Introduction for Modern Accelerators

Principle and its Application

Takahisa Itahashi
Visiting Professor,
UNIVERSITY of SCIENCE-VNUHCM,
Faculty of Physics and Nuclear Technology

Part 1,

Accelerators, Principle and Components

Part 2,

Applications of Accelerators

Lecture guide; appeared in several slides beforehand,

such as references, required courses, and credits --- You will have occasionally small exams, after the end
of class and you will have to
present reports

Chapter 1. Accelerator and its principle

1.1 Introduction

Accelerators were developed along with a realization of scientific curiosity in

Nuclear Physics and in Elementary Physics
Scientific innovations have been brought about with advanced technologies in
Accelerator Science and Technologies.
These works have been more widely applied to various scientific subjects such as
Biology, Archeology, Astrophysics, Medical Science, Environmental Science and so
on.
Developments of compact and cost-effective accelerator are really crucial for these
studies
In Particle Physics new particles and ideas have been brought about by the
development of accelerators and various detectors
You should remember these developments to cope with the difficulties in existing
technologies; super-conducting magnet, RF cavities, ion source, and so on.
Realized ideas have been appeared in the several lectures in undergraduate courses;
such as Analytical Mechanics, Electricity and Magnetism.
Today cost effective and compact accelerators are needed in various scientific fields;
medical applications and nano-technologies.
This lecture includes the fundamental aspects of accelerator principle and I will focus
the physics ideas appeared in the specific performances of applied fields.
The main parts are concerned with Cyclic Accelerators and the other also with
Static Accelerators

The Linear Accelerator will be briefly mentioned about, and the references will be
listed up.

Various words appeared in this lecture are:

What is a charged particle ?
Ionization

Figure

Ions

What is an accelerator?
A machine for which a charge particle can be accelerated and transported by using the
Coulomb and /or Lorentz forces to increase the particle energy
Components of the accelerator
Production
Ion source
Transport
Beam line
Acceleration >>> Transport >>> Beam line
Irradiation
Target
Motion in the Electric Field
Motion in the Magnetic field
What is an ion beam ?
An ion beam is a flow of energetic ions, similar to the light.
Figure
Unit of the Energy,
Energy-Mass Equivalence Priciple

x
For proton, try the same ways ?
Through their Electromagnetic Interaction, Particles are accelerated.
Only electrically charged particles that are stable may be readily accelerated.
All accelerators must have a source of charges, a means for accelerating the charges, and
an evacuated ----.
Besides the particle species, the two parameters the energy and the particle flux.
The particle flux in an experiment is often referred to as the luminosity.
From the definition of cross section the rate(R) of event for a particular process, the
luminosity (L) times the cross section () for that process:

R = L
The units of luminosity are m -2 s-1

1.2 Birth of accelerator

It was based on the following background
Curiosity for nature -> invisible things-> The discovery of natural radio-activities
Chemical properties (periodic table) -> logical ways ->Matter->molecule-> atom
Observation of Cosmic ray (Hess received Nobel Prize in 1935) -> other direction from
accelerator->has become an interesting field of science
Natural particle sources such as Alpha-, beta-, gamma-, decays ->(means, expectation)
existing of internal structure, tiny constituents
As a tool,
Statistics and systematic would be not enough compared with laboratory
measurements, it will be experienced if you start the some studies
Reproduction and confirmation would be not so easy to realize the same
experimental condition
Model would be so sophisticated as not to elucidate the phenomena happened
in the studies
We need accelerators
Ion source, acceleration, potential, high voltage,

The acceleration principles are based upon

the Classical Electricity and Magnetism
The motion of Charged Particles
in the Electric Field
Acceleration of charged Particles
Deflection of Charged Particles
Focusing of Charged Particles

F=qE
By considering the acceleration, there appeared two types of accelerators such as
DC-accelerator and AC-accelerator
DC accelerator has a severe limit
to the obtainable energy due to the
applied voltage

1.3 Introduction of DC-Accelerator

Cathode ray tube

The apparatus is a kind of accelerator
By the way, do you know G.P. Thomson ?
Remember J.J.Thomson experiment for
discovery of electron
With C.J. Davisson he received Nobel-Prize
for an electron diffraction
Note the polarity of electron source, cathode
potential

I suppose E-field would be more

easier and familiar to deal with at
that period, 1930
1.3.1 Energy Units
The energy units of modern physics are derived from the unit of potential
difference in electricity, the volt(V). The definition of the volt is
1J
=
1 eV =
The electric force constant k in Coulombs law is measured
to be 8.99 x 109 J m/C2. Calculate the quantity ke2 in units of (Jm)
and (eVnm).
ke2 =
=
And

2.30x10-28J
=

= 1.44 eVnm

Calculate the strength of the electric field at a distance of 0.1 nm frm a proton
E=
=144 v/nm = 1.44x1011 V/m
this electric field is an extraordinaly big compared
with to fields accessible in the laboratory.

1.3.2Mass Energy

Consider the b particles (electrons) from the spontaneous decay of a heavy nuclei first
observed by Becqurel. These electrons did not exist before the nuclei dcayed. The
electrons are created in the decay process. The electrons are produced with a typical
kinetic energy of an MeV.
Where does this energy come from ?
The energy that the electron acquires was stored in the form of mass energy of the
decaying nucleus.
The total energy (E) of any particle is defined to be the sum of two parts: energy due
to motion, called the kinetic energy (E k), and Energy stored in mass, called the mass
energy (E0). Energy is defined in this manner,
Because this quantity is observed to be conserved in all particle interactions.
m/s
The electron mass energy is

x
eV

1.
2.
3.
4.

Similarly, the proton mass energy is ????

Calculate the electron mass in units of MeV/c2
Show explicitly the MeV/c2 has units by expressing it in kgs
The atomic number of hydrogen is A=1.00078. Calculate the mass energy of the
carbon atom (A=12) in electron volts. Estimate firstly the atomic mass unit, 1 u.

1.3.3 Binding Energy

Consider an electron and proton bound togather to form an atom of hydrogen. The energy
(E) required to separate the electron and proton to a large distance, work done against
the Coulomb force, is measured to be
E = 13.6 eV
What happens to this energy ?
The energy needed to ionize the hydrogen atom has been converted into mass energy.
The mass energy of the hydrogen atom (mHc2) is smaller than the sum of the mass
energies of the electron(mec2) plus (mp c2) by an amount equal to 13.6 eV:
mHc2 + 13.6 eV = m ec2 + mpc2

The difference between the mass energy of the components (the electron and the proton)
and the mass energyof the composite object (the hydrogen atom) is called the binding
energy (E b):
Eb = mec2 + mpc2 mHc2 = 13.6 eV
The binding energy is the amount of energy that must be provided inorder to break the
atom into its components. When this happens, the fractional change in mass ( mH/mH) of
the atom is

For most processes, we may neglect this change in the mass of the atom.

The experiment of J.J.Thomson

1.4 Cockcroft-Walton Type Accelerator

DC accelerator has been still used as an injector of the big accelerators, One of the
most valuable dc accelerator, well developed components such as capacitors, resistors,
and various protection parts
Old times 1930

1990 at PSI

Q.
Why do we use these old ideas until now ?
Ans. Good beam quality
Well established techniques
Simple assembly
Easy maintenance

 With the first proton accelerator, Cockroft and Walton observed the reaction
p + 7Li -> + .
Make an order-of-magnitude estimate of the proton energy required to initiate the
reaction p + 7Li -> +.
First consider conservation of energy. If the prton has zero kinetic energy, then the Q
value of the decay is
Q = mp c2 + mLi c2 mc2 mc2
or
Q = 938.3 MeV + 6533.9 MeV 3727.4 MeV 3727.4 MeV ~ 17 MeV
The Q value is positive, positive, so conservation of energy does not place a limit on
the proton energy threshold. The energy threshold limit comes from the Coulomb
barrier presented by the 7Li nucleus. If R is the nuclear radius, the energy threshold
for the proton to surmount this barrier is
=

be careful for h = h/2 here.

If we estimate R to be about 2 fm and use Z=3 for lithium

Ek =

= 2 MeV

Thus, the order of magnitude of the proton kinetic energy needed to cause the nuclear
reaction is 2 MeV.
Wave Nature -----

1.4.1 The structure of Cockcroft-Walton Accelerator

Fig 3.1 appeared in pp. 243 (a) schematic
representation of a cascade of C-W double circuits
(J.B.A. England )
The network A 0, A1, B0, B1, C0, C1, D0 and D1
constitutes a single-voltage doubling stage and by
operating several such stages in cascade a
corresponding increase in voltage is obtained at the
points A in these stages. Initially all the capacitors
are uncharged so that the voltages of all points -----.
1.4.2 The principle of C-W accelerator
In this single voltage doubling stage during the
first cycle of operation, assuming that no further
stages are coupled to it.
Suppose that in the first half-cycle the point B 0 is
negative with respect to A 0.
The point B1 attempts to follow point B0 and, since C 0 is uncharged, it becomes negative
with respect to A0 so that D0 conducts and point B 1 stays close to the voltage of point A 0.
The capacitor C 0 is thus charged to a total charge Q at the voltage V, where Q = C 0V.
This charging occurs so long as point B1 is slightly negative with respect to A0, that is,
during the first quarter of the cycle.
Once the voltage of B 0 passes the peak negative voltage, -V, and starts to rise towards
zero volts, B1 rises above A0, because C0 is now charged to a voltage +V, and D0 cuts off.
However, because A 1 is initially at the same voltage as A 0, B1 is now rising above A 1 in
voltage and so D 1 conducts and part of the charge Q on capacitor C 0 flows to A1 so that
C1 is now charged D1 continue to conduct so long as B1 is at a higher voltage than A 1,
that is, from the end of the first quarter of the cycle to the end of the third quarter. Once
B0 passes the peak positive voltage, +V, and starts to fall towards zero volts, D 1 ceases to
conduct and B 1 follows B 0 down until the voltage of B 1 passes zero volts when D 0 again
conducts and C0 is then recharged to the voltage +V. The process is repeated and after a
few cycles the points A 1, B0 and B 1 with time over the first few cycles is shown in figure.
Figure 3.1 (b).

1.5 The Van de Graaff generator

The electrostatic generator was conceived by Load Kelvin in 1890 and put into useful
practice in essentially its modern form by R. J. van de Graaff in 1931. Later this has been
changed into the Pelletron Accelerator by Herb (NEC)

charge

1.5.1 Principle based on Electricity and Magnetism

Gausss Law

Two conducting spheres

Connect each other--- equi-potential not zero

++++++
Q

=
(Vr VR ) =
Vr = VR

V_R

(q

Vr - VR = 0

+q+q+qq

1.5.2 Negative ion and positive ion; charged particles

What are they?
How do you make them?
These basic ideas are based on the collision of atoms with electrons

Neutral atoms collides with energetic electrons, bound electrons may easily stripped off,
or attached to and become charged particles, either positive or negative.
This is positive ion source
The other is negative ion source
The principle of positive ion source
Consider the electron of Hydrogen atom
The centrifugal force due to the Coulomb interaction between the electron and Hydrogen
nuclei, proton
mv2/r = e2/4e0r2
Bohrs theory for Quantum Theorem,
mvr = nh/2,
n = 1,2,3, ---Discrete radius of electron orbit is described as
rb = (e0h2/me2) n2 = a0n2
r1 = a0 = e0h2/me2 = 0.529 [Ao] Bohr radius

Total energy (W) of electron in these orbit is the sum of the kinetic energy (Tn) and
potential energy (Ue)
Tn = 1/2 mv2 = e2/8e0rn
Coulomb potential at radius rn
V = e/4 e0rn
Thus the potential energy of electron is
Ue = - e2/ 4e0rn
The total energy
Wn = Tn + Un = - (e2/8e0a0) 1/n2
Winf = 0
Wi = Winf W1 = 13.6 [eV]
We = Wn W1 = (e2/8e0a0)(1 1/n2)
Wn = - Ze2/8 e0a0 (1/n2) Z2e2/8e0a0 (1/n2)
Wi = Winf W1 = Z2e2/8e0a0

1.5.3 Basic Principles of the Charging Systems

The basic method for transferring charge to the final high voltage terminal in a Van de
Graaff type of electrostatic generator is a mechanical one.
Three different versions of this mechanical transport system are currently in operation.
The insulating endless belt
The Pelletron type of charging system

Paschen Law
Discharge in gas

High voltage
Basic principle of the charging systems
The method for transferring charge to the final
high-voltage terminal in a Van de Graaff type of
electrostatic generator is a mechanical way;
three different versions of this mechanical
transport systems are currently in operation.
The most widely used method is the insulating endless belt.
Molded rubberized fabric.
Uniform insulating properties
The belt and pulley system serves the dual purpose of transporting charge to the
terminal and of providing a source of low voltage power inside the terminal for auxulially
or ancillary equipment.
The normal method of placing the charge on the belt is by Corona discharge
This charge placed on the moving belt is then transported to the high voltage terminal
electrode, where it is removed by a second set of corona points or by a wire brush
rubbing on the belt.
The discharge in the gas or in air can provide either positive or negative charge on the
belt.
Charge currents of up to about 1 mA can be transported in this way at a belt speed of
about 25 ms-1.
The belt charging system in Van de Graaff generators are shown in fig. Fig. 3.3 appeared
in page 255.
The pellet system developed later by Herb has more advanced technologies and
advantages,
Induction not discharge
Single ended Van de Graaff

1.5.4 Tandem accelerators

(1) A terminal voltage V , the final energy {V(1+n)}eV
(2) The ion source and all its controls are outside the pressure vessel and at or near
ground potential.
1.5.5 Triple acceleration
Further increasing the final energy of the particles in a purely electrostatic accelerator
system
Only realized is triple three stage Van de Graaff
{V + V(1+n)}eV
(1) Negative ion produced and accelerated with V
Injected into Tan dem van de Graaff with V and V (1+n)
In total
(2)
positive ion produced and accelerated with small single ended machine at about
500 keV
and neutralized and inject into second tandem pass through adder canal in the negative
terminal and becomes negative ions which are then accelerated.
problem of negative helium ion

Positive or Negative ion source

1.5.6 Tan-dem Van de Graaff and negative ions

Stripper foils or
gas stripper

Charge
From negative
to positive

SF6 high pressure

Gas circulation
Purification

This is a further development of the Van de Graaff generator. The new feature is to
use the electrostatic potential twice over. First an extra electron is attached to a neutral
atom to create a negative ion. In recent years, there has been considerable development
and it is now possible to obtain negative ion sources for almost all elements (?). The
negative ion beam is injected at ground potential into the tandem. At the high-voltage
terminal the beam passes through a thin foil which strips at least two electrons from each

ion converting them to positive ions. They are then accelerated a second time back to
earth potential. The present-day record is held by the tandem at Oak Ridge, which
operates with 24.5 MV on the high-voltage terminal, but a machine called Vivitron is
under construction at Strasburg with a design voltage of 35 MeV.

6. VIVITRON in France
1.3.4 World highest voltage for a static
accelerator VIVITRON in France35 MV design
but operating voltage is 25 MV

K-22 HCMUNS Dec.2012

DC-Accelerator

47