mm in water, repeatability is limited to 70.5 mm, supply input voltage is
12 V dc, and the dry output voltage is 330 mV and the wet output voltage in water is
2 mV. In the case of HeNe laser (Fig. 4), its accuracy is better than 71 mm in level
detection, repeatability is about 70.5 mm, its supply voltage is 220 V ac, and
provides a high dry output voltage of about 3500 mV and a wet output of about
12 mV. Considering the extinction ratio as a gure of merit for each sensor system,
we compared this ratio for water sample for different light sources (Figs. 4 and 5).

ARTICLE IN PRESS
H. Golnabi / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 41 (2004) 801812

811

For the LED source this ratio is about 0.03, for diode laser is 0.006 and for HeNe
source is 0.003.
The source of error in sensor operation can be because of light source uctuation,
stray light, and possible mechanical instabilities in mountings. The light uctuations
mainly depend on the light source type and its power supply. In the rst experiment
we performed the experiments with the available light emitting diodes and a fairly
stable power supply is used for the LED, which provides a constant drive current. A
well-regulated Hewlett-Packard power supply is used for the LED and the diode
laser in order to minimize the drive current uctuations.
In construction of such sensors care must be taken in order to maximize the
detector output difference between total internal reection and loss of optical
guiding system (dry and wet operations). For the case of using a prism for the power
coupling it must have a good transmission at the source light wavelength. In the case
of direct optical ber sensors with no prism the total internal reection can be
accomplished by shaping the ber end or by providing the optimum radius of the
curvature for the ber. At the end, for any sensor device the extinction ratio should
be maximized for an optimum operation.
The reported optical ber sensor based on the measurement of the transmitted
light can be used for liquid level sensing, liquid level switches, and for refractive
index measurements. The sensor probe can be mounted vertically at top of the
measuring tank. The high sensitivity of the reported sensor is one of the advantages
of this sensor. Digitizing the output signal and using a more advance signal
processing method, however, can improve the sensitivity. The simplicity of the
design, in particular, systems using LED, can lead to the fabrication of more costeffective sensors. The simplicity and cost factor of such device make it suitable for
high level productions for real eld applications, while the advent of efcient laser
sources offers advantages for more sophisticated experiments.
It is fair to say that with all these advantages, the reported sensor system has a few
limitations. Since it is a contact type probe so some liquids can affect the prism
contact surface and contaminate it. Although, there are no metal parts in the probe
to corrode, but it mainly can be used for clean liquids. Therefore this device only can
be used for liquids that do not change the optical property of the prism glass. The
Teon mount can be resistive to most organic and inorganic chemical solvents and
compounds. However, the operation of reported sensor is limited to the clean liquids
in order to eliminate unwanted foreign material or extraneous coating on the prism
active area. In spite of these limitations, such sensor still could be a potential way for
liquid level sensing and other related measurements. Typical applications of
described sensors could be level sensing of water, clean white petroleum, and
specic gravity checking of some aqueous solutions.

Acknowledgements
This work was supported in part by the Sharif University of Technology research
program. The author gratefully acknowledges the grant devoted to this research. He

ARTICLE IN PRESS
812

H. Golnabi / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 41 (2004) 801812

is also thankful to all the coworkers, in particular M. Razani, for the given technical
assistance during the measurements.

References
[1] Davis Instruments General Catalog, Printed in Baltimore USA, Flowline Series, 700; 1997.
[2] Barry EJ. Optical bre sensors and systems for industry.1985, J Phys E 1985;18:77082.
[3] Krohn DA. Fiber optics sensors: fundamentals and applications. NC: Instrument Society of America;
1998.
[4] Bishnu PP. Fundamentals of ber optics in telecommunication and sensor systems. New Delhi: Wiley
Eastern Ltd.; 1994.
[5] Proceedings of Conference on Optical Fiber Sensors-4. Tokyo: Institute of Electrical and Commercial
Engineers of Japan, Optoelectronics Industry and technology Development Association; 1986.
[6] Udd E. Fiber optic sensors an introduction for engineers and scientist. New York: Wiley Interscience;
1991.
[7] Emmanuel B, Serge HG, Gilbert B. Loss compensated ber-optic displacement sensor including a
lens. Appl Opt 1989;28:41920.
[8] Hocker GB. Fiber optic sensing of pressure and temperature. Appl Opt 1980;19:98107.
[9] Chubb DL, Wolford DS. Rare earth temperature sensor. Rev Sci Instrum 2000;71:223340.
[10] Lau KS, Wong KH, Yeung SK. Fiber optic sensors for laboratory measurements. Eur J Phys
1992;13:23577.
[11] Goure JP. Optical sensors: ber optic sensors. Int Chem Eng 1992;32:70617.
[12] Amud A. Strain and temperature effects on erbium-doped ber for decay-time based sensors. Rev Sci
Instrum 2000;71:1048.
[13] Chang WJ, Lee HL, Yang YC. Hydrostatic pressure and thermal loading induced optical effects in
double-coated optical bers. J Appl Phys 2000;88:61620.
[14] Golnabi H. Fiber optic displacement sensor using a coated lens optic. Rev Sci Instrum 2000;71:
43148.
[15] Udd E. Fiber optic smart structure. New York: Wiley; 1995.
[16] Takeo T, Hattori H. Optical ber sensor for measuring refractive index. Jpn J Appl Phys
1982;21:150912.
[17] Harmer AL. Optical refractometer using attenuation of cladding modes. IEE 1981;221:1048.
[18] Allard FC. Fiber optics handbook for engineers and scientists. New York: Mc Graw-Hill Publishing
Company; 1990 [Chapter 8].
[19] Kawahara FK, et al. , Development of a novel method for monitoring oil in water. Anal Chem
Action 1983;151:31527.
[20] FSI/Fork Standard Inc. Manufacturer of ber optic liquid level sensors. Monthly Newsletter, 14,7/
01/2000.
[21] Honzawa K et al. Optic pipet level sensor. US patent #5523845, June 4; 1996.
[22] Harmer AL. Proceedings of the Conference on Optical Fiber Sensors-1, IEE Conference Publication
No. 221, London, April 2628; 1983.
[23] Zhou B, Vernart JES, Hinata S. Fiber optic sensor for liquid mixture composition. Fluid Phase
Equilibria 1992;79:17585.
[24] Bergman TL, Incropera FP, Stevenson WH. Miniature ber-optic refractometer for measurement of
salinity in double-diffusive thermohaline system. Rev Sci 1985;567:2916.
[25] Senior JM, Optical ber communications. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Int.; 1992 [Chapter 5].
[26] Weast RC, Handbook of chemistry and physics, 60th ed. Florida: CRC press; 1981. p. E-385.