A Workbook in the Syntax of the Simple Sentence

Contents
1. The structure of the simple sentence
1.1. Argument structure2
1.2. Thematic structure.3
2. Predication 5
2.1 Auxiliary verbs ...5
2.2. Modal verbs...10
2.3. Transitive predication11
2.3.1. Causative verbs..11
2.3.2. Ergative verbs13
2.3.3 Reciprocal verbs.............14
2.4.Intransitive predications .....16
2.5. Copulative predication...17
2.5.1. The link verbs............17
2.5.2. The predicative..19
3. The syntactic functions of the NP..22
3.1. The Subject22
3.2. The Object.23
4. Existential constructions28
4.1. The verb in existential constructions28
4.2. The subject in existential constructions29
4.2.1. The real Subject29
4.2.2. The grammatical Subject..32
5. The passive voice.33
5.1. The BE passive.33
5.2. The GET passive..38
6. Interrogative sentences.39
6.1. Yes or no questions...39
6.2. Wh-questions.41
7. Negative sentences.......44
7.1. Sentence negation.44
7.2. Constituent negation.45
8. The Compound sentence...45
8.1. Coordination. 45
8.2. Ellipsis...47
Glossary.50
References..51

1. The structure of the simple sentence

1.1. Argument structure
1. Identify the arguments and the adjuncts in the following sentences:
Model: They
promised
obligatory
argument

John
obligatory
argument

the job
obligatory
argument

last week.
optional
adjunct

They, John and the job are obligatory constituents in the structure of the sentence,
that is why they are arguments of the verb. last week is an optional constituent, an
adjunct.
1.
2.
3.
4.

The huge bear frightened the spectators during the performance.

The old man walked slowly along the beach.
Peter is walking the dog in the evening.
The enemy destroyed the city in a few days.

2. Discuss the argument structure of the verbs and state whether the arguments are external,
internal or implicit in the following sentences:
Model:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

John reads the newspaper every evening.

read: verb
1
2
NP
NP
John is the external argument, the newspaper is the internal argument.
The old lady rented rooms to university students.
She has taught English in an elementary school.
She bought her friend a new dictionary.
The teacher explained the grammar rule.
Mary envies Jane her new ring.
The doctor prescribed new drugs.

3. Find equivalent clauses for the following nominal constructions and represent the argument
structure of the nominals and of the corresponding verbs:
Model: the enemys destruction of the city = The enemy destroys the city.
destruction: nominal 1
2
NP
PP
to destroy: verb
1
2
NP
NP
1. Paul description of the landscape impressed everyone.
2. The students translation of the text was very good.
3. His impersonation of the Russian prince amazed the audience.
4. His removal of the evidence baffled the detective.
5. The lawyers intimidation of the witness was immediately noticed.
6. The trains arrival at the station was delayed.
7. The instructors examination of the paper took several minutes.
8. Their announcement of the royal birth was broadcast to the nation.

4. Give the argument structure representation of the following adjectives:

Model:
John is fond of music.
fond: adjective
1
2
NP
PP
1. His brother is good at Maths and Physics.
2. They have always been interested in ancient history.
3. She was dependent on a grant from the University.
4. I am most appreciative of your generosity.
5. The passengers were very angry about the delay of two hours.
6. She was indignant with her family when they told her she might try a little harder.
1.2. Thematic structure
1. Find out what thematic roles are assigned by the verbs to their arguments and write their
thematic grid:
Model:
Mary cooked her father
dinner.
AGENT
BENEFICIARY THEME/ PATIENT
cook:
<AGENT, BENEFICIARY, THEME/PATIENT>
1. Betsy went from Montreal to Toronto.
2. Anne lives in London.
3. Susie kept the book.
4. Jane stole a book from Helen.
5. The radio is sending messages into the air.
6. This key will open that door.
7. Lucy saw the monster.
8. He ran through the tunnel.
9. The news amazed the people.
10. Kambomambo murdered Zombalumba.
2. Make up sentences and specify the thematic-grid of the verbs: fear, put, steal, go, surprise, hit,
sell, buy, admire.
Model: All sentences with the verb fear will be of the type:
Mary
fears dogs.
EXPERIENCER THEME
The EXPERIENCER will always be in Subject position, and the THEME in Object
position. The thematic-grid of the verb fear will be: <EXPERIENCER, THEME>
3. Lexical verbs are specified for the number and the types of theta-roles they assign to their
arguments. Provide three examples for each of the following classes:
a. verbs that assign one thematic role: <AGENT>
b. verbs that assign two thematic roles: <AGENT, THEME>
<PATIENT, LOCATION>
<EXPERIENCER, THEME>
<THEME, EXPERIENCER>
c. verbs that assign three thematic roles: <AGENT, THEME, BENEFICIARY>
4. Consider the following paired examples. In the first variant there seems to be one more
argument present than in the second variant. Try to characterize the relation between the two
sentences:
Model: Mary is cooking dinner. Dinner is cooking.
cook 1
1
2
<AGENT, PATIENT>
NP
NP

cook2

1
<PATIENT>
NP
The two sentences have a different constituent structure. The first verb takes two
arguments, while the second has only one. The NP dinner has the same thematic role
(PATIENT), but different syntactic functions (Subject in the first and Object in the second
sentence)
1.
2.
3.
4.

The man opened the door. The door opened.

He is selling shoes. These shoes sell well.
She is washing his shirts. These shirts wash well.
The guard marched the prisoners round the square. The prisoners marched round the
square.
5. They are closing down the foundry. The foundry is closing down.
5. What is the constituent structure and the thematic structure of the following:
John smashed the window with a brick.
A brick smashed the window.
The window smashed.
You can get an invitation from Mary.
Mary can get you an invitation.
6. Why are the following sentences ill-formed? Change them in such a way that they become
well-formed:
1.
2.
3.
4.

*The man may frighten honesty.

*Honesty may love the man.
*Sam surprised the cruelty of that decision.
*The baby baptized the priest.

7. Comment on the thematic role of the subject in each example:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Max/ the stick/ the blast rolled the ball.

The painter/ the brush/ the autumn reddened the leaves.
Max/ the storm/ the stone broke the window.
The enemy/ the waves / the bomb drowned the boat.
Max/ the storm / the hammer enlarged the hole in the roof.
Max/ exercises/ bicycles developed his muscles.

8. Explain in terms of thematic structure why the following are not correct:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

The father/ *the spoon/ * hunger fed the baby.

Max/ *the leash/ *hunger walked the dog to his plate.
Max/ ?the whip/ *the rain galloped the horse to the stable.
The baby/* the spoon/ * hunger ate the soup.
Lucie/ *The razor/ * the heat shaved Max.
Lucie/*the snow/ *the desire to feel warm dressed Max.

2. Predication
2.1. Auxiliary verbs
1. Identify auxiliary verbs in the following sentences and state what tense, aspect and voice they
indicate:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

The cashier is taking the money from the customers.

We have been looking for some papers for hours but we havent found them yet.
The ship sank four hours after it had hit the iceberg.
He said he had been writing for two hours.
The library was used by many students last summer.
They will be having dinner at this time tomorrow.
The young people were dancing when the clock struck one.
A lot of new equipment has been ordered.
The new project will have been started by the end of next month.
Many new program will be offered next year.
The first floor is being painted at the moment.
He should be working on his graduation project, but he isnt.

2. Identify the auxiliary verbs and the lexical verbs in the following sentences and draw the tree
diagrams of the sentences. Specify to which verb the tense marker attaches and the properties of
auxiliary/lexical verbs illustrated in each sentence:
Model:
Has Jane delivered the essay?
Aux.
lexical vb.
The tense marker s has been attached to the auxiliary verb. The auxiliary
is inverted with the subject in an interrogative sentence.
1. Jane has not been eating very well lately. I think shes coming down with something.
2. The teacher did not have the students write a review, but they commented the book in
class.
3. Jane did not buy a new car; she wanted to, but then she changed her mind
4. He did not rob the bank. They showed the real criminal on TV.
5. What are they having for lunch?
6. The police think that the robbers did this on purpose in order to cover their traces.
7. You were acting selfishly by asking him to leave with you.
8. I do want you to go to Paris for Easter, but I must be in London for a conference.
3. Comment on the contexts in which the auxiliary verbs can function as a substitute for a clause:
1. Gladly would it have carolled as do the cuckoos and nightingales in summer.
2. I am keeping my piranhas, Paul said. No, youre not, said his mother. Yes, I am, said
Paul.
3. Is Debbie coming to see us tomorrow? Yes, she is.
4. Did he manage to find out the truth yesterday? Yes, he did.
5. Governor Clinton never indicated during the campaign that he supported a gasoline tax.
No, he didnt.
6. Youd imagine that Id learn with age but I dont.
7. Youve never even seen it! Yes, I have, snapped Betty.
8. He told me to open the door. I did it as quietly as I could.
9. I am ready to have a nervous breakdown, and I shall do so as soon as I can find time.

Note: An auxiliary verb can substitute a verb phrase in short answers to yes/no questions, in
adverbial clauses of manner, in coordinate clauses, etc.
4. On the basis of its distributional properties, discuss the status of the verb HAVE in the
sentences below: lexical, auxiliary or semi-modal?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

We always have a great time with you.

Did you have him apologize for not phoning you on your birthday after all?
I never have a bath in the morning, because I must wake up very early.
My library card has to be renewed.
I always have too much work to do and not enough time for everything.
Do I have to go on a training course first?
A circle hasnt any corners.
(formal British English).
We dont have to leave the classroom during the break.
I will marry her tomorrow if she will have me.

5. Decide whether BE is used as an auxiliary (marker of aspect or voice), a copulative verb or a

lexical verb:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

They will be having dinner at this time tomorrow.

The air was full of thunder.
There were no footsteps to be seen.
Whole neighbourhoods have been squashed flat by shelling.
Be positive. There is always the chance that it may get better.
It was admitted that the tests were all wrong.
That museum of archaeology is in London.

6. State whether do is used as an auxiliary or as a lexical verb:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

All I did was give him a little push.

Ive finished the phone calls and Ill do the letters tomorrow.
He would rather talk about things than do them.
The company didnt do very well last year.
She doesnt do much but what she does do, she does very well.
My grandparents were very poor and wanted their kids to do better than they had.
Victor said he would phone when he was done.
What did you do yesterday?
Laura swims very well. Yes, she does swim well, but I can swim better.
What do you do if you dont know the meaning of a word?
John does his duty in that battalion very bravely. Yes, he does do his duty there very
bravely, but his friend does it even more bravely.

7. Discuss in what type of sentences do-support is needed:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

At no time did he lose his self-control.

Ann thinks theres something wrong with Bill, and so do I.
She thinks I dont love her, but I do love her.
I dont do much in the evenings.
What do you do in the evenings?
Do you think Paul will come? He might do.

7. This doesnt taste very nice.

Note: Do-support is needed in questions, inversion, negatives, emphasis, ellipsis.
8. Discuss the examples in which the auxiliary do is used for the purpose of emphasizing:
1. If this is to go on long I shant be able to bear it, said she, but it did go on, and bear it she
must.
2. He doesnt say too much, but what he does say either enhances the absurd humour or the
spectacle.
3. As a matter of fact, I did want to talk to you about something.
4. Do sit down, please.
5. I dont take much exercise now, but I did play a lot of football when I was younger.
6. I dont have much contact with my family, but I do see my mother occasionally.
7. I thought Id pass the exam, and I did pass.
8. If he does decide to come, let me know, will you?
Note: Emphatic do occurs in: a) a positive statement (introduced by but) in contrast with a
negative statement, b) emphatic imperatives
9. Consider the following sentences containing the auxiliary DO. What properties of DO are
shown in each example? Compare these properties to those of the other auxiliary verbs and to
those of the modal verbs:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Do you like spaghetti? Yes, I do.

You like spaghetti, dont you?
I do not/dont like spaghetti.
I really do like spaghetti.
I do like/*liking/*liked to eat spaghetti.
I like pizza and so does my friend.
I dont like red wine and neither does my brother.
Do come to my birthday party, please.
Do you remember how kind she was to everybody? Yes, I definitely do remember.

10. In the following sentences replace the VP with do so. Specify which constituents may be
either included in or left out of the VP replaced by do so:
Model:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

John will go to Paris on Tuesday.

Mrs. ONeil will leave after lunch.
Mrs. ONeil will leave
John will be seeing Mary in a few hours.
John will speak about syntax.

2.2. Modal verbs

1. Consider the following sentences with modal verbs. Comment on their syntactic properties:
1. You cant eat all those sweets.
2. I should have listened to them, shouldnt I?
3. Alcoholic drinks may not be sold anywhere without a licence.
4. You neednt pay that fine.
5. How could you improve this land?
2. Each predicate contains an auxiliary component and a lexical verb. Comment upon the
constituent(s) in the auxiliary component in each predicate:
Model: You could have solved all the problems.
The auxiliary component of the predicate contains the modal verb could and the
auxiliary have which indicates perfect aspect.
1. Your sister is on the phone again. Who could she be talking to this time?
2. They may be reading in the library.
3. He looked worried. Im not sure why. He might have been thinking about his
sick mother.
4. I smell smoke. Something must be burning.
5. He neednt have shouted at the referee.
6. These documents shouldnt have been left on the desk.
7. Peter has got a cold. He is swimming in the lake.
He shouldnt be swimming in the lake.
8. By the end of the next year, the old centre will have been restored.
3. Identify clauses in the following compound sentences. Omit the repeated material in the second
coordinate clause using and so or and neither and comment on the position of the modal verb:
1. Toms mother can cook very well and his sister can cook very well, too.
2. The boys shouldnt be talking so loud and the girls shouldnt be talking so loud,
either.
3. You may borrow my bicycle and your sister may borrow my bicycle, too.
4. Pedestrians can use this path and bicycles can use this path, too.
5. You must visit your friend in hospital and your classmate must visit your friend
in hospital, too.
4. Identify the modal verbs in the sentences below and specify whether they are deontic or
epistemic:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

He could not remember because he had never witnessed the event.

We might be greeted a bit more warmly on our next visit, if arrive on time.
What could be better for this purpose than a trip to the countryside?
Of course, Jim could have been eaten by cannibals on the way here!
This may even teach us something about the cerebral basis of certain visions and dreams,
and of how the brain may weave a magic carpet to transport us.
6. Thus, from his earliest days, he remembered scenes that might have been devised by
Proust.
7. But it is not enough to be told. You must see for yourself.

8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

She must have eaten something that disagreed with her.

Dont worry about the missing 1,000 there should be a perfectly simple explanation.
It was after midnight and I suggested going, but he would not hear of it.
Should we say, rather, that she was caricaturing everyone she passed?
Will you show me the way, please?

Note: Deontic (intrinsic) modal verbs involve some kind of human control, whereas epistemic
(extrinsic) modal verbs express events that are beyond human control, they indicate the speakers
state of knowledge or belief or opinion about the proposition. Deontic meanings are: ability,
permission, obligation, volition; epistemic meanings are: possibility, prediction, probability
5. Identify the modals in the text. State whether they are used in their epistemic or deontic
meaning. Discuss the temporal value of the nonfinite VP following them. What conclusions can
you draw with respect to the temporal value of the nonfinite VP following a deontic/epistemic
modal?
You might have been dead, I went angrily on. I cant think what you can have
been doing. The oven was on at number nine. Oh, Christ, I suppose it must have been
Flora. Was she playing in the kitchen while I was giving Joseph his bottle?
Yes, yes, she was, she must have done it, said Pascal [].
You must be an idiot, I said, what if Id stayed out all night, youd probably all
had been dead by morning. I bet you feel bloody awful, with all that whiskey on top of all
that gas. Id better go and look at the children.
Oh, theyll be OK, she said, lying back on her pillow, with a pale and guiltless smile.
[] I went to bed feeling, as one might imagine, indispensable.[] Had it not
happened to me, I could not have believed that two tolerably responsible adults could
behave with such lunacy.
(Margaret Drabble, The Garrick Year)
6. Identify the mistakes and specify which rules are not observed in the following sentences:
1. *She often has been seen playing tennis
2. *Mary has not to write a thesis for her final exam.
3. *I dont can come to your party tomorrow because I promised my parents I would stay
with my baby brother.
4. *He didnt brought the cassettes so we can not learn the song for tomorrow.
5. *Did you brought the dog with you?
6. *Wrote he the letter to his parents?
7. *Must she can speak English very well in order to pass the exam?
8. *Can you be driving me to the station, please?
9. *To can drive a car, you must be 18 years old in Romania.

2.3. Transitive Predication

1. State what type of phrases function as complements of the transitive verb appreciate:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The President appreciated that he had been described as the great communicator.
They could not appreciate the full costs.
He hoped for a better society which could appreciate and enjoy a full artistic life.
You cannot really appreciate foreign literature in translation.
You don seem to appreciate how busy I am.

2. Analyse the type of complementation the following verbs take:

V + QUOTE, V + O, V + REPORT, V
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Time and again, he interjected to point out that he agreed with the President.
No, no, interjected Smith.
if I may interject a word here.
It was last Friday, interpolated Sheila.
A later edition interpolated the following passage.
They intoned the afternoon prayers.
A dark voice intoned except a man die and be born again.
He laments the hanging pattern of life in the countryside.
He lamented that they didnt have the opportunity that he was having that day.
All the flower is wet! lamented Miss Mutton.

3. In the episode related below, a deserter from the army enters a pub, hoping his accent will not
give him away. State what kind of verbs are used:
I suddenly realised that the accordion had stopped playing. The singing had ceased. So
had the click of the skittles. I turned quickly. No-one was talking. They were all looking
at me. I was seized with a panic desire to run. But my feet seemed to be rooted to the
floor. I took a grip on myself They couldn't tell just by the look of me. 'Why do you stare
at me?' I heard myself ask.
(Hammond Innes, The Killer Mine.)
Note: The transitive verb realised introduces clauses with intransitives which express movement
and perception. They carry the narrative forward and contribute to the tension of the situation
described.
4. Decide whether the following transitive verbs take effected or affected direct objects:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

He proposed immediately and produced a diamond ring.

The dairy produced over 1500 tonnes of butter per year.
She was pressing the juice for her kids.
He never dared to press the trigger.
Nobody offered to dig the land in winter.
The soldiers were digging a deep trench.
He paints surrealist portraits of his friends.
Youd better paint this door anew.
They carve these figures out of wood.
He carved the beef thinly.
They used to burn a special type of incense to keep mosquitoes away.

10

12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.

Ten of the workers were burning bricks.

They are only allowed to light cigarettes in recreational areas.
It was too wet, so we could not light a fire.
The worms have eaten holes into the ground.
He refused to eat the fish sandwiches.
They will raise a marble monument in the public square.
She raised her eyebrows in surprise.

5. In the following sentences containing verbs of consumption or verbs of specialised activity, the
object has been deleted. Specify the type of the object deleted:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Stephen barely eats, but he smokes a lot instead.

He drank eagerly.
He conducts and composes.
Scientists from the geological survey have been digging in the desert.
Gerald teaches while his wife paints for a living.
They drove to the station.
She writes for the stage.

6. Say what kind of nouns the verbs to make and to do select as their direct objects:
1. to make bread, bricks, coffee, a fire, clothes, tea, a toy, etc.
2. to make amends, arrangements, a change, a decision, a demand, a difference, an effort,
an excuse, a fuss, haste, a name (for oneself), a request, a sacrifice, a speech.
3. to do the writing, cooking, cleaning, the rooms, the correspondence, the hair, etc.
He does the fiction for the Saturday review.
4. to do sb. credit, a favour, good, harm, homage, injury, justice, a mischief, a service, a
good or bad turn, etc.
5. do or make : to make/ do a copy, to make or do a translation
2.3.1. Causative verbs
1. Decide whether the following verbs are lexical, periphrastic or morphological causatives:
1.
2.
3.
4.

They couldnt raise the funds needed to industrialize all the underdeveloped countries.
Her jealousy caused her marriage to break up.
He stood the poles against the garden shed but the wind blew them all down.
He convinced them of his loyalty.

2. Find clausal equivalents to the following nominalisations and state from what kind of verbs
they are derived:
Model:
the immunization of children against the virus
They immunized children against the virus.
The nominal the immunization is derived from a prepositional transitive verb
to immunize sb. against sth. by suffixation.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The banks intrusions into Mr. Wheelers operations made him change his plans.
The invasion of Europe by the allies in 1944 was planned in detail
The invasion of Italian movies in the fifties amazed everybody.
She was the inventor of modern ballet.
They made plans for the Investiture of Prince Charles as Prince of Wales.

11

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

They murmured invocations to gods.

There is a need for more interaction between staff and children.
The incineration of rockets containing nerve gas was a difficult task.
The mechanization of the postal service was a step forward.
Almost all the impersonators do the aging, jumpsuited, Vegas Elvis.
The gradual improvement of the relations between Easy and West was their aim.
The indexation of private sector salaries is to be phased out.
The gradual infiltration of the security forces was felt to be necessary.
He campaigned the integration of immigrants into British society.
The former Justice Minister called for the internment of suspected terrorists.
Do you find his interpretation of Chopin satisfactory?
Hes become known for his sensitive interpretation of music and a vibrant sense of
humour.
18. He called for the liberalization of laws relating to immigration.
3. Discuss about the word formation process and paraphrase the following morphological
causatives:
Model:
Parliament finally legalized trade unions.
The causative verb to legalize is derived from the adjective legal by means of
suffixation.
to legalize
to cause sth. to become legal
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

They spoke about the need to humanize the factory environment.

If that war was designed to frustrate air power, this one seemed to idealize it.
They should have their children immunized against diphtheria.
His wife persuaded him to institutionalize his aging mother.
If a group is not legitimized, their meeting scan be forbidden.
Housework has become highly mechanized.

4. Make up sentences to illustrate the following processes which include Instrument in their
meaning: to elbow ones way, to head a ball into the net, to tape a conversation, to book a room/
seats, to pencil a note in the margin, to spoon sth. into sth.
5. Comment on the selectional restrictions imposed by the causative verb on the subject and the
object NPs:
a. A strike by nurses and doctors might cause many innocent people to suffer.
b. The dog that ran into the road caused the cyclists to swerve.
c. The pepper in the food caused me to sneeze.
d. The unexpected power cut caused the whole computer system to shut down.
e. The odd weather caused the plants to die.
g. She fed her cat some fish.
i. The thieves felled hundreds of oaks and beech trees in Pear wood.
j. The Renaissance brought about a new outlook.
Note:
The Subject NP may be [+ animate], [- abstract] or [+/- abstract] expressing an
exterior cause which is neither directly nor indirectly controlled. This uncontrolled
Cause may be a natural phenomenon or force (a storm, the wind, the heat, the frost, etc.),
or a material or spiritual process or state (loss of blood, pneumonia, despair, joy, etc).
The DO may have the following features: [+ animate], [+ human], [-animate], [+
abstract]

12

6. Comment on the verbs recategorized as transitives:

Model:
a. [NP The clock] stood in the corner.
b. James caused [NP the clock] to stand in the corner
c. James stood [NP the clock] in the corner of the room
The verb stand, an inherently intransitive verb in (a), has acquired a causative meaning
as in the paraphrase in (b). As a causative verb in (c), stand behaves like all transitives
taking a DO. Its DO, the clock, corresponds to the subject of the intransitive in (a).
1.
2.
3.
4.

He walked the horse up and down.

Geoff wants a walkman for when he walks the dog.
Make sure you stand the bottle in a cool place so that the sediment collects at the bottom.
The banks managers admit they work their employees hard, but say they always pay
good wages.
5. I get quite a lot of exercise myself by walking the dog.
6. We dont have anything to plant the Christmas tree in. Just stand it in the corner for now.
2.3.2. Ergative verbs
1. Decide whether the verbs in the examples below are: (a) exclusively intransitive, (b)
exclusively transitive or (c) can be used either transitively or intransitively:
1. Women today are achieving in many professions which were previously open only to
men.
2. She panicked as his hand closed on her wrist.
3. He has exhibited in all the major art galleries over the last five years.
4. You must be joking!
5. Most of our students baby-sit two or three evenings a week.
6. My friend ghost-writes for at least two politicians.
7. His fingers quivered uncontrollably.
8. Those couples who have no children of their own are often eager to adopt.
9. The government is proposing to merge a number of army regiments.
10. Because his albino skin burnt easily, he couldn't work in the fields.
11. The storm damaged the school.
12. I ought to be arrested for impersonating an officer.
2. Many transitive causative verbs have ergative pairs. Comment on the uses of the following
verbs:
1. He gathered the villagers around him. The villagers gathered eagerly around him.
2. I usually grill or fry beef. She put the breakfast sausages on to grill.
3. The glue dries very fast and hardens in an hour. This is then dipped in cold water to
harden the wax.
4. The organization has hardened its attitude to the crisis. The economic warfare has
hardened general Noriegas resolve not to step down.
5. The washing hung drying in the sun. He dried his feet with a towel.
6. Crime has increased by 3 per cent in the past year. Those were men seeking to increase
their knowledge.

13

7. Overcrowded, badly lit and ventilated houses help to incubate the disease. It took for
days for the plague to incubate. The vegetation keeps the nest warm and helps the egg to
incubate.
8. His French was improving. She went to the club to improve her tennis.
9. The breathing machine can inflate the lungs with oxygen. Two of the life rafts failed to
inflate.
10. They helped the individual integrate quickly into the community. They looked for ways
of integrating handicapped children into ordinary schools.
11. The search was intensified using dogs. In the late 1960s the pressures suddenly
intensified.
12. All these courses interrelate in a variety of ways.
13. Their financial hardship has lessened. Separating the sick from the healthy lessens the
risk of infection.
14. The face of the watch lightens and darkens in response to a tiny electrical current. My
mood began to lighten in the spring.
3. Say which of the following clauses contain causative verbs and suggest a corresponding
ergative construction where possible:
Model:
We developed tourism on a big scale. (transitive)
Agent
Theme
Tourism developed on a big scale.
(ergative)
Theme
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

The strain of looking after her had aged him.

Constant exposure to the sun had lightened my hair.
He sprayed a little eau-de-cologne over himself.
The referee blows the whistle and the first half is over.
The wind blew the door open.
A fire had severely damaged part of the school.
Swarms of desert locusts darkened the sky.
The photographer clicked the camera.
The skipper sank one boat and damaged others as he tried to take his ship out of the
harbour.
10. This suggests that in the next few years Moldavia and Romania will merge.
2.3.3. Reciprocal verbs
1. Match the following reciprocal verbs to the meaning groups: a. discuss b. negotiate c. hold
d. forge vs. break off e. exchange f. fight and discuss the verb patterns in which they are
used:
Model: I could swap data with them.
The verb swap belongs to the meaning group e. exchange. It involves the presence of two
human participants. One participant occurs as a singular NP in subject position, the
other participant, as a with-NP functioning as a Prepositional Object.
1. At the weekend police fought a gun battle with a gang which used military hand grenades
against them.
2. MPs have been debating the issue.
3. Hes also scheduled to hold talks in Geneva with Jordanian officials.
4. The US and Canada then negotiated an agreement that was completed in 1987.
5. The separatists exchanged fire with security forces at two places in the old city area.

14

6. The Daily Mirror says the three candidates traded insults and blew their own trumpets
yesterday as each one claimed to be heading for victory.
7. After years locked in confrontation, they can now make a new beginning, forge a new
partnership and a sturdy peace.
8. He was determined to agree terms with the French and then to impose them on his allies.
9. The two regional railway systems were integrated.
10. One of three European countries is helping to integrate UNITA and government troops
into a single national army.
11. Monarch, court and government were all interconnected.
12. The police intermingled with the crowds.
13. The four voices were interwoven in a beautifully sung quartet.
2. Identify the participants involved in the following events and give the active counterparts of
each of the following passive sentences:
Model:

An alliance has been forged between seven of the factions.

The participants are mentioned in a between-NP after the verb. One active
version is possible:
The seven factions have forged an alliance.

1. Talks are being held between the unions and the government at the moment but no
agreement looks likely.
2. New ties were established with countries in Latin America.
3. No final agreement had been reached with Washington.
4. Options were discussed.
5. He was kissed by them all.
6. Diplomatic ties were broken off in 1939.
7. Issues involving commitment should be talked through.
8. Glances were exchanged.
9. A compromise was reached.
3. Comment on the relational verbs. Decide whether they are used as reciprocal or non-reciprocal
verbs:
Model:
[Geraldine] resembled [her mother] in every way.
A reciprocal verb allows the reversibility of the Subject and the Object:
[Her mother] resembled [Geraldine] in every way.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

He kept promising her that he would divorce his wife, but he never actually did.
The girls were kissing and hugging each other promising to keep in touch.
The politician embarrassed her colleagues by her racist remarks about immigrants.
Elizabeth Taylor remarried Richard Burton after they had divorced years earlier.
We inadvertently insulted the village elders by bringing our own food.
Phoebe jumped off the chair and embraced her mother.
If they couldnt marry Ellen off before her 21st birthday, nobody would marry her.
Have you noticed how he always flatters the boss it makes me sick.
The priest who married us forgot the lines during the ceremony.
Zita was ostracized by the girls at school simply because her skin was darker than theirs.
Little Paul adores his mother, and yet she always rejects him.
When the truth emerged about her husband being in prison, the neighbors shunned her
and talked about her behind her back.

15

4. Emphasize reciprocity of the action or process in the following sentences:

Model:
They hugged.
They hugged each other.
1. The more they argue, the better.
2. All across the world today people are fighting and killing each other because of their
racial and religious differences.
3. Small groups around the room discussed theories, looking from one suspect to another.
4. She tried to persuade him to eat what was left of their food but he couldnt manage it, and
so the driver and Amy shared it.
5. They often play tennis, and share a love of Sixties music.
6. The fans would exchange information about their idol.
7. People differ in the amount of time they need on their own.
Note: There are three ways of emphasizing reciprocity: by using a reciprocal pronoun, among(st)
+ a reflexive pronoun, or the adverb together.
2.4. Intransitive Predication
1. Decide whether the following verbs are simple or complex intransitives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

She is not complaining about the conditions or anything.

I found out about these changes by pure accident.
The sun came out briefly, and then dipped behind the dull grey clouds again.
I heard about the trouble on television early this morning, so I hurried on over.
The players learnt about competing against quality opposition and improved each game.

Note: Simple intransitive verbs may be followed by optional adjuncts. Complex intransitive verbs
take obligatory POs or Adverbial Modifiers.
2. Identify the type of Adverbial Modifiers taken by the following intransitive verbs:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

The corn field stretched miles away.

The party walked five miles.
Pretax profit climbed 11 per cent.
The meeting lasted for three hours.
The house stands by the hill.
I think he has acted quite well.
Paul swam 16 lengths.
He has always behaved decently.
His team lost 3-0.
This piece of meat weighs four pounds.
That dress costs $20.

Note: Besides Adverbial Modifiers of place, time, manner, etc., there are: Quantifying Adverbials
of Place (with stretch and optionally with most of the motion verbs: walk, run, travel, etc.)
and Quantifying Adverbials indicating value (price), amount (weight) or degree.
3. Find the corresponding transitive counterparts of the following intransitive reflexive verbs:

16

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Lisa severely injured herself in the fall.

Ann excelled herself, breaking her own 50m time and setting a new record.
His first instinct was to hide himself.
He established himself in the team before this match.
She was beginning to reproach herself for letting Rosie down.
They had difficulty in acclimatizing themselves to the wet climate.

4. Say what each quantifying adverbial expresses:

1. The nations industrial production declined 2 percent last month.
2. In Paris, the dollar fell a fifth of a cent.
3. If you have five stocks, and three go down 75 percent, one goes up ten-fold, and one goes
up 20 percent, you still have good performance for those five.
4. Antibodies increase two-to three-fold in experimental animals fed on excess vitamin E.
5. Income rose a bit for families without children.
6. The Dow Jones industrial average, which slid 37.55 points on Friday, finished up 25.94
points at 3,276.26.
7. Bud said hed back up a hundred yards, hide his truck off the road in the bushes, and head
for where the action was.
8. You could travel a long way and have nothing to show for it.
9. Joseph walked over four miles in 90 degree heat.
Note: Quantifying Adverbials may indicate: place, value or amount
2.5. Copulative Predication
2.5.1. Link Verbs
1. The link verb realizes agreement with the Subject NP. Fill the gaps with the correct form:
1. ... anyone interested in this?
2. The kind of manners they all strive for irreproachable.
3. Jack and Robert ... dependable.
4. Jack or Robert ... dependable.
5. His information ... almost always wrong.
6. Bread and butter ... a healthy food but a little fattening.
7. Official news ... brief.
8. Where ... your teacher and old friend living?
9. Neither of the stores ... open on Saturday afternoon.
10. Measles ... an infectious disease mostly frequent with infants.
11. Semantics ... a branch of philology concerned with changes in the meanings of words.
12. My family ... early risers.
2. Insert the correct form of the verb be, with the past participle, or present or perfect infinitive of
the verb in brackets:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

I know I ... half an hour late, but I ... half an hour early tomorrow.
Why are all those dogs wearing harness? They...... as guide dogs for the blind.(train)
... late once ... excusable but .... late every day ... not.
My flat ... full of dust because the old house just opposite ... (pull down)
What is happening now? The injured man ... out of the arena (carry)

17

6. You ... very angry if I refused?

7. Frank, dont talk to me like that please. You ... rude.
8. I couldn't see the man who ... us and I didn't know where we... (guide, take)
3. Verbs of position often appear in copular structures. Insert stand, lie, sit, hang in the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Straight ahead of me the thunderclouds low over the highway.

The caves entrance . deep beneath the sea.
8,000 unsold flats are empty.
A two-page memounread on his desk.
The corn higher than the car.
When the newly-weds emerged from the church, a gleaming horse-drawn carriage
ready to transport them to their reception.
7. Broken glass scattered on the carpet.
8. The child still in the armchair for a few minutes.
9. Her long golden hair loose about her shoulders.
4. Match the sentences to the meanings of the copula-like verbs and say what kind of phrases
function as predicatives:
make: a.
to be or become through development, to turn out
b.
to serve or function as something, to constitute
c.
to add up to sth., to equal, to mount to
1. If you train hard youll make a good footballer.
2. That will make a good ending to the book.
3. How many members make a quorum?
4. That hall would make an excellent theatre.
5. 5 and 7 make 12.
6. His thrillers make enthralling reading.
fall:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

a.
to become, to pass into a specified state
b.
to be less in quantity than expected
The horse fell lame.
He fell silent.
Supply often falls short of demand.
She fell an easy pray to his charm.
When does the rent fall due?
The boys joke fell flat. Their parents did not think it funny.
Your work falls short of the expected standard.

1.
2.
3.
4.

a.
to be at rest on a surface, to be, to remain or be kept in a certain state
b.
to be in a likely position:
The letter lay open on his desk.
These machines have lain idle since the factory closed.
The lobster lay heavy on his stomach.
The theft lay heavy on his conscience.

lie:

stand: a.
to be in a certain condition or situation
b.
to remain at a distance (from other people) in an unfriendly manner
1. The emergency services stand (are) ready to help if necessary.
2. She stood convicted of fraud.

18

3. I stand corrected. (I accept that I was mistaken and that the person who corrected me
is right)
4. Will you stand (be) godmother to the child?
5. We stand in need of help.
6. Mary doesnt enjoy parties and she usually stands aloof (from everyone).
5. Read the following extract from an interview with Kirsty Ackland, the daughter of an actor.
What kind of verbs does she use: a. when she describes herself, b. when she describes the
interaction between herself and her father, or between herself and her school friends?
Until I was about 13, when I became terribly shy, I was absolutely desperate to
be an actress. My sister Sammy and I would beg Dad to let us go to the drama school but
there was no way he would allow it until we had been educated. I went to Putney High
School. I was the only one in the family who didn't get a scholarship. Dad turned up for
parents evenings and things like that but he never helped with the homework. I used to
help him! I loved hearing his lines. But I never told anyone I was the daughter of an actor.
Most of the fathers of the girls at school were something in the City and I pretended
Dad was an interior decorator.
(The Sunday Times Magazine, 29 April 1990)
6. For each pair of sentences, say whether the verb is transitive or copulative:
1.
2.
3.
4.

She weighed 175 pounds. He weighed the gun in his hand.

They make some good music. They would have made very good teachers.
He felt a stranger in this country. He felt a strange mix of emotions.
He represents a group of 5 artists, none of them over 30. The $4.7 billion deal represents
a major victory for McDonnell Douglas.
5. The individual cells that make up the brain are well understood. Parliament can make up
the rules as it goes along.
6. Riot police formed a human barrier between the two sides. He had formed a poor opinion
of his forthcoming rival, Jimmy Carter.
2.5.2. The Predicative
1. State how the predicatives in the following sentences are realized:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

The city by night looked medieval and cosmopolitan.

What I dont enjoy is standing in queues.
Now the only thing to do is to admit the error.
His indignation during the whole proceeding was beyond all bounds.
Now the danger is that no one will hear a cry for help.
Our Prime Ministers have been a funny lot.
He is being unusually patient with the children.
I had grown to be in awe of her. (to have respect for and be slightly afraid of sb.)
Their concern is where the conference is going to take place.
Paranoia reigns supreme when a nice Catholic girl brings home her new boy friend, a
nice Jewish boy.(idiom)

Note: The predicative may be realized by a phrase (AP, NP, PP) or a clause: finite (that
complement clause, indirect question) or non-finite (infinitival or gerundial)

19

2. The Predicative provides information about the Subject with regard to its attributes or its
identity. The identifying type is typically reversible.
Model:
The concert was marvellous.
(attributive)
The orchestra was the London Philharmonic.
(identifying)
The London Philharmonic was the orchestra.
In the following passage from a university magazine, a graduate characterises the early stages of
his career. Decide whether the Predicative is attributive or identifying:
New College, the poorest of the rich colleges, dullest of the clever colleges and
so far down the river that we had to row on the Thames is the place where I grew-up. I
loved it then and I love it now. But for me real life started in investment banking. It was
called merchant banking but was just as fashionable then to pretentious young squirts as
it is now. The pay on the other hand was something else. Everyone apart from me seemed
to have a private income. Worse still, they all had private shoots and invited the
chairman. No shoot, no promotion. No promotion, no pay. It was circular and it was
vicious. Then there were the social duties. Clients tended to be rich, foreign and
important. We squirts were the entertainment when their offspring hit town.
Unfortunately, one of them was, to me, quite beautiful. I stumbled, flailed around a bit
and fell. It was ridiculous. I still drove my bubble car, she owned the bank that owned the
factory. It could not last. It didnt.
(Steve Baker in Oxford Today, vol. 1, no 3, 1989)
3. Fill in the gaps in the sentences below using the adjectives: bright, free, loose, open, shut,
silver, white:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

The stream glistened in the sunlight.

Gordon tried to grab him by the arm, but the boy pulled ..
The heavy door swung and the lock snapped into place.
His eyes still shone in the wrinkled face.
Noting that the ropes around my bags on my sled had worked , I retied them carefully.
In the same moment, the outer door burst and several police constables stormed in.
His face turned as he realized what was going to happen.

cross, difficult, dizzy, unnoticed, entangled, trapped, delicious, terrific, unable:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

The law has proved to implement.

Adler wasnt going to let such behaviour go
Does your father ever get ?
He came over all , he said, when he stood up.
The whales often become in the fishing nets.
A thorny branch had just got in my hair.
The Government seems to take control of the situation.
Bottled fruit not only tastes but it also looks displayed in the kitchen.
(Cobuild, 1996: 21)

4. A great number of adjectives with a negative meaning, especially those formed with the prefix
un-, are used with verbs referring to actions and processes:

20

blindfold, breathless, drunk, empty-handed, free, naked, straight-faced, unafraid,

unaided, unannounced, unarmed, unasked, unassisted, unattended, undetected,
unescorted, unexpected, unharmed, unheard, unhurt, unimpaired, uninjured,
uninterrupted, uninvited, unnoticed, unprotected, unpunished, unread, unrecognized,
unseen, unthinkable, untouched
Rewrite the sentences below providing a copulative pattern of predication with a negative
adjective functioning as predicative:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

He was unable to walk without help.

The troops were marching without shoes to maintain silence.
Her home was broken into by robbers, who miraculously left without taking anything.
Her next move was as expected as it was spirited.
Is a state of war really thinkable?

5. Fill the gaps in the sentences below using the adjectives given in the list above:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Celebrities are welcome to show up.

Women who say they feel safe are going
The mans car was hit by a rifle fire but he escaped .
They were impervious to any outside pressures.
The future of the school may be of little import.
Hey became intoxicated with pride.

6. State what kind of phrase functions as predicative:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

If you are in debt, you can get practical help form the Citizens Advice Bureau.
The biggest problem was getting them close enough to the wall.
Within two years the pact lay in ruin.
The question is whether or not it is cost effective.
Her lips were turning blue.
Our broad aim is to raise peoples visual awareness and appreciation of life.
The problem is where to start looking.
The most pressing question for Mr. Brooke remains how to find a formula that will
satisfy all parties and allow the talking to begin.
9. The important thing is that the book comes out.
10. She sat motionless, waiting for their decision.
11. You should never have taken me along with you. Surely you knew that Id be right out of
my element with all those psychiatrists, psychologists and psychotherapists.
7. Translate into English:
... se cuvenea s mrturisesc c de muli ani nu eram nici sntos, nici bolnav, nici fericit,
nici nefericit. Nu eram nici mcar nelinitit de soarta care m atepta. ...
(Zaharia
Stancu)
Pmntul era cum era, dar cerul rmnea totdeauna frumos, chiar atunci cnd se acoperea
cu nori vinei. Era bine i-mi era bine. Bine? Vrusei s spun: " Aa bine s le fie
dumanilor mei", ns nu m ndurai. Dumanii mei trebuia s aib parte de chinuri ceva
mai cumplite.
(Zaharia Stancu)

21

3. The syntactic functions of the NP

3.1. The Subject
1. Identify the subject and state by what kind of phrase it is expressed:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

The pale moon rose from behind the mountains.

The use of coves for smuggling is as old as the hills.
Whoever did that will suffer the consequences.
It is kind of you to ask about our future plans.
He who hesitates is lost.
Anything will do.
Run for President is what he may do.
To take such a risk was rather foolish.
By plane costs more than by train.
Its a bore when people cant make up their minds
From here to Barcelona is eight hundred kilometers.
Before midday would be convenient.
Just here would be an ideal place for a picnic.
The handicapped are given special facilities in public places.
The list of people who she says helped her is long.
The wind coming down from the snowfields above us woke us every night as we lay in
out tent.
17. Theres no way of knowing what goes on in her mind.
Note: The Subject is typically realised by a simple, complex or clausal NP and only rarely by a
PP or AdvP.
2. Specify the thematic roles assigned to the NP in Subject position in the following sentences:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Jane walked out before the end of the lecture.

Mary heard a terrible noise.
I surprised everyone by gobbling an enormous lunch.
I would hate to move to another house.
The kitchen reeked of tobacco.
The radio is sending messages.
He deliberately sold this fake to his uncle.
The door opened.
The potatoes are cooking.
The stories frightened the children.
This key will open the door.

3. Extrapose the Subject in the following clauses:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

That Pam is seeking a divorce surprised us.

To leave without saying goodbye was bad manners, really.
Who she goes out with doesnt interest me.
To swim in a cold lake is not my idea of fun.
That recognising synctactic categories at first sight is not easy is obvious.

22

4. Say whether in each of the following clauses it refers to a participant or is merely a Subjectfiller:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

It rarely snows in the south of Spain.

I can lend you 10 dollars. Will it be enough?
It is proposed to allow cameras into courts.
It is our first wedding anniversary today.
For some people its a nightmare when they cant park their cars.
Why spend so much to sit in the cold and watch tennis? - Ah, its the place to be.
It is believed inevitable that the war will break out.
It was coming on to rain when finally Macs lorry arrived.
It hurts when you forget to write.
Outside it was drizzling steadily and the city looked grey.
It is to our credit that people are now healthier.
If it hadnt been bucketing down with rain, I would have had a glorious view of the bay
from my window.
13. It broke my heart to see him go.
Note: It can be a personal, impersonal or expletive pronoun. As an expletive pronoun it is a
Subject-filler, i.e. the pronoun simply occupies the Subject position and anticipates the real
Subject of the sentence.
5. The following examples illustrate the problem of referential circularity. Use co-indexation to
discuss them:
Mary is her cooks best friend.
His wife told her daughter that her father was angry.
6. Specify in each sentence to which person the underlined overt or covert pronoun (x) refers:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Sue quarrelled with Alice for almost an hour, and then she decided to leave the room.
Sue quarrelled with Alice and then x decided to leave the room.
When she found the door locked, Sue quarrelled with Alice.
On x finding the door locked, Sue quarrelled with Alice.

7. In the following passage the Subject varies from Agentive to Affected (animate or inanimate):
Encounter between an Indian father and his son
So I raced out of my room, with my fingers in my ears, to scream till the roof
fell down about their ears. But the radio suddenly went off, the door to my parents room
suddenly opened and my father appeared, bathed and shaven,... his white dhoti blazing,
his white shirt crackling, his patent leather pumps glittering. He stopped in the doorway
and I stopped on the balls of my feet and wavered.
(Anita Desai, Games at Twilight )
8. Write an alternative construction for each of the following clauses so that the Experiencer is
made to coincide with the Subject:
Model:

His presence of mind amazed us.

We were amazed at his presence of mind.

1. The news delighted us.

23

2.
3.
4.
5.

Neither of the proposals pleased the members of the commission.

The dramatic increase of crime in the cities is alarming the government.
The fact that he seems unable to lose weight worries her.
Will the fact that you forgot to phone annoy your wife?

3.2. The Object

3.2.1. The Direct Object
1. Identify the Direct Object and state by what kind of phrase it is realized:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

He does not recollect how long they were in the house.

He has lodged a complaint.
Many Londoners prefer to travel by train.
Dont choose by a swamp for a picnic.
They saw the man who was arguing with her.
He hates telling lies.
I would prefer before noon for a meeting.
You know very well how difficult he can be.
She was Carl Sagans first wife and taught him most of what he knows about biology.
Our son would gladly wear a sweatshirt round the clock if it saved him the bother of
getting washed and dressed for school.
11. Whatever his many faults, we would not begrudge him the glory that would rightly be
his.
Note: The Object may be realised by a simple, complex or clausal NP or rarely by a PP. The
clausal NP may contain a finite or a non-finite clause (infinitival or gerundial).
2. Decide whether the DO has been deleted because the general type of thing involved is obvious
from the meaning of the verb or it has been previously mentioned or indicated:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Cocaine can kill _.

To our great relief, she accepted _.
He never married _.
He took his pistol and fired _.
But what if Jay found out _?
He has taught _ at Princeton, Harvard and Yale.
Unable to have children of their own, Penny and Rodney decided to adopt _.
Have you finished _?
He talked softly so that nobody could hear _.
You helped him once, do you remember _?

3. Comment on the type of Object deleted: affected, effected, cognate, instrumental or locative:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

She sang _, and did a little dance.

He drank _ eagerly and left _ in a hurry.
Every morning he used to ride _ across the fields.
Do you mind if I wait? I asked. Melanie shrugged _.
Hoper painted _ in a realist style.
That hen lays_ at night.

24

7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

The little sparrow has built _ under the eaves of our roof
I havent heard _ from my aunt lately.
I used to play _ for the village cricket team.
His mother waved _ to him.
The judge was ambushed by gunmen as he drove _ to work.
He sat and smoked _ and stared out of the window.

4. Say whether in each of the following clauses it refers to a participant or is merely an Objectfiller:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

I love it that he cared enough to ask.

I dont much like the heat. - Oh, I do. I find it stimulating.
I really appreciate it that you raised me in such a warm and happy family.
I want my book as cheap as possible so that people can buy it.
I hate it when she is away.
I take it as a compliment when people call me aggressive.
He desperately needed money so I lent it to him.
He has made it his business to know about these things.

3.2.2. The Indirect Object

1. State by what kind of phrase the Indirect Object is realized:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Does that seem nonsense to you?

They were forced to act as servants for senior boys, for whom they ran errands.
Lend whoever calls the bicycle pump in the shed.
Im giving reading magazines less importance today.
Phil has booked all his friends tickets for tomorrow.
Save whoever comes the trouble of ringing.
She knitted socks and sweaters for the troops.

Note: The IO can be expressed by a NP, PP, relative clause, a gerundial clause.
2. State whether the Indirect Objects are Recipients or Beneficiaries. Apply the passivisation and
the prepositional tests to distinguish between the two:
Model:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

They did not give the leaders of the party time to establish contact.
They did not give time to the leaders of the party
The preposition test shows that the NP the leaders has the thematic role of Recipient.
The leaders of the party were not given time
Passivisation is possible with the former indirect object being promoted to subject
position.
Why should I write him his French essays?
I am going to make myself a nice cup of tea.
He is offering us a chance in a million.
Save your brother a piece of your birthday cake.
Her parents have told the doctors that they are grateful and thankful.
She has bought her boy-friend a butterfly pillow to use on long flights.
He left his daughter most of his fortune.

25

8. Hell paint you your portrait for a large sum.

Note: The NP bearing the thematic role of Beneficiary is preceded by the preposition for and
cannot become subject in a passive sentence.
3.2.3. The Double Object constructions
1. Explain why the double object construction is not possible:
The American ambassador baked a cake for James 1.
*The American ambassador baked James I a cake.
2. Decide to which group each verb taking a double object construction belongs and rephrase so
as to have an oblique Object construction:
Model: She asked me to bring her some tea.
She asked me to bring some tea for her.

Double Object Construction IO DO

Oblique Object Construction DO IO

1. A cloud suddenly blocked out the moon, denying him his only source of light.
2. She took a course in computer programming and found instant success when her
communication skills landed her a job as soon as she finished studying.
3. He told her that he was not going to leave her anything in his will.
4. They have found a portable high chair for the baby.
5. Take the goods back to the retailer who will refund you the purchase price.
6. Mary told him the whole story of the mystery.
7. Almost as soon as he had unpacked his bag, he sent his mother a postcard.
8. I am no longer allowed to be with the children, to read them a story or put them to bed.
Note: Ditransitive verbs belong to several semantic groups including: the give group, bring
group, tell group, send group
3.2.4. The Prepositional Object
1. Identify the Prepositional Object and state by what type of phrase it is realised:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

This job calls for great initiative.

I strongly object to what you are insinuating.
He believes in getting things done as quickly as possible.
They were arguing about how much to charge for admittance.
The miners charge the employers with ignoring their claims.

2. The PP may appear as a part of another phrase. Discuss the type of embedding phrase:
Model:
My son is brilliant at mathematics.
My son is brilliant [PP at mathematics].
My son is [AP brilliant [PP at mathematics]].
The PP functions as a Complement inside the AP
1.
2.
3.
4.

They do not live far from here.

Have you any books on astronomy?
Off-the-record comments should not be printed in a newspaper.
I am free all day except on Mondays.

26

3. Which are the grammatical functions of the following PPs:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

I cant consider next to a railway line as a good place to live.

When can we discuss this matter? After supper would suit me.
Her parents paid for the wedding.
Monica rejected such an interesting job. She must be out of her mind.
He is always on the go.
She went into hysterics.

4. The meanings of certain PPs expressing manner or instrumentality are sometimes included
covertly in a verb. Compose sentences to illustrate this.
Model: draw milk from a cow.
They milk cows mechanically.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

put milk in a bottle.

press clothes with an iron
take the bones from a fish
cut the meat into slices.
to cover a wall with paper
spread butter on the bread.

4. Existential Constructions
4.1. The verb in existential constructions
1. Turn the following simple sentences into existential constructions:
Model:
Ice is on the lake.
-- is ice on the lake.
There is ice on the lake.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

A hole is in my pocket.
Many people are in the waiting room.
A girl was water-skiing on the lake.
More Americans have been killed in road accidents than in all wars since 1990.
Somebody will be meeting you at the airport.
Another plane was hijacked yesterday.
Something is worrying me.

Note: When the predicate contains auxiliaries of aspect or voice, the moved NP will be inserted
between the auxiliaries and the lexical verb.

27

2. Use the appropriate tenses of be:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Once upon a time there .. three wicked brothers.

There never anybody like you.
There snow on high ground soon.
There .heavy snowfalls in the north.

Note: With the existential verb all tense and aspect combinations are common, with the exception
of the progressive, since the dynamic quality of the progressive is incompatible with the stative
meaning of be.
3. State to what class each verb in the following existential constructions belongs:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

There seems little hope of success.

Then there appear a number of teachers with circles of devotees and students.
There arises no question of loyalty to ones employers.
At one end of the room there stood a grandfathers clock.
Behind our chalet there flowed a beautiful stream.
There emerges a picture of a woman who cares deeply for her man.
In a small town in Germany there once lived a poor shoemaker.
Suddenly there entered a strange figure dressed all in black.

Note: There may occur mostly with intransitive verbs such as:
existential verbs: be, happen, occur, exist, live, etc.
aspectual verbs: seem, appear, happen
ingressive verbs: emerge, burst, arise
verbs of motion: come, arrive, run
positional verbs: stand, lie, hang
4. Turn the examples into an existential construction.
Model:
It appeared [that a woman was in the car].
It appeared [that there was a woman in the car].
The embedded clause has been rephrased as an existential construction.
There appeared [ _ _ to be a woman in the car].
The grammatical subject THERE has been moved into the Subject position in the main
clause and the finite form of the verb has been replaced with an infinitive (a syntactic
process known as raising).
1. It appeared that no progress was in todays talk.
2. It seems that a large and comprehensive body of evidence exists in this matter.
3. It appears that some absolute limits exist to what human beings can know about their
surroundings.
5. Rephrase the following sentences so as to have that-complement clauses:
Model:
Could you be quiet? There happens to be a lecture going on.
It happens [that there is a lecture going on].
1.
2.
3.
4.

There are reckoned to be 37 different groups.

There were understood to be no injuries.
There were reported to be wounded on both sides.
There is supposed to be a state of emergency in the city.

28

6. Say how modality is indicated in existential constructions:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

There may a deeper truth there.

Theres supposed to be a state of emergency in the city.
There might be drinks if you wait for a bit.
There is bound to be another opportunity.
There is sure to be trouble when she gets his letter.
There must be someone at home ring again.
If the police hadnt closed the road there could have been a bad accident.
Are there likely to be many people at the meeting?
There cant have been more than two hundred spectators in the stadium.
Do you think theres likely to be snow?

Note: Modality may be marked by a modal verb, a phrasal modal: be bound to, be supposed to,
or an AP whose head is one of the adjectives: certain, sure, likely, unlikely to.
4.2. The Subject in Existential Constructions
4.2.1. The real Subject
1. The subject-NP is usually indefinite. Find the indicators of indefiniteness:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

There appeared a completely new problem.

There are signs that the richer nations are waking up to the broader problem.
There are some people outside.
There was something strange about the flickering blue light.
Is there anything the matter?
Was there any genuine prejudice?
Out of all this there emerged many things that were positive, if also uncomfortable.
Granted there are a great many who are extremely lean and wiry, but others can certainly
become overweight.

Note: Indicators of indefiniteness are: the indefinite determiners a/ an, some, the indefinite
quantifiers: few, many, and the zero determiner if the NP is in the plural.
2. Comment on the position of the logical subject in the following existential constructions:
1.
2.
3.
4.

*There have some men been arrested.

There have been some men arrested.
*There have been arrested some men.
There have been some men brutally arrested.

3. Define the type of phrase that follows the head N and comment on its position in the sentence:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

There occurs discord in the marriage.

There remained a risk in such a situation.
There was in the flat an ancient wood-burning stove.
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Near our camp there flowed a beautiful stream.

29

6. There lay between them something unspoken.

7. At one end of the room there stood a grand piano.
Note: In the case of lie and stand the PP or AdvP usually comes immediately after the verb or at
the beginning of the clause, rather than at the end of the NP.
4. Explain why the NP is definite:
1. And then there is the leadership crisis.
2. You have to send your horses where there are the best opportunities and that often means
overseas.
3. There is the possibility that he might win the elections.
4. There is always the risk of a more serious injury if you use a spray.
5. What is there in that room? There is the computer, he printer and the photo-copying
machine.
6. And, of course, there is always the off button. You can always turn the television off.
7. There is the other delegate taking the floor.
Note: The definite NP is used :
a. to change to a topic that is new in the conversation but already known to the
hearer. (the sentence often begins with: and, firstly, then)
b. when the adverb always indicates that something good or bad may happen
c. with the superlative degree
d. when an enumeration is given in an answer to an existential question
e. when the noun functioning as real subject is postmodified by a clause
f. when the definite determiner is part of a larger Determiner Phrase (DP)
5. The head of the logical subject NP may be followed by different types of phrases. Identify
them:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

There are no fairies in these stories.

There was a storm last night.
Theres a man at the door.
There are only 100 places available, so book now.
There are several pages blank.
There appeared another little girl in her fantasy.
There are machines which can extract cholesterol from the blood.
Theres a dog barking outside.
Theres plenty to eat.
There was another plane hijacked yesterday.

6. The NP functioning as logical subject often includes a clause: relative, that-clause, to infinitive,
or a gerund following the head noun:
1.
2.
3.
4.

They get pleasure from the thought that there are whales swimming freely about.
There is never enough to go round and tempers are frayed.
Are there any exercises that will achieve that?
In every love affair or marriage there comes a time when romance abates and only
compatibility, affection, generosity and goodwill hold it all together.
5. Theres no denying that beautiful make-up looks better on beautiful skin.

30

6. In Brighton there exists an ancient custom of playing a Boxing Day game of bowls using
oranges.
7. From amidst the disillusioned masses there arose a man who was to change the face of
twentieth century history.
8. Out of all this there emerged many things that were positive, if also uncomfortable.
7. Discuss whether the NP functioning as real Subject is to be understood as the direct object or
the subject of the infinitive:
Model: a.

b.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

There are socks to mend.

The real Subject socks should be understood as the Do of the verb mend.
You should mend the socks.
There are socks which you should mend.
There are shirts to be washed.
The real subject shirst should be interpreted as the Su of the passive verb be
washed.
The shirts should be washed by you.
There are shirts which should be washed by you.

There are trousers to be pressed.

There will be skirts to clean.
There are three rooms to be done.
There are two more windows to be closed.
There are three more dishes to cook.
There are two main courses to be served.
There is only one more door to be unlocked.
There is only one pair of shoes to be polished.
There had been two more empty glasses to fill.

8. Use either the gerund or the infinitive after the NP functioning as a real Subject:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Theres no sense him angry. (make)

Is there any point ..about it again? (talk)
Do you think theres any use . to explain? (try)
Theres no need weve got plenty of time. (hurry)
There is little point .a different system. (adopt)

Note: sense, point and use take a gerund, need is followed by an infinitive.
9. Correct the errors and comment on them:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

*If you arent busy is something Id like to ask you about.

*In Barcelona there is plenty of things for visitors to de.
*There was a lot of girls watching the game.
*It is a lot of noise in the street.
*In the back of the car is room for more.
*Little good football was in last nights match.
*There have been killed more Americans in road accidents than in all wars since 1900.
*In India are tigers.
*There seems to be some problems.

31

Note: a lot and plenty of do not affect the number of the verb.
10. Comment on the agreement between the verb and the NP functioning as the real Subject of
the sentence:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Theres several pages of this book missing.

How many are coming? Well, theres Andrew and Silvia, and Jo and Pete.
Theres two policemen at the door, Dad.
Theres some grapes in the fridge, if you are still hungry.

Note: Lack of agreement points to informal speech.

4.2.2.The grammatical Subject
1. Compare the contexts in which an ordinary Subject and a grammatical Subject occur. Explain
what subject properties there has:
1. They understood that Jane had no injuries.
They understood that there were no injuries.
2. It is possible for Jane to come in time.
It is impossible for there to be a war between your country and mine.
3. What is the chance of Jane finding out the truth?
Whats the chance of there being an election this year?
5. Therell be enough for everybody, wont there?
Jane will meet me at the station, wont she?
Note: THERE occurs as grammatical subject in the same types of clauses.
2. There constructions are frequently employed in proverbs. Unscramble the sentences below:
1. There is no use waking up
1. over the spilt milk.
2. There is no use carrying water
2. which has been closed to you.
3. There is no use crying for help
3. where nobody is present.
4. There is no use putting on a mackintosh
4. in a strainer.
5. There is no use knocking at the door
5. from a dry cow.
6. There is no use putting make up
6. if theres nothing to do.
7. There is no use crying
7. when you go on the beach.
8. There is no use dressing up
8. to help you.
9. There is no use asking a mule
9. on a beautiful face.
10. There is no use selling your welfare
10. when theres nobody to hear you.
11. There is no se being punctual
11. on a sunny day.
12. There is no use trying to get milk
12. before dying.
Key: 1 6, 2 4, 3 10, 4 11, 5 2, 6 - 9, 7 1, 8 7, 9 8, 10 12, 11 3, 12 5.

32

5. Passive voice
5.1. The BE passive
1. Complete the sentences with a passive verbal form:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

The man who (bite) by a snake (give) a serum. (past perfect, past)
Many slums (demolish) to make way for new buildings. (present progressive)
The worker claimed that he (victimize) by his employers. (past progressive)
Three hundred new houses (build) by the end of the next year. (future perfect)
(Threaten) by a blackmailer, he immediately informed the police.(perfect participle)
Was he very upset at (not offer) the job? (gerund)
The man was sent to prison for six months, (find) guilty of fraud. (perfect participle)

2. Rewrite the sentences using the passive form of the verb in italics:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

They gave up the search after three hours.

They ought to have pointed that out to me at the very beginning.
No one brought up that question at the meeting.
Someone should look into the matter.
It was clear that the parents had brought the child up well.
We had to put off our visit until later.
I was shocked to hear that someone had broken into your house.
His bank manager turned down his request for a loan.
You must account for every penny you sent.
Events will bear out the truth of what Im saying.
An official held us up at the Customs for half an hour.
How can we bring about the desired results?
He hates people making fun of him.

3. Underline the verbs, the Direct Objects and the Object Complements and then give the
passive form:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

In 594 he proclaimed Buddhism the official state religion.

They declared September 9 a day of action for press freedom.
We havent got what you might term a school policy on assessment.
He consistently underestimated the Englishman, whom he considered an idiot.
It is not surprising, then that fans throughout the United States have now voted him
Entertainer of the decade.
In 1722 he accompanied a missionary from canton back to France, which he found an
altogether bewildering place.
The Lodge, they call it.
They are pleased with what they consider a lack of concern for patients needs.
What are you going to call it?
Two furious motorists held a man prisoner in his own car when they found him drunk
on a motorway.

4. Explain why the active sentences are ambiguous while the passive counterparts are not:
Nobody could explain last night.
They decided on the boat.

Last night couldnt be explained.

The boat was decided on.

33

5. The following sentences contain ditransitive verbs. Build up two passive versions where
possible and explain why certain examples can have only one passive version:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

I had already shown the policewoman Sams photo.

They have just sent me a whole lot of information.
I lent you a thousand pounds last year.
They showed the visitors a collection of manuscripts.
He sent the headmaster an invitation.
He explained the problem to the children.
They suggested a meeting to us.
I can book you a room by phone.

Note: There are three types of ditransitive verbs: verbs with two alternate construction (give),
verbs which allow only an oblique object construction (explain), and verbs which can only occur
in double object constructions (envy).
The oblique IO realised by a to/ for NP cannot be promoted to the Subject position in the passive
sentence.
6. Some transitive verbs take an Object Complement, i.e. a noun or an adjective which describes
or classifies the object. Passivise the sentences:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

We all regarded Kathy as an expert.

Most people saw him as a sort of clown.
Youve made the house beautiful.
The other children called her stupid.
If you elect me president, you will be better off four years from now than you are today.
In Mexico, his writing has made him a well-known public figure.
We are no longer bound to the view that the earth is the immobile center of the universe,
nor even do we consider it stationary.
8. For many centuries the Christian Church burned heretics alive.
7. Change the following passives into active sentences:
1. If she makes a mess of this marriage shell be labelled a complete and utter failure for the
rest of her life.
2. Britains economic performance has been rated a C-minus virtually since 1945.
3. He was only passed fit to ride five minutes before declaration time.
4. In a corner, theres a safe deposit box that has been blasted open.
5. It turns out that he was in a fight and was knocked unconscious.
6. When the introduction of charges for directory inquiries was suggested, it was put about
by BT that this was the only way of dealing with misuse of the facility.
7. I was branded a liar and a show-off.
8. He was named full professor in 1941 and chaired the universitys economics department
for 10 years.
9. We have 10 industries in the constituency that are rated a pollution risk.
10. I was brought up a strict Catholic.
11. Bob III, as he is called, shares his fathers pride in the business.

34

Verbs that can be passivized

1. Discuss what types of verbs can be passivized:
1. I was placed in a mental institution and diagnosed schizophrenic.
2. It was among the oldest of the Academys buildings and was nicknamed Perilous Hall,
with good reason.
3. I dont suppose it bothered the Platts to know that the money wasnt honestly come by.
4. I had been driving at about 35 mph, which is considered a safe speed for the narrow, wet
and winding road.
5. Army commanders have been given full powers to carry out any operation they consider
necessary to restore law and order.
6. That fabric that she chose to be made into a dress is a combination of silk and cotton.
Verbs which resist passivisation
1. Identify the types of verbs that resist passivisation:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Poetry resembles music.

Mary has a car.
He lacks confidence.
This auditorium holds 500 people.
This dress becomes her.
This coat does not fit you.
Will this tie suit you?
Lisa resembles a Greek goddess.
She was having a bath.

*Music is resembled by poetry.

* A car is had by Mary.
*Confidence is lacked by him.
*500 are hold by this auditorium.
*She is become by this dress.
*You are not fitted by this coat.
*Will you be suited by this tie?
*A Greek goddess is resembled by Lisa.
*A bath was being had by her.

2. Explain why the Direct Object cannot become Subject in the passive counterparts of each of
the following sentences:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Mary admired herself in the mirror.

Jane and Jude embraced each other.
He nodded his head.
Bob will get it in the neck.
There arouse a storm in the night.
This arguments eats it.
It stormed up a flood last night.
1943 found Pound in Italy.
Tom kicked the bucket.
Many shrugged their shoulders when
asked about their political preferences.
11. That does it, he said.
12. Your father will give it to you
when he comes home!

*Herself was admired by Mary in the mirror.

*Each other were embraced by Jane and Jude.
*His head was nodded by him.
*It will be got in the neck by Bob.
*A storm was arisen by there in the night.
*It is eaten by this argument.
*A flood was stormed up by it last night.
*Pound was found by 1943 in Italy.
*The bucket was kicked by Tom.
*Their shoulders were shrugged by many
when asked about their political preferences.
* It is done, he said.
*It will be given to you by your father!

3. Find the active counterparts for the following passive sentences and state what kind of objects
cannot become Subjects in the passive. Rephrase the passive:
Model:
*That his company is in trouble is said.
They say [CP that the company is in trouble]. The DO is a clause.
It is said that his company is in trouble.

35

The passive is improved if the clausal subject is extraposed.

1. *To meet her was hoped by John.
2. *That she was a spy was thought by them all.
3. *That he was the right man for the job was felt.
4. Explain why the following transitive verbs cannot be passivised:
1. He strikes his friends as pompous.
*His friends are struck (by him) as pompous.
2. Max failed her as a husband.
*She was failed (by Max) as a husband.
3. Mary promised Frank to leave.
*Frank was promised to leave.
4. The vision struck him as a beautiful revelation.
*He was struck (by the vision) as a beautiful revelation.
5. The boys made Aunt Ann good little housekeepers.
*Aunt Ann was made good little housekeepers (by the boys).
Note: Verbs whose complements are predicated of their subjects do not passivize.
5. Passivise and reverse the arguments of the following symmetric predicates both in the active
and in the passive voice:
Model:
The thighbone connects to the kneebone. (symmetric predicate)
The kneebone connects to the thighbone.
(symmetric predicate with reversed arguments)
The surgeon connects the kneebone to the thighbone.
(active voice)
The kneebone is connected to the thighbone (by the surgeon).
(passive voice)
The thighbone is connected to the kneebone (by the surgeon).
(passive voice with reversed arguments)
1. The new tunnel joined the old tunnel here.
2. The tiny microphone connects to a tape recorder.
Agentless passives
1. In the following sentences the AGENT by-phrase is absent. Explain why and provide a suitable
AGENT:
1. She was not flunked at the exam by the young lecturer, but severely reproached with
superficiality.
2. The man was kept in custody.
3. The Prime Minister was attacked last night in the debate.
4. Jack fought Michael last night and Jack was beaten.
5. Order has been restored without bloodshed and without concessions.
6. He was rushed off to hospital.
7. A lot of this scrap metal can be melted down and used again.
8. Im afraid the Fax has not been sent.
9. The orders were sent out yesterday.
10. I have finished compiling the catalogue and it has been sent to the printers.

36

11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

The cracks in the wall have been plastered over

Several trees were blown down.
You will be announced in due time.
When he read his thesis he gave a huge party. Everyone was invited.
The students were not informed in time.
The positive hydrogen atoms are attracted to the negative oxygen atoms.
Those pyramids were built around 400 AD.
Too many books have been written about the Second World War.
Well, in the end I was awarded a full travel grant.

Note: The AGENT may be omitted when:

a. it is unknown
b. it has been previously mentioned
c. it may be understood from the context, but is considered irrelevant
d. the AGENT is people or one and the passive expresses a general statement
e. the speaker wishes to emphasize the Object, not the Agentive Subject
f. the speaker wishes not to mention the Agent either out of politeness or to avoid
blaming someone else
g. the Agent is omitted in scientific and technical language
2. Rephrase using the active voice:
1. She was cheered and clapped by tourists who jostled to see her.
2. I dont suppose it bothered Platt to know that the money wasnt honestly come by.
3. When war was announced, the government called for the immediate expulsion of all
foreign journalists from the country.
4. Vietnamese boat people who fled to Hong Kong in the 1970s are now being forcibly
repatriated to Vietnam.
5. The leader of the coup was exiled and the others imprisoned.
6. Warnings were given that unless attempts at reconciliation were made, the nations
representatives in London would be expelled.
7. Tens of thousands of Greek Jews were deported to Nazi death camps.
8. The drug baron was extradited to the United States from Colombia.
3. Comment on the absence of the Agent by-phrase in the following excerpt:
All the bottles were soon packed up and our bottle with them. It first saw the
light again when with its other companion it was unpacked in the wine merchants cellar.
It was filled with some good strong wine, was corked and sealed, and last of all it was
labelled outside first quality.
5.2. The GET Passive
1. Rewrite the sentences using the GET passive, say when the GET passive has a negative
connotation:
1.
2.
3.
4.

They were made man and wife in 1990.

Five years later they were no longer man and wife.
Nobody would have ever beaten the champion if he had retired after his last fight.
I broke my watch while I was playing with the children.

37

5. The police caught him driving at 120 mph.

6. They never invite me to parties.
Verbal passives vs. adjectival passives
1. Decide whether the following passive constructions are stative or dynamic:
1.
2.
3.
4.

The village was surrounded by coniferous trees.

The village was quickly surrounded by the guerillas.
The area of settlement was separated from the rest of the region by a mountain range.
The outer later was separated from the nucleus by physicists using laser beams.

Note: After the past participle of some stative verbs other prepositions can be used instead of by.
2. Which of the following sentences are pseudo-passives (or adjectival passives):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

John was pleased with Marys behaviour.

John was praised by all his colleagues.
The little girl has been frightened by the wicked old woman.
The little girl was frightened at the strange noise.
She was annoyed by/ at my words.
I was annoyed by Mary wanting to tell everybody what to do.
We were all worried by the complication.
The man was quite worried and upset.
We were unimpressed by his attempts.
Our mayor is highly respected by everyone in the community.
He is widely respected among the troops.
John laughed when he finished telling his jokes, but we were painfully embarrassed.

Note: Pseudo passives are sentences which look like passives but actually have predicate
adjectives instead of past participles of verbs.

6. Interrogative sentences
6.1. Yes-No questions
1. Add question tags to the following sentences:
Model: I expect shell be all right.
I expect shell be all right, wont she?
Shell be all right, I expect, wont she?
1. I think he left before lunch.
2. You thought we were trying to get away.

38

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

I suppose youd prefer a coke.

You never say what you are thinking.
Its not the first time he has failed to turn up.
Its hardly rained at all this summer.
Nothing can happen to them.
Nobody phoned yesterday.

Note: With a main verb such as think, suppose, expect, which can be expressed parenthetically,
followed by an embedded that-clause, the tag refers to the embedded clause not to the main
clause.
2. State to what type of main clause a tag has been added and reconstruct the reduced main
clauses:
1. What a good time we had, didnt we?
2. Keep quiet, cant you?
3. In New York, isnt he?
4. Everybody seemed to enjoy themselves, didnt they?
5. Do make yourself at home, wont you?
6. Five dollars, didnt it?
7. What a waste of time, wasnt it?
Note: Types of clauses according to communicative function: declarative, exclamative,
imperative, interrogative.
3.
Identify the tags in the following text and reconstruct the main clauses. The extract from
the play Over the Wall by James Saunders parodies a doctors questioning of a patient, who is
not allowed time to reply:
Falling hair, loss of weight, gain of weight, tenseness, got a drink problem have
you, smoking too much, hallucinations, palpitations, eructations, on drugs are you, can
you read the top line, overdoing it at work perhaps, worrying about the work, about the
spouse, about where to go for your holiday, about the mortgage, about the value of the
pound, about the political situation, about your old mother, about the kids, kids playing
up are they, not doing well at school, got a drink problem have they, smoking, on drugs
are they, suffering from loss of weight, falling hair, got any worries have you?
Yes!
(Angela Downing 1995: 203)
4. Analyse the polarity features of the following examples:
Model:
You wont say a word, will you?
negative
positive
Reversed polarity. The speakers attitude is neutral.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

There wont be room for everyone, will there?

So you believe in democracy, do you?
And youve lived in this village all your life, have you?
Most people enjoy a beach holiday, dont they?
So you are getting married, are you? How nice!
Oh, thats what you believe, is it?
They promised to repay us within six months, did they not.
So your father is a doctor, is he?
Well now, this is the Norman chapel, is it?

39

10. So she thinks she thinks shes going to become a doctor, does she? Well, well.
Note: The reversed polarity is typical for ordinary tag questions and is neutral in tone. Similar
polarity in the tag and in the main clause indicates the speakers attitude (irony, sincere interest
or thoughtful consideration) towards the content of the main clause.
5. For each of the following questions, draw a tree diagram:
1. Can he speak Japanese?
2. Do these people know your parents?
3. Has your bike been repaired ?
4. Did Pam see the doctor yesterday ?
6. Across various dialects of English, we find two different ways of negating and questioning the
sentence. Give the simplest explanation of how these two varieties of English differ:
Peter has the necessary money.
Does Peter have the necessary money?
Has Peter the necessary money?
Peter doesnt have the necessary money.
Peter hasnt the necessary money.

US English
.
.
.

I didnt have any money so I couldnt get a newspaper. .

Did he have any pets when he was a child?
.
Negate and question the following statements:
a.
b.
c.
d.

I have an apartment in downtown Manhattan.

They have a cottage in a village near Manchester.
I had tree rabbits and a tortoise when I was a child.
They had a horse and a cart.

Note: The verb have or the informal have got (in present tenses) are used in British English to
indicate possession. In US English questions and negatives are formed with the auxiliary do.
The auxiliary do is also common in British English in the past tense.
7. Short questions are often used in conversation to show that the listener is paying attention and
interested. Add the missing attention signals:
Model:

It was a terrible party.

It was a terrible party. Was it?
1. We had a lovely holiday.
2. Ive got a headache.
3. John likes that girl next door.
4. I dont understand.

Yes, it was boring.

Yes, it was boring.

? Yes, we went
, dear? Ill get you an aspirin.
Oh, ?
? Im sorry.

Note: Common attention signals are Oh, yes? Really? and a question tag with the structure:
auxiliary + pronoun.

40

6.2. Wh-questions
1. Question the arguments in the following sentences:
5. The navy played a significant role in defeating the rebellion.
6. The officers mistook Stephen for an escaped prisoner.
7. The plans have already come in for fierce criticism in many quarters of the
country.
8. She doesnt believe in magic.
9. The company talked to many potential investors.
2. Specify the syntactic function that the wh-phrase fulfills in the following questions:
Model:
Which horse came first?
[Which horse] came first?
The wh-phrase fulfills the syntactic function of subject of the sentence.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Who saved the girl ?

To whom did he write the letter ?
Whose car was stolen?
On whom can I rely?
Where will he meet her?
Why is she upset ?
How big will the reward be ?

3. Put brackets around the wh-phrase, discuss what type of phrase it replaces and indicate the
position from which the wh-phrase was extracted by using a dash:
Model: When is he expecting a reply?
[AdvP When] is he expecting a reply __?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

What book did you read ?

To whom did you speak yesterday?
Who are you afraid of ?
How quickly did you read it ?
How much did it cost ?

4. Indicate auxiliary-movement and wh-movement by using the letter t for trace:

Model:
What can she say?
She can say what.
The question is derived from a declarative one in which the questioned constituent has
been replaced by a wh-word. The wh-word moves into the Spec position of CP while the
modal can moves into C position.The initial position of the moved constituents is
indicated by their co-indexed traces.
[CP Whati [C cank] [IP she tk say ti ]]?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Whom should your friends invite?

What can he do in the Council?
How must this be pronounced?
How long may children watch TV?
What will they appoint him?
So who did marry the Princess in the end?

41

5. Correct the following echo questions:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Where are you going? Where Im going? Home.

What does he want? What he wants? Money, as usual.
Are you tired? Whether Im tired? Of course not.
Do squirrels eat insects? Whether squirrels eat insects? Im not sure.

6. Ask echo questions to the underlined constituents:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Shes invited thirteen peope to dinner.

Were going to Tierra del Fuego on holiday.
Ive broken the fettle gauge.
She set fire to the garage.
Joseph will bring Janes mother from Spain.

7. Express surprise, perplexity or disbelief by using:

a) combinations with ever
b) lexical items (on earth, in heavens name, in the world)
c) colloquialisms (the devil, the hell, in Gods name):
Model:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

How could you say a thing like that?

How ever could you say a thing like that?
How on earth could you say a thing like that?
How in Gods name could you say a thing like that?

(neutral)
(formal)
(informal)
(informal)

Who would believe such a story?

Where did you hear that?
Why didnt he let us know he was coming?
What has the dog found?
Who said that?
Why didnt you get in touch?

8. Ask multiple wh-questions addressed to the underlined constituents:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

I make too strong an espresso.

Some sent letters to their friends and others parcels.
Some bought books about Vienna and others pictures of Vienna.
Sam said that Mittie likes rice.
Sam married Mittie and Tom, Liz.
Jerry ate steak and Sandra, salad.

8. Ask a question to the Direct Object in the embedded clause:

Model:
The chairman hopes [that the meeting will build [ NP mutual trust]].
What does the chairman hope [that the meeting will build[ NP _]]?
1.
2.
3.
4.

They know that white wine tends to get depth of colour with age.
You think he wanted to marry her.
She confirmed that she would notify the police and the hospital.
Market research showed that 93% of the viewing public wanted a hit film
channel.

42

5. French filmmakers say American remakes are losing something in the translation.
9. Suggest answers to the following multiple wh-questions. State whether there is wh-movement:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Who remembers where we bought what?

Who remembers where we met who?
Who remembers what we bought where?
Who remembers what we bought when?
Who remembers what we bought why?
Who remembers what we bought how?

10. Build up multiple questions with the wh-elements suggested for each:
Model:

You know Mary read the new book.

You know who read which book ?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

(who, which).

You dont know how you might cut bread with the short knife.
(what, which)
He says that he has given those books to his friend.
(which, whom)
You dont know how long to boil the egg.
(what)
That boy kissed this girl before reading the poetry book.
(which, which, which).
John said that close friends of Mary admired the old man. (who, whom, which)

11. In each of the following examples the verb selects a NP. Ask a question to the complement of
this NP. Mark with t the extraction site:
Model: He brought [NP a tremendous infusion of hope] to the people.
Whati did he bring [NP a tremendous infusion of ti ] to people? (preposition stranding)
1.
2.
3.
4.

He ordered a quick investigation into that affair.

They unveiled a strange inversion of priorities.
Ben had always felt a deep involvement with animals.
Physicists have acknowledged dramatic improvement in organ transplantation in recent
years.
5. He watched her excellent impersonation of her teachers.
6. They recommended universal immunization against childhood diseases.
12. Answer the following questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Of whomi did you read [a biography t1]?

Of whomi did you buy [a picture ti]?
Which candidatei were there [posters of ti] all over town?
Which candidatei did they say it was hard [to get t1 to agree to a debate]

13. Mark with t the extraction site and identify the type of phrase from where the wh-word has
been moved. Find the basic clauses from which the following wh-questions have been derived:
Model:

Which team did you consider the possibility of a game with ?

Which team did you consider the possibility of a game with t?
Which team did you consider [NP the possibility of [NP a game with t]]?

43

The wh-word has been moved out of a NP embedded in a larger NP functioning as DO.
You considered the possibility of a game with the best team.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Which ship do you suspect the quality of the wood of ?

Which plants do you recognize the need for a tag on ?
Which planet is there money for a missile to ?
Which sentence did you hear stories about the structure of ?

Note: These questions vary in acceptability, but most native speakers accept many sentences of
this kind.
14. Comment on the false assumptions made by some foreign learners when they produce the
following ungrammatical questions:
Model:

*I should go to the housing office now?

The learner has not acquired the rule shifting the appropriate verb (in this case the
modal should) around the subject.
1. *Did Yuki can go to that concert?
1. *Like you Mozart?
2. *Go you to school here?
3. *Do those people who have such big cars be rich?
4. *What means periphrastic?
5. *What does the boss wants?
6. *When was made your reservation?
7. *Who did leave the door open?
8. *What did happen?
9. *The lady wanted to know if did we have Yami yogurt in Japan/
10. *Tell me when are you going on holiday?

Note: Speakers of English as a foreign language either do not know a rule or overgeneralize the
rule by incorrectly applying it to another verb.
15. Translate into English:
1. Privea lumea, sau mai degrab lsa lumea s ptrund n sufletul lui lumea, cu toate
nuanele ei de cine ce datora cui.
2. Cine si ce isi inchipuie ca ai descoperit?
3. De ce si cum ne adancim in criza?
4. Ale cui sunt datele noastre personale si cum sunt ele folosite?
7. Negative sentences
7.1. Sentential Negation
1. When negative ideas have to be expressed, speakers of English prefer to attach the negation to
the verb in the main clause (think, believe, suppose, imagine). The negative meaning is, however,
transferred to the verb in the complement clause:
Model:

I dont think youve met my wife.

44

I think you havent met my wife.

Negation of the main verb is more natural than negation of the embedded verb.
1. I believe she is not at home.
2. I hope it doesnt rain.
3. I think a wife cant testify against her husband.
4. I suppose she never forgave John for his harsh treatment of his children.
5. I believe he hasnt been lying.
6. I think you have no right to jump to conclusions.
Note: Transferred negation is not used with the verb hope.
2. Account for the ungrammatical examples:
1. *Nothing doesnt matter.
2. *I havent never understood.
3. * I couldnt see nobody.
3. Identify multiple negation and decide whether its use is formal or informal (dialectal):
1. You aint never worked.
2. Not a day passes when I dont regret not having studied music in my youth.
3. I aint never done nothing to nobody, and I aint never got nothing from nobody no
time.
(American song by Bert Williams)
4. He dont do nothing.
5. We dont need no education
We dont need no thought control (from the album The Wall by Pink Floyd)
Note: In standard English double or multiple negation is allowed instead of simple positive
structures for special stylistic effects.
4. Add question tags to decide whether the following are affirmative or negative sentences:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Theres little point in doing anything about it, ?

He has few reasons for staying, ?
Its hardly rained all this summer,..?
Theres little we can do about it, .?

7.2. Constituent Negation

1. Negate constituents in the following examples. There may be more than one version:
1. Someone elses luggage was opened.
2. He took someone elses coat.
3. They spoke to the Secretary of State.
4. There was something hanging on the wall.
5. He knew he had seen her somewhere before.
6. Something had influenced their decision about getting married.

45

2. Turn the following instances of sentence negation into constituent negation by applying ellipsis
to the second conjoined clause and state what constituent is negated:
Model:
I like the salad but I dont like the soup.
I like the salad, not the soup.
I like not the soup, but the salad.
The DO NP is negated.
1. Ask Jake, do not ask his wife!
2. It is working quickly, but it is not working properly.
3. Cut the potatoes into strips, do not cut them in half lengthwise.
3. Translate into English:
1. Daca vreti parerea mea, era mai mult o chestiune de a nu spune niciodata nimic nimanui.
2. Niciodata, niciunde, mancarea n-a fost mai buna.
3. Probabil ca isi pierduse cunostinta, caci nu isi mai aduse aminte de nimic din acea goana spre
niciunde. Nimic nu mai putea sa o inspaimante.
4. Ea trebuia sa arhiveze documentele, dar nu avea nici unde nici cu cine.

8. The Compound sentence

8.1. Coordination
1. Identify the types of phrases that can be linked by a coordinator:
Model:
Smith hit the ball and ran to first base.
Smith [VP hit the ball] and [VP ran to first base].
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

I believe that Trudy is in Atlanta and Bob is in Houston.

The baby seemed very tired and somewhat cross.
John and the man from Houston share the same surname.
Fred seems to have been tied up and left in the garage.
We saw many students of chemistry and doctors of medicine.
Gary is scrubbing the floors and repainting the woodwork.
He spoke neither English nor German.
These are dangers that threaten both men and women.
Bob wants Tony to keep the sweaters but return the books.
Charles thinks that the king of England and his friends should write a book.
Martha has put the chairs on the lawn and on the patio.
Neither Bruce nor his colleagues know how to restring a racket.
Chimpanzees not only use tools but make them.

Note: Phrases of the same type (CP, IP, VP, AP, NP, passive phrases) can be conjoined.
2. Use coordinating conjunctions and correlative pairs to join the following phrases:
Model:
Joseph is [AP tired of Houston]. Joseph is [AP eager to move back to Topeka].
Joseph is [tired of Houston and/ or eager to move back to Topeka].
Joseph is [both tired of Houston and eager to move back to Topeka].
Joseph is [(n)either tired of Houston (n)or eager to move back to Topeka].

46

1. Martha will feed the cat. Martha will lock the door. Martha will turn off the lights.
2. John was driving the car. John was listening to music.
3. He is honest. He is hard-working.
Note: Phrases of different types (XPs) can be coordinated according to the following structures:
XP
XP
XP
XP and XP

both

XP and XP

XP or XP

XP

XP

either XP or XP

neither XP nor XP

Both and cannot be used to coordinate more than two conjoined phrases.
3. State what kind of phrases can be coordinated by but and account for the ungrammatical
examples:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The child seemed [quite energetic but somewhat cross].

*The baby seemed [quite energetic but somewhat cross but rather cooperative].
* [Trudy is in Atlanta but Bob is in Houston but Angela is in Dallas].
Smith [hit the ball but failed to get to first base].
We saw [many eagles but no falcons].

4. Explain why the following sentence is ambiguous:

We know the men and the women know the children.
Note: The verb know is ambiguous because it allows two different sorts of complements:
NPs and CPs.
5. Though the two sentences below have virtually the same structure, the presence of that allows
a different interpretation. Draw tree diagrams that make the difference clear:
Jones knows that Blake fries hamburgers and that Ali peels potatoes.
Jones knows that Blake fries hamburgers and Ali peels potatoes.
6. Decide whether the first sentence is derived from the second:
Few people belong to the Assembly of God and drink bourbon.
Few people belong to the Assembly of God and few people drink bourbon.
7. Decide whether the first sentence is derived from the second:
Few people belong to the Assembly of God and drink bourbon.
Few people belong to the Assembly of God and few people drink bourbon.

47

8.2. Ellipsis
1. Underline the repeated material and rephrase so as to avoid repetition. There may be more than
one solution:
Model:
I plan to spend the weekend studying and my room-mate plans to spend the
weekend studying, too.
I and my room-mate plan to spend the weekend studying.
1. Our team scored more points at tonights match than our team scored at last weeks
match. Nevertheless, our team won last weeks match but our team lost tonights
match.
2. There were a few acceptable sculptures at the exhibition; there were far more
appalling sculptures at the exhibition.
3. I think Ill go for a boat ride on the canals when I visit Amsterdam. I went for a boat
ride on the canals the last time I went to Amsterdam and I enjoyed the boat ride
immensely.
4. You neednt wait for Agnes to come home if you dont feel like waiting for Agnes to
come home. Of course I neednt wait for Agnes to come home. Agnes has already
come home.
5. Didnt Rita say that Rita was going to wash the car? Rita said that Rita was going
to wash he car, but Rita decided not to wash the car. Rita wants Alfred to wash the car
tomorrow, Alfred had better wash the car tomorrow!
6. Why didnt you bring your CDs? You said you would bring your CDs and everyone
was counting on your bringing your CDs. You really should have brought your CDs,
you know.
7. Will someone be at the airport to meet you? I hope someone will be at the airport
to meet me, but if nobody is at the airport to meet me, I can always take a taxi.
Heaven forbid that you should take a taxi!
8. He not only raved about his mothers cooking, he also tried to imitate his mothers
cooking. Although his attempts to imitate his mothers cooking were laudable, his
attempts to imitate his mothers cooking were not highly successful.
2. Which are the constituents elided, represent them by gaps:
Model:
We gave doughnuts to Angela and cookies to Fred.
We gave doughnuts to Angela and [e] [e] cookies to Fred.
Two constituents are elided: the subject NP and the object NP.
1. Today Jeremy goes to an art exhibition, Melissa to the Observatory, and the
Steinbergs to a Chopin recital.
2. Joe sent letters to Greta yesterday and to Martha today
3. Martha went to Austin on Thursday and Jane to Dallas on Friday.
4. She was poor but honest.
5. Peter planned and Jane paid for the holidays.
Note: The letter e stands for a gap or an empty position in the structure of the sentence.

48

3. We use a gapping comma to show that one or more words have been left out when the missing
words would simply repeat the words already used earlier in the same sentence. Here is an
example:
Model:

Roger had a good time at the circus, and Caroline had a good time at the cinema.
Roger had a good time at the circus and Caroline, at the cinema.
1. Italy is famous for her composers and musicians, France is famous for her chefs
and philosophers, and Poland is famous for her mathematicians and logicians.
2. Some Norwegians wanted to base their national language on the speech of the
capital city; others wanted to base it on the speech of the rural countryside.
3. Jack begged Elsie to get married and Wilfred begged Phoebe to get married.
4. Jack was given a railway set, and Jimmy was given a baby giraffe.

4. Account for the ungrammaticality of the following examples in which the gapping rule applied:
a. Joe knows that [I work in a factory] and [Sam, in an office]
b. *Joe knows [that I work in a factory] and [that Sam, in an office].
c. * [Pete likes meat], and I can guarantee that [Fred, bread]
d. *We had originally been told that [Sam nominated Pam], and we were later
informed that [Willis, Phyllis].
5. Insert BE, HAVE or TO wherever it is necessary:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

He hasnt been called in yet, but he might any day now.

She didnt tell us she had won, but we feel she must.
The children dont have to sit with the grown-ups if they dont want.
At first I refused to say what I had seen, but the police made me.
We may not have such a nice summer, and then again we may.
Were you really as nasty as you said you would.?
They have finally sold their house; I thought they never would
I dont think it was Steve who moved the piano, although he might
You are not as careful a driver as you ought to.
She could have tried once more, but she preferred not.

6. Why is long-distance ellipsis not possible:

1. *John seems fond of sweets, and Bill seems __ , too.
2. *Fred wanted Bill to mow the lawn, so we had him __.
3. *Beth believes that Fido should go on a diet, and we want to insist that the cat __,
too.
4. *Martha once thought that George would soon become the richest man in Texas, but
now its doubtful that he will ever become __.
Note: For long-distance ellipsis to apply, the left-hand context should contain BE, HAVE or
modals.
7. Extract the shared final phrase from each conjunct and put it at the right end of the conjoined
structure:
Model: Jane likes [NP the night watchman], but Bill doesnt like [NP the night watchman].
49

Jane likes_ , but Bill doesnt like _ , the night watchman.

Jane likes, but Bill doesnt like, the night watchman.
1. Bob is married to the Secretary of Transportation, but rarely eats lunch with the
Secretary of Transportation.
2. You seem ill and she certainly is ill.
3. George will take your course on dolphins and Mary might take your course on
dolphins.
4. John could have been listening to his favorite band, but he wasnt listening to his
favorite band.
5. John criticized that woman from Dublin and then Mary reassured that woman from
Dublin.
6. John doubted that Susan was happy, but Harry insisted that Susan was happy.
7. John was keen to get to the final competition, but harry was determined to get to the
final competition.
8. He passed on the theatre tickets to all his friends and Sam distributed the theatre
tickets to all his friends.
9. John gave to Mary the notes from Ruths course and subsequently Harry retrieved
from Sue the notes from Ruths course.
8. Legal English often uses coordination of nouns, adjectives or verbs with obligatory
prepositions. Avoid repetition by using ellipsis in the PP. First extract the identical material from
both PPs, add commas and then insert the extracted material:
Model: Collection of fines [PP from persons found guilty of tax evasions] and imprisonment [PP of
persons found guilty of tax evasions] is recommended in this document.
Collection of fines [from _ ] and imprisonment [of _ ] is recommended in this document.
Collection of fines from, and imprisonment of, persons found guilty of tax evasions is
recommended in this document.
1. There is no legal restriction which limits the validity or enforceability of this
Agreement, and no law, decree or regulation is contravened by this Agreement.
2. An otherwise privileged wire, oral, or electronic communication intercepted in
accordance with the provisions of this article or in violation of the provisions of this
article does not lose its privileged character
3. In our view, the essential nexus to damaging the integrity of government may be
found in acts which constitute corruption in official position or flagrant abuse of the
powers of official position.
4. The employee will not seek or produce orders from any person who is held in
custody or do business with any person who is held in custody.
http://versita.metapress.com/content/j70245n8741206k8/fulltext.pdf
9. Comment on the type of ellipsis:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Max prefers whisky and Charles brandy.

Teddy relies on me and I on him.
Peter must have broken in and stolen the papers.
Max will buy flowers for his mother-in-law and Bill for his wife.
Charlie went into the building at 5.30 and his wife an hour later.

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6. Fred appears to have managed to avoid coming to the linguistics class and Paul to the
English class.
7. Max was trying to begin to write a novel and Bill a play.
8. Betsy said that Alan went to the ballgame and Peter to the movie.
9. They hardly ever give a party, but when they do, they do.
10. He said he would arrive before seven, and he did.
11. Could you have been dreaming? I suppose I could have been.
12. She doesnt like olives, and neither do I.
13. Johns house is old, but Janes is new.
14. Our train is the second from this platform.
15. Many are called but few are chosen. (The Bible)
10. What types of phrases are conjoined and what kind of ellipsis has occurred:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

John should clean the shed, and Peter, mow the lawn.
I wanted to see your parents last week, but didnt get to.
They are able to make a contribution, but probably wont.
John could have been, but wasnt, watching his favorite program.
Brenda was the winner in 1971 and Robert in 1972.
The suggestion made Alice happy and Marcia angry.
Its cold in January in England but in July in New Zealand.
We discovered that John had been playing football and Alice, writing a letter.
George told us that he had discovered something interesting, but never told us what.
He hasnt phoned her yet, but I will.
Several of Johns jokes are as long as yours and as stale as Gordons.
My parents hoped I would study medicine, but I didnt want to.
He said hed write, but he hasnt.
Words are external to and independent of the thought expressed.
John laughed his last laugh and Bill laughed his, too.
I havent phoned her yet, but I will.

11. Comment on ellipsis and coordination structures in the following excerpt from play As You
Like It, Act 4, Scene 1, by William Shakespeare:
I have neither the scholars melancholy,
Which is emulation, nor the musicians,
Which is fantastical, nor the courtiers, which
Is proud, nor the soldiers, which is ambitious,
Nor the lawyers, which is politic,
Nor the ladys, which is nice, nor
The lovers, which is all these: but it is a melancholy of mine own.
12. Rephrase so as to have and so or and neithercoordination:
Model: Liza can dance beautifully, and her sister can dance beautifully, too.
Liza can dance beautifully, and her sister can ____ , too.
Liza can dance beautifully, and so can her sister.
1. Lorries cant use this street and buses cant use this street either.
2. You should be listening to the concert now and your friend should be listening to the
concert, too.
3. Liz wouldnt be able to attend the meeting and Martha wouldnt be able to attend the

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meeting, either.
4. She could answer that difficult question and he might answer that difficult question,
too.
5. I never learnt to swim and they never learnt to swim either.
6. I enjoy Anns company and Martin enjoys Anns company, too.
7. Britain does not agree and Denmark, Portugal and Ireland do not agree either.
8. The police arrived and the reporters and a photographer from the journal arrived, too.
SLUICING
Agnes wondered how John managed to cook a certain food, but its not clear what food.
Tony sent Mo a picture that he painted with a certain kind of brush, but its not clear with
what kind of brush.
13. Translate and comment on the coordination and ellipsis patterns in the following excerpts:
i nebuna de mtua Mrioara, dup mine, i eu fuga iepurete prin cnep, i ea pe
urma mea, pn la gardul din fundul grdinei, pe care neavnd vreme s-l sar, o cotigeam
napoi, iar prin cnep, fugind tot iepurete, i ea dup mine pn-n dreptul ocolului pe
unde-mi era iar greu de srit; pe cele laturi iar gard,i hrsita de mtua nu m las nici n
ruptul capului! Ct pe ce s puie mna pe mine! i eu fuga, i ea fuga, i eu fuga, i ea
fuga, pn ce dm cnepa toat palanc la pmnt []
(Ion Creang, Amintiri din copilrie)

Stejarul nu crete pretutindenea; buruienile n tot locul.

(M. Eminescu, Opera politica, II, MSS 2267)

Totul e nemrginit, durerea nu.

(M.Eminescu, MS 2254)

GLOSSARY
Adjunct:

an optional constituent of a sentence, such as adjectives, adverbs and adverbial

clauses:
I met Mary [AdvP yesterday].
adjunct
He bought [NP a new car].
adjunct

Anaphor:

a pronominal NP that refers to an antecedent. Examples are reflexive and reciprocal

pronouns:
[NP Jane ] admired
[NP herself] in the mirror.
antecedent
anaphor
[NP Jane ] and [NP Lucy ] helped [NP each other].
antecedent
anaphor

Argument:

a NP or a clause obligatorily required by a verb (in contrast with adjuncts which

are optional):
[NP John ] read [NP the newspaper] [PP in the garden].
argument
argument
adjunct
[The tutors] believe [that they are good students].

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argument

argument

Argument structure: the number of arguments (i.e. obligatory constituents) required by

a predicate: sneeze (1), see (2), give (3)
The baby sneezes.
They saw the man.
Mary gave Henry a letter.
Aspectual predicates: predicates denoting beginning, continuing and ending of an action: begin,
start, go on, continue, finish, stop, etc.
Clause:

the basic sentence unit consisting of a predicate and one or more arguments:
John laughed.

Constituent:

a word or a group of words functioning as a unit in a larger construction

Cognate Object: a type of Direct Object expressed by a NP similar in form and meaning with
the verb: to dream a dream, to smile a smile, to live a life, etc.
He lived [NP the life of a saint].
cognate object
Conjoined (also coordinated): used of two or more constituents of the same rank or type that
are linked together (usually with and)
[NPSam], [NPSue] and [NPJane] are leaving for London.
Coordination: the linking of two constituents of equal rank
Copulative verb (link verb/ linking verb): a verb such as be and become that is followed by a
predicative (realised by a NP, PP, AP or by a clause)
Determiner:

the broad category including the articles (a, the), demonstratives (that, these)
and quantifiers (all, three, etc.)

Direct Object: a NP or a clause functioning as the Object of a transitive verb or the second
Object of a ditransitive verb
He received [NP the message].
Direct Object
He gave [NP Mary]
[NP his dictionary].
Indirect Object Direct Object
Distribution: the set of positions in which a particular category can occur
[The old man] arrived later.
They had met [the old man].
They gave the keys to [the old man].
We rely on [the old man].
Ditransitive verb: a subclass of transitive verbs having two objects
He gave/ sent/ donated the money to Mary.
Expletive pronoun (also pleonastic pronouns): a dummy pronoun which cannot be replaced by
a NP but which fulfills a syntactic function (grammatical Subject or Object):

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It is clear that they know the answer.

The pronoun it has no meaning, but it serves as a dummy subject. It anticipates
the real subject of the sentence that they know the answer.
It is essential that they should understand the explanation.
gram. Su
semantic Su
They thought it necessary to increase production.
gram.O
semantic O
Extraposition: the movement of a constituent to the end of its clause
That they are friends is obvious.
It is obvious that they are good friends.
Ergative verb: see unaccusative verb
Grammatical relations: grammatically defined relations within a construction:
Subject
Mary is a my best friend.
Direct Object:
He helped Mary
Indirect Object:
He gave money to Mary.
He bought a book for Mary.
Prepositional Objects: He relies on Mary.
Complement
Modifiers:

Subject Complement or Predicative: Mary is a student

Object Complement: They consider her a genius.
Attributes or adjectival Modifiers: She has a brilliant idea.
Adverbial Modifiers of manner, time, place, reason, cause, etc.

Link verb (also copulative verb): a linking verb connects a Subject to a Subject Complement
which identifies or describes the subject:
She is my best friend.
Modifier:

a phrase inside another larger phrase that provides further information, but
which is not obligatorily required.

Object-filler: the pleonastic pronoun it occupying the position of the semantic Object, which is
moved further away in the sentence:
They consider it their duty that they should provide for their families.
Obj. filler
semantic DO
Periphrastic modal: in contrast to core modals which have no tense marking, periphrastic
modals (have to, be able to, be allowed to, be permitted to) can show tense
I must see Mary.
I have/had/will have to see Mary.
I may see Mary.
I am/ was/ will be allowed to see Mary
Polarity:

a two-way parameter, e.g. affirmative and negative

Predicate:

the central semantic unit of a proposition, requiring one or more arguments

Proposition:

a semantic unit consisting of a predicate, its arguments (or participants)

and any optional participant

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Subject-filler: the pleonastic pronoun it may occupy the subject position when the semantic
subject is moved (extraposed) from the initial position in the sentence:
That they are interested in music is obvious.
It is obvious that they are interested in music.
Thematic role (also theta role): the semantic role assigned to a NP or a clause by a verb,
adjective or other predicate (or sometimes by a preposition)
Unaccusative verb: a verb which has a Theme role for the subject position:
He opened the door.
(transitive verb)
AGENT
THEME
The door opened.
(unaccusative or ergative verb)
THEME
REFERENCES
Alexander, L. G (1995). Longman Advanced Grammar. Reference and Practice. Harlow England:
Longman.
Bantas, Andrei, Georgiana Galateanu, Doina Sachelarie (1979). Limba engleza prin exercitii
structurale. Modele verbale. Bucuresti: Editura Stiintifica si Enciclopedica.
***

1996, Grammar Patterns 1: Verbs. Harper Collins Cobuild Publishers, London

Coer C., Vulcnescu R. (2004). Developing Competence in English. Intensive English Practice,
Polirom, Iai.
Courtney Rosemary (1983). Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs, Longman Group.
Downing, Angela and Philip Locke (1995). A University Course in English Grammar. New York,
London, Toronto, Sydney, Tokyo, Singapore: Phoenix ELT.
Foley, Mark and Diane Hall (2003). Advanced Learners Grammar. London: Longman.
Gleanu, Georgiana, Ecaterina Comiel (1982). Gramatica limbii engleze, Editura Didactic i
Pedagogic, Bucureti.
Graver, B. D. (1975). Advanced English Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Jacobs, A. Roderick (1995). English Syntax. A Grammar for English LanguageProfessionals.
New York and Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Swan, Michael (1991). Practical English Usage. Oxford UK: Oxford University Press.
Thomson, A.J. and A. V. Martinet (1996). A Practical English Grammar. Exercises 1-2. Oxford
University Press.
Vince, Michael (1994). Advanced Language Practice. Wit Key. Oxford UK: Heinemann.

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