Simulation

Links Welding Data

to Structural Analysis Models

P R O C E S S

A robust modeling
process greatly aids the
design of lower cost and
higher quality welded
structures.
by Robert N. Yancey, Ph. D.

Welding is a complex physical process that includes heating, cooling, melting and solidification
over a small area and in a short amount of time. The
result is a welded structure that includes residual
stresses and material microstructural variations
across the weld zone.
The residual stresses and micostructural changes
can cause distortion, and they have an effect on the
long-term durability of the structure. The simulation
of the welding process is a difficult task due to the
complex physics of the process, but the potential
benefits are significant. A robust modeling process
can greatly aid the design of lower cost and higher
quality welded structures.

Virtual Insights
Virtual welding models provide several insights
into the welding process that are difficult to achieve
in any other manner. For example, a weld model can
allow the engineer to visualize the progression and
evolution of residual stress and microstructure as a
function of time. These parameters are impossible to
measure in the laboratory.
An example of this is shown in Figure 1. Here, the
stresses are shown at four different weld torch locations and at two different times during the cooldown
stage. As shown, the stresses are very low when the
torch is passing over the weld since the metal is
molten and, therefore, carries no stress. As the weld
cools, you can see the high residual stresses that are
generated, even exceeding the yield stress of 145
MPa in some locations.

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A U T O M A T I O N

With this insight, the engineer can look at how the residual stress and microstructure
are affected by welding speed,
heat input, bead size, weld sequence, etc. This leads to the
ability to optimize the welding
process through simulation.
Another key result from
weld process modeling is welding-induced distortion. Distortion can cause all kinds of fit-up
problems, which can necessitate extensive rework. Often,
expensive fixtures are required
to pre-bend the structure so
that it springs back to the desired shape after welding.
Welding distortion is affected by a number of factors
including the heat input, cooling rate, fixturing and
weld sequence as well as any pre-existing residual
stresses in the material before welding. Welding distortion can be severe, as shown in Figure 2 where
buckling occurs. Accurate modeling tools to predict
distortion in welded structures would greatly benefit
manufacturing organizations.
Currently, these organizations simply attempt different processes manually to try to minimize distortion. These exercises are difficult to conduct because
the underlying cause of the distortion, the residual
stress and microstructure changes, cannot be measured during the process. Therefore, we end up chasing our tail to find a solution without having the
tools to really understand what is happening. Welding simulation can provide us with the tools to make
welding process optimization and distortion control
an efficient and rigorous process.

The Modeling Process

The basic weld modeling process is illustrated in
Figure 3. The inputs to the model are the geometry of
the structure, the welding conditions and parameters, and the material chemistry and microstructure.
The welding conditions and parameters are translated into a heat input to the model. Several heat input models have been developed and validated for

19

Figure 1. Evolution
of residual stresses
as a function of
torch location and
cool-down time.

Figure 2. Edge
buckling of a steel
plate from weldinginduced distortion.

Concept To Reality / Spring 2004

different welding processes.

On output, the user is interested in the mechanical effects, which include the residual stress and corresponding distortions. The user also needs to know
the resulting material microstructure. The microstructure information feeds back to the mechanical properties since the microstructure will have an
effect on the residual stress.
As mentioned, a robust weld process model will
lead to the ability to truly optimize the welding
process. A simple example of the process is illustrated
in a study conducted at Edison Welding Institute, Inc.

site in the heat-affected zone will have an adverse effect on the structure at that location since it will be
less ductile and more susceptible to crack formation
and propagation.
A key result from the DOE study was the Analysis of Variation (ANOVA) plot, as shown in Figure
5. This plot indicates that the Silicon and Nickel
alloy constituents have the highest influence on
the martensite formation in the weld zone. Therefore, controlling these alloy constituents is of
highest importance.

Tools for the Future

Welding Conditions and Parameters

Geometry of
Welded Structures

Heat Flow

Input

Figure 3. Weld
process simulation
with required inputs
and outputs.

Material's Chemistry
and Conditions

Input

Metallurg

Mechanic

Microstructure
and Properties

Residual Stresses
and Distortion

(EWI) to optimize the material chemistry of a welded

structure for a particular application.
EWI has developed a modeling process for low carbon steels to predict the microstructure in the weld
heat-affected zone as a function of material chemistry, heat input and cooling rate. The model was developed using ABAQUS software from ABAQUS
Inc. with a custom material microstructure subroutine developed at EWI.
An example output from the model is given in Figure 4, which shows a color plot of the martensite formation in the heat-affected zone. The goal of this
study was to determine the optimal alloy composition of the steel in order to minimize the amount of
martensite formation.
The optimization study was conducted using
Altair Engineerings HyperStudy software to carry
out a Design of Experiments (DOE) analysis. Upper
and lower bounds were established for each alloy
constituent in the steel. A Latin Hypercube DOE
analysis was conducted keeping the heat input and
cooling rate fixed. A regression equation was fit to
the DOE results to determine the optimal alloy
makeup to minimize the martensite formation.
The amount of martensite in the heat-affected
zone was reduced by 83% using the optimal results
from the simulation study. The presence of marten-

Concept To Reality / Spring 2004

20

Weld process modeling is making significant

progress, and manufacturing organizations are utilizing these tools to improve their designs and operations. These tools will continue to evolve to handle a
wider variety of weld processes and provide more
efficient solutions.
Even in the current state of weld modeling simulation, the need exists to link the modeling results with
the structural and durability analyses that occur in
most design and manufacturing organizations. For instance, finite-element analysis (FEA) is commonly
carried out on new designs to determine if the design
will adequately withstand the operating conditions
under which it will perform. Unfortunately, most of
these FEA simulations do not account for the effects
of the welding process.

Figure 4. Percentage of martensite formation in the

weld heat-affected zone.
An example of the effects of not including weld
simulation data in the structural analysis is shown in
Figure 6, which demonstrates the stress contours of a
simple welded joint design subjected to a bending
load. The left-hand stress plot shows the results assuming a structure with no residual stresses before

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P R O C E S S
60

Si

Contributing Percent

50
40
30

A U T O M A T I O N

Ni

20
10

1. w_c
2. w_mn
3. w_mo
4. w_ni
5. w_si
6. w_mn, w_c
7. w_mo, w_c
8. w_mo, w_mn
9. w_ni, w_c
10. w_ni, w_mn
11. w_ni, w_mo
12. w_si, w_c
13. w_si, w_mn
14. w_si, w_mo
15. w_si, w_ni

Si, Ni
Mn
C
0 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
Contributing Source

Figure 5. Analysis of Variation (ANOVA) plot of

sensitivity of alloy constituents on martensite
formation in the weld heat-affected zone.
bending; the right-hand stress plot shows the results
including the pre-existing residual stresses from the
welding process.
As indicated, the maximum stress of the model including the residual stresses is over three times as
high as the model results when residual stresses are
not included and actually exceed the yield stress of
the material. The welding-induced residual stresses
can have a significant impact on the structural performance of the component, and if they are not included in the structural analysis, the analysis predictions can have considerable errors.
Another key area of concern is in fatigue and durability modeling. The results of these models are
highly dependent on the zero-stress state of the
structure. In most cases, the zero-stress state is assumed to occur when there is no externally applied
load on the structure. Residual stresses in the weld
zone mean that the structure is not under a zerostress state in the no-load condition.
If the weld-induced residual stresses are compressive, the fatigue modeling will underpredict the life
of the structure; if the residual stresses are tensile, the
fatigue modeling will overpredict the structural lifetime. Predicted lifetimes of the structure could vary
by orders of magnitude, depending on whether the
residual stress state from welding is included in the
analysis.
Impact loading of welded structures is another key
concern. The automotive industry routinely performs virtual crash simulations on vehicle designs.
An automotive structure has a number of different
welded components, including a great number of resistance spot welds. These welds have residual
stresses, and the material microstructure in the weld
zone is different from the parent material.
The welds also have different material properties,
which include different stress-strain curves as a function of impact loading. These effects are not currently included in the virtual crash simulations but

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definitely have an effect on the response of the structure to an impact load.

The challenge to incorporate weld-induced properties into the structural analysis is to do so in a manner that captures the relevant information but doesnt significantly slow down the analysis. Including
the microstructural variations across a weld zone for
every spot weld in a vehicle would be impractical if
not impossible. Weld simulation finite-element
models often have to include very fine meshes at the
weld zone, which could significantly slow down the
mesh generation activities for large welded structures
as well as require very long solution times. A variety
of methods to incorporate weld data into the structural analysis model is being proposed and investigated, and these investigations will eventually lead
to a process to include this data.
Manufacturing simulation tools have made a tremendous impact on the efficiency of manufacturing

operations. Casting, stamping, forging and injectionmolding simulation tools all have helped manufacturing organizations reduce costs and improve quality.
Welding simulation tools will have a similar impact.
Commercial software for welding simulation is
available in the marketplace, and organizations are
starting to use these tools to optimize their welding
processes. Making the link of the manufacturing simulation data to the structural analysis models will allow us to eventually simulate the entire history of the
part, from raw material through manufacturing to
operation. Only then will virtual product life cycle
management truly become a reality.

Figure 6. Influence
of welding-induced
residual stresses
on maximum
stresses in bending.

Dr. Robert N. Yancey is Technology Leader at Edison

Welding Institute, Inc. (EWI), Columbus, OH.

To request an EWI Informational CD or literature

associated with Modeling of Welded Structures, visit
www.altair.com/c2r

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Concept To Reality / Spring 2004