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Computer Network interconnected collection of autonomous computers

Interconnected computers that are able to exchange information
Autonomous if no computer can forcibly start, stop or control another one
Distributed System it is a virtual uniprocessor
Allocation of jobs to processors and files to disks, movement of files between where they are
needed, and all other system functions are automatic in distributed systems. (Transparent not visible to the
user)
Where as in CNs the transmission between systems is controlled explicitly by the user

Goals of Computer networks

1. Resource Sharing
To make all programs, equipment and data available to anyone in the network
2. High reliability
By having alternative sources of supply
3. Saving Money
Network of small computers can replace larger ones (like Mainframes) and there by the
expenditure can be reduced
4. Communication
Like e-mails, video conference...etc.
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What is the big deal about computer networks?

- Allows two or more computers to communicate
- Benefits
o Programs can be shared - software packages can be installed onto the file server and accessed by all
individual workstations at the same time. This reduces cost, maintenance and makes upgrades easier.
o You can access your work from any workstation on the network. Very handy if you have to change computer
every time you go to a different classroom.
o Data can be shared by all users at the same time. Many people can access or update the information held on a
database at the same time. Thus information is up to date and accurate.
o Users can communicate with others on the network by sending messages and sharing files.
o Individual workstations do not need a printer; one high quality printer can now be shared by everyone, thus
cutting costs.
o Networks provide security. A user must have the correct Password and User ID in order to be able to access
the information on the network.
o Private areas on the network can be set up that allows each user to store their personal files. The only other
person who can access these files is the 'system administrator' who looks after the network.

- Disadvantages
o Networks can be expensive to set up. They often involve taking up floors and ceilings to lay hundreds of feet
of cables
o The File Server needs to be a powerful computer, which often means that it is expensive.
o Networks are vulnerable to security problems. Hackers, disgruntled employees or even competitors might try
to break into the system to read or damage crucial information. Much effort is spent preventing unauthorized
access to data and software.
o If the main File Server breaks down, then the whole system becomes useless and no one can carry on
working.
o Because networks are often complicated, they need expensive expert staff to look after them.
o As the number of users increase on the network, the performance of the system can be affected and things
start to slow down.
o Malware, such as worms, easily spread on computer networks and not on stand alone computers.

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Client Server Model

Client machine

Server machine

Client process

Server process

Request
Reply
Packet a short form of message that travels in a network
Data

address

Network Hardware
Computer Networks
Based on type of transmission technology

Broadcast N/Ws

Point-to-Point N/Ws

Broadcasting
Sending a message to all the nodes (computers) in a network
To broadcast a message the address field in the packet must contain some special code.
Data

Address
Special code
xxx.xxx.xxx.255 (for Directed broadcasting)
255.255.255.255(for Limited broadcasting)

Directed broadcasting the message is broadcasted to all the nodes in some other network
Limited broadcasting the message is broadcasted to all the nodes in the same network
Multicasting
Sending a message to some group of nodes in a network
Point-to-Point Networks
In this type of networks there is a need for many connections between every pair of computers. And
the message is subjected to only one destination.

Intermediate nodes

Intermediate nodes must be able to select the

best route among the available using some
Routing Algorithms
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Computer Networks
Based on scale of the network

LAN
10m
100m
1Km
10Km
100Km
1000Km
10000Km

MAN

WAN

Room
Building
Campus
City
Country
Continent
Whole world

LAN
MAN
WAN
Internet

Topology the arrangement of nodes in a network

Some possible topologies are

Bus

Mesh

Ring

Star

Tree

Irregular

LAN (Local Area Network)

LANs cover small geographical areas like a room/campus
Generally LANs runs at 10-100 Mbps
Possible topologies for LAN are Bus and Ring
Bus only one master is allowed to transmit data at a time
To resolve conflicts in a network we need some control that can be either centralized or
distributed.
Eg: - Ethernet (IEEE 802.6)
It is a Bus based broadcast network that uses a decentralized control and runs at 10-100
Mbps. In Ethernet any node can transmit data at anytime. So there is every chance for
collisions. If a collision occurs the nodes involved in transmission waits for sometime and
retransmit the same data.
Ring some arbitration mechanism is required in ring type networks
Eg: - IBM Token Ring (IEEE 802.3)
Runs at 4 and 16 Mbps

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Allocating communication channel to a system can be done in two ways:

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1. Static Allocation
2. Dynamic Allocation

Static allocation divides time into slots & runs a round robin algorithm
But if a system has nothing to transfer time network will be in idle state throughout that
time slot. Channel capacity will get wasted by this.
Dynamic allocation it can be either centralized or decentralized

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

Almost similar to LAN but a special standard is defined for MANs
IEEE 802.6 DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual Bus)
Bus A

Bus B
DQDB consists of two unidirectional buses to which all the nodes are connected. Each
bus has a head-end system that initiates transmission activity. Traffic to the right uses the upper bus.
Traffic to the left uses the lower bus.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

WAN contains a collection of hosts/end systems connected by communication subnet/subnet.
Subnet is a collection of switching elements (routers) that connects two or more transmission lines
(channels/circuits/trunks).
Subnet

Channel

Subnet the collection of routers and communication lines that moved packets from the source host
to destination host
Some routers copy the message they received and pass it to the next node only when the output line is
free. Subnets that use this type of routers are called as Point-to-Point/Store and Forward/Packet Switched
subnets.
Internetwork (internet)
A collection of interconnected networks
Common form of internet is a collection of LANs connected by a WAN
We use Gateways/Routers/Brouters/Bridges to connect 2 or more networks

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Network Software
To reduce design complexity network software is organized as layers. Each layer offers some services
to the higher layers. For this we need some rules and conventions called as protocol.
Protocol an agreement between the communicating parties on how communication is to proceed

Interface defines which services the lower layer offering to its upper one
Protocol stack collection protocols used in all the layers
Network Architecture set of layers + protocols

At source system when data is passing down each layer adds some header information which used by the
same layer in the destination side. Some layers fragment the data for sophisticated
transmission.
At destination system when data is passing up to the higher layers headers are removed and data is
reassembled.
Design issues for the layers:
1. Mechanism to identify senders and receivers
2. Type of communication
3. Mechanism to determine logical channels and their priorities
4. Error control
5. Sequencing
6. Flow control (to synchronize between fast sender and a slow receiver)
7. Disassembling & reassembling
8. Choosing a route
Types of communication
Simplex data can be transmitted in only one way
Half Duplex data can be transmitted in both the ways but only one way at a time
Full Duplex both the ways at a time
Entity active elements present in each layer. Entities can be either hardware (an intelligent I/O chip) or
software (a process) entities.
Peer entity entities present in same layer but on different machines

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SAP point where services are available. Each SAP has a unique address for identification.
To exchange information two layers must have an agreement between them. That agreement is done by
passing an IDU through SAP.
IDU ICI + SDU
SDU passed to the peer entity & then to layer n+1
ICI it is not part of data but passed to the lower layers to do some job
SDU is fragmented and header is added to it PDU
PDU header is used by peer entities to carryout peer protocol
A service is said to be reliable if there is no data lose. Reliability can be achieved by using acknowledgements
to the data sent. But acknowledgements may result in extra overhead and delay in transmission.
Connection Oriented Service
Eg: - telephone system

Connection is established, used and then released

Order of packets at both the sender and receiver sides is same
Highly reliable
The variations in connection oriented service are
o Message sequence
Message boundaries are defined (eg:- transmitting a book (sequence of pages))
o Byte stream
Message boundaries are not necessary and data is sent as a sequence of bytes (eg:remote login)
o Unreliable connection oriented service
Acknowledgement is not necessary (eg:- digitized voice no problem even though some
data (voice) is lost but delays(because of acknowledgements) should be avoided)

Connectionless Service
Eg:- postal system
Less reliable
Datagram service unreliable (no ack.) connectionless service (eg:- e-mail)
Acknowledged datagram service connectionless service with acknowledgements (eg:- registered
letter)
Request Reply service request is sent as one datagram and the answer is a reply for the request (eg:database request)

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Service Primitives

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Service is defined as set of operations called primitives.

Some basic primitives are:
Primitive
Request

Meaning
Entity wants the service to do some work

Indication

Entity is to be informed about an event

Response
Confirm

Entity wants to respond to an event

The response to an earlier request has came
back

Parameters
Machine to request, type of service
desired and maximum message size to
be used on the connection
Callers identity, type of service desired
and proposed packet size

Example of a connection oriented service with eight primitives

CONNECT.Request
CONNECT.Indication
CONNECT.Response
CONNECT.Confirm
DATA.Request
DATA.Indication
DISCONNECT.Request
DISCONNECT.Indication

Request a connection to be established

Signal the called party
Confirmed service
Used by the callee to accept/reject calls
Tell the caller whether the call was accepted
Request that data be sent
Signal the arrival of data
Unconfirmed services
Request that a connection be released
Signal the peer about the request

Service a set of primitives that a layer provides to the layer above it

Protocol set of rules governing the format and meaning of the frames, packets or messages that are
exchanged by the peer entities with in a layer
A Reference model is the set of rules to be followed before constructing a new network

ISO OSI Reference Model

ISO International Standard Organization
OSI Open Systems Interconnection
Open systems systems those are open for communication

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Physical Layer

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It mainly deals with transmitting raw bits over communication channel

Design issues are:

How a bit should be represented?

What is the transmission type?
How to establish a connection?
How many pins the network connector has & their purpose?

Data Link Layer

Error control
Flow control
Framing
Access control

Network Layer

Routing
Congestion control
Addressing

Transport Layer

Segmentation & Reassembling

Flow control

This is a pure end-to-end layer

If there are many connections to a single host transport header helps us to distinguish among them
Session Layer

Establish sessions
Token management
Synchronization (like adding checkpoints to downloading files)

Presentation Layer
Concerns with syntax and semantics of the information

Encoding
Compression
Encryption

Application Layer

Transferring data between incompatible systems

UID User Interface Design

Contains majority of protocols

Work stations, Servers, Gateways

Hub
Switch, Bridge
Router

All the 7 layers are present

Only Physical layer
Physical layer + Data link layer
Physical layer + Data link layer + Network layer

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Physical Layer
This layer is the lowest layer in the OSI model. It helps in the transmission of data between two machines that are
communicating through a physical medium, which can be optical fibres, copper wire or wireless etc. The following are
the main functions of the physical layer:
1. Hardware Specification: The details of the physical cables, network interface cards, wireless radios, etc are a
part of this layer.

Coaxial Cable

Hybrid Cable

Wireless Card

Network Card

2. Encoding and Signaling: How are the bits encoded in the medium is also decided by this layer. For example, on
the copper wire medium, we can use different voltage levels for a certain time interval to represent '0' and '1'.
We may use +5mV for 1nsec to represent '1' and -5mV for 1nsec to represent '0'. All the issues of modulation is
dealt with in this layer. eg, we may use Binary phase shift keying for the representation of '1' and '0' rather than
using different voltage levels if we have to transfer in RF waves.

Binary Phase Shift Keying

3. Data Transmission and Reception: The transfer of each bit of data is the responsibility of this layer. This layer
assures the transmission of each bit with a high probability. The transmission of the bits is not completely
reliable as there is no error correction in this layer.
4. Topology and Network Design: The network design is the integral part of the physical layer. Which part of the
network is the router going to be placed, where the switches will be used, where we will put the hubs, how
many machines is each switch going to handle, what server is going to be placed where, and many such
concerns are to be taken care of by the physical layer. The various kinds of net topologies that we decide to use
may be ring, bus, star or a hybrid of these topologies depending on our requirements.

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Network Topologies

A network topology is the basic design of a computer network. It is very much like a map of a road. It details how key
network components such as nodes and links are interconnected. A network's topology is comparable to the blueprints
of a new home in which components such as the electrical system, heating and air conditioning system, and plumbing
are integrated into the overall design. Taken from the Greek work "Topos" meaning "Place," Topology, in relation to
networking, describes the configuration of the network; including the location of the workstations and wiring
connections. Basically it provides a definition of the components of a Local Area Network (LAN). A topology, which is a
pattern of interconnections among nodes, influences a network's cost and performance. There are three primary types
of network topologies which refer to the physical and logical layout of the Network cabling. They are:
1. Star Topology: All devices connected with a Star setup communicate through a central Hub by cable segments.
Signals are transmitted and received through the Hub. It is the simplest and the oldest and all the telephone
switches are based on this. In a star topology, each network device has a home run of cabling back to a network
hub, giving each device a separate connection to the network. So, there can be multiple connections in parallel.

Advantages
o
o
o
o

Network administration and error detection is easier because problem is isolated to central node
Networks runs even if one host fails
Expansion becomes easier and scalability of the network increases
More suited for larger networks

Disadvantages
o

Broadcasting and multicasting is not easy because some extra functionality needs to be provided to the
central hub
o If the central node fails, the whole network goes down; thus making the switch some kind of a
bottleneck
o Installation costs are high because each node needs to be connected to the central switch
2. Bus Topology: The simplest and one of the most common of all topologies, Bus consists of a single cable, called
a Backbone, that connects all workstations on the network using a single line. All transmissions must pass
through each of the connected devices to complete the desired request. Each workstation has its own individual
signal that identifies it and allows for the requested data to be returned to the correct originator. In the Bus
Network, messages are sent in both directions from a single point and are read by the node (computer or
peripheral on the network) identified by the code with the message. Most Local Area Networks (LANs) are Bus
Networks because the network will continue to function even if one computer is down. This topology works
equally well for either peer to peer or client server.

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The purpose of the terminators at either end of the network is to stop the signal being reflected back.

Advantages
o
o
o
o

Broadcasting and multicasting is much simpler

Network is redundant in the sense that failure of one node doesn't effect the network. The other part
may still function properly
Least expensive since less amount of cabling is required and no network switches are required
Good for smaller networks not requiring higher speeds

Disadvantages
o
o
o

Trouble shooting and error detection becomes a problem because, logically, all nodes are equal
Less secure because sniffing is easier
Limited in size and speed
3. Ring Topology: All the nodes in a Ring Network are connected in a closed circle of cable. Messages that are
transmitted travel around the ring until they reach the computer that they are addressed to, the signal being
refreshed by each node. In a ring topology, the network signal is passed through each network card of each
device and passed on to the next device. Each device processes and retransmits the signal, so it is capable of
supporting many devices in a somewhat slow but very orderly fashion. There is a very nice feature that
everybody gets a chance to send a packet and it is guaranteed that every node gets to send a packet in a finite
amount of time.

Advantages
o
o
o
o
o

Broadcasting and multicasting is simple since you just need to send out one message
Less expensive since less cable footage is required
It is guaranteed that each host will be able to transmit within a finite time interval
Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the opportunity to transmit
Performs better than a star network under heavy network load

Disadvantages
o
o
o
o

Failure of one node brings the whole network down

Error detection and network administration becomes difficult
Moves, adds and changes of devices can effect the network
It is slower than star topology under normal load

Generally, a BUS architecture is preferred over the other topologies - ofcourse, this is a very subjective opinion
and the final design depends on the requirements of the network more than anything else. Lately, most networks
are shifting towards the STAR topology. Ideally we would like to design networks, which physically resemble
the STAR topology, but behave like BUS or RING topology.

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Data Link Layer

This layer provides reliable transmission of a packet by using the services of the physical layer which transmits bits over
the medium in an unreliable fashion. This layer is concerned with :
1. Framing : Breaking input data into frames (typically a few hundred bytes) and caring about the frame boundaries
and the size of each frame.
2. Acknowledgment: Sent by the receiving end to inform the source that the frame was received without any error.
3. Sequence Numbering: To acknowledge which frame was received.
4. Error Detection : The frames may be damaged, lost or duplicated leading to errors. The error control is on link to
link basis.
5. Retransmission: The packet is retransmitted if the source fails to receive acknowledgment.
6. Flow Control: Necessary for a fast transmitter to keep pace with a slow receiver.

Data Link Layer

Network Layer
Its basic functions are routing and congestion control.
Routing: This deals with determining how packets will be routed (transferred) from source to destination. It can be of
three types :

Static : Routes are based on static tables that are "wired into" the network and are rarely changed.
Dynamic : All packets of one application can follow different routes depending upon the topology of the
network, the shortest path and the current network load.
Semi-Dynamic : A route is chosen at the start of each conversation and then all the packets of the application
follow the same route.

Routing
The services provided by the network can be of two types :

Connection less service: Each packet of an application is treated as an independent entity. On each packet of
the application the destination address is provided and the packet is routed.
Connection oriented service: Here, first a connection is established and then all packets of the application
follow the same route. To understand the above concept, we can also draw an analogy from the real life.
Connection oriented service is modeled after the telephone system. All voice packets go on the same path after
the connection is established till the connection is hung up. It acts like a tube ; the sender pushes the objects in
at one end and the receiver takes them out in the same order at the other end. Connection less service is
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modeled after the postal system. Each letter carries the destination address and is routed independent of all the
others. Here, it is possible that the letter sent first is delayed so that the second letter reaches the destination
before the first letter.
Congestion Control: A router can be connected to 4-5 networks. If all the networks send packet at the same time with
maximum rate possible then the router may not be able to handle all the packets and may drop some/all packets. In this
context the dropping of the packets should be minimized and the source whose packet was dropped should be
informed. The control of such congestion is also a function of the network layer. Other issues related with this layer are
transmitting time, delays, jittering.
Internetworking: Internetworks are multiple networks that are connected in such a way that they act as one large
network, connecting multiple office or department networks. Internetworks are connected by networking hardware
such as routers, switches, and bridges. Internetworking is a solution born of three networking problems: isolated LANs,
duplication of resources, and the lack of a centralized network management system. With connected LANs, companies
no longer have to duplicate programs or resources on each network. This in turn gives way to managing the network
from one central location instead of trying to manage each separate LAN. We should be able to transmit any packet
from one network to any other network even if they follow different protocols or use different addressing modes.

Inter-Networking

Network Layer does not guarantee that the packet will reach its intended destination. There are no reliability
guarantees.

Transport Layer
Its functions are :

Multiplexing / Demultiplexing: Normally the transport layer will create distinct network connection for each
transport connection required by the session layer. The transport layer may either create multiple network
connections (to improve throughput) or it may multiplex several transport connections onto the same network
connection (because creating and maintaining networks may be expensive). In the latter case, demultiplexing
will be required at the receiving end. A point to note here is that communication is always carried out between
two processes and not between two machines. This is also known as process-to-process communication.
Fragmentation and Re-assembly : The data accepted by the transport layer from the session layer is split up into
smaller units (fragmentation) if needed and then passed to the network layer. Correspondingly, the data
provided by the network layer to the transport layer on the receiving side is re-assembled.

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Fragmentation

Reassembly

Types of service : The transport layer also decides the type of service that should be provided to the session
layer. The service may be perfectly reliable, or may be reliable within certain tolerances or may not be reliable at
all. The message may or may not be received in the order in which it was sent. The decision regarding the type
of service to be provided is taken at the time when the connection is established.
Error Control : If reliable service is provided then error detection and error recovery operations are also
performed. It provides error control mechanism on end to end basis.
Flow Control : A fast host cannot keep pace with a slow one. Hence, this is a mechanism to regulate the flow of
information.
Connection Establishment / Release : The transport layer also establishes and releases the connection across
the network. This requires some sort of naming mechanism so that a process on one machine can indicate with
whom it wants to communicate.

Session Layer
It deals with the concept of Sessions i.e. when a user logins to a remote server he should be authenticated before
getting access to the files and application programs. Another job of session layer is to establish and maintain sessions. If
during the transfer of data between two machines the session breaks down, it is the session layer which re-establishes
the connection. It also ensures that the data transfer starts from where it breaks keeping it transparent to the end user.
e.g. In case of a session with a database server, this layer introduces check points at various places so that in case the
connection is broken and reestablished, the transition running on the database is not lost even if the user has not
committed. This activity is called Synchronization. Another function of this layer is Dialogue Control which determines
whose turn is it to speak in a session. It is useful in video conferencing.

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Presentation Layer
This layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted. In order to make it possible for
computers with different data representations to communicate data structures to be exchanged can be defined in
abstract way along with standard encoding. It also manages these abstract data structures and allows higher level of
data structures to be defined an exchange. It encodes the data in standard agreed way(network format). Suppose there
are two machines A and B one follows 'Big Endian' and other 'Little Endian' for data representation. This layer ensures
that the data transmitted by one gets converted in the form compatible to other machine. This layer is concerned with
the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted. In order to make it possible for computers with different data
representations to communicate data structures to be exchanged can be defined in abstract way along with standard
encoding. It also manages these abstract data structures and allows higher level of data structures to be defined an
exchange. Other functions include compression, encryption etc.

Application Layer
The seventh layer contains the application protocols with which the user gains access to the network. The choice of
which specific protocols and their associated functions are to be used at the application level is up to the individual user.
Thus the boundary between the presentation layer and the application layer represents a separation of the protocols
imposed by the network designers from those being selected and implemented by the network users. For example
commonly used protocols are HTTP(for web browsing), FTP(for file transfer) etc.

TCP/IP Reference Model

Internet Layer
Injects packets into any network and have them travel independently (order is not taken care off) and
rearranging them is the responsibility of the higher layers.
Defines an official packet format (IP)
IP Internet Protocol
Transport Layer
It also defines two official packet formats: TCP and UDP
TCP Transmission Control Protocol
Reliable connection oriented protocol
Based on byte streams. Fragments incoming byte streams and reassembles at destination.
Also handles Flow control
UDP User Datagram Protocol
Unreliable connectionless protocol
Uses client-server/request-reply model
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Application Layer

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Contains high level protocols

Telnet
ftp (file transfer protocol)
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
DNS (Domain Name Server)
http (hyper text transfer protocol)

Virtual terminals (logon to a remote system and work there)

File transfer
e-mails
Mapping hostnames to network address
Fetching in WWW

Host-to-Network Layer
Host is connected to the network here, using some protocol and send IP packets through the connection

OSI

TCP/IP

7 layers
No definition for multicasting
Not flexible
Idle standards

Networks

5 layers
Multicasting defined
Flexible
Practical
Public
Research
Cooperative
Corporate

Novell Netware
It is a popular LAN networking package
Netware is more useful when a mainframe is downsized to a network of PCs
Netware reference model
Application layer

SAP

Transport layer

Fileserver
NCP

Network layer

SPX

IPX

Data link layer

Ethernet

Token ring

ARC net

Physical layer

Ethernet

Token ring

ARC net

Physical layer & Data link layer chosen from various industry standards
Network layer uses IPX (Internet Packet eXchange) protocol
An unreliable connectionless internetwork protocol
It is similar to IP but uses a 12-byte address
Transport layer uses NCP/SPX/TCP
NCP Network Core Protocol
It is a connection oriented protocol
Along with data transport it offers some other services. Thats why NCP is called as
heart of Netware
SPX Sequenced Packet eXchange
It offers only data transport service
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IPX Packet Format
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12

Checksum Packet length Transport control Packet type

Destination address

12
Source address

Data

Transport control contains the number of networks the packet has traversed
Packet length length of header field + length of data field
Packet type specifies whether it is a control packet or a data packet
Address (12 byte) 32 bits (to identify network) + 48 bits (to identify machine) + 16 bits (to identify socket)
SAP Service Advertising Protocol
Using SAP each server in the network broadcasts a message for every 1 minute about the services offered by it.
Special agents present in routers collect these messages and forms a database. When ever a client is booted it
broadcasts a message asking for its nearest server. Agent in a local router verifies the database and sends back the client
its nearest server details.

ARPANET
ARPA Advanced Research Projects Agency (research arm of the U.S. Department of Defense)
ARPANET is packet switched network consisting of a subnet and host computers
Subnet consists of IMP(Interface Message Processors)s connected by transmission lines
For high reliability, each IMP would be connected to at least two other IMPs
A host could send messages up to 8063bits to its IMP, which would then break these up into packets of at
most 1008 bits and forward them independently toward the deastination.
Subnet was the first electronic store and forward packet switching network

In 1980s DNS (Domain Naming System) was created to organize machines into domains and map hostnames
onto IP addresses.
NSF the U.S. National Science Foundation

Internet
ARPANET + NSFNET Internet
Traditionally, the Internet had 4 main applications:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Email
News
Remote login
File transfer

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Problems
1. An alternative to a LAN is simply a big timesharing system with terminals for all users. Give two
advantages of a client-server system using a LAN.
Ans. The LAN model can be grown incrementally. If the LAN is just a long cable. it cannot be brought down

by a single failure (if the servers are replicated) It is probably cheaper. It provides more computing power and
better interactive interfaces.
2. The performance of a client-server system is influenced by two network factors: the
bandwidth of the network (how many bits/sec it can transport) and the latency (how
many seconds it takes for the first bit to get from the client to the server). Give an
example of a network that exhibits high bandwidth and high latency.
Then give an example of one with low bandwidth and low latency.
Ans. A transcontinental fiber link might have many gigabits/sec of bandwidth, but the latency will also be high

due to the speed of light propagation over thousands of kilometers. In contrast, a 56-kbps modem calling a
computer in the same building has low bandwidth and low latency.
3. Besides bandwidth and latency, what other parameter is needed to give a good
characterization of the quality of service offered by a network used for digitized
voice traffic?
Ans: A uniform delivery time is needed for voice, so the amount of jitter in the network

is important. This could be expressed as the standard deviation of the delivery time. Having short delay but
large variability is actually worse than a somewhat longer delay and low variability.
4. A collection of five routers is to be connected in a point-to-point subnet. Between each pair of
routers, the designers may put a high-speed line, a medium-speed line, a lowspeed line, or no line.
If it takes 100 ms of computer time to generate and inspect each topology, how long will it take to
inspect all of them?
Ans: Call the routers A, B, C, D, and E. There are ten potential lines: AB, AC, AD, AE, BC, BD, BE, CD, CE,

and DE. Each of these has four possibilities (three speeds or no line), so the total number of topologies is 4 10
1,048,576. At 100 ms each, it takes 104,857.6 sec, or slightly more than 29 hours to inspect them all.
5. A group of 2n - 1 routers are interconnected in a centralized binary tree, with a router at each tree
node. Router i communicates with router j by sending a message to the root of the tree. The root
then sends the message back down to j. Derive an approximate expression for the mean number of
hops per message for large n, assuming that all router pairs are equally likely.
Ans:

6. A disadvantage of a broadcast subnet is the capacity wasted when multiple hosts attempt to access
the channel at the same time. As a simplistic example, suppose that time is divided into discrete
slots, with each of the n hosts attempting to use the channel with probability p during each slot.
What fractions of the slots are wasted due to collisions?

7. What are two reasons for using layered protocols?

Ans : Among other reasons for using layered protocols, using them leads to breaking

up the design problem into smaller, more manageable pieces, and layering means that protocols can be
changed without affecting higher or lower ones.
8. What is the principal difference between connectionless communication and connection oriented
communication?
Ans: Connection-oriented communication has three phases. In the establishment phase a request is made to

set up a connection. Only after this phase has been successfully completed can the data transfer phase be
started and data transported. Then comes the release phase. Connectionless communication does not have
these phases. It just sends the data.
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9. Two networks each provide reliable connection-oriented service. One of them offers a
reliable byte stream and the other offers a reliable message stream. Are these identical? If so, why
is the distinction made? If not, give an example of how they differ.
Ans: Message and byte streams are different. In a message stream, the network keeps track of message

boundaries. In a byte stream, it does not. For example, suppose a process writes 1024 bytes to a connection and
then a little later writes another 1024 bytes. The receiver then does a read for 2048 bytes. With a message
stream, the receiver will get two messages, of 1024 bytes
each. With a byte stream, the message boundaries do not count and the receiver will get the full 2048 bytes as a
single unit. The fact that there were originally two distinct messages is lost.
10. What does ''negotiation'' mean when discussing network protocols? Give an example.
Ans: Negotiation has to do with getting both sides to agree on some parameters or values to be used during the

communication. Maximum packet size is one example, but there are many others.
11. In some networks, the data link layer handles transmission errors by requesting damaged frames
to be retransmitted. If the probability of a frame's being damaged is p, what is the mean number of
transmissions required to send a frame? Assume that acknowledgements are never lost.

12. If the unit exchanged at the data link level is called a frame and the unit exchanged at the network
level is called a packet, do frames encapsulate packets or do packets
encapsulate frames? Explain your answer.
Ans: Frames encapsulate packets. When a packet arrives at the data link layer, the entire thing, header, data,

and all, is used as the data field of a frame. The entire packet is put in an envelope (the frame), so to speak
(assuming it fits).
13. A system has an n-layer protocol hierarchy. Applications generate messages of length M bytes. At
each of the layers, an h-byte header is added. What fraction of the network bandwidth is filled with
headers?

14. List two ways in which the OSI reference model and the TCP/IP reference model are the same. Now
list two ways in which they differ.
Ans: Both models are based on layered protocols. Both have a network, transport, and application layer. In

both models, the transport service can provide a reliable end-to-end byte stream. On the other hand, they differ
in several ways. The number of layers is different, the TCP/IP does not have session or presentation layers,
OSI does not support internetworking, and OSI has both connection-oriented and connectionless service in the
network layer.
15. The Internet is roughly doubling in size every 18 months. Although no one really knows for sure,
one estimate put the number of hosts on it at 100 million in 2001. Use these data to compute the
expected number of Internet hosts in the year 2010. Do you believe this? Explain why or why not.

Ans: Doubling every 18 months means a factor of four gain in 3 years. In 9 years, the gain is then 4 3 or 64,
leading to 6.4 billion hosts. My intuition says that is much too conservative, since by then probably every
television in the world and possibly billions of other appliances will be on home LANs connected to the
Internet. The average person in the developed world may have dozens of Internet hosts by then.
16. When a file is transferred between two computers, two acknowledgement strategies are possible.
In the first one, the file is chopped up into packets, which are individually acknowledged by the
receiver, but the file transfer as a whole is not acknowledged. In the second one, the packets are
not acknowledged individually, but the entire file is acknowledged when it arrives. Discuss these
two approaches.
Ans: If the network tends to lose packets, it is better to acknowledge each one separately, so the lost packets

can be retransmitted. On the other hand, if the network is highly reliable, sending one acknowledgement at the
end of the entire transfer saves bandwidth in the normal case (but requires the entire file to be retransmitted if
even a single packet is lost).
17. List two advantages and two disadvantages of having international standards for network
protocols.
Ans: One advantage is that if everyone uses the standard, everyone can talk to everyone. Another advantage is

that widespread use of any standard will give it economies of scale, as with VLSI chips. A disadvantage is that
the political compromises necessary to achieve standardization frequently lead to poor standards. Another
disadvantage is that once a standard has been widely
adopted, it is difficult to change,, even if new and better techniques or methods are discovered. Also, by the
time it has been accepted, it may be obsolete.
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18. How long was a bit on the original 802.3 standard in meters? Use a transmission speed of 10 Mbps
and assume the propagation speed in coax is 2/3 the speed of light in vacuum.
Ans: The speed of light in coax is about 200,000 km/sec, which is 200 meters/sec.

At 10 Mbps, it takes 0.1 sec to transmit a bit. Thus, the bit lasts 0.1 sec in time, during which it propagates
20 meters. Thus, a bit is 20 meters long here.

19. An image is 1024 x 768 pixels with 3 bytes/pixel. Assume the image is uncompressed. How long
does it take to transmit it over a 56-kbps modem channel? Over a 1-Mbps cable modem? Over a
10-Mbps Ethernet? Over 100-Mbps Ethernet?

Ans: The image is 1024 768 3 bytes or 2,359,296 bytes. This is 18,874,368 bits. At 56,000 bits/sec, it takes
about 337.042 sec. At 1,000,000 bits/sec, it takes about 18.874 sec. At 10,000,000 bits/sec, it takes about 1.887
sec. At 100,000,000 bits/sec, it takes about 0.189 sec.

(Frequently asked Questions from previous exam papers)

*1. (a) Write any four reasons for using layered protocols.
(b) List two ways in which the OSI reference model and the TCP/IP reference model are the same
and list in which they differ.
(c) Which is the principle difference between CO communication and CL communication.
* 2. (a) Explain in detail ISO-OSI reference model.

(b) Write short notes on interface, service and protocol.

3. (a) With a neat diagram, explain the functionality of layers, protocols and interfaces.
4. List two advantages and two disadvantages of having international standards
for network, Protocols?.
5. (a) Briefly explain about the TCP/IP reference model.
(b) Compare and contrast OSI and TCP/IP models.
6. (a) Compare point -to-point channels with broadcast channels along with suitable
examples?
(b) A collection of five routers is to be collected in a point-to-point subnet. Between each pair of
routers, the designers may put a high speed line, a medium-speed line, a low-speed line, or no line. If
it takes 100ms of computer time to generate and inspect each topology, how long will it take to
inspect all of them to find the one that best matches the expected load?
7. (a) What are the advantages of having layered architecture? Mention the layers of ISO-OSI
reference model?
(b) What is Internet? Mention some of the applications of Internet?
8. (a) Define the following terms:
i. Computer Network
ii. Peer process
iii. Protocol
iv. Interface.
(b) Discuss various network applications and goals in detail.
9. (a) Explain problems of the TCP/IP model and protocols?
(b) With a neat diagram explain ARPANET design?
10.

11. (a) What does negotiation mean when discussing network protocol. Give an example.
(b) Which of the OSI layers handles each of the following
i. Breaking the transmitted bit stream into frames.
ii. Determine which route through subnet to use.
iii. Dialog control and synchronization.
(c) What is the main difference between TCP and UDP.
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12. (a) Discuss the classification of Networks according to their size?

(b) Discuss the various design issues related to the layers in ISO-OSI model?
13. With the help of appropriate examples explain various types of connection oriented and
connection less services.
14. Novell Netware looks more like TCP/IP than like OSI. Justify.
15. (a) Distinguish among LAN,MAN,WAN and Internet.
(b) What are the two protocols that are defined at the transport layer of the TCP/IP reference model?
Mention their applications?
16.Two networks each provide a reliable connection oriented service. One of them offers a reliable
byte stream and other offers a reliable message stream. Are they identical? If so, why is distinction
made? If not give an example of how they differ?
17. Give a detailed description of the Novell Netware IPX packet?
18. (a) How would you utilize an existing telephone network for Computer-to-Computer data
communications?
(b) Bad Timing is also a problem for OSI reference model. Discuss.
19. (a) Give a detailed description of the Novell Netware reference model.
(b) With suitable examples explain simplex, half-duplex & full-duplex communication.
20. Although wireless networking and mobile computing are often related, they are not identical.
Justify the statement.
21. (a) Differentiate between computer network and distributed system?
(b) What are the important goals achieved through networking?
(c) Explain about the four main applications of the Internet?

ALL THE BEST

o0o
A.S.N.CHAKRAVARTHYB.E.., MTech., (PhD)
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR

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