Optimisation and Radio Network

Functionality
Training Document

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Optimisation and Radio Network Functionality

The information in this document is subject to change without notice and describes only the
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Copyright Nokia Oyj 2003. All rights reserved.

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Table of Contents

Table of Contents
1

Objectives................................................................................... 4

2
2.1
2.2
2.3

Network Optimisation................................................................ 5
Key Performance Indicators......................................................... 5
Drive Test Measurements............................................................ 6
Optimisation Targets.................................................................... 6

3
3.1
3.2

Performance Evaluation............................................................ 7
Functional Tests........................................................................... 7
Performance Test ........................................................................ 7

4
4.1
4.1.1
4.1.2
4.1.3
4.1.4
4.2
4.2.1

Interference Reduction.............................................................. 8
Sources of Interference................................................................ 9
Co-Channel Interference.............................................................. 9
Adjacent Channel Interference .................................................. 10
Long Delayed Echoes................................................................ 11
Noise.......................................................................................... 12
Interference Reduction Methods................................................ 12
Interference Planning................................................................. 17

Parameter Planning and Radio Network

Functionality............................................................................. 19
Channel Configuration ............................................................... 19
Idle Mode Operation .................................................................. 19
Location Area Design................................................................. 20
Paging vs. Location Updating Traffic ......................................... 21
Handover and Power Control..................................................... 22
Handover Types......................................................................... 22
Adjacencies................................................................................ 23

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.3.1
5.4
5.4.1
5.5

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Objectives
At the end of this module, the participant will be able to:

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Understand the reasons behind optimisation

Know the radio network key performance indicators

Describe the functionalities of the radio network

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Network Optimisation
The network optimisation process consists of the network performance
evaluation and the subsequent actions to improve them. The main tools used
for network optimisation belong to three classes:

2.1

planning tools

radio measurements tools (drive test and propagation)

OMC data analysis

Key Performance Indicators

To evaluate the performance of a network it is necessary to define some
reference values, the so called KPIs (Key Performance Indicators). KPIs are
calculated after a post processing of NMS data or drive test measurement
data. Usually one short term target and one long term target is defined for
each KPI.
Each operator produces periodically a report with the KPIs status to check the
network evolution and which targets are achieved and which not; this leads to
the definition of new action points to improve the poorest indicators. KPIs
calculated with NMS data, represent the network performance on the operator
side. KPIs from drive test figure out the performance on the subscribers side.
Usually turn key projects are evaluated according to some predefined KPIs
figures like drop call rate and average downlink quality.
The most reliable KPIs to evaluate the network performance with NMS are:

Drop call rate [%], which is the percentage of call ended without a
subscriber request

SDCCH and TCH congestion time, which is the sum of the partial time
when all the resources of a cell are busy in the reference period (1 hour
usually).

Call set-up success rate, which is the percentage of call attempts that
leads to a TCH seizure.

Handover failure and/or success rate [%], which is the percentage of

handover failure or handover success in the reference period.

Average quality DL and UL, which is the mean value of all the quality
samples uplink and downlink.

Blocking percentage [%], which is the percentage of call attempts

failure due to lack of capacity resource

All these figures can be collected on different network element basis (TRX,
Cell, BTS, BSC, PLMN).

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Optimisation and Radio Network Functionality

The customer always defines the targets but the following figures can be
considered as satisfactory results:

2.2

Item

Target

Highest/Lowest acceptable
limit

dropped calls

<2%

4%

handover success

>98%

96%

good quality samples (0..5)

>98%

95%

Drive Test Measurements

Drive test measurements and their analysis is a powerful means to evaluate
network performance from the subscriber point of view. It is possible to
collect some KPIs information like DL quality, call success rate, handover
success rate, DL signal level from the drive test results, but the results are not
statistically as reliable as NMS information. The real adding value of drive
test measurement compared to NMS data analysis is the following
information:

find out the geographical position of problems like bad DL quality to

look for a possible interference source in the area

compare the performance of different networks

display the signal level on the digital maps to individuate areas with
lack of coverage and eventually improve the propagation model

verify the neighbour list parameter plan.

There are not strict processes for optimisation because the activity is driven by
the network evolution.

2.3

Optimisation Targets
In a young network the primary target is normally the coverage. In this phase
usually there is a massive use of drive test measurement both to check the
signal and the performance of the competitors.
In a mature network the primary targets are quality indicators like drop call
rate, average quality, handover failures. In this phase it is very important use
the information from NMS because they give a general view of the network
performance. Drive test measurements are still used but not in a massive way,
they are performed in areas where new sites are on air, or where interference
and similar problems are pointed out by NMS data analysis.

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Performance Evaluation

3.1

Functional Tests
Functional test is conducted before launching the network commercially. At
this stage the default parameter set should be used for all sites. In addition to
that the network planner gives the neighbour definitions for the site. The
frequencies, BSIC, LACs and BCC are also defined.
The purpose of the measurements is to verify that the basic parameters have
been given correctly and everything is functioning properly. This means that
the frequencies and handovers to all neighbours need to be checked. For this,
radial measurement routes into the neighbour cell areas have to be defined. In
addition to that the coverage range of the cell should be checked and
compared with the predicted one.

3.2

Performance Test
Performance tests represent the subscriber's view of the network. These
measurements are conducted in a live network in the commercial phase.
During the measurements calls are generated e.g. every 2 minutes. The
number of calls should be high enough to be statistically reliable. A random
route should be defined once and used repeatedly for the measurements. This
enables the comparison of the measurement data and hence the development
of the network can be traced. The handover success rate, call set-up success
rate and call completion success rate can be obtained as a result from these
measurements. This information is secondary to the OMC information for the
KPIs. However, performance measurements give geographical information
about the problem areas and hence give also additional information to the
OMC data.

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Interference Reduction
Interference is the sum of all signal contributions that are neither noise nor the
wanted signal.
Carrier-to-Interference Concept: Signal quality is largely determined by the
ratio of carrier-to-interference (C/I). GSM specifies a minimum C/I of 9 dB
to ensure nominal bit error rates under static propagation conditions.

Signal quality =
sum of all wanted signals
sum of all unwanted signal
wanted signal

carrier
interference

atmospheric
noise
other signals

Figure 1.

Carrier to interference

Interference causes degradation of signal quality. This introduces bit errors in

the received signal. Bit errors are partly recoverable by means of channel
coding and error correction mechanisms. There are also irreducible bit
errors caused by phase distortions of the radio signal (random FM noise).
The interference situation is as opposed to field strength not reciprocal in
uplink and downlink direction. Mobile station and base station are exposed to
very different interference situations. The ratio of Carrier-to-Interference (C/I)
is a key figure for assessing the quality of a radio signal.
Signal quality classification in GSM is based on detected bit error rates before
all channel coding and error correction takes place. GSM-specified parameter
RXQUAL ranges from 0 (excellent) to 7 (bad) in logarithmic steps. [For
further details refer to GSM 05.01/ 05.02 specifications].

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good
usable signal
acceptable
unusable
signal

Figure 2.

4.1

RXQUAL
class
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Mean BER
(%)
0,14
0,28
0,57
1,13
2,26
4,53
9,05
18,1

BER range
from... to
< 0,2%
0,2 ... 0,4 %
0,4 ... 0,8 %
0,8 ... 1,6 %
1,6 ... 3,2 %
3,2 ... 6,4 %
6,4 ... 12,8 %
> 12,8 %

GSM quality classes

Sources of Interference
The main source of interference is the re-use of own frequencies. Other
contributions to interference come from multipath components of the very
same signal, i.e. long delayed echoes that are outside the equaliser window of
16 microseconds. External interference is caused by spurious emissions from
other frequency bands.
A mature GSM network will practically always be limited in its performance
by interference rather than by coverage. Interference is unavoidable due to reuse of frequencies. However, the radio planners goal will always be to push
the interference limits as far out as possible.

4.1.1

Co-Channel Interference
Co-channel interference comes from the re-use of own (limited) frequency
resources. It is therefore unavoidable in a network and the major contribution
to total interference. Dense re-use of frequencies provides high capacity and
also high interference levels. Scarce frequency re-use provides excellent
interference-free networks but with very low capacity. So, once again, it is the
planners task to find the compromise.
The optimum layout of cell patterns, providing the best compromise between
introduced interference and achieved capacity, has been studied in depth in
literature. For illustration reasons often regular hexagonal cell patterns are
used as a simplified case. Applicability of a model that greatly simplified is,
however, doubtful.

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Optimisation and Radio Network Functionality

f2

f6
f3
f3

f5

C = R
I 6* D
Ancient concept !
for demonstration only

Figure 3.

f7

f4
f2

f7

f4
f2

f7

f2

f6

f6
f3

f5

f5

f4

f3
f3

R
f5

f7

f4
f2

f5

f2

f6
f3

f6
f3
f5

f4

f5

f4

f4

Co-channel interference

where the carrier is R- and the interferers 6*(D- ).

There is a trade-off between C/I, frequency efficiency and network
capacity. While analogue systems feature a rather graceful degradation of
signal quality and intelligibility with decreasing C/I; digital systems such as
GSM will maintain a good signal quality by means of error correction codes
down to rather low values of C/I. From a certain threshold, when error
correction capabilities are exhausted signal quality will deteriorate rapidly and
become unbearable ("cliff effect"). This is noticeably the case under severe
interference conditions.

4.1.2

Adjacent Channel Interference

It is possible that an adjacent channel causes interference problems. It is
specified in recommendations that certain bit error performance requirements
have to be met in conditions of static adjacent channel interference ratio of 9
dB (adjacent channel 9 dB stronger than serving one). This is therefore
typically considered as required C/IA ratio and normally adjacent channel
interference is not a problem. After all, handover to this interfering channel is
likely to be made before it begins to interfere severely. However, in certain
conditions adjacent channel interference may be a real problem and it should
be taken into account.

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digital systems

quality

analog systems

C/ I ratio (dB)
6

Figure 4.

4.1.3

12

15

18

Relation of signal quality and C/I ratio

Long Delayed Echoes

A contribution to interference is caused by excessive multipath delays. Partial
waves taking long detours (e.g. by reflecting off a distant mountain) will
arrive at the receiver with a delay of more than the 16 sec equaliser window
specified by GSM. These long delays act as interferers even in otherwise
reuse-interference-free environment, since they will cause inter-symbol
interference with the next transmitted symbol.
Whether these effects cause noticeable interference also depends on the
implementation of the channel equaliser in the BTS and in the mobile station,
respectively. (Equalisers may also be designed to cope with longer delays than
specified in GSM)

equaliser window 16 s

amplitude
long echos, out of equaliser window:
==> interference contributions

delay time (sec)

direct
path

nearby scatterers

1 sec delay = 300m

16 sec delay = 4800m max. excess distance

Figure 5.

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Multipath echos

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Optimisation and Radio Network Functionality

4.1.4

Noise
Noise is the unavoidable companion and the natural enemy of the wanted
signal. Main contributions to noise are:

4.2

Physics: N = k * T * B, where k = Boltzmann's constant = 1,38.10-23

J/K; T= temperature (Kelvin) and B is signal bandwidth. Noise floor for
a GSM radio channel (at 25C) is ~
-120,8 dBm.

Technology: amplifiers, filters, oscillators, mixers etc. add their noise

figures to the wanted signal

Interference Reduction Methods

The simplest method of interference control is proper location of base
station sites. Sites on hilltops should be avoided in very most cases, since
radio waves will propagate unhindered across very large distances. Placing
base stations in valleys, surrounding hills can be positively used as natural
barriers for limiting both, coverage range and interfered area.

bad location

good location

Figure 6.

Number one method to reduce interference is to select proper

site locations

In a mature network capacity shall always be limited by interference rather

than by coverage. This limitation shall also appear at the latest possible point
in the networks life cycle.
Some "add-on" methods for interference reduction are:

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Antenna tilting /reorientation /beamwidth reduction: the first

method greatly reduces interference probability and slightly improves
spot coverage. The second method is not so recommended because it
may have unwanted side effects (unpredictable interference towards
other sites). The third method is a good one and it should be a common

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practice in designing cellular networks even from scratch (e.g. using

65 horizontal beamwidth instead of 120).

Discontinuous transmission/reception (DTX): it is a method for

battery lifetime improvement and interference reduction. DTX is a
transcoder function. When speech pauses, the transmitters in base
station and mobile is switched off, as there is no useful information to
transmit. Every 480 ms some silence descriptors are transmitted,
informing the remote transcoder function about the characteristics of
the background noise ("comfort noise") to be produced towards the
other caller.

Switch transmitter off in speech pauses and silence

periods
both sides transmit only silence updates (SID
frames)
comfort noise generated by transcoder
V A D : V oice A ctivity D etection
transcoder function
T ranscoder is informed on use of D T X / V A D
(in call set-up)
B attery saving
interference reduction

Figure 7.

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Discontinuous transmission

Frequency hopping (FH): frequency hopping is mainly a diversity

technique against fast fading effects, by which some interference
reduction can be expected as a (useful) side-effect. This is most
effective for static or slow moving mobiles, which may be hovering in a
local fading dip for some seconds. Local fading dips are caused by
destructive interference of two partial waves (multipath propagation!)
of same amplitudes, but with opposite phases. These fading dips can
lead to practical elimination of the signal in an area of the order of half
a wavelength (10... 15 cm for GSM900). This local fading dip is very
frequency dependent, i.e. it would not exist for a different frequency at
the same location. And that is the basic idea behind frequency hopping.
The diversity effect caused by frequency hopping rapidly decreases
with higher mobile speeds, as the mobiles pass through the local fading
dips quickly enough due to their own velocity. As a side-effect
frequency hopping produces an interference averaging, since the
interference patterns will be changing with the hopping sequence:
therefore interference conditions, if they exist, will be only for very

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Optimisation and Radio Network Functionality

short time periods (ratio 1:N, where N is number of frequencies used in

Hopping Sequence).

D iversity technique
frequency diversity against fast fading
effectsuseful
for static or slow-moving mobiles
B ase B and H opping
signal hops between T R X s, (min. 2 T R X )
not on B C C H timeslot
R adio F requency (Synthesised) H opping
timeslots hop between different frequencies
not on 1st T R X (B C C H ) needs a wideband
combiner
F requency diversity for static mobiles
side-effect: interference averaging

Figure 8.

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Frequency hopping

Power control (PC): it is a method for battery lifetime improvement

and interference reduction. Power control is controlled by the BSC and
performed in both base station and mobile station. It can be applied in
uplink and downlink direction. When in connected mode, the mobile
reports on a regular basis (every 480 msec) received signal power of the
serving cell to he base station. BS commands the mobile to reduce/
increase its transmit power in incremental steps of 2 dB. The aim is to
maintain a good link quality at lowest possible transmit powers. This
reduces network interference and increases battery lifetime in the
mobile. Power control can be level-based, quality based or both. Levelbased power control means the BS aims for a target RX level
(parameter is set from OMC) of e.g. -88 dBm. Transmit power of
mobiles and BS is regulated such, that the received signal is always
near the target level. Note that Power control may not be used on the
entire BCCH carrier, since the mobiles for detecting a BCCH carrier in
the power-up procedure need a constant carrier signal. Quality-based
power control means, that signal level is regulated such, that signal
quality is just about to deteriorate (due to low level or interference).
This may be even at levels far lower than the simply level-based
algorithm. There is no effect of power control on the link balance, since
both ends of the link regulate powers symmetrically. The link always
remains balanced. In case of power control the maximum allowable
path loss is not exploited to full extent.

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 G SM : 15 power steps 2 dB each

B SC in command
level or quality-driven
U se power control in both uplink &
downlink
no affect in L ink B alance
Minimise interference in network
Save battery life-time

signal
level

target level
e.g. -85 dm

PC not allowed
on B C C H carrier
time

Figure 9.

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Power control

Adaptive antennas: it is a catchword describing actively steered

antenna array constellations. Also known as Intelligent or smart
antennas or phased array antennas. Virtually any kind of radiation
pattern can be achieved by phase-shifting the input signals fed to the
individual dipole elements of an array antenna. Antenna beams are
formed to concentrate their main lobe energy towards the direction of
the user. The direction of the user is extracted from the uplink signal by
means of direction-of-arrival algorithms. These are very heavy in
computational load and involve analysing the complex uplink signal as
received by 10s of elementary dipole elements of the antenna array.
The critical ratio defining link quality is the C/I of the received signal.
Instead of concentrating the main lobe towards the desired user (i.e.
increasing the C part of the term), C/I can also be improved by
reducing the I, that is the interference. The nulls of the antenna
pattern are directed towards the main interferers, thereby significantly
reducing the received energy from that direction. While main lobes are
in the order of 20..30 in angle, the antenna pattern Nulls are very
distinct, reducing signals by some 20 dB within a few angular degrees
only. Intelligent antenna algorithms involve very high computational
power, several parallel workstations are still needed to perform
calculations in real-time. Antenna patterns can be switched within
microseconds, i.e. a different antenna pattern can be applied on a pertimeslot basis, if the controlling computers can keep up with the speed.
Several prototype antennas have been demonstrated also under live
conditions in GSM networks. However, only a single timeslot (1 out of
8) was actively steered, the other 7 used the antennas static radiation
pattern.

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Dynamic channel allocation algorithms: Dynamic channel

(frequency) allocation schemes are presently an area of great scientific
interest and research. The basic idea is as follows: every base station
constantly measures the interference situation in the entire allocated
band. Radio channels are assigned to call requests on a per-call basis.
The best suitable channel permitting to maintain the minimum quality
requirements is assigned to the mobile. Best channel can also be
interpreted as the best suitable channel. This means that a mobile
arriving with a strong signal may be assigned to a channel with a rather
high interference level, as long as the C/I minimum criterion is met.
Thereby channels with less interference levels can be kept in stock for
mobiles arriving with weak signals, where an interference-free
channel is crucial for call success. The pattern of interfering channels is
constantly under change, depending on the mobile distributions, call
arrival statistics and user mobility. Dynamic frequency allocation
eliminates the need for a fixed allocation. In principle every frequency
may be used in every cell without restriction (hardware permitting;
combiners ...). This allows for maximum network capacity. Ultimately
this becomes a spread spectrum situation, where every channel is reused in every cell, i.e. the frequency re-use rate converges towards
unity. (re-use rate of 1)

These methods can be used to fine-tune the interference conditions achieved

so far. A bad frequency plan, however, cannot be substantially improved with
these add-on methods. The main and decisive factor for interference
reduction is therefore always a good and proper frequency allocation plan
to start with. Fixed frequency allocation is implemented in most network
planning tools. These algorithms assume static, worst case interference
conditions and allocate frequencies to cells following a heuristic allocation
strategy. There is no closed-form, analytical solution to the frequency
allocation problem. Many different allocation strategies have been studied in
literature and are further under development. A good allocation plan still
heavily relies on intelligent planners guidance. There also is no fully
automatic allocation procedure, but it is rather an iterative procedure between
the planner and the computer. Once again the basic rule applies: garbage in
==> garbage out.

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100

% of area
with acceptable
interference level
design goal

frequency
hopping
use larger
bandwidth

90
tight re-use

good frequency
planning

power control
DTX
80
# of radio
channels used
low

Figure 10.

high

Effects of interference reduction methods

Gains achieved by diversity, power control, frequency hopping and DTX are
no physical gains in terms of increased signal levels. They are equivalent
gains instead. A gain of X dB means that the bit error rate found with usage
of (e.g.) diversity corresponds to the bit error rate that could achieved with a
carrier with X dB stronger, but without use of diversity.

4.2.1

Interference Planning
A main dimensioning criterion for the network is the amount of tolerated
outage area. While blocking is a call-oriented network failure, caused e.g.
by overload situations, outage describes a purely physical reason for
network failure, e.g. power supply breakdown, no coverage due to shadowing
or interference.
Network functionality can be provided if (area is covered) AND (area is not
interfered). Values for max. acceptable outage area is defined by the operator,
typically 5 ...10%.
The cells actual useful service area is calculated by:
(1- uncovered_area) * (1- interfered_area)

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Dim ensioning criterion :

How m uch of area to be covered is tolerated to be interfered?

Calculate total cell outage area :

outage area = 1 - serviced_area
service_area = (1 - interfered_area) * (1 - uncovered_area)

3%
4%

Figure 11.

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Service_area = 93% * 92%

8%

O utage area = 1 - 0,8556 =14,4%

Outage probability

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Parameter Planning and Radio

Network Functionality
The parameter planning process is the second step after the network roll out.
A large scope of parameters is available in the Nokia BSS. They are classified
as follows:

5.1

BSC parameters

BTS parameters

BTS parameters, Handover Control

BTS parameters, Power Control

Adjacency parameters

TRX parameters.

Channel Configuration
First, the parameters related to the channel configuration have to be set:

5.2

channel combinations

(SDCCH & CCCH capacity previously determined)

the traffic channels.

Idle Mode Operation

Secondly the parameters related to idle mode operation must be specified.
When the mobile station is in idle mode, it needs some information about
network in order to know the right frequencies and find the right cells. This
information is actually related to Radio Resource Management and to
Mobility Management:

the access parameters to the PLMN

Location Area identification, which is composed by the Mobile

Network Code, the Mobile Country Code and Location Area Code
(LAC)

cell identification code

There is also other information actually meant for Radio Channel

Management:

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Base Station Identity Code (BSIC) including Network Colour Code

(NCC) and Base Station Colour Code (BCC).

Once the base station is identified within the network, the frequencies must be
set for each TRX:

initial frequency

The basic idea in the GSM system is that the mobile is always within the cell
offering the best coverage and that the system knows where the MS is. In idle
mode the mobility is ensured by setting the following criteria and timers:

5.3

Cell Selection, based on C1 or C2 comparison

Location Update

IMSI attach detach

Location Area Design

A location area, as defined in GSM specifications, is the smallest area, into
which a terminating call towards a mobile subscriber will be paged. Also a
location area is the area in which a mobile needs not to update its location
with its home location register.
Location update is performed in idle mode when the mobile is roaming into a
cell having a different location area code (LAC). In connected mode, the
mobile will update its location with the network as soon as it becomes idle
again, i.e. after call completion.
While handover boundaries affect only mobiles that are in connected mode,
location area boundaries affect all mobiles in the network, including the
(many) idle mobiles.
Location updating causes signalling and processing load across the entire
network hierarchy up to the mobiles HLR. In case of foreign roaming
mobiles (tourists), this is often even international signalling traffic. Therefore
planning of location area boundaries should be considered with some thought,
such as to avoid oscillating location updates along a heavily frequented
road.
Different MSCs can not use the same LAC, otherwise the BSC will not know
to which MSC the mobile belongs.
When planning a dual band or a microcellular network, LACs should be very
carefully designed. It is recommended to define the co-located GSM900 and
GSM1800 cells (the normal situation) in the same LAC and of course in the
same MSC. This can avoid additional location updates, which would cause
very high SDCCH blocking.
Some networks, which have more than one vendor, might have separate
MSCs for GSM900 and GSM1800 respectively. Then, to a dual band MS,

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every cell is at the LAC border. This implies that the amount of location
updates is very large and consumes a large amount of SDCCH and signalling
resources. More SDCCH needs to be assigned to the cells.

5.3.1

Paging vs. Location Updating Traffic

In a location area, there is a trade-off between paging traffic and location
updating traffic. This means that concatenating e.g. a large city into a single
location area will avoid any location updating traffic, but on the other hand
causes a maximum in paging traffic, since every single terminating call within
the area is broadcast to every single cell in the area. (Even several times per
call attempt, depending on network parameters). This can cause significant
traffic loads within the network.
The task is to find the optimum compromise between paging and location
updating traffic. This is not trivial, since it is a function of call distribution,
user mobility and call arrival statistics. This problem has been studied in
literature. There is in fact an analytic minimum of signalling traffic. This
minimum however is time-variant, a function of user densities, user mobility
and call arrival rates. Therefore it is not easily calculated. Figure 12 shows the
basic dependency of paging and location updating traffic.

signalling
traffic

function of user density,

cell size, call arrival rate ...

function of
user mobility

Paging

LocUp

optimum number
of cells in Loc. area

Figure 12.

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# of cells in Loc. area

Trade-off between location update and paging traffic

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Optimisation and Radio Network Functionality

5.4

Handover and Power Control

For controlling the MS in dedicated mode, two main sets of parameters have
to be carefully defined:

5.4.1

Power Control parameters, threshold definitions to trigger power

control commands, as well as the power range of the MS (UL power
control) and BTS (DL power control if enabled)

Handover Control parameters, threshold definitions to trigger handover

commands, for every type of handovers.

Handover Types
Handover is a basic functionality of cellular networks. Handovers can be
distinguished as either intracell, intercell or inter-BSC handovers. Handovers
within a single cell (i.e. changing timeslots and/or carrier frequencies) can be
handled autonomously by the controlling BSC. Handovers between cells of
the same BSC can also be handled by the BSC. Handovers between cells of
different BSCs must be handled by the initiating MSC. Handovers between
networks (national or international) are mostly supported only when roaming
or between two different kinds of networks.

Intracell
Intercell
Inter-BSC
inter-MSC
inter- PLMN

same cell, other carrier or timeslot

between cells (normal case)
between BSC areas
between MSC areas
(only when roaming)

intracell
intercell

inter-BSC

Figure 13.

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Handovers

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Interference, UL and DL

Bad C/I ratio

Uplink quality

Downlink quality

Uplink level

Downlink level

Distance

Rapid field drop

MS speed

Better cell, i.e. periodic check (power budget, umbrella handovers)

Good C/I ratio

PC: lower quality/level thresholds (DL/UL)

PC; upper quality/level thresholds (DL/UL)

Note
The adjacent cell parameters must be specified in order to allow the handovers.

5.5

Adjacencies
A mobile can not hand over to a cell, which has not been defined as an
adjacent cell to the serving cell. Therefore all possible adjacencies should be
defined in order to ensure successful handovers. In the beginning it is a good
idea to define all possible adjacencies and later on the unnecessary ones can
be removed. Note, that handover control parameters affect all handovers from
the cell, whereas adjacent cell parameters only affect one connection.
Note
Always remember to define the adjacencies to both directions!

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