Hard 2 Findv 2

HARD TO FIND INFORMATION ABOUT
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
(Contains both Hard to Find I and II)
April, 2003
Jim Burke distjimb@aol.com, JimBurke@synergeticdesign.com
Mke Marshall mwmarshall@aol.com
Dave Farmer dfarmers@earthlink.net
Synergetic Design
P.O. Box 411247
Charlotte, NC 28241
Synergetic Design
Table of Contents
I.
PREFACE.................................................................................................................................................6
II.
SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS AND PROTECTION ......................................................................7

A. INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................................7
B. FAULT LEVELS ......................................................................................................................................7
C. LOW IMPEDANCE FAULTS .....................................................................................................................8
D. HIGH IMPEDANCE FAULTS ....................................................................................................................8
E. SURFACE CURRENT LEVELS ..................................................................................................................9
F. RECLOSING AND INRUSH .......................................................................................................................9
G. COLD LOAD PICKUP ............................................................................................................................10
H. CALCULATION OF FAULT CURRENT.....................................................................................................11
I. RULES FOR APPLICATION OF FUSES .....................................................................................................12
J. CAPACITOR FUSING .............................................................................................................................13
K. CONDUCTOR BURNDOWN ...................................................................................................................14
L. DEVICE NUMBERS...............................................................................................................................15
M. PROTECTION ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................................................16
N. SIMPLE COORDINATION RULES ...........................................................................................................17
O. LIGHTNING CHARACTERISTICS ............................................................................................................18
P. ARC IMPEDENCE..................................................................................................................................19
III.
TRANSFORMERS ................................................................................................................................20
A.
B.
C.
D.
IV.
SATURATION CURVE ...........................................................................................................................20

INSULATION LEVELS ...........................................................................................................................20
-Y TRANSFORMER BANKS ................................................................................................................21
TRANSFORMER LOADING ....................................................................................................................21
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS ....................................................................................................23

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
TWO TYPES .........................................................................................................................................23

ACCURACY .........................................................................................................................................23
POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS ...............................................................................................................23
CURRENT TRANSFORMER ...................................................................................................................24
H-CLASS .............................................................................................................................................24
CURRENT TRANSFORMER FACTS .........................................................................................................24
GLOSSARY OF TRANSDUCER TERMS ...................................................................................................26
V.
RULES OF THUMB FOR UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOADS ...............................................28
VI.
CONDUCTORS AND CABLES...........................................................................................................29

A. CONDUCTOR CURRENT RATING ..........................................................................................................29
B. FACTS ON DISTRIBUTION CABLE .........................................................................................................29
C. IMPEDANCE OF CABLE ........................................................................................................................30
VII.
DSG GENERAL REQUIREMENTS ................................................................................................31
VIII.
DANGEROUS LEVELS OF CURRENT ............................................................................................32
IX.
CAPACITOR FORMULAS..................................................................................................................33
Synergetic Design
X.
EUROPEAN PRACTICES ...................................................................................................................35

A.
B.
C.
D.
XI.
PRIMARY.............................................................................................................................................35
RELAYS ...............................................................................................................................................35
EARTH FAULT PROTECTION ................................................................................................................36
GENERAL ............................................................................................................................................36
POWER QUALITY DATA...................................................................................................................38

A. MOMENTARIES....................................................................................................................................38
B. SAGS ...................................................................................................................................................38
C. POWER QUALITY ORGANIZATIONS ......................................................................................................38
XII.
ELECTRICITY RATES........................................................................................................................40
XIII.
COSTS ....................................................................................................................................................42
A. GENERAL ............................................................................................................................................42
XIV.
RELIABILITY DATA.......................................................................................................................... 44
XV.
INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL STUFF....................................................................................45
XVI.
MAXWELLS EQUATIONS................................................................................................................49
Hard to Find - Part II

XVII.
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................50
XVIII.
CONTENTS............................................................................................................................................50
XIX.
DISTRIBUTED RESOURCES .............................................................................................................51
XX.
RELIABILITY .......................................................................................................................................53
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TYPICAL EQUIPMENT FAILURE RATES .............................................................................................53

PRIMARY OUTAGE RATES ................................................................................................................53
EFFECT OF MAJOR EVENTS ..............................................................................................................53
INDICE DEFINITIONS .........................................................................................................................54
VOLTAGE SAGS ................................................................................................................................55
INTERRUPTION SURVEY ...................................................................................................................55
LOADING ..........................................................................................................................................55
XXI.
MODERN PHYSICS .............................................................................................................................56
XXII.
LOADING...............................................................................................................................................57
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
TRANSFORMER LOADING BASICS.....................................................................................................57

EXAMPLES OF SUBSTATION TRANSFORMER LOADING LIMITS ..........................................................58
DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS .......................................................................................................59
AMPACITY OF OVERHEAD CONDUCTORS .........................................................................................59
EMERGENCY RATINGS OF EQUIPMENT .............................................................................................60
MISCELLANEOUS LOADING INFORMATION .......................................................................................60
XXIII.
COMPUTER JARGON 101 .................................................................................................................63
XXIV.
DECIBELS..............................................................................................................................................65
Synergetic Design
XXV.
FAULTS AND INRUSH CURRENTS .................................................................................................66
XXVI.
CUSTOM POWER DEVICES .............................................................................................................67
XXVII. COST OF POWER INTERRUPTIONS ..............................................................................................68

XXVIII. COST OF SECTIONALIZING EQUIPMENT ...................................................................................69
XXIX.
MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT ...................................................................................................70
XXX.
MAJOR EVENTS..................................................................................................................................71
XXXI.
LINE CHARGING CURRENT ............................................................................................................72
XXXII. OVERCURRENT RULES ....................................................................................................................73
Synergetic Design
I.
Preface
There have been little tidbits of information I have accumulated over the years that have helped me
understand and analyze distribution systems. I have pinned them to my wall, taped them to my
computer, stuffed them in my wallet and alas, copied them for my students. Much of them are hard, if
not impossible, to find in any reference book. A large percentage of them could also be classified as
personal opinion so they should be used carefully. For whatever, I hope they are as useful to you as they
have been to me. Both the original Hard-to-Find I and Hard-to-Find II are contained in this document.
Synergetic Design
II. System Characteristics and Protection

A. Introduction
The distribution system shown below illustrates many of the features of a distribution system making it
unique. The voltage level of a distribution system can be anywhere from about 5 kV to as high as 35 kV
with the most common voltages in the 15 kV class. Areas served by a given voltage are proportional to
the voltage itself indicating that, for the same load density, a 35 kV system can serve considerably longer
lines. Lines can be as short as a mile or two and as long as 20 or 30 miles. Typically, however, lines are
generally 10 miles or less. Short circuit levels at the substation are dependent on voltage level and
substation size. The average short circuit level at a distribution substation has been shown, by survey, to
be about 10,000 amperes. Feeder load current levels can be as high as 600 amperes but rarely exceed
about 400 amperes with many never exceeding a couple of hundred amperes. Underground laterals are
generally designed for 200 amperes of loading but rarely approach even half that value. A typical lateral
load current is probably 50 amperes or less even during cold load pickup conditions.
B. Fault Levels
There are two types of faults, low impedance and high impedance. A high impedance fault is considered
to be a fault that has a high Z due to the contact of the conductor to the earth, i.e., Zf is high. By this
definition, a bolted fault at the end of a feeder is still classified as a low impedance fault. A summary of
findings on faults and their effects is as follows:
138 kV Distribution
Substation Transformer
ISC = 10,000 A
13.8 kV
Feeder Breaker
Peak Load = 600 Amps
Three Phase, 4-Wire,

Multigrounded Fuse Cutout
S
Normally Open Tie Switch
Distribution
Transformers
4-15 Holmes/Transformer
Single Phase Sectionalizer
Fixed Capacitor Bank
Three Phase Recloser
R
Switched Capacitor
Bank (=600 kVAR)
Faulted Circuit Indicator
FCI
FCI
Normally Open Tie
Underground Lateral
Normally Open Tie
Pothead
Elbow Disconnect
Figure 1. Typical distribution system
Synergetic Design
C. Low Impedance Faults

Low impedance faults or bolted faults can be either very high in current magnitude (10,000 amperes or
above) or fairly low, e.g., 300 amperes at the end of a long feeder. Faults able to be detected by normal
protective devices are all low impedance faults. These faults are such that the calculated value of fault
current assuming a "bolted fault and the actual are very similar. Most detectable faults, per study data,
do indeed show that fault impedance is close to 0 ohms. This implies that the phase conductor either
contacts the neutral wire or that the arc to the neutral conductor has a very low impedance. An EPRI
study performed by the author over 10 years ago indicated that the maximum fault impedance for a
detectable fault was 2 ohms or less. Figure 2, shown below, indicates that 2 ohms of fault impedance
influences the level of fault current depending on location of the fault. As can be seen, 2 ohms of fault
impedance considerably decreases the level of fault current for close in faults but has little effect for
faults some distance away. What can be concluded is that fault impedance does not significantly
affect faulted circuit indicator performance since low level faults are not greatly altered.
FAULT LEVEL vs. DISTANCE

Fault Current in Amps
10000
Bolted Fault
1000
Z Fault = 2 Ohms
100
0
10
15
20
DISTANCE IN MILES (FROM SUBSTATION)
Figure 2. Low impedance faults
D. High Impedance Faults

High impedance faults are faults that are low in value, i.e., generally less than 100 amperes due to the
impedance between the phase conductor and the surface on which the conductor falls. Figure 3, shown
below, illustrates that most surface areas whether wet or dry do not conduct well. If one considers the
fact that an 8 foot ground rod sunk into the earth more often than not results in an impedance of 100
ohms or greater, then it is not hard to visualize the fact that a conductor simply lying on a surface cannot
be expected to have a low impedance. These faults, called high impedance faults, do not contact the
neutral and do not arc to the neutral. They are not detectable by any conventional means and are not to
be considered at all in the evaluation of FCIs and most other protective devices.
Synergetic Design
REINFORCED
CONCRETE
E. Surface Current Levels

Current Level in Amperes
20
WET GRASS
DRY GRASS
DRY SOD
40
WET SAND
60
WET SOD
DRY ASPHALT , CONCRETE OR DRY SAND
80
Type of Surface
Figure 3. High impedance fault current levels
F. Reclosing and Inrush

On most systems where most faults are temporary, the concept of reclosing and the resulting inrush
currents are a fact of life. Typical reclosing cycles for breakers and reclosers are different and are shown
below in Figure 4.
"Fast" Operations
(Contacts Closed)
"Time Delay" Operations

(Contacts Closed)
Fault
Current
Load Current
2 Sec
2 Sec
Recloser
Lockout
2 Sec
(Contacts
Open)
(Contacts
Closed)
Fault
Initiated
Time
Reclosing Intervals
(Contacts Open)
Line Recloser
Isc
30
Cycles
5
Seconds
15
Seconds
30
Seconds
Dead Time
Current vs. Time
Feeder Breaker Reclosing

Figure 4. Reclosing sequences
Synergetic Design
These reclosing sequences produce inrush primarily resulting from the connected transformer kVA. This
inrush current is high and can approach the actual fault current level in many instances. Figure 5 shows
the relative magnitude of these currents. What keeps most protective devices from operating is that the
duration of the inrush is generally short and as a consequence will not melt a fuse or operate a time delay
relay.
G. Cold Load Pickup

Cold load pickup, occurring as the result of a permanent fault and long outage, is often maligned as the
cause of many protective device misoperations. Figure 6, shown below, illustrates several cold load
pickup curves developed by various sources. These curves are normally considered to be composed of
the following three components:
P.U. of Full Load
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Transformers
Laterals
Feeders
Location
Figure 5. Magnitudes of inrush current

1)
2)
3)
Inrush lasting a few cycles

Motor starting lasting a few seconds
Loss of diversity lasting many minutes.
When a lateral fuse misoperates, it is probably not the result of this loss of diversity, i.e., the fuse is
overloaded. This condition is rare on most laterals. Relay operation during cold load pickup is generally
the result of a trip of the instantaneous unit and probably results from high inrush. Likewise, an FCI
operation would not appear to be the result of loss of diversity but rather the high inrush currents. Since
inrush occurs during all energization and not just as a result of cold load pickup, it can be concluded that
cold load pickup is not a major factor in the application of FCls.
10 Synergetic Design
%
Figure 6. Cold-load inrush current characteristics for distribution circuits
H. Calculation of Fault Current
Line Faults Line-to-neutral fault =
3 2 l
Where Z is the line impedance and 2Z is the loop impedance assuming the impedance of the phase
conductor and the neutral conductor are equal (some people use a 1.5 factor).
Line-to-Line Faults =
2l
Transformer Faults Line-to-neutral or three phase =
3
Line-to-Line =
2( + l )
where
ZT =
Synergetic Design
l = R L2 + 2L
Z T % 10 E 2
kVA
11
I. Rules for Application of Fuses

1)
Cold load pickup -
2)
"Damage" curve - 75% of minimum melt
3)
Two expulsion fuses cannot be coordinated if the available fault current is great enough
to indicate an interruption of less than .8 cycles.
4)
T - SLOW and "K - FAST
5)
Current limiting fuses can be coordinated in the sub-cycle region.
6)
Capacitor protection:
7)
after 15 minute outage, 200% for.5 seconds

140% for 5 seconds
after 4 hrs, all electric 300% for 5 minutes
The fuse should be rated for 165% of the normal capacitor current. The fuse should
also clear within 300 seconds for the minimum short circuit current.
If current exceeds the maximum case rupture point, a current limiting fuse must be
used.
Current limiting fuses should be used if a single parallel group exceeds 300 KVAR.
Transformer
Inrush - 12 times for .1 sec.
25 times for .01 sec.
Self protected - primary fuse rating is 10 to 14 times continuous when secondary

breaker is used.
Self protected - weak link is selected to be about 2 1/2 times the continuous when no
secondary breaker is used (which means that minimum melt is in the area of 4 to 6
times rating).
Conventional - primary fuse rated 2 to 3 times.
General Purpose current limiting - 2 to 3 times continuous.
Back-Up current limiting - the expulsion and CLF are usually coordinated such that
2
the minimum melt I t of the expulsion fuse is equal to or less than that of the back up
CLF.
8)
Conductor burn down - not as great a problem today because loads are higher and
hence conductors are larger.
9)
General purpose - one which will successfully clear any current from its rated maximum
interrupting current down to the current that will cause melting of the fusible element in
one hour.
10)
Back up - one which will successfully clear any current from its rated maximum
interrupting down to the rated minimum interrupting current, which may be at the 10
second time period on the minimum melting time-current curve.
11)
CLF - approximately 1/4 cycle operation; can limit energy by as much as 60 to 1.
12)
Weak link - in oil is limited to between 1500 and 3500 amperes.
13)
Weak link - in cutout is limited to 6000 to 15000 asymmetrical.
14)
Lightning minimum fuse (12T-SLOW), (25K-FAST).
15)
Energy stored in inductance = Li
16)
The maximum voltage produced by a C.L. fuse typically will not exceed 3.1 times the
fuse rated maximum voltage.
17)
The minimum sparkover allowed for a gapped arrester is 1.5 x 1.414 = 2.1 times arrester
rating.
18)
General practice is to keep the minimum sparkover of a gapped arrester at about 2.65 x
arrester rating.
19)
MOVs do not have a problem with CLF kick voltages.
J. Capacitor Fusing
1)
Purpose of fusing:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2)
to isolate faulted bank from system

to protect against bursting
to give indication
to allow manual switching (fuse control)
to isolate faulted capacitor from bank
Recommended rating:
a. The continuous-current capability of the fuse should be at least 165 percent of
the normal capacitor-bank (for delta and floating wye banks the factor may be
reduced to 150 percent if necessary).
b. The total clearing characteristics of the fuse link must be coordinated with the
capacitor case bursting curves.
3)
Tests have shown that expulsion fuse links will not satisfactorily protect against violent
rupture where the fault current through the capacitor is greater than 5000 amperes.
4)
The capacitor bank may be connected in a floating wye to limit short-circuit current to
less than 5000 amperes.
5)
Inrush - for a single bank, the inrush current is always less than the short-circuit value at
the bank location.
Synergetic Design
13
6)
Inrush - for parallel banks, the inrush current is always much greater than for a single
bank.
7)
Expulsion fuses offer the following advantages:

a. they are inexpensive and easily replaced.
b. offers a positive indication of operation.
8)
Current limiting fuses are used where:

a. a high available short circuit exceeds the expulsion or non-vented fuse rating.
b. a current limiting fuse is needed to limit the high energy discharge from adjacent
parallel capacitors effectively.
c. a non-venting fuse is needed in an enclosure.
9)
The fuse link rating should be such that the link will melt in 300 seconds at 240 to 350
percent of normal load current.
10)
The fuse link rating should be such that it melts in one second at not over 220 amperes
and in .015 seconds at not over 1700 amperes.
11)
The fuse rating must be chosen through the use of melting time-current characteristics
curves, because fuse links of the same rating, but of different types and makes have a
wide variation in the melting time at 300 seconds and at high currents.
12)
Safe zone usually greater damage than a slight swelling.

a. Zone 1 - suitable for locations where case rupture/or fluid leakage would present
no hazard.
b. Zone 2 - suitable for locations which have been chosen after careful consideration
of possible consequences associated with violent case ruptures.
c. Hazardous zone unsafe for most applications. The case will often rupture with
sufficient violence to damage adjacent units.
13)
Manufacturers normally recommend that the group fuse size be limited by the 50%
probability curve or the upper boundary of Zone 1.
14)
Short circuit current in an open wye bank is limited to approximately 3 times normal
current.
15)
Current limiting fuses can be used for delta or grounded wye banks provided there is
sufficient short circuit current to melt the fuse within cycle.
K. Conductor Burndown
Conductor burndown is a function of (1) conductor size (2) whether the wire is bare or covered (3) the
magnitude of the fault current (4) climatic conditions such as wind and (5) the duration of the fault
current.
If burndown is less of a problem today than in years past it must be attributed to the trend of using
heavier conductors and a lesser use of covered conductors. However, extensive outages and hazards to
life and property still occur as the result of primary lines being burned down by flashover, tree branches
failing on lines, etc. Insulated conductors, which are used less and less, anchor the arc at one point and
thus are the most susceptible to being burned down. With bare conductors, except on multi-grounded
neutral circuits, the motoring action of the current flux of an arc always tends to propel the arc along the
line away from the power source until the arc elongates sufficiently to automatically extinguish itself.
However, if the arc encounters some insulated object, the arc will stop traveling and may cause line
burndown.
With tree branches falling on bare conductors, the arc may travel away and clear itself; however, the arc
will generally re-establish itself at the original point and continue this procedure until the line burns down
or the branch falls off the line. Limbs of soft spongy wood are more likely to burn clear than hard wood.
However one-half inch diameter branches of any wood, which cause a flashover, are apt to burn the lines
down unless the fault is cleared quickly enough.
Figure 7 shows the burndown characteristics of several weatherproof conductors. Arc damage curves
are given as arc is extended by traveling along the phase wire, it is extinguished but may be reestablished across the original path. Generally, the neutral wire is burned down.
Figure 7. Burndown characteristics of several weatherproof conductors
L. Device Numbers
The devices in the switching equipment are referred to by numbers, with appropriate suffix letters (when
necessary), according to the functions they perform. These numbers are based on a system which has
been adopted as standard for automatic switchgear by the American Standards Association.
Synergetic Design
15
Device No.
Function and Definition
11
CONTROL POWER TRANSFORMER is a transformer which

serves as the source of a-c control power for operating a-c devices.
24
BUS-TIE CIRCUIT BREAKER serves to connect buses or bus

sections together.
27
A-C UNDERVOLTAGE RELAY is one which functions on a given

value of single-phase a-c under voltage.
43
TRANSFER DEVICE is a manually operated device which transfers

the control circuit to modify the plan of operation of the switching
equipment or of some of the devices.
50
SHORT-CIRCUIT SELECTIVE RELAY is one which function

instantaneously on an excessive value of current.
51
A-C OVERCURRENT RELAY (inverse time) is one which functions

when the current in an a-c circuit exceeds a given value.
52
A-C CIRCUIT BREAKER is one whose principal function is usually

to interrupt short-circuit or fault currents.
64
GROUND PROTECTIVE RELAY is one which functions on failure

of the insulation of a machine, transformer or other apparatus to
ground. This function is, however, not applied to devices 51N and
67N connected in the residual or secondary neutral circuit of current
transformers.
67
A-C POWER DIRECTIONAL OR A-C POWER DIRECTIONAL

OVERCURRENT RELAY is one which functions on a desired value
of power flow in a given direction or on a desired value of
overcurrent with a-c power flow in a given direction.
78
PHASE-ANGLE MEASURING RELAY is one which functions at a

predetermined phase angle between voltage and current.
87
DIFFERENTIAL CURRENT RELAY is a fault-detecting relay which

functions on a differential current of a given percentage or amount.
M. Protection Abbreviations
CS -Control Switch
X - Auxiliary Relay
Y - Auxiliary Relay
YY - Auxiliary Relay
Z - Auxiliary Relay
1)
To denote the location of the main device in the circuit or the type of circuit in which the device is
used or with which it is associated, or otherwise identify its application in the circuit or equipment,
the following are used:
N Neutral
SI - Seal-in
2)
To denote parts of the main device (except auxiliary contacts as covered under below), the
following are used:
H - High set unit of relay
L - Low set unit of relay
OC - Operating coil
RC - Restraining coil
TC - Trip coil
3)
To denote parts of the main device such as auxiliary contacts (except limit-switch contacts
covered under 3 above) which move as part of the main device and are not actuated by external
means. These auxiliary switches are designated as follows:
a" - closed when main device is in energized or operated position
"b - closed when main device is in de-energized or non-operated position.
4)
To indicate special features, characteristics, the conditions when the contacts operate, or are
made operative or placed in the circuit, the following are used:
AERHRMTDCTDDOTDO-
Automatic
Electrically Reset
Hand Rest
Manual
Time-delay Closing
Time-delay Dropping Out
Time-delay Opening
To prevent any possible conflict, one letter or combination of letters has only one meaning on
individual equipment. Any other words beginning with the same letter are written out in full each
time, or some other distinctive abbreviation is used.
N. Simple Coordination Rules

3 Main
Time Overcurrent Pickup

2x Load
2x Load (Minimum)
1 Lateral
2x Full Load
(Minimum)
2x Full Load
(Minimum)
Figure 8. Burke 2X rule
Synergetic Design
17
There are few things more confusing in distribution engineering than trying to find out rules of overcurrent
coordination, i.e., what size fuse to pick or where to set a relay, etc. The patented (just kidding) Burke 2X
Rule states that when in doubt pick a device of twice the rating of what it is you're trying to protect as
shown in Figure 8. This rule picks the minimum value you should normally consider and is generally as
good as any of the much more complicated approaches you might see. For various reasons, you might
want to go higher than this, which is usually OK. To go lower, you will generally get into trouble. Once
exception to this rule is the fusing of capacitors where minimum size fusing is important to prevent case
rupture.
O. Lightning Characteristics
1)
Stroke currents
a.
b.
c.
Maximum - 220,000 amperes

Minimum - 200 amperes
Average-10,000 to 15,000 amperes
2)
Rise times 1 to 100 microseconds
3)
Lightning polarity - approximately 95% are negative
4)
Annual variability (Empire State Building)

a. Maximum number of hits
b. Average
c. Minimum
50
21
3
5)
Direct strokes to T line - 1 per mile per year with keraunic levels between 30 and 65.
6)
Lightning discharge currents in distribution arresters on primary distribution lines

(composite of urban and rural)
Max. measured to date
I% of records at least
5% of records at least
7)
approx. 40,000 amps

22,000 amps
10,500 amps
6,000 amps
1,500 amps
Percent of distribution arresters receiving lightning currents at least as high as in Col. 4.

Table 2
Col. 1
Urban Circuits
Col. 2
Semi-urban Circuits
Col. 3
Rural Circuits
Col. 4
Discharge Circuits
20%
35%
45%
1,000 amps
1.6%
7%
12%
5,000 amps
.55%
3.5%
6%
10,000 amps
.12%
.9%
2.4%
20,000 amps
.4%
40,000 amps
8)
Number of distribution arrester operations per year (excluding repeated operations on

multiple strokes).
Average on different systems - range
Max. recorded
Max. number of successive
operations of one arrester
during one multiple lightning
stroke -
.5 to 1.1 per year

6 per year
12 operations.
P. Arc Impedence
While arcs are quite variable, a commonly accepted value for currents between 70 and 20,000 amperes
has been an arc drop of 440V per foot, essentially independent of current magnitude.
Zarc =
440 l / I
l = length of arc (in feet)
I = current
Assume:
IF = 500 amperes = I
Arc length = 2 ft.
Zarc =
440 2/5000
Synergetic Design
= .176 ohms
Arc impedance is pretty small.
19
III.
Transformers
A. Saturation Curve
Figure 9
B. Insulation Levels
The following table gives the American standard test levels for insulation of distribution transformers.
Table 3
Windings
Bushings
Impulse Tests
(1.2 x 50 Wave)
Bushing Withstand Voltages
Chopped Wave
Insulation
Class and
Nominal
Bushing
Rating
Lowfrequency
Dielectric
Tests
kV
kV
kV
1.2
10
36
Minimum Time to
Flashover
Full
Wave
60-cycle Oneminute Dry
60-cycle 10second Wet
Impulse 1.2 x 50
Wave
Microseconds
kV
kV (Rms)
kV (Rms)
kV (Crest)
1.0
10
10
30
21
20
60
5.0
19
69
1.5
60
8.66
26
88
1.6
75
27
24
75
1.8
95
35
30
95
70
60
150
15.0
34
110
25.0
40
145
1.9
125
34.5
70
175
3.0
150
95
95
200
3.0
250
120
120
250
3.0
350
175
175
350
46.0
69.0
95
140
290
400
C. -Y Transformer Banks
The following is a review of fault current magnitudes for various secondary faults on a -Y transformer
bank connection:
Figure 10. -Y transformer banks
D. Transformer Loading
When the transformer is overloaded, the high temperature decreases the mechanical strength and
increases the brittleness of the fibrous insulation. Even though the insulation strength of the unit may not
be seriously decreased, transformer failure rate increases due to this mechanical brittleness.
Insulation life of the transformer is where it loses 50% of its tensile strength. A transformer
may continue beyond its predicted life if it is not disturbed by short circuit forces, etc.
The temperature of top oil should never exceed 100 degrees C for power transformers with a
55 degree average winding rise insulation system. Oil overflow or excessive pressure could
result.
The temperature of top oil should not exceed 110C for those with a 65C average winding
rise.
Hot spot should not exceed 150C for 55C systems and 180C for 65C systems. Exceeding
these temperature could result in free bubbles that could weaken dielectric strength.
Peak short duration loading should never exceed 200%.
Synergetic Design
21
Standards recommend that the transformer should be operated for normal life expectancy.
In the event of an emergency, a 2.5% loss of life per day for a transformer may be
acceptable.
Percent Daily Load for Normal Life Expectancy with 30C Cooling Air
Table 4
Duration of
Peak load
Hours
0.5
1
2
4
8
Self-cooled with % load before peak of:

50%
189
158
137
119
108
70%
178
149
132
117
107
90%
164
139
124
113
106
IV.
Instrument Transformers
A. Two Types
1) Potential (Usually 120v secondary)
2) Current (5 amps secondary at rated primary current)
B. Accuracy
3 factors will influence accuracy:
1) Design and construction of transducer
2) Circuit conditions (V, I and f)
3) Burden (in general, the higher the burden, the greater the error)
C. Potential Transformers
IN
OUT
RCF=
True Ratio
Marked Ratio
(RCF generally >1)
Burden is measured in VA VA =
E
Zb
Assume:
10:1
10V
True Ratio =
10
.9
.9v
= 11.1
RCF =
Marked Ratio =
Synergetic Design
Zb
10
1
11.1
10
= 1.11
= 10
23
Voltage at secondary is low and must be compensated by 11% to get the actual primary voltage using
the marked ratio.
D. Current Transformer
True Ratio = Marked Ratio X RCF
True Ratio
RCF =
Marked Ratio
E. H-Class
Vs is fixed
Is varies
Nearly constant ratio error in %
Burdens are in series

e.g. 10H200 10% error @ 200V
20 (5 amp sec) = 100 amps Zb = 200/100 = 2
5 amps to 100 amps has 10% error if Zb = 4
OR
If Zb = 4
200V/4
= 50 amp (10 times normal)
H-class constant magnitude error (variable %)

L-class constant % error (variable magnitude)
Example:
True Ratio = Marked Ratio X RCF
Assume Marked is 600/5 or 120:1 at rated amps and 2 ohms
5 amp
1.002 and 1.003 are from

manuf. chart
@ 100% amps True = 120 X 1.002 X 5 secondary

primary = 600 X 1.002 = 601.2
@ 20% amps True = 600 X .2 X 1.003 = 120.36 (Marked was 120)
F. Current Transformer Facts

1)
Bushing CTs tend to be accurate more on high currents (due to large core and less saturation)
than other types.
2)
At low currents, BCT's are less accurate due to their larger exciting currents.
3)
Rarely, if ever, is it necessary to determine the phase-angle error.
4)
Accuracy calculations need to be made only for three-phase and single-phase to ground faults.
5)
CT burden decreases as secondary current increases, because of saturation in the magnetic

circuits of relays and other devices. At high saturation, the impedance approaches the dc
resistance.
6)
It is usually sufficiently accurate to add series burden impedance arithmetically.
7)
The reactance of a tapped coil varies as the square of the coil turns, and the resistance varies
approximately as the turns.
8)
Impedance varies as the square of the pickup current.
9)
Burden impedance are always connected in wye.
10)
"Ratio correction factor is defined as that factor by which the marked ratio of a current
transformer must be multiplied to obtain the true ratio. These curves are considered standard
application data.
11)
The secondary-excitation-curve method of accuracy determination does not lend itself to general
use except for bushing-type, or other, CT's with completely distributed secondary leakage, for
which the secondary leakage reactance is so small that it may be assumed to be zero.
12)
The curve of rms terminal voltage versus rms secondary current is approximately the secondaryexcitation curve for the test frequency.
13)
ASA Accuracy Classification:

a. Method assumes CT is supplying 20 times its rated secondary current to its burden.
b. The CT is classified on the basis of the maximum rms value of voltage that it can
maintain at its secondary terminals without its ratio error exceeding a specified amount.
c.
"H" stands for high internal secondary impedance.
d. "L" stands for low internal secondary impedance (bushing type).

e. 10H800 means the ratio error is l0% at 20 times rated voltage with a maximum
secondary voltage of 800 and high internal secondary impedance.
f.
Burden (max) - maximum specified voltage/20 x rated sec.
g. The higher the number after the letter, the better the CT.
h. A given l200/5 busing CT with 240 secondary turns is classified as l0L400: if a 120-turn
completely distributed tap is used, then the applicable classification is 10L200.
i.
For the same voltage and error classifications, the H transformer is better than the L for
currents up to 20 times rated.
Synergetic Design
25
G. Glossary of Transducer Terms

Voltage Transformers - are used whenever the line voltage exceeds 480 volts or whatever lower
voltage may be established by the user as a safe voltage limit. They are usually rated on a basis of 120
volts secondary voltage and used to reduce primary voltage to usable levels for transformer-rated
meters.
Current Transformer - usually rated on a basis of 5 amperes secondary current and used to reduce
primary current to usable levels for transformer-rated meters and to insulate and isolate meters from high
voltage circuits.
Current Transformer Ratio - ratio of primary to secondary current. For current transformer rated 200:5,
ratio is 200:5 or 40: 1.
Voltage Transformer Ratio - ratio of primary to secondary voltage. For voltage transformer rated
480:120, ratio is 4:1, 7200:120 or 60:1.
Transformer Ratio (TR) - total ratio of current and voltage transformers. For 200:5 C.T. and 480:120
P.T., TR = 40 x 4 = 160.
Weatherability - transformers are rated as indoor or outdoor, depending on construction (including
hardware).
Accuracy Classification - accuracy of an instrument transformer at specified burdens. The number
used to indicate accuracy is the maximum allowable error of the transformer for specified burdens. For
example, 0.3 accuracy class means the maximum error will not exceed 0.3% at stated burdens.
Rated Burden - the load which may be imposed on the transformer secondaries by associated meter
coils, leads and other connected devices without causing an error greater than the stated accuracy
classification.
Current Transformer Burdens - normally expressed in ohms impedance such as B0.1,B-0.2,B-0.5,B0.9,or B-1.8.Corresponding volt-ampere values are 2.5, 5.0, 12.5, 22.5, and 45.
Voltage Transformer Burdens - normally expressed as volt-amperes at a designated power factor.
May be W, X, M, Y, or Z where W is 12.5 V.A. @ 0. 1Opf; X is 25 V.A. @ 0.70pf, M is 35 V.A. @ 0.20 pf,
Y is 75 V.A. @ 0.85pf and Z is 200 V.A. @0.85 pf. The complete expression for a current transformer
accuracy classification might be 0.3 at BO. 1, B-0.2, and B-0. 5, while the potential transformer might be
0.3 at W, X, M, and Y.
Continuous Thermal Rating Factor (TRF) - normally designated for current transformers and is the
factor by which the rated primary current is multiplied to obtain the maximum allowable primary current
without exceeding temperature rise standards and accuracy requirements. Example - if a 400:5 CT has
a TRF of 4.0, the CT will continuously accept 400 x 4 or 1600 primary amperes with 5 x 4 or 20 amperes
from the secondary. The thermal burden rating of a voltage transformer shall be specified in terms of the
maximum burden in volt-amperes that the transformer can carry at rated secondary voltage without
exceeding a given temperature rise.
Rated Insulation Class - denotes the nominal (line-to-line) voltage of the circuit on which it should be
used. Associated Engineering Company has transformers rated for 600 volts through 138 kV.
Polarity - the relative polarity of the primary and secondary windings of a current transformer is indicated
by polarity marks (usually white circles), associated with one end of each winding. When current enters
at the polarity end of the primary winding, a current in phase with it leaves the polarity end of the
secondary winding. Representation of primary marks on wiring diagrams are shown as black squares.
Hazardous Open-Circulating - operation of CTs with the secondary winding open can result in a high
voltage across the secondary terminals which may be dangerous to personnel or equipment. Therefore,
the secondary terminals should always be short circuited before a meter is removed from service. This
may be done automatically with a by-pass in the socket or by a test switch for A-base meters.
Synergetic Design
27
V. Rules of Thumb for Uniformly Distributed Loads

It is very helpful to be able to perform a quick sanity check of system conditions "usually in your head" to
develop a "feel" for whether there might be a problem. Three very helpful rules assuming a uniformly
distributed load are as follows:
1)
Capacitor placement - "2/3 rule"

2/3 L
2/3 kVAR
Figure 11. Optimum capacitor placement

"Optimum placement of capacitors at 2/3 the distance of the line, sizing the bank to meet 2/3 of
the feeder VAR needs."
2)
Losses - "1/3 rule

1/3 L
100% Load
Figure 12. Equivalent losses

"Place all the load at 1/3 the distance to obtain the same losses as an evenly distributed load."
3)
Voltage drop - "1/2 rule"

1/2 L
100% Load
Figure 13. Equivalent voltage drop
"Place 100% of load at 1/2 point on the feeder to obtain the same voltage drop as the voltage at
the end of the feeder for a uniform distribution load."
VI. Conductors and Cables

A. Conductor Current Rating
Table 5
Wire Size
Amps
6
4
2
1/0
2/0
3/0
4/0
336
397
565
795
55
75
105
145
170
200
240
330
370
480
620
B. Facts on Distribution Cable

1)
Cable replacement occurs usually after 2 or 3 failures.
2)
TRXLPE and EPR use is increasing.
3)
Conduit is on the rise but most cable is direct buried.
4)
About 60% of all cable is still going in direct buried.
5)
Most common method to find fault is radar with a thumper, followed by a thumper by
itself then an FCI.
6)
Most utilities use an insulating jacket type, followed by the use of the semi-conducting
jacket.
7)
30% use fiber optics in the underground system for telephone, SCADA, computer-tocomputer, video, etc.
8)
Jacketed EPR has good record.
9)
HMWPE and non-jacketed XLPE have bad records.
Synergetic Design
29
C. Impedance of Cable
Impedance of the main feeder is:
1)
.122 + j .175 ohms/mile (12kV, 1000 KCM)
2)
.119 + j .190 ohms/mile (35kV, 1000 KCM)
Impedance of the lateral feed is:

1)
.502 + j .211 ohm/mile (12kV, 4/0, 3)
2)
.500 + j .238 ohm/mile (34kV, 4/0, 3)
3)
1.445 + j .552 ohms/mile (12kV, #4, 1)
4)
1.607 + j .595 ohms/mile (34kV, #4, 1)
Table 6
VII. DSG General Requirements

1)
Voltage - Customer shall not cause voltage excursions. Any voltage excursions must be
disconnected within 1 second.
2)
Flicker - 2% at the dedicated transformer.
3)
Frequency - < 5% Hz and removed in < .2 seconds
4)
Harmonics - < 5% - sum of squares
5)
Faults - Remove DSG in < 1 second for utility fault
6)
Power factor - .85
Synergetic Design
31
VIII. Dangerous Levels of Current
Figure 14. Effect of Current on Humans
IX. Capacitor Formulas

Nomenclature: C = Capacitance in F
1)
V = Voltage
A = Current
K = 1000
Capacitors connected in parallel: CTotal = C1 + C2 + C3 + - -
2)
Capacitors connected in series:
CTotal =
C1 x C2
C1 + C2
For two capacitors in series
CTotal =
1
+
1 + 1
C1
C2
3)
4)
5)
For more than two capacitors in series
1
C3
+ --
Reactance Xc (Capacitive)
a.
Xc =
106
(2f)C
b.
Xc =
2653
C
b.
Xc =
at 60HZ (1F = 2653 )
KV2 x 103
KVAR
Capacitance C
a.
C=
b.
C=
106
(2f) Xc
KVAR x 103
2
(2f)(KV)
Capacitive Kilovars
a.
KVAR =
(2f)C (KV)2
103
b.
KVAR =
103 (KV)2
Xc
Synergetic Design
33
6)
Miscellaneous
a.
Power Factor =
Tan
KVAR
KW
Cos
KW
KVA
X. European Practices
A. Primary
European
Generator
EHV
400 kV
500 kV
765 kV
345 kV
500 kV
765 kV
Distribution System
MV
33 kV
22 kV
11 kV
HV
36 kV to
300 kV
34.5 kV
69 kV
115 kV
138 kV
230 kV
34.5 kV
24.9 kV
13.8 kV
13.2 kV
12.47 kV
380/222V
416/240V
120/240V
208/120V
United States
Figure 15. European / US Voltage Levels
Secondary
Europe
U.K.
U.S.
380Y/220V, 3-Phase, 4-Wire
416Y/240V, 3, 4-Wire
208Y/120V, 3, 4-Wire
&
1, 120/240V, 3-Wire
Figure 16. European Secondary
B. Relays
!
!
!
!
!
!
TMS - Time multiplier setting (similar to time dial)

CTU - Earth fault relay set between 1 % and 16 % of rated current
CDG 11 - Standard overcurrent relay
CDG 13 - Very inverse
CDG 14 - Extremely inverse relay
CTU 12 - Definite time relay
Synergetic Design
35
C. Earth Fault Protection

!
!
!
Based on the premise that all loads are 3 phase and balance
Considers the effect of line capacitance mismatch
Uses residual current
D. General
!
!
!
!
!
Autoreclosure on overhead is normal

Use normally open loop most of the time
Even on a 3-wire system there may be some unbalance due to capacitors which must be
considered when setting the earth relay
Conventional relays will not operate for unearthed systems
For ungrounded systems:
#
current and voltage unbalance must exceed a predetermined amount
#
phase angle must occur within a specified range (makes capacitor application difficult)
#
I (fault) is highly influenced by the capacitance of the network
Maximum fault levels allowed are:
Table 7
KV
33
22
11
!
!
!
kA
25
20
20
11-kV system is mostly radial and underground

33-kV system is looped and mostly underground
Most 4l5-volt transformers are l00 kVA or less and about 50% loaded
Table 8 - Distribution System Design Comparison
U.S.
Europe
120/240
380 Wye/220, 4-wire.

416 Wye/240, 4-wire (UK)
1-phase transformers heavily overloaded 25 kVA

typical.
4 homes/transformer fairly typical
Higher load density
Fuses are typically expulsion
Less load per home than U.S.

3-phase xfrms >> $ 1-phase
Residential units in 300-500 kVA range
5 to 10 radial, 3-phase, 4-wire secondary feeds,
per transformer
No overload
Fuses are current limiting
100 to 200 dwellings per transformer
132 kV
33 kV
Zig-Zag Resistance
Grounded
No Fuses
Clearing Time 5-8 Cycles
Distance (sometimes) and Overcurrent
Zone 1-5-8 Cycles
Zone 2-30-33
33 kV
11 kV
Uniground
Figure 17. 33 kV/11 kV Distribution
Synergetic Design
37
XI. Power Quality Data

A. Momentaries
Typical number of customer momentaries caused by the utility system 5
Typical number of customer momentaries for all causes 10
B. Sags
Typical number of customer sags caused by the utility system 50
Typical number of customer sags for all causes 350
*Voltage below .9 PU of nominal
C. Power Quality Organizations

Committee/Standard
Activity
Characterizing Power Quality/Power Quality Indices/General Power Quality
Power Quality Standards coordinating committee
SCC-22
IEEE 1159
Monitoring Power Quality
IEEE 141
Red Book
IEEE 241
Gray Book
Coordinates all power quality standards activities

A number of task forces addressing different aspects of
power quality monitoring requirements and definitions
General guidelines for industrial commercial power systems
General guidelines for commercial power systems
Harmonics
IEEE P519A
Filter Design Task Force
Task Force on Harmonic Limits for Single Phase
Equipment
Developing application guide for applying harmonic limits

Guidelines for harmonic filter design
Developing guidelines for applying harmonic limits at the
equipment level
Voltage Sags/Momentary Interruptions

IEEE 493
Gold Book
IEEE 1346
Industrial and commercial Power system Reliability

Evaluating compatibility of power systems for industrial
process controllers
Steady State Regulation, Unbalance, and Flicker

ANSI C84.1
IEEE Flicker Task Force
Voltage rating for power systems and equipment

Developing a coordinated approach for characterizing flicker
Wiring and Grounding/Powering Sensitive Equipment

IEEE 1100 Emerald Book
National Electric Code
IEEE 142
Green Book
Guidelines for powering and grounding sensitive equipment

Safety requirements for wiring and grounding
Industrial and commercial Power System grounding
Transients
OEEEA NSI C62
Guides and standards on surge protection
Distribution Systems/Custom Power Solution

IEEE 1250 Distribution Power Quality Working
Group
IEEE 1409
Custom Power Task Force
Guide on equipment sensitive to momentary voltage

variations
Developing guidelines for application of power electronics
technologies for power quality improvement on the
distribution system
D. Categories and Typical Characteristics of Power System Disturbances

Table 9
Transients
Impulsive
Oscillatory
nsec to msec
3 msec
Typical Voltage
Magnitude
na
0.8 pu
Short Duration
Variations
Instantaneous Sag
.5 30 cycles
0.1 0.9 pu
Instantaneous Swell
Momentary
Interruption
Momentary Sag
Momentary Swell
Temporary
Interruption
Temporary Sag
Temporary Swell
.5 30 cycles
1.1 1.8 pu
0.5 cycles 3 sec
Less than 0.1 pu
30 cycles 3 sec
30 cycles 3 sec
0.1 0.9 pu
1.1 1.4 pu
3 sec 1 min
Less than 0.1 pu
3 sec 1 min
3 sec 1 min
0.1 0.9 pu
1.1 1.4 pu
Sustained Interruption
Longer 1 minute
0.0 pu
Undervoltage
Overvoltage
Longer 1 minute
Longer 1 minute
Steady state
Steady state
Steady state
Steady state
Steady state
Steady state
Intermittent
0.8 0.9 pu
1.1 1.2 pu
.5 2%
.05 2%
0 20%
0 20%
NA
0 1%
0.1 7%
Less than 10 sec
NA
Typical Duration
Categories
Long Duration
Variations
Voltage Imbalance
Waveform Distortion
Voltage Fluctuations
Power Frequency
Variations
Synergetic Design
DC Offset
Harmonics
Inter-harmonics
Notching
Noise
39
XII. Electricity Rates

Table 10
For Medium Size Commercial and Industrial
Utility
Commercial $/kWh
Industrial $/kWh
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
$0.1067
$0.1761
$0.1672
$0.1482
$0.1328
$0.1279
$0.1690
$0.0899
$0.0732
$0.1058
$0.0998
$0.1039
$0.0720
$0.0950
Table 11
Twelve Most Expensive Companies Investor-Owned Electric Utilities

Dec.'91 - Feb.'92
Avg. Cost $/kWh*
National Rank
Company
State
Long Island Lighting Co.
New York
$0.156
Philadelphia Electric Co.
Pennsylvania
$0.152
Pennsylvania Power Co.
Pennsylvania
$0.148
Duquesne Light Co.
Pennsylvania
$0.146
Consolidated Edison Co.
New York
$0.137
Western Mass. Electric Co.
Massachusetts
$0.137
Hawaii Electric Co.
Hawaii
$0.136
Nantucket Electric Co.
Massachusetts
$0.135
Commonwealth Electric Co.
Massachusetts
$0.131
Orange & Rockland Utilities Inc.
New York
$0.130
10
Citizens Utilities Co. Kauai Div.
Hawaii
$0.125
11
United Illuminating Co.
Connecticut
$0.124
12
*For monthly residential sales of 500 kWh.

Source:
National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners
Table 12
Twelve Least Expensive Companies Investor-Owned Electric Utilities

Dec.'91 - Feb.'92
Company
State
Avg. Cost $/kWh*
National Rank
Washington Water Power Co.
Idaho
$0.041
191
Pacific Power & Light Co.
Washington
$0.043
192
Washington Water Power Co.
Washington
$0.044
189
Idaho Power Co.
Oregon
$0.047
188
Idaho Power Co.
Idaho
$0.047
187
Kentucky Utilities Co.
Kentucky
$0.051
186
Portland General Elec. Co.
Oregon
$0.052
185
Puget Sound Power & Light Co.
Washington
$0.053
184
Potomac Electric Power Co.
Dist. of Col.
$0.054
183
Minnesota Power & Light Co.
Minnesota
$0.054
182
Pacific Power & Light Co.
Oregon
$0.055
181
Kingsport Power Co.
Tennessee
$0.056
180
*For monthly residential sales of 500 kWh.

Source:
Synergetic Design
National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners
41
XIII. Costs
A. General
1)
Annual system capacity:

Generation:
Transmission:
Distribution:
Total:
2)
Cost of capacitors (installed)

Substations:
Line:
Padmounted:
3)
$ 704/kW
$ 99/kW
$ 666/kW
$1469/kW
$ 9/kVAR
$ 5.5/kVAR
$ 21/kVAR
Transformers (installed)
a. Single phase padmounts (installed)
12.5 kV (loop feed)
34.5 kV (loop feed)
25 kVA
$2552
$3119
50 kVA
$2986
$3931
75 kVA
$3591
$4725
100 kVA
$4972
$5728
b. Three Phase Padmounts

12.5 kV (loop feed)
34.5 kV (loop feed)
75 kVA
$ 7,749
$10,584
150
$ 9,450
$11,605
300
$11,718
$15,574
500
$13,608
$20,034
750
$21,357
$21,377
1000
$25,515
$28,350
1500
$40,824
2500
$50,841
NOTE: Above costs include necessary cable terminations, pads, misc. material and transformer,
but no primary or secondary cable.
4)
Substation costs (includes land, labor, and material)

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
5)
115-13.2kV, 20/37.3 MVA, 4 feeder substation

35-12.5 kV, 12/16/20 MVA, 2 feeder substation
115-35kV, 60/112 MVA, 5 feeder substation
230-13.2 kV, 27/45 MVA, 5 feeder substation
230-34.5 kV, 60/112 MVA, 5 feeder substation
$3,348,000
$1,026,000
$4,050,000
$3,960,000
$5,040,000
Miscellaneous costs:
a. Cable (approximate)
6)
$
90/ft
$
38/ft
$
63/ft
$ 2,698
$ 2,822
$ 20,871
$ 11,203
$ 11,367
Cost of replacing cable:

a.
b.
7)
Mainline, conduit
Mainline, D.B.
Lateral, conduit
Install transformer
Change out transformer
Install - 3 switch
Replace - 3 switch
Install - 1 fuse switch
1 - $180/ft.
3 - $360/ft.
Elbows (installed) - $111 each
Synergetic Design
43
XIV. Reliability Data

Table 13
Failure Rate Data

Component
Primary Cable (polyethylene)
Secondary Cable (polyethylene)
Transformers, single phase, padmounted
Transformers, three-phase, padmounted
Transformers, single phase, subsurface
Switches, oil, subsurface
Switches, air, padmounted
Fuse cabinet, single phase, padmounted
Fuse cabinet, three-phase, padmounted
Primary splices, rubber molded
Elbows:
Rubber molded, loadbreak
Rubber molded, non-loadbreak
Tees, 600 amp
Typical values for customer based indices are:
SAIDI - 96 min/yr.
SAIFI - 1.18 interruptions/yr.
CAIDI - 81.4 min/yr.
Failure Rate
6/100 mi-yr (conductor miles)
10/100 mi-yr (circuit miles)
0.4%/yr
0.62%/yr
0.3%/yr
0.12%/yr
0.12%/yr
0.1%/yr
0.2%/yr
.01%/yr
.06%/yr
.06%/yr
.02%/yr
XV. Industrial and Commercial Stuff

Introduction
Utility engineers have historically needed to know a lot about their own system and very little about their
customers system and loads. Competitive times and the emphasis on power quality have forced the
utility engineer to venture to the "other side of the meter" to address the power related concerns and
problems of specific industrial processes and components. The purpose of this section is to address
some of the more commonly encountered terminology, equipments and problems that the utility
distribution engineer generally has a hard time finding.
Motors
a.
Major Categories of Motors

Alternating Current Types
Three-Phase
Induction
Synchronous
Single-Phase
Induction-Run, Capacitor Start
Induction-Run, Split Phase Start
Shaded-Pole
Universal (Commutator)
Repulsion
Direct Current Types
Shunt-Characteristic:
Shunt-Characteristic:
Series-Characteristic:
Compound Wound
b.
Electromagnetic Field
Permanent Magnet Field
Series Field Only
KVA/Hp Conversions (at full load)

Induction 1 - 100 Hp
Induction 101 - 1000 Hp
Induction > 1000 Hp
Synchronous 0.8 pf
Synchronous 0.9 pf
Synchronous 1.0 pf
Synergetic Design
KVA I HP
1.0
0.95
0.9
1.0
0.9
0.8
45
c.
Reduced-voltage Starters
Table 14
Reduced-Voltage Starter Type
Autotransformer 50% tap
Wye-delta
Part-Winding
Primary Resistor 80% tap
Primary Resistor 65% tap
Line Current As % Of Full-Voltage Starting

30%
47%
69%
33%
70%
80%
65%
d. Characteristics of Motors
DC Motors
Advantage of DC Motor is that the torque-speed characteristic can be varied over
a wide range and still have high efficiency
3 Basic Types - Shunt, Series and Compound
Shunt - In this motor the field current is independent of the armature having been
diverted (shunted) through its own separate winding. Increasing the field current
actually causes the motor to slow down. Torque and power however are higher.
Series - The series motor is identical in construction to the shunt motor except the
field is connected in series with the armature. At startup, armature current is high,
so flux is high and torque is high. If load decreases, speed goes up. Series
motors are for high torque, low speed applications such as the starter motor of a
car or the motors used for electric locomotives.
Compound - A compound motor carries both a series field and a shunt field. The
shunt field is always stronger. As load increases, the shunt field remains the same
but the series field increases. At no load it looks like a shunt motor.
The diagram shown below illustrates the basic characteristics of these motors:
Figure 18 - Typical speed versus load characteristics of various dc motors
Induction Motors
Most frequently used in industry (simple, rugged and easy to maintain)

Essentially constant speed from 0 to full load
Not easily adapted to speed control
Parts:
$ Stationary stator
$ Revolving rotor (slip ring at end)
$ Conventional 3 phase winding
$ Squirrel-cage windings (copper bars shorted at end)
The characteristics of the induction motor are illustrated below:
Figure 19
Synchronous Motors
The most obvious characteristic of a synchronous motor is its strict

synchronism with the power line frequency.
Its advantage to the industrial user is its higher efficiency and low cost in large
sizes
Biggest disadvantage is added complications of motor starting.
A synchronous motor is identical to a generator of the same rating.
Synchronous motors are only selected for applications with relatively
infrequent starts since starting is more difficult and usually requires the use of
induction (squirrel cage) motor.
e. Adjustable-Speed Drives
Adjustable speed drives have the advantage of being both efficient and reliable
Used for compressors, pumps, and fans that have variable-torque requirements
Six basic types:
DC drive with DC motor
Voltage-source inverter with induction motor
Slip-energy recovery system with wound-rotor motor
Current-source inverter with induction motor
Load-commutated inverter with synchronous motor
Cycloconverter drive for either a synchronous or an induction motor
The figure, shown below, is a one line diagram for a typical current-source inverter. The
current-source inverter has a phase controlled rectifier that provides a DC input to a six-step
inverter. The reactor provides some filtering. Control of the inverter serves to regulate current
and frequency, rather than voltage and frequency as with the voltage-source inverter.
Synergetic Design
47
Figure 20 Typical current-source inverter (A) and one with a 12-pulse

power conversion unit (B) required by larger motors
XVI. Maxwells Equations

When in doubt, you can always go back and derive whatever you need to know using Maxwells
equations (that's what my professor told me . right!!!!!!!!) So here goes:
Gauss law for electric fields

Q
E dA =
Gauss law for magnetic fields
B d A = 0
Generalized Amperes law
B ds = I +
0
0 0
d
E dA
dt s
Faradays law
E ds =
d
B dA
dt s
Got that!!!!!!!!
Synergetic Design
49
Hard to Find.Part II
XVII. Introduction
Since Part I was a huge success, I decided to write Part II to address issues Im seeing as a result of deregulation. As usual, many of the topics are completely unrelated and it is questionable if they have
anything to do with the major theme. They are simply things that I see from time to time that keep
cropping up and I forget where the reference material I found on that topic might be. So, I put them
here!!!!
As usual, some things in this document are not guaranteed. I have tried to find good sources for the
majority of this material. Personally, I only write what I believe and try very hard to make it correct, as well
as useful
Finally, a note to the New Engineer: Computer programs are useful but understanding stuff is a lot
better!!!!!
XVIII. Contents
Part II is meant to supplement the original document. Part I is the blue collar stuff that makes the
traditional distribution engineer impossible to replace. Part II addresses some old issues (that needed
some updating) and some new issues (that have become important in this de-regulated environment).
Anyway, I hope they are some use to you. Some of the topics covered are:
Distributed Resources
Reliability
Modern Physics
Communications
Custom Power
Maintenance
Decibels
Computer Jargon 101
Equipment Loading
Cost of Interruption
XIX. Distributed Resources
Interesting Points
Fuel cells need to be replaced

every 5 years
Gas fire combined cycle plants

have efficiencies approaching 60%
Niche markets for DG may

approach 5% of new capacity
Microturbines range from 25 kW

to approximately 50 kW. The early
models operated for about 2000
hours before being pulled from
service.
- Microturbine efficiency is about
20 to 30%. They lose
efficiency due to size and the
need to compress gas. The
larger units approach 40%.
Some spin at 96,000 rpm.
Fuel cells benefit from modularity,
quiet operation, efficiency, and low
pollution. Most fuel cells require an
external reforming device to produce
hydrogen for the stack. Efficiency of
the direct fuel cell is about 50 to
55% while with a reformer is about
35% to 40%. Availability is
considered good at 98% (This
translates into about 7 days out of
service per year compared to most
US customers seeing only 2 hours
out per year). Fuel cells need to be
derated by 50% after less than a
year (4000 hours).
PV - Not a serious option
Wind - done fairly well but suffers
from low capacity and mechanical
problems.
Aeroderivative Gas Turbines offer
efficiencies of more than 40% and
are proven and reliable.
Reciprocating Engines Durable,
reliable, low cost and proven. Some
models push efficiencies of 45%.
Emissions are a concern but
solvable. Water injection, used by
Caterpillar to showed reductions in
pollution of as much as 50%.
Synergetic Design
DR Efficiencies
Gas fired combined cycle 60%
Microturbines 20% to 40%
Fuel Cells 35% to 55% (derate by 50% after 4000 hours)
Aero-derivative Gas Turbines 40%
Reciprocating Engines 45%
Technical Specifications
Disconnect from utility:
Within 6 cycles if voltage falls

below 50%
Within 2 seconds if voltage

exceeds !.37 per unit
Within 6 cycles if frequency if

frequency raises above 60.3 Hz or
falls below 59.3 Hz
Inverter should not inject dc current

in excess of 0.5% of full rated
output
Must disconnect in 10 cycles for

potential islanding situation.
51
DR Costs
Wind Systems
Fuel Cells
Solar (home, installed)
Solar panels
Batteries
Backup Generator
Inverter
UPS
Motor/Generator
SMES
Capacitor
Flywheel
Microturbines
Reciprocating Engine
$2000 per peak kW

$3500 per kW
$62,000 per kW
$600 per kW
$100 per kW
$300 per kW
$600 per kW
$1500 per kW
$400 per kW
$250 per kW
$50 per kW
$300 per kW
$600 per kW
$500 per kW
Examine your DG options closely.

Mistakes could be costly!!
Reliability
1. Typical Equipment Failure Rates
Cable Primary
Cable Secondary
Switch (Loop)
Elbow
Splice
Fuse (transformer)
Circuit Breaker
Bus
Station Transformer
Overhead Line
Distribution Transformer
Lateral Cable
.03
.11
.05
.0067
.0068
.005
.0066
.22
.02
.2
.005
.1
2. Primary Outage Rates
Frequency
XX.
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
5 kV
15 kV
25 kV
Lightning
Tree
Equip.
Other
Total
Cause
3. Effect of Major Events
Major Event
Included
YEAR SAIDI SAIFI MAIFI
1990 202
2.3
1.6
1991 360
2.4
1.7
1992 225
1.9
1.5
1993 161
1.7
1.4
1994 153
1.7
1.3
1995 187
2.8
2.3
1996 168
1.9
1.6
1997 560
2.8
1.8
1998 230Synergetic
2.4 Design
2
Major Events
Excluded
SAIDI SAIFI MAIFI
145
1.8
1.4
143
1.8
1.5
150
1.7
1.4
151
1.6
1.2
149
1.6
1.1
145
1.5
1.4
147
1.6
1.2
166
1.8
2.4
140
1.7
1.7
53
4. Indice Definitions
SAIFI [system average interruption
frequency index (sustained interruptions)].
The system average interruptions
frequency index is designed to give
information about the average frequency of
sustained interruptions per customer over a
predefined area. In words, the definition is:
total number of customer
Interruptions
total number of customers
SAIFI =
served
To calculate the index, use the following

equation:
SAIFI =
NT
SAIDI (system average interruption duration

index). This index is commonly referred to
as Customer Minutes of Interruption or
Customer Hours, and is designed to
provide information about the average time
the customers are interrupted. In words,
the definition is:
SAIDI =
customer interruption durations

total number of customers served

equation:
SAIDI =
r N
i
110 min/yr
min/yr
CAIDI
1.4 int/yr
79
Some utilities are already measuring

indices to reflect system disturbances,
other than interruptions, that cause
sensitive loads to misoperate. One of
these, the momentary average interruption
event frequency index,
(MAIFI) is an index to record momentary
outages caused by successful reclosing
operations of the feeder breaker or line
recloser. This index is very similar to
SAIFI, but it tracks the average frequency
of momentary interruption events. In
words, the definition is:
Total number of customer
MAIFI E = momentary interruption events
NT
total number of customers interruptions

equation:
r N
N
i
54
SAIFI
customer interruption durations
CAIDI =
SAIDI
Total number of customers

served
CAIDI (customer average interruption

duration index). CAIDI represents the
average time required to restore service to
the average customer per sustained
interruption. In words, the definition is:
CAIDI =
Values of these indices vary widely

depending on many factors, including
climate (snow, wind, lightning, etc.), system
design (radical, looped, primary selective,
secondary network, etc.), and load density
(urban, suburban and rural). Typical values
seen by utilities in the United States are:
SAIDI
SAIFI
Synergetic Design

equation:
MAIFI e =
ID N
e
NT
(Typical value for MAIFI is 6 interruptions

per year).
5. Voltage Sags
SARFI %V =
Typical values of SARFI:

SARFI 90 50
SARFI 70 20
SARFI 50 10
SARFI 10 5
NT
where %V = rms voltage threshold 140, 120,

110, 90, 80, 70, 50, 10
N i = number of customers experiencing rms
< % V for variation i (rms > % V for % V >
100)
N T = Total number of system customers
Typical number of sags for all causes = 350

Typical number of momentaries for all causes =
10
6. Interruption Survey
65% report information to regulators

37% calculate MAIFI
83% feel indices should be calculated separately from generation and transmission
76% feel that scheduled interruptions should be calculated separately
70% have major event classifications
94% use computer programs to generate reliability indicies
7. Loading
Increased loading of equipment will take life out of the equipment and could ultimately contribute to equipment
failure.
The following are some important considerations when overloading equipment, especially
transformers:
Insulation life of a transformer is when it loses 50% of its insulation strength.
The temperature of top oil should never exceed 110C for transformers having a 65C average
winding rise.
Peak short duration loading should never exceed 200%.
Hot spot should never exceed 180C for 65C systems due to the possibility of free bubbles that
could weaken insulation strength. Under normal conditions, hot spot should not exceed 130C.
Transformers should be operated for normal life expectancy.
A 2.5% loss of life per day may be acceptable in the event of an emergency.
Synergetic Design
55
XXI. Modern Physics

Too often, distribution engineers are told theyre behind the times. So Ive included a few tidbits so you can
impress your friends with your range of knowledge. You never know when you might need the following:
Big Bang The progression of the Big Bang is considered to be as follows:

0 to 10^-43 seconds - ?????????
10^-43 seconds Quantum Gravity
10^-12 seconds Quantum Soup
10^-16 seconds Protons and Neutrons form
1 minute Helium formed
5 minutes Helium complete
500,000 years Atoms form Background radiation (COBE)
Forces There are now considered to be 3 forces which are as follows:

Gravity
Strong (color)
Electro-weak
Color Charge The so called color force does not fall off with distance and is as follows:
Red
Blue
Green
Quarks Quarks are the fundamental particles (called fermions) of nature. There are 6:
Up Quark
Down Quark
Charmed Quark
Strange Quark
Top Quark
Bottom
Quark
56
Synergetic Design
XXII. Loading
Probably no area of distribution engineering causes more confusion then does loading. Reading
the standards does not seem to help much since everyone appears to have their own
interpretation. Manufacturers of equipment are very conservative since they really never know
how the user will actually put the product to use so they must expect the worst. On the other
hand, many users seem to take the approach that since it didnt fail last year with traditional
overloading values, it wont fail this year either. In fact, it wont fail until after retirement. Heck!
Save a Buck and Get a Promotion. The author of this document is not a psychology major and
frankly has no idea of what the thinking was when much of the following was produced. The
material that follows, however, was taken from sources with excellent reputation. Use it with
caution!
1. Transformer Loading Basics
All modern transformers have insulation systems designed for operation at 65C
average winding temperature and 80C hottest-spot winding rise over ambient in an
average ambient of 30C. This means:
65C average winding rise + 30C ambient = 95C average winding

temperature
80C hottest spot rise + 30C ambient = 110C hottest spot
(OLD system: 55C winding rise + 30C ambient = 85C average winding temperature
65C hotttest spot + 30C ambient = 95C hottest spot)
Notice that 95C is the average winding temperature for the new insulation system and
the hottest spot for the old. A source of immense confusion for many of us.
The temperature of the top oil should not exceed 100C. Obviously, top oil
temperature is always less than hottest spot.
The maximum hot-spot temperature should not exceed 150C for a 55C rise
transformer or 180C for a 65C rise transformer.
Peak .5 hour loading should not exceed 200%
The conditions of 30C ambient temperature and 100% load factor establish the basis
of transformer ratings.
The ability of the transformer to carry more than nameplate rating under certain
conditions without exceeding 95C is basically due to the fact that top oil temperature
does not instantaneously follow changes in transformer load due to thermal storage.
An average loss of life of 1% per year (or 5% in any emergency) incurred during
emergency operations is considered reasonable.
Most companies do not allow normal daily peaks to exceed the permissible load for
normal life expectancy.
The firm capacity is usually the load that the substation can carry with one supply line
or one transformer out of service.
Emergency 24 Hour Firm Capacity usually means a loss of life of 1% but is

sometimes as much as 5% or 6%.
The following measures can be used for emergency conditions lasting more than 24
hours:
Portable fans
Water spray
Interconnect cooling equipment of FOA units.
Use transformer thermal relays to drop certain loads.
2. Examples of Substation Transformer Loading Limits

The following is an example of maximum temperature limits via the IEEE for a 65C rise
transformer:
IEEE Normal Life Expectancy

105C
120C
Top Oil Temperature

Hotspot Temperature
This next example shows the loading practice of various utilities for substation transformers:
Normal
Condtions
Top Oil
Hotspot
Utility
A
95
125
Utility
B
110
130
Emergency
Top Oil
Hot Spot
110
140
110
140
Utility
C
95
120
Utility
D
95
110
Utility
E
95
120
Utility
F
110
140
110
140
110
130
110
140
110
140
Utility
G
110
120
110
140
What happens when the hotspot is raised from 125C to 130C? This is shown as follows:
Maximum Hotspot
125
130
% Loss of Life, Annual

0.3366
0.5372
An example of the effect of load cycle (3 hour peak with 70% pre-load for 13 hours and 45%
load for 8 hours) and ambient on transformer capability via the ANSI guide is shown below:
Peak Load for Normal Life

Expectancy
10C Ambient
30C Ambient
Transformer
Type
20000 - OA
30,000
15000/2000 28,700
OA/FA
12000/16000/
27,500
20000
OA/FA/FOA
20000 FOA
27,500
58
Emergency Peak Load with 24Hour Loss of Life

0.25%
1.0%
24,200
23,800
28,400
27,500
32,000
30,700
23,200
26,800
29,700
23,200
26,800
29,700
Synergetic Design
The following is the effect on transformer ratings for various limits of top oil temperature:
MVA
50
55
59
Normal Rating
New Rating
Emergency Rating
Top Oil Temperature

95C
105C
110C
3. Distribution Transformers
The loading of distribution transformers varies more widely than substation units. Some utilities
try to never exceed the loading of the transformer nameplate. Others, particularly those using
TLM, greatly overload smaller distribution transformers with no apparent increase in failure rates.
An example of one utilities practice is as follows:
KVA
25
50
75
100
Padmounted
Install Range Removal Point
0-40
55
41-69
88
70-105
122
106-139
139
Submersible
Install Range Removal Point
0-34
42
35-64
79
65-112
112
113-141
141
4. Ampacity of Overhead Conductors

In part 1 of the Hard-to-Find, I listed some conservative ratings for conductors per the
manufacturer. The table below shows the rating of conductors via a typical utility:
Conductor
Size
1/0
2/0
3/0
4/0
267
336
397
Normal
319
365
420
479
612
711
791
ACSR
Emergency
331
379
435
496
641
745
830
Synergetic Design
All Aluminum
Normal
Emergency
318
369
528
497
576
671
747
334
388
450
523
606
705
786
59
5. Emergency Ratings of Equipment

The following are some typical 2 hour overload ratings of various substation equipment. Use at
your own risk:
Station Transformer
Current Transformer
Breakers
Reactors
Disconnects
Regulators
140%
125%
110%
140%
110%
150%
6. Miscellaneous Loading Information

The following is some miscellaneous loading information and thoughts from a number of actual
utilities:
a. Commercial and Industrial Transformer Loading
Transformer Load Limit
Load Factor %
0-64
130%
65-74
125%
75-100
120%
b. Demand Factor
Lights 50%
Air Conditioning 70%
Major Appliances 40%
c. Transformer Loading
Distribution transformer life is in excess of 5 times present guide levels
Distribution guide shows that life expectancy is about 500,000 hours for 100C
hottest-spot operation, compared to 200,000 hours for a power transformer.
Same insulation system.
Using present loading guides, only 2.5% of power transformer thermal life is used
up after 15 years.
Results of one analysis showed that the transition from acceptable to
unacceptable risk (approximately an order of magnitude) was accompanied (by
this utility) by only a 8.5% investment savings and a 12% increase in transformer
loading.
Application of transformers in excess of normal loading can cause:
Evolution of free gas from insulation of winding and lead conductors.
Evolution of free gas from insulation adjacent to metallic structural
parts linked by magnetic flux produced by winding or lead currents
may also reduce dielectric strength.
Operation at high temperatures will cause reduced mechanical
strength of both conductor and structural insulation.
Thermal expansion of conductors, insulation materials, or structural
parts at high temperature may result in permanent deformations
that could contribute to mechanical or dielectric failures.
Pressure build-up in bushings for currents above rating could
result in leaking gaskets, loss of oil, and ultimate dielectric failure.
60
Synergetic Design
Increased resistance in the contacts of tap changers can result

from a build-up of oil decomposition products in a very localized high
temperature region.
Reactors and current transformers are also at risk.
Oil expansion could become greater that the holding capacity of the
tank.
Aging or deterioration of insulation is a time function of temperature,
moisture content, and oxygen content. With modern oil preservation
systems, the moisture and oxygen contributions to insulation deterioration
can be minimized, leaving insulation temperature as the controlling
parameter.
Distribution and power transformer model tests indicate that the normal life
expectancy at a continuous hottest-spot temperature of 110C is 20.55
years.
Input into a transformer loading program should be:
Transformer characteristics (loss ratio, top-oil rise, hottest spot rise,
total loss, gallons of oil, weight of tank and fittings.
Ambient temperatures
Initial continuous load
Peak load durations and the specified daily percent loss of life
Repetitive 24 hour load cycle if desired
Maximum permitted loading is 200% for power transformer and 300% for a
distribution transformer.
Suggested limits of loading for distribution transformers are:
Top-oil 120C
Hottest - spot 200C
Short time (.5 hour) 300%
Suggested limits for power transformers are:
Top-oil 100C
Hottest-spot 180C
Maximum loading 200%
Overload limits for coordination of bushings with transformers is:
Ambient air 40C maximum
Transformer top-oil 110C maximum
Maximum current 2 times bushing rating
Bushing insulation hottest-spot 150C maximum
Current rating for the LTC are:
Temperature rise limit of 20C for any current carrying contact in oil
when carrying 1.2 times the maximum rated current of the LTC
Capable of 40 breaking operations at twice rate current and KVA
Planned loading beyond nameplate rating defines a condition wherein a
transformer is so loaded that its hottest-spot temperature is in the
temperature range of 120C to 130C.
Long term emergency loading defines a condition wherein a power
transformer is so loaded that its hottest-spot temperature is in the
temperature range of 120C to 140C.
The principle gases found dissolved in the mineral oil of a transformer are:
Nitrogen: from external atmosphere or from gas blanket over the
free surface of the oil
Oxygen: from external atmosphere
Water: from moisture absorbed in cellulose insulation or from
decomposition of the cellulose
Carbon dioxide: from thermal decomposition of cellulose insulation
Synergetic Design
61
62
Carbon monoxide: from thermal decomposition of cellulose

insulation
Other Gases: may be present in very small amounts (e.g. acetylene)
as a result of oil or insulation decomposition by overheated metal,
partial discharge, arcing, etc. These are very important in any
analysis of transformers, which may be in the process of failing.
Moisture affects insulation strength, power factor, aging, losses and the
mechanical strength of the insulation. Bubbles can form at 140C which
enhance the chances of partial discharge and the eventual breakdown of the
insulation as they rise to the top of the insulation.. If a transformer is to be
overloaded, it is important to know the moisture content of the insulation,
especially if its an older transformer. Bubbles evolve fast so temperature is
important to bubbles formation but not time at that temperature. Transformer
insulation with 3.5% moisture content should not be operated above
nameplate for a hottest spot of 120C. Tests have shown that the use of
circulated oil for the drying process takes some time. For a processing time
of 70 hours the moisture content of the test transformers was reduced from
2% to 1.9% at temperature of 50C to 75C. Apparently only surface moisture
was affected. A more effective method is to remove the oil and heat the
insulation under vacuum.
Synergetic Design
XXIII. Computer Jargon 101

Theres a lot of new terminology out there for the distribution engineer to assimilate these days.
This section outlines some of the terms and concepts we see with the emphasis these days on
data and voice communications.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
Telecommunications is defined as the exchange of information, usually over a

significant distance and using electronic equipment for transmission.
The PBX, is a private business exchange. It is the most advanced customerpremises equipment telecommunications solution. A PBX acts like a mini-central
office. Almost all are digital.
Asynchronous Transmission means each device must be set to transmit and
receive data at a given speed, known as a data rate. This type of transmission is
also known as start-stop transmission because it uses start and stop bits.
Synchronous Transmission normally involves large blocks of characters, and
special sync characters which are used to adjust to the transmitters exact speed.
The organizations which have the most impact on data communications are:
ANSI, IEEE, EIA, ECSA, NIST, ISO
RS-232-C is one of the most common interfaces for data communications in use
today. It is an EIA standard defining exactly how ones and zeros will be
transmitted.
DDS is AT&Ts Dataphone Digital Services which provides digital circuits for data
transmission speeds of 2400, 4800, 9600, 56 kbps and 64 kbps.
T-1 carrier service transmits at 1.544 Mbps an carries approximately 24 channels.
ISDN is the Integrated Services Digital Network
For Fiber Optic cable, data rates can exceed a trillion bits per second.
Satellite bandwidth can be up to many Mbps.
Baseband is a single data signal transmitted directly on a wire.
Broadband transmits data using a carrier signal.
Buffering is holding data temporarily, usually until it has been properly sequenced,
as in packet switching networks, or until another device is ready to receive it, as in
front-end processors.
Polling is the method used by a host computer or front end processor to ask a
terminal if it has data to send.,
Selecting is the method used by a host computer to ask a terminal if it is ready to
receive data.
A Front End Processor can perform:
Error detection
Code conversion
Protocol conversion
Data conversion
Parallel/Series conversion
Historical logging
Statistical logging
Security Measures:
Secure transmission facility
Passwords
Historical and Statistical Logging
Closed user group
Firewalls
Encryption and decryption
Secret keys
Synergetic Design
63
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
64
Communications architectures and protocols enable devices to communicate in

an orderly manner, defining precise rules and methods for communications and
ensuring harmonious communications among them.
In Packet Switching Networks, the data is separated into packets or blocks, and
sent through the packet switching network to the destination.
A Local Area Network is a privately owned data communications system that
provides reliable, high speed, switched connections between devices in a single
building, campus or complex.
Client/Server - rather than running all applications on a single mainframe, users
can access programs on servers attached to a LAN when a common database or
resource is important. Bridges are used to extend LANs beyond its usual distance
limitation.
Bridges are used to connect two or more networks that use similar data
communications.
Routers interconnect LANs and do not require all users to have unique addresses
(as do bridges).
Gateways connect networks using different communications methods.
Synergetic Design
XXIV. Decibels
Heres some interesting information on decibels:
Decibels
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 db
30 db
70 db
100 db
120 db
Power Change
1.25
1.58
2.0
2.5
3.15
4.0
5.0
6.3
7.9
Decibels
10
11
12
13
14
15
20
30
40
Power Change
10.0
12.6
15.8
20.0
25.1
31.6
100
1000
10000
= lowest sound that can be heard

= whisper
= human voice
= loud radio
= ear discomfort
Synergetic Design
65
XXV. Faults and Inrush Currents

The following are some observations of the author based on many years of monitoring. The
following statistics are real and based on actual measurements:
66
Voltage unbalance is generally less than 1%

Harmonics at the substation are generally less than 1 or 2%
40% of faults occur in adverse weather
Average line-to-ground fault current was 1530 amps.
Faults generally lasted 10 cycles with 2 seconds the maximum
Essentially there is no fault impedance (see HtoF #1)
Voltage rise during a fault was about 4% at the substation and 35% on the feeder
Average fuse I^2*t was 227,000 amp^2 sec, with the highest being 800,000 amp^2
sec
What you calculate is what you get.
79% of all faults involve only one phase
Most faults occur with 5% of peak voltage so offset is minimal
Average DC offset was 1.1 with a time constant of 2.81 milliseconds
Inrush
Inrush average was 2500 amps. And max. was 5700 amps.
Peak offset was 5.3 per unit and average time constant was 3 cycles
Cold Load Pickup looks like inrush.
Synergetic Design
XXVI. Custom Power Devices

Custom Power Devices are devices rated above 600 volts that are used to increase power quality.
Though not widely used, these devices are available to the industry to reduce the impact of
distribution disturbances, primarily sags. A few of these devices are described as follows:
Distribution Static Compensator (DSTATCOM) The DSTATCOM is a power

electronic device that responds in less than a cycle. It shields customers from
voltage sags and surge problems cause by sudden load changes on the system.
Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) The DVR system is a series-connected
power electronic device that restores voltage quality delivered to a customer
when the line-side voltage deviates. The device supplies the elements missing
from the waveform in less than one cycle.
Medium-Voltage Sub-Cycle Transfer Switch (SSTS) This device provides
power quality to customers that are served radially and have access to an
alternative power source. Switching between the preferred and alternative source
is done wthin 0ne-sixteenth of a second.
Solid-State Breaker (SSB) This is a fast acting sub-cycle breaker which
instantaneously operates to clear an electrical fault from the power system. In
combination with other electronic devices, the SSB can prevent excessive fault
currents from developing and improve PQ.
Static Var Compensator (SVC) This device uses capacitors, an inductor, and
a set of solid-state switches to provide power factor correction or voltage
regulation. Constant power factor and constant line voltage are possible using
the device.
Synergetic Design
67
XXVII. Cost of Power Interruptions

The cost of an interruption is probably one of the most difficult to assess. On the one hand, when
the perception is that the utility will pay the costs from commercial and industrial customers are
always high via survey data. On the other hand, when the cost of correction of the problem is
determined to be the customers responsibility, the costs are much lower. The following are some
of these survey costs. Use with caution:
Type of Industrial
/Commercial
Electrical Products
Crude Petroleum
Machinery
Paper Products
Logging
Printing and Publishing
Primary Textiles
Transportation
Textile
Automotive
General Merchandise
Household Furniture
Personal Services
Entertainment
68
Cost per peak

KW
$7.60
$240.30
$6.70
$6.60
$1.80
$5.20
$15.10
$37.40
$15.10
$36.90
$26.20
$34.70
$0.30
$20.70
Synergetic Design
XXVIII. Cost of Sectionalizing Equipment

The following are some approximate costs of equipment used for sectionalizing:
Fuse Cutout
Gang Operated Switch
Disconnect Switch
OCR
DA Load Break
DA Recloser
$1300
$5500
$2500
$9000
$33,000
$40,000
Synergetic Design
69
XXIX. Maintenance of Equipment

Some of the diagnostic and assessment techniques used for utility equipment is as follows:
TRANSFORMERS
Overall dielectric
DGA,
onlineVHF/UHF PD
SWITCHGEAR
Drive contact
position, constant
velocity,
vibrational
analysis, trip-coil
current
Tap Changer
dynamic resistance,
drive power
Secondary
System trip-coil
current
Bushing loss
angle, capacitance
Overall Dielectric
online PD,
vacuum leak
testing
CABLE
PD Techniques
0.1 Hz off-line
detection and
localization,
online VHF
detection,
single/double
sided localization
in point to point
cables and
branched
networks
Diel
Spectrosocopy
loss angle,
capacitance
GENERATORS
Stator/Rotor
Windings insulator
resistance,
conductor
resistance
,polarization index,
loss angle,
capacitance PD
measurement, high
voltage tests, video
endoscopy
Core no load
losses
Paper - furfural
analysis
Transformer Lifetime from furfural analysis:
70
Lifetime primarily determined by mechanical condition of paper insulation

Degree of polymerization (DP) measure for mechanical strength
DP decreases from about 1200 (new) to 250 (end of life)
DP determined from correlation with product of furfural and CO-concentrations
Decay curve from accelerated aging study
Lifetime time prediction from (series) of DP values
Synergetic Design
XXX.
Major Events
In the area of reliability indicies some utilities are allowed to exclude major events (storms, etc.).
The concern in the industry is what constitutes a major event. There are many definitions. The
two most popular are:
10% of the system is out of service for usually 24 hours
Exclusion of events outside 3 sigma. This definition is based on Chebyshevs
Inequality (you needed to know that right!). Anyway, outages a utility may have
during the year have a probability distribution. This concept basically says that events
not within 3 standard deviations of the mean can be excluded. For reference,
approximately 56% of events are within 1 standard deviation, 75% are within 2
standard deviations and 89% are within 3 standard deviations. So this would mean
approximately 10% could be excluded.
Synergetic Design
71
XXXI. Line Charging Current

Im asked about once a year how much capacitance a line has. Always have trouble finding an
answer so Im putting it here. Charging KVA (3 phase) can be approxiated by the formula:
Charging KVA = 2.05 (kV)^2/Z, where Z is the characteristic impedance of the line. Some
approximations, which may be helpful, are as follows:
kV
15
25
35
115
230
500
72
Overhead
(kVAR)
1
3
6
66
265
1,250
Synergetic Design
Underground
(kVAR)
10
30
60
660
2,650
12,500
XXXII. Overcurrent Rules

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
Hydraulically controlled reclosers are limited to about 10,000 amperes for the 560
amp coil and 6000 amperes for the 100 amp coil.
Many companies set ground minimum trip at maximum load level and phase trip at 2
times load level.
A K factor of 1 (now used in the standards) means the interrupting current is constant
for any operating voltage. A recloser is rated on the maximum current it can interrupt.
This current generally remains constant throughout the operating voltage range.
A recloser is capable of its full interrupting rating for a complete four-operation
sequence. The sequence is determined by the standard. A breaker is subject to
derating.
A recloser can handle any degree of asymmetrical current. A breaker is subject to an
S factor de-rating.
A sectionalizer is a self-contained circuit-opening device that automatically isolates a
faulted portion of a distribution line from the source only after the line has been deenergized by an upline primary protective device.
A Power Fuse is applied close to the substation ( 2.8 to 169kV and X/R between 15
and 25)
A Distribution Fuse is applied farther out on the system (5.2 to 38kV and X/R between
8 and 15).
The fuse tube (in cutout) determines the interrupting capability of the fuse. There is an
auxiliary tube that usually comes with the fuse that aids in low current interruption.
Some expulsion fuses can handle 100% continuous and some 150%.
Type K is a fast fuse link with a speed ratio of melting time-current characteristics
from 6 to 8.1 (speed is the ratio of the 0.1 minimum melt current to the 300 second
minimum melt current. Some of the larger fuses use the 600 second point.
Type T is a slow fuse link with a speed ratio of melt time-current characteristics from
10 to 13.
After about 10 fuse link operations, the fuse holder should be replaced.
Slant ratings can be used on grounded wye, wye, or delta systems as long as the lineto-neutral voltage of the system is lower than the smaller number and the line-to-line
voltage is lower than the higher number. A slant rated cutout can withstand the full lineto-line voltage whereas a cutout with a single voltage rating could not withstand the
higher line-to-line voltage.
Transformer fusing 25@0.01, 12@0.1, 3@10sec.
Unsymmetrical Transformer Connections ( delta/wye):
Multiplying Factor
Fault Type
Three-phase
N
Phase-to-phase
.87 (N)
Phase-to-Ground
1.73 (N)
Where N is the ratio of Vprimary/Vsecondary
( Multiply the high side device current points by the appropriate factor)
K Factor for Load Side Fuses
a. 2 fast operations and dead time 1 to 2 seconds = 1.35
K Factor for Source Side Fuses
a. 2 fast-2 delayed and dead time of 2 seconds = 1.7
b. 2 fast-2 delayed and dead time of 10 seconds = 1.35
c. Sometimes these factor go as high as 3.5 so check
Sequence Coodination Achievement of true trip coordination between an upline
electronic recloser and a downline recloser, is made possible through a feature known
as sequence coordination. Operation of sequence coordination requires that the
Synergetic Design
73
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
upline electronic recloser be programmed with fast curves whose control response
time is slower that the clearing time of the downline recloser fast operation, through the
range of fault currents within the reach of the upline recloser: Assume a fault beyond
the downline recloser that exceeds the minimum trip setting of both reclosers. The
downline recloser trips and clears before the upline recloser has a chance to trip.
However, the upline control does see the fault and the subsequent cutoff of fault
current. The sequence coordination feature then advances its control through its fast
operation, such that both controls are at their second operation, even though only one
of them has actually tripped. Should the fault persist, and a second fast trip occur,
sequence coordination repeats the procedure. Sequence coordination is active only on
the programmed fast operations of the upline recloser. In effect, sequence coordination
maintains the downline recloser as the faster device.
Recloser Time Current Characteristics
a. Some curves are average. Maximum is 10% higher.
b. Response curves are the response of the sensing device and does not include
arc extinction.
c. Clearing time is measured from fault initiation to power arc extinction.
d. The response time of the recloser is sometimes the only curve given. To obtain
the interrupting time, you must add approximately 0.045 sec to the curve
(checktheyre different)
e. Some curves show max. clearing time. On the new electronic reclosers, you
usually get a control response curve and a clearing curve.
f. Zl-g = (2Z1 + Z0)/3
The 75% Rule considers TCC tolerances, ambient temperature, pre-loading and
pre-damage. Pre-damage only uses 90%.
A back-up current limiting fuse with a designation like 12K means that the fuse will
coordinate with a K link rated 12 amperes or less.
Capacitor Fusing:
a. The 1.35 factor may result in nuisance fuse operations. Some utilities use 1.65
b. Case rupture is not as big a problem as years ago due to all film designs.
c. Tank rupture curves may be probable or definite in nature. Probable means there
is a probability chance of not achieving coordination. Definite indicates there is
effectively no chance of capacitor tank rupture with the proper 0% probability
curve.
d. T links are generally used up to about 25 amperes and K link above that to
reduce nuisance fuse operations from lightning and in
Line Impedance Typical values for line impedance (350kcm) on a per mile basis are
as follows:
Cable UG
Spacer
Tree Wire
Armless
Open
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
74
Zpositive
Z0
.31 + j0.265
.3 + j0.41
.3 + j0.41
.3 + j0.61
.29 +j0.66
1.18 + j0.35
1.25 + j2.87
1.25 + j2.87
.98 + j2.5
.98 + j2.37
1A-3B is a necessary when sectionalizers are used downstream from the recloser.
Vacuum reclosers have interrupting ratings as high as 10 to 20kA.
Highest recloser continuous ratings are 800 and 1200 amperes.
Sectionalizer actuating current should be <80% of backup device trip current.
Interrupting ratings of cutouts are approximately 7 kA to 10 kA symmetrical.
Synergetic Design
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
K Factor can mean a voltage range factor or a shift factor caused by the recloser
heating up the fuse.
Sectionalizer counts should normally be one count less than the operations to lockout
of the breaker or recloser
Sectionalizer memory time must be > than cumulative trip and reclose time.
Fuses melt at about 200% of rating.
Sectionalizers have momentarr ratings for 1 second and 10 seconds.
25% Rule for fuses includes pre-load, ambient temperature, and pre-damage.
Characteristics of Chance Sectionalizers include:
100 amp continuous
160 amp actuating
2 counts
12,000 amp momentary
4,000 amp @ 1 second
2500 amp @ 10 second
0.3 amp detector threshold
Minimum time delay = 80 ms
Reset time approximately 25 seconds
Minimum duration of current impulse approximately 1 to 3 cycles.
Short time curves are 20% of the normal curve ( in time).
Long time curves are 10 times the normal
The PCD2000 incorporates a 32 bit microprocessor and a 16 bit microprocessor.
The PCD has the following relays:
27 Undervoltage
32 Directional Power
46 Negative Sequence
50 Instantaneous
51 Inverse Time
59 Overvoltage
67 Directional Overcurrent
79 Reclosing
81 - Frequency
Prepared by:
Jim Burke
Distjimb@aol.com
(919) 468-6041
Synergetic Design
75
Jim Burke
EXPERIENCE
Mr. Burke joined ABB in 1997 as an
Institute Fellow at ABB's Electric systems
Technology Institute. In 1999 he accepted
a position within ABB as Manager of
Distribution Engineering Services and in
2000 as an Executive Consultant. He is
recognized throughout the world as an
expert in distribution protection, design,
power quality and reliability.
Mr. Burke began his career in the
utility business with the General Electric
Company in 1965 training and taking
courses in generation, transmission and
distribution as part of GE's Advanced Utility
Engineering Program.
In 1969, he
accepted a position as a field application
engineer in Los Angeles responsible for
transmission and distribution system
analyses, as well as generation planning
studies for General Electric's customer
utilities in the Southwestern states. In 1971
he joined GE's Power Distribution
Engineering Operation in New York where
he was responsible for distribution
substations, overcurrent and overvoltage
protection, and railroad electrification for
customers all over the world. During this
period he was involved with the
development of the MOV "riser pole"
arrester, the Power Vac Switchgear, the
static overcurrent relay and distribution
substation automation.
In 1978 Mr. Burke accepted a
position at Power Technologies Inc. (PTI)
where he continued to be involved with
virtually all distribution engineering issues.
During this period he was responsible for
the EPRI distribution fault study, the
development of the first digital fault
recorder, state-of-the-art grounding studies,
and numerous lightning and power quality
monitoring studies. In the area of railroad
electrification he was co-author of the EPRI
manual on "Railroad Electrification on Utility
Systems" as well as project manager of
system studies for the 25 to 60 Hz
conversion of the Northeast Corridor. Until
76
10/25/03
Synergetic Design
his departure in 1997, he was manager of

distribution engineering.
He was the project manager for the
first 50,000 volt electrified railroad, the
industries first microprocessor based fault
recorder, the first riser pole arrester using
metal oxide, the first five wire distribution
system, and the first digital simulation of
MOV's for distribution systems. He also
managed numerous projects including the
EPRI's distribution fault study, the
successful use of MOV line protection for a
115kV line and many others in the areas of
power
quality,
reliability,
overcurrent
protection, overvoltage protection, capacitor
application, automation, planning, etc.
He has authored and co-authored
over 100 technical papers, including two
prize papers. He is the author of the book
Power
Distribution
Engineering:
Fundamentals & Applications, now in its
7th printing. He is author of the last two
revisions to the chapter on Distribution
Engineering in the "Standard Handbook
for Electrical Engineering."
EDUCATION
BSEE - Univ. of Notre Dame
MSIA Union College Thesis:
Reliability and Availability Analysis of
Direct Buried Distribution Systems
PSEC GE (Schenectady)
PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES
IEEE
Past Chair: Distribution Subcommittee,
Distribution
Neutral
Grounding,
Overvoltage
Protection
of
DGs,
Switching and Overcurrent Protection,
Voltage Quality, Test Code for Faulted
Circuit Indicators, Testing of Distribution
3
Phase
Submersible
Switches.
Presently chair of the Distribution
Awards Group.
ACHIEVEMENTS & HONORS

IEEE Awards
Fellow (1992)
Standards Medallion (1992)
2 Prize Papers
The 1996 Award for Excellence in
Power Distribution Engineering
Distinguished Lecturer in PQ
PTI
G.E.
1.
"An Availability and Reliability Analysis of Direct Buried

and Submersible Underground Distribution Systems,
IEEE Transactions Conference paper, Underground
Conference Detroit, Mich., June 1970 (co-author: R. H.
Mann)
18.
Study Defines Surges in Greater Detail, Electrical

World, June 1, 1980.
19.
A Study of Distribution Feeder Faults Using a Unique

New Recording Device, Western Underground Meeting,
Portland, September 1980.
20.
25 to 60 Hz Conversion of the New Haven Railroad,

IEEE Transactions Paper presented at IEEE/ASME Joint
Conference, Baltimore, May 1983 (co-authors: D.A.
Douglass and P. Kartluke).
21.
Characteristics of Faults, Inrush and Cold Load Pickup

Currents in Distribution Systems, presented to the
Pennsylvania Electric Association, May, 1983.
22.
Characteristics of Fault Currents on Distribution

Systems, presented at the IEEE Summer Power
Meeting in July, 1983 IEEE Transactions Paper No. 83
SM 441-3 (co-author: D.J. Lawrence).
2.
How Do You Serve 3 Phase Loads Underground,

Electrical World, June 1970 (co-authors: R. H. Mann,
and F. Tabores).
3.
Railroad Electricification Electric Forum Magazine,

June 1976 (co-author: J. H. Easley).
4.
Surge Protection of Underground

Electric Forum Magazine, August 1976.
5.
An Analysis of Distribution Feeder Faults, Electric

Forum Magazine, December 1976 (co-author: D. J.
Ward)
6.
Doubling the Capacity of the Black Mesa and Lake

Powell Railroad, Electric Forum Magazine, November
1978 (co-author: S. Gilligan).
23.
Protecting Underground Systems with Zinc Oxide

Arresters, Electric Forum Magazine, November 1979
(co author: S. Smith)
Optimizing Performance of Commercial Frequency

Electrified Railroads, presented in New York City in
May, 1985 at the IEEE Transportation Division Meeting.
24.
Compensation Techniques to Increase Electrified

Railroad Performance, IEEE Transactions, presented at
the IEEE/ASME Joint Conference, Norfolk, VA, April,
1986.
25.
Factors Affecting the Quality of Utility Power, APPA

Conference, May 28, 1986, Colorado Springs, CO.
7.
8.
Transformers,
A Comparison of Static and Electromechanical Time

Overcurrent Relay Characteristics, Application and
Testing, Philadelphia Electric Association, June 1975
(co-authors: R. F. Koch and L. J. Powell).
9.
Distribution Substation Practices, (two

presented at Quito, Ecuador, June 1975.
volumes),
26.
10.
Distribution System Feeder Overcurrent Protection,

GET-6450, June 1977. Also presented as a seminar in
the US and Latin America.
Fault Impedance Considerations for System Protection,

presented at the T&D Conference, Anaheim, CA,
September 1986
27.
Cost/Benefit Analysis of Distribution Automation,

presented at the American Power Conference, Chicago,
IL, April 1987
28.
The Effect of Higher Distribution Voltages on System

Reliability, Panel Session, IEEE Summer Power
Meeting, San Francisco, CA, 1987.
11.
Surge Protection of Underground Systems up to 34.5

kV, presented at Underground Conference in Atlantic
City, NJ. September 1976 (co-authors: N.R. Schultz,
E.G. Sakshaug and N. M. Neagle).
12.
Railroad Electricification from a Utility Viewpoint.

Philadelphia Electric Association, May 1977.
29.
Are Distribution Overvoltage Margins Inadequate?,

Western Underground Meeting, January 1988.
13.
Increasing the Power System Capacity of the 50 kV

Black Mesa and Lake Powell Railroad Through
Harmonic Filtering and Series Compensation, IEEE
Transactions paper presented at 1978 IEEE Summer
Power Meeting, Paper No. F79 284-1 (co-authors: A.P.
Engel, S.R. Gilligan and N.A. Mincer).
30.
Utility Operation and Its Effect on Power Quality, IEEE

Winter Power Meeting Panel Session, February 1988.
31.
Higher Distribution Voltages Not Always a Panacea,

Electrical World, April 1988.
32.
Distribution Systems, Reliability, Availability and

Maintainability, IMEA Summer Conference for Utilities,
June 1988, (co-author: R.J. Ringlee).
33.
Why Underground Equipment is

Overvoltage, Electrical World, July 1988.
34.
Cost/Benefit Analysis of Distribution Automation:

Evaluation and Methodology, T&D Automation
Conference Exposition, St. Louis, MO, September 1988
(Part II).
35.
Improper Use Can Result In Arrester Failure, Electrical

World, December 1988.
14.
15.
An Analysis of VEPCOs 34.5 kV Distribution Feeder

Faults, IEEE Transactions paper F78 217-2, presented
at PES Meeting, New York, January 1978, also Electrical
World Publication, Pennsylvania Electric Association,
University of Texas, and Georgia Tech Relay Conference
(co-authors: L. Johnston, D. J. Ward and N. B. Tweed).
Type NLR & NSR Reclosing Relays An Analysis of
VEPCOs 34.5 kV Distribution Feeder Faults as Related
to Through Fault Failures of Substation Transformers,
General Electric Publication GER-3063, March, 1978
(co-authors: L. Johnston, D. J. Ward, and N. B. Tweed).
Failing
on
16.
The Application of Gapless Arresters on Underground

Distribution Systems, IEEE Transactions Paper No. F79
636-2, Vancouver, British Columbia, July 1979, T&D
Conference and Exposition (co-author: S. Smith and
E.G. Sakshaug).
36.
Metal Oxide Arresters on Distribution Systems:

Fundamental Considerations," IEEE Transactions,
presented at the IEEE PES Winter Meeting, New York,
NY, February 1989, (Co-authors: E.G. Sakshaug and J.
Kresge). [1991 SPD Prize Paper Award].
17.
Guide for Surge Protection of Cable-Connected

Equipment on Higher Voltage Distribution Systems,
(SPD Working Group, IEEE Transactions paper
presented at the 1979 T&D Conference and Exposition.
37.
The Effect of Switching Surges on 34.5 kV System

Design and Equipment, IEEE Transactions, presented
at the IEEE/PES T&D Conference and Exposition, New
Orleans, LA, April 1989, (Co-authors: J. W. Feltes and
L.A. Shankland).
Synergetic Design
77
38.
The Application of Surge Arresters on Distribution

Systems, Power Distribution Conference, Austin, TX,
October 1989.
55.
Application of MOVs in the Distribution Environment,

presented at the IEEE Transactions Power Delivery, Vol.
9, No. 1, Pages 293-305 Jan. 94 .
39.
Application of MOV and Gapped Arresters on Non

Effectively Grounded Distribution Systems, IEEE
Transactions, Paper No. 90 WM 136-2 PWRD,
presented at the IEEE PES Winter Meeting, Atlanta, A,
February 4-8, 1990, (Co-authors: V. Varneckas, E.
Chebli, and G. Hoskey).
56.
Power Quality Monitoring of a Distribution System,

presented at the IEEE Summer Power Meeting,
Vancouver, British Columbia, July 19-23, 1993, (coauthors: P.O. Barker, R. T. Mancao, T. A. Short, C. A.
Warren, C.A. Burns, and J.J. Siewierski).
57.
40.
Power Quality Two Different Perspectives, IEEE

Transactions, Paper No. 90 WM 053-9 PWRD,
presented at the IEEE PES Winter Meeting, Atlanta, A,
February 4-8, 1990, (Co-authors: D.J. Ward and D.C.
Griffith). This paper received the IEEE 1991 Working
Group Prize Paper Award.
5 Wire Distribution System Design, EPRI White Paper,

August 20, 1993, (co-authors: P.B. Steciuk, D.V. Weiler,
and W.S. Sears).
58.
Characteristics of Distribution Systems That May Affect

Faulted Circuited Indicators, Panel Session, 1994 IEEE
T&D Conference and Exposition, Chicago, IL, April 1015, 1994.
59.
Constraints on Managing Magnetic Fields on

Distribution Systems, presented at the 1994 IEEE T&D
Conference and Exposition, Chicago, IL, April 10-15,
1994, (co-author: P.B. Steciuk).
41.
Power Quality Measurements on the Niagara Mohawk

Power System, presented at the 1990 Chattanooga
IEEE Sections Power Quality Seminar, April 18, 1990,
(Co-authors: P.P. Barker, R.T. Mancao, and C. Burns).
42.
Constraints on Mitigating Magnetic fields on Distribution

Systems, Panel Session, IEEE PES Summer Power
Meeting, Minneapolis, MN, July 16-20, 1990.
60.
43.
The Effect of Lightning on the Utility Distribution

System, presented at the 12th Annual Electrical
Overstress/Electrostatic Discharge Symposium, Orlando,
FL September 11, 1990.
The Impact of Railroad Electrification on Utility System

Power Quality, presented at the Mass Transit System
94 Conference, Dallas, TX, September 1994, (co-author:
P.B. Steciuk).
61.
Power Distribution Engineering:

Fundamentals and
Applications, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1994.
62.
Distribution Modeling for Lightning Protection for

Overhead Lines, presented at the EEI, T&D Committee
Meeting, Salt Lake City, UT, October 20, 1994 (coauthors: T.A. Short and P. Garcia).
63.
Hard to Find Information About Distribution Systems,

presented at PTIs Power Distribution Course,
Sacramento, CA, March 1995.
44.
Power Quality Measurements on the Niagara Mohawk

Power System Revisited, presented at the
PCIM/Power Quality 90 Seminar, Philadelphia, PA,
October 21-26, 1990, (co-authors: P.P. Barker, R. T.
Mancao, C. W. Burns, and J.J. Siewierski).
45.
Protecting Underground Distribution Electric Light &

Power, April 1991, (co-author: P.P. Barker).
46.
Utility Distribution System Design and Fault

Characteristics, Panel Session, 1991 IEEE T&D
Conference and Exposition, Dallas, TX, Sept. 23-27,
1991.
64.
Sensitivity and Selectivity of Overcurrent Protective

Devices on Distribution Systems (or, Now You See
ItNow You Dont), Panel Session, 1995 IEEE Summer
Power Meeting, Portland, OR July 23-28, 1995.
47.
Distribution Surge Arrester Application Guide, Panel

Session, 1991 IEEE T&D Conference and Exposition,
Dallas, TX, Sept. 23-27, 1991.
65.
Tutorial on Lightning and Overvoltage Protection,

presented at the 1995 Power Distribution Conference,
Austin, TX October 24, 1995.
48.
Controlling Magnetic Fields in the Distribution System,

Transmission and Distribution, December 1991, pp. 2427.
66.
49.
The Effect of Distribution System Grounding on MOV

Selection, IEEE Transactions, presented at the IEEE
PES Winter Power Meeting, New York, NY January 2630, 1992, (co-authors: R. T. Mancao and A. Myers).
Analysis of Voltage Sag Assessment of Frequency of

Occurrence and Impacts of Mitigations, presented at
Conference on Electrical Distribution, January 9-10,
1996, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, (co-authors: S. Yusof,
J.R. Willis, P.B. Steciuk, T.M. Ariff and M. Taib).
67.
Lightning Effects Studied The FPL Program,

Transmission & Distribution World, May 1996, Vol. 48,
No. 5, (co-authors: P. Garcia and T. A. Short).
50.
Why Higher MOV Ratings May Be Necessary,

Electrical World, February 1992, (co-authors: R. T.
Mancao and A. Myers).
68.
51.
Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, Chapter

18, 13th Edition, Fink & Beaty, 1992.
Application of Surge Arresters to a 115-kV Circuit,

presented at the 1996 Transmission and Distribution
Conference & Exposition, Los Angeles, CA, September
16-20, 1996, (co-authors: C.A. Warren, T. A. Short, C.
W. Burns, J.R. Godlewski, F. Graydon, H. Morosini).
52.
Philosophies of Overcurrent Protection, Panel Session,

1992 Summer Power Meeting, Seattle WA, July 13-17,
1992.
69.
53.
The Effect of TOV on Gapped and Gapless MOVs,

presented to SPD Committee meeting, September 2125, 1992, Kansas City, MO.
Fault Currents on Distribution Systems, panel session

paper presented at 1996 Transmission and Distribution
Conference and Exposition, Los Angeles, CA,
September 16-20, 1996.
70.
Philosophies of Distribution System Overcurrent

Protection,
Training
Session
on
Distribution
Overcurrent Protection and Policies, 1996 Transmission
and Distribution Conference & Exposition, Los Angeles,
CA, September 16-20, 1996.
71.
A Summary of the Panel Session: Application of High

Impedance Fault Detectors: Held at the 1995 IEEE PES
Summer Meeting, presented at 1996 Summer Power
Meeting, Denver, Colorado, July 28-August 2, 1996, (coauthors G.E. Baker, J.T. Tengdin, B. D. Russell, R. H.
Jones, T. E. Wiedman).
54.
78
IEEE Guide for the Application of Neutral Grounding in

Electric Utility Systems, Part IV Distribution, published
by IEEE, 1992, (prepared by the Working Group on the
Neutral Grounding of Distribution Systems of the IEEE
Surge-Protective Devices Committee, J.J. Burke,
Chairman).
Synergetic Design
72.
73.
74.
Philosophies of Overcurrent Protection for a Five-Wire

Distribution System, panel session paper presented at
1996 Transmission and Distribution Conference and
Exposition, Los Angeles, CA, September 16-20, 1996
(co-author P.B. Steciuk).
Utility Characteristics Affecting Sensitive Industrial
Loads, Power Quality Assurance Magazine, Nov./Dec.
1996.
Fundamentals of Economics of Distribution Systems,
IEEE PES Winter Power Meeting, New York City,
February 1997.
ABB
94.
Improving Distribution Reliability Using Outage

Management Data, (co-author: J. Meyers) presented at
DistribuTECH 2000, Miami, Florida.
95.
Distribution Impacts of Distributed Generation

Revisited, panel session at DistribuTECH 2000, Miami,
Florida.
96.
Maintaining Reliability In a De-regulated Environment,

T&D World 2000, April 26-28, Cincinnati, Ohio.
97.
Using Outage Data to Improve Reliability IEEE

Computer Applications in Power magazine, April 2000,
(Volume 13, Number 2)
98.
75.
Techniques and Costs to Improve Power Quality, the

EEI Power Quality Working Group, New Orleans, March,
1997.
Utilities Take on Challenges or Improved Reliability and

Power Quality Electric Light and Power Magazine,
Vol.78, Issue6, June 2000
99.
76.
Trends in Distribution Reliability, University of Texas

Power Distribution Conference, October 1997.
Determining the Optimum Level of Reliability Infocast

Reliability Seminar, September 27, 2000, Chicago
100.
77.
System and Application Considerations for Power

Quality Equipment in Distribution, EEI Distribution
Committee Meeting, Baltimore, MD, October 1997.
Hard-to-Find information on Distribution Systems, Part II

- The New Millennium, November 2000.
101.
Determining the Optimum Level of Reliability

Revisited IEEE T&D Conference 2001, Atlanta, Ga.
78.
Hard to Find Information about Distribution Systems

Revisited June 1998, ABB.
102.
79.
Power Quality at Champion Paper The Myth and the

Reality, IEEE Transaction paper #PE-340-PWRD-0
1998, (Co-authors: C.A. Warren, T.A. Short, H. Morosini,
C.W. Burns, J. Storms)
Trends Creating Reliability Concerns or 10 Steps to

Becoming a Less Reliable Utility IEEE T&D Conference
2001, Atlanta, Ga.
103.
Distribution Systems Neutral Grounding (co-author M.

Marshall) IEEE T&D Conference 2001, Atlanta, Ga.
104.
Distribution Automation A compilation prepared for the

Intensive Distribution Planning and Engineering
Workshop, September 24-28, 2001 Raleigh, NC.
105.
How Important is Good Grounding on Utility Distribution

Systems? PQ Magazine - April 02, 2002 (co-author
M. Marshall)
80.
"Delivering Different Levels of Service Reliability Over a

Common Distribution System" T + D World Conference,
Arlington VA, September 29 1998.
81.
"European vs. U.S. Distribution System Design," 1999

WPM, N.Y.C. (co-author S. Benchluch)
82.
Managing the Risk of Performance Based Rates, 1999,

(co-author R. Brown). IEEE Transactions, May 2000,
volume 15, pages 893-898.
106.
Status of Distribution Reliability and Power Quality in the

United States (co-author E. Neumann), presented at the
ENSC 2002 in San Antonio.
83.
Application of Reclosers on Future Distribution

Systems, (co-author R. Smith) BSS Meeting in
Greensboro N.C., Jan. 1999.
107.
Nashville Electric Service Uses an Integrated Approach

to System Planning, T&D World Magazine, Dec 2002
(co-authors Leech, Neumann, et al).
84.
Serving Rural Loads from Three Phase and Single

Phase Systems, (co- authors S. Benchluch, A. Hanson,
H. L. Willis, H. Nguyen, P. Jensen).
108.
A Standardized Approach to the Application of Line

Reclosers Distributec 2003 (co authors: C Williams, T.
Fahey, R. Goodin, K Josupait).
85.
Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, 14th edition,

McGraw Hill, 1999.
86.
Hard to Find Information About Distribution Systems,

Third Revision, June 1999.
87.
Trends in Distribution Reliability in the United States,

CIRED, Nice, France, June 1999.
88.
Reclosers Improve Power Quality on Future Distribution

Systems, T & D Conference, New Orleans, 1999
89.
Distribution Impacts of Distributed Resources, SPM

1999, Alberta, Canada.
90.
Requirements for Reclosers on Future Distribution

Systems, Power Quality Assurance Magazine, July 1999
91.
Fault ImpedanceHow Much? T & D World

Magazine.
92.
A Systematic and Cost Effective Method to Improve

Distribution System Reliability, (co-authors H. Nguyen,
R. Brown) IEEE SPM - 1999, Edmonton, Alberta.
93.
Rural Distribution System Design Comparison, (coauthors: H. Nguyen, S. Benchluch)- IEEE, WPM 2000,
Singapore.
Synergetic Design
79
Mike Marshall, PE, is an Executive

Consultant for Synergetic Design.
He has a bachelors degree in
electrical engineering from the
University of Missouri - Rolla, and is
a registered professional engineer.
He spent 15 years working for
Ameren Corporation., an investor
owned utility based in St. Loius, MO,
where his various assignments
spanned the areas of power
generation, transmission,
distribution, system planning, and
reliability assessment. His
experience there also covered the
areas of operating and construction,
as well as engineering of electrical
distribution systems. He left Ameren
in 1998 to work for ABB Power T&D
Company as a utility consulting
engineer. While at ABB, he worked
as project manager on numerous
reliability and system planning
studies for utilities in North, Central,
and South America, and in Europe.
He is the recipient of the 1999 ABB
Power T&D Presidents award of
excellence for his efforts in reliability
based planning and optimization.
Upon leaving ABB in 2001, Mike
went to work for Progress Energy, an
investor owned utility based in
Raleigh, NC, where he soon became
the Regional Engineering Manager
at their Western Region
Headquarters in Asheville, NC. Mike
has written numerous technical
papers on topics that include
distribution reliability, lightning
protection, distribution automation,
budget optimization, and series
capacitors. These include two
award-winning papers presented at
the 1996 and 1997 IEEE Rural
Electric Power Conferences. In
80
addition, he has designed and

implemented a number of series
capacitors specifically for use on
distribution systems.
1.
"Lightning Protection Analysis, MVEA Conference

paper, Kansas City, MO June 1995 (co-author: B.
Angeli)
2.
"Establishing a Lightning Protection Evaluation

Program, IEEE Rural Electric Power Conference paper,
Fort Worth, TX May 1996
3.
Practical Applications of Lightning Protection Electrical

World Magazine June 1996.
4.
Using Series Capacitors to Mitigate Voltage Flicker,

IEEE Rural Electric Power Conference paper,
Minneapolis, MN 1997
5.
Remote Sectionalizing Demonstration at Union

Electric, T&D World Expo Conference paper, Atlanta,
GA June 1997
6.
Aerial Infrared Line Inspection Techniques IEEE Rural

Electric Power Conference paper, Indianapolis, IN 1999
7.
Budget Constrained Planning to Optimize Power

System
Reliability
IEEE
Industry
Applications
Magazine, May 2000 (co author: R. Brown)
8.
A Microeconomic Examination of Distribution Reliability

Targets IEEE PES Winter Power Meeting Conference
paper January 2001 (co-author: R. Brown).
9.
Developing a Reliability Improvement Strategy for Utility

Distribution Systems
2001 ABB Electric Utility
Conference Paper (co-authors: T. Taylor and E.
Neuman)
10.
The Cost of Reliablity Article for T&D World Magazine,

December 2001 issue (co-author: R. Brown)
11.
Removing Margin From Your Distribution System

IEEE PES Summer Power Meeting Conference Paper,
June 2002 (co-author: E. Neuman)
12.
A Spatial Load Forecasting Method for a Performance

Based Regulatory Environment. ABB internal article,
March 2002 (Co-authors: A. Hanson, R. Brown, and H.
Willis)
13.
New Developments in Distribution Asset Planning,

2001 ABB Electric Utility Conference paper (co-authors:
T. Taylor, R. Brown, G. Frimpong)
14.
How Important is Grounding on Utility Distribution

Systems? Article for Power Quality Magazine, April
2002 issue (co-author: J. Burke)
15.
Distribution System Grounding Power Quality

Magazine article, March 2002 issue. Also presented at
IEEE Rural Electric Power Conference, Durham, NC
May, 2003 (co-author: J. Burke)
Synergetic Design
DAVID FARMER, PE
Principal Consultant
Electricidad de Caracas long range

forecast, substation plan, and economic
analysis
Education
City of Rocky Mount -- new 69/13.8 kV

substation
City of Wilson -- new 230/69kV

substation
Eastern Maine Electric Coop -- Fouryear work plan update and project
management
BSEE
West Virginia
Technology
May, 1983
University
Institute
of
Professional Activities
Registered Professional Engineer
Publications
North Carolina
Maine
Nashville Electric Service Uses an

Integrated Approach to System
Planning, T&D World Magazine, Dec
2002 (co-authors Leech, Burke, et
al).
Analysis of Risk-Based Weather

Criteria, presented at DistribuTech
Conference in Miami, March 2002 (coauthors: Willis, Llorente, et al)
Member, IEEE
Power Engineering Society
Background and Experience

Mr. Farmer has over twenty years
experience in power delivery planning, load
forecasting, reliability analysis, engineering
and operations, line construction and design,
training, and project management. He has
worked with utilities in the US, Asia, and
Latin America.
Major Projects
Nashville Electric System -- long range

system planning, load forecasting, and
reliability analysis
PacifiCorp -- Wasatch Front load

forecast analysis and substation plan
development
Progress Energy Florida -- loop recloser

sectionalizing scheme analysis and
implementation
Duke Power reliability and planning

assessment
TransElect -- due diligence studies at

Illinois Power and ITC
NSTAR analysis of asset management

practices and maintenance prioritization
Synergetic Design
81
Professional History
Applications Engineer
Principal Consultant
ABB Inc., 1992 1998
ABB Inc., 2001 2003
Lead and participate on project teams
distribution planning and operations
conducting load forecasting and
software products (CADPAD, CADOPS)
planning projects for utilities
Predictive reliability assessment and
Planning and load forecast studies for

utilities worldwide
analysis
Customer support and training for ABB
Budget constrained planning and
Senior Project Manager
analysis
Booth & Associates Inc., 1988 1992
Teach in ABB sponsored seminars on

these topics
with cooperative and municipal utilities
Manager of Engineering
Eastern Maine Electric Cooperative, 2000 2001
Management of engineering staff
4-Year work plan update and
Preparation of drawings and staking

sheets
Specifications and bid documents for

labor and material contracts
management
Distribution and Substation project work
Standards preparation and responsible

charge work
Transmission and Power Supply

Contracts
Metering and Load Data Management
Distribution Engineer
Progress Energy Carolinas (Formerly CP&L)
Load Forecast Analyst
improvement alternatives
NC Electric Membership Corporation, 1998
2000
Identification and analysis of system

Construction budget development and
oversight
Preparation of annual system load
connects
forecast
Aggregation of forecast to 26 member
points
Participation in standards development

and review committee
cooperatives down to individual delivery
Line extensions and new revenue
Development of area planning studies
Provide technical support to marketing

analysis
82
Synergetic Design

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HARD TO FIND INFORMATION ABOUT

SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS AND PROTECTION ......................................................................7

SATURATION CURVE ...........................................................................................................................20

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS ....................................................................................................23

TWO TYPES .........................................................................................................................................23

RULES OF THUMB FOR UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOADS ...............................................28

CONDUCTORS AND CABLES...........................................................................................................29

DSG GENERAL REQUIREMENTS ................................................................................................31

DANGEROUS LEVELS OF CURRENT ............................................................................................32

EUROPEAN PRACTICES ...................................................................................................................35

POWER QUALITY DATA...................................................................................................................38

INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL STUFF....................................................................................45

Hard to Find - Part II

DISTRIBUTED RESOURCES .............................................................................................................51

TYPICAL EQUIPMENT FAILURE RATES .............................................................................................53

MODERN PHYSICS .............................................................................................................................56

TRANSFORMER LOADING BASICS.....................................................................................................57

COMPUTER JARGON 101 .................................................................................................................63

FAULTS AND INRUSH CURRENTS .................................................................................................66

CUSTOM POWER DEVICES .............................................................................................................67

XXVII. COST OF POWER INTERRUPTIONS ..............................................................................................68

MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT ...................................................................................................70

LINE CHARGING CURRENT ............................................................................................................72

XXXII. OVERCURRENT RULES ....................................................................................................................73

II. System Characteristics and Protection

Peak Load = 600 Amps

Three Phase, 4-Wire,

Single Phase Sectionalizer

Fixed Capacitor Bank

Three Phase Recloser

Faulted Circuit Indicator

Figure 1. Typical distribution system

C. Low Impedance Faults

FAULT LEVEL vs. DISTANCE

DISTANCE IN MILES (FROM SUBSTATION)

Figure 2. Low impedance faults

D. High Impedance Faults

E. Surface Current Levels

DRY ASPHALT , CONCRETE OR DRY SAND

F. Reclosing and Inrush

"Time Delay" Operations

Current vs. Time

Feeder Breaker Reclosing

G. Cold Load Pickup

P.U. of Full Load

Figure 5. Magnitudes of inrush current

Inrush lasting a few cycles

H. Calculation of Fault Current

Line Faults Line-to-neutral fault =

Transformer Faults Line-to-neutral or three phase =

I. Rules for Application of Fuses

Cold load pickup -

"Damage" curve - 75% of minimum melt

T - SLOW and "K - FAST

Current limiting fuses can be coordinated in the sub-cycle region.

after 15 minute outage, 200% for.5 seconds

Inrush - 12 times for .1 sec.

25 times for .01 sec.

Self protected - primary fuse rating is 10 to 14 times continuous when secondary

Conventional - primary fuse rated 2 to 3 times.

General Purpose current limiting - 2 to 3 times continuous.

CLF - approximately 1/4 cycle operation; can limit energy by as much as 60 to 1.

Weak link - in oil is limited to between 1500 and 3500 amperes.