MATB 253 : Linear Algebra

Topic 1
SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS AND MATRICES
Contents
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
1.2 Gaussian Elimination
1.3 Matrices and Matrix Operations
1.4 Inverses; Algebraic Properties of Matrices
1.5 Elementary Matrices and a Method for Finding

A 1

1.6 More on Linear Systems and Invertible Matrices

1.7 Diagonal and Triangular Matrices
1.8 Application to Graph Theory
____________________________________________________
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
Linear algebra is the branch of mathematics concerned with the study of vectors, vector spaces
(or linear spaces), linear transformations, and systems of linear equations in finite dimensions.
Vector spaces are a central theme in modern mathematics; thus, linear algebra is widely used in
both abstract algebra and functional analysis. Linear algebra also has a concrete representation in
analytic geometry and it is generalized in operator theory. It has extensive applications in the
natural sciences and the social sciences, since nonlinear models can often be approximated by a
linear model.

In mathematics and linear algebra, a system of linear equations is a set of linear equations such
as

x1 4 x2 x3 6
3 x1 x2 2 x3 7
2 x1 2 x2 3 x3 3

A standard problem is to decide if any assignment of values for the unknowns can satisfy all
three equations simultaneously, and to find such an assignment if it exists.
The existence of a solution depends on the equations, and also on the available values (whether
integers, real numbers, and so on).
There are many different ways to solve systems of linear equations, such as substitution,
elimination, matrix and determinants.
However, one of the most efficient ways is given by Gaussian elimination (matrix).

In general, a system with m linear equations and n unknowns can be written as

a11 x1 a12 x2 ... a1n xn b1

a21 x1 a22 x2 ... a2 n xn b2
am1 x1 am 2 x2 ... amn xn bm

where

x , x , ..., x
1

coefficients of the system.

are the unknowns and the numbers

a , a , ..., a
11

12

mn

are the

We can collect the coefficients in a matrix as follows:

If we represent each matrix by a single letter, this becomes

A x b where A is a mn

matrix, x is a column vector with n entries, and b is a column vector with m entries.
For any given system of linear equations:

the system has no solution (the system is over determined)

the system has a single solution (the system is exactly determined)

the system has infinitely many solutions (the system is underdetermined).

A system of equations that has at least one solution is called consistent; if there is no solutions it
is said to be inconsistent.
A system of the form Ax 0 is called a homogeneous system of linear equations. The set of all
solutions of such a homogeneous system is called the nullspace of the matrix A.

Example 1: System of linear equations

a x a x ... a x 0
11

12

1n

a x a x ... a x 0
21

22

2n

a x a x ... a x 0
m1

m2

mn

If the system is homogeneous and x1 x2 ... xn 0

then

we have a trivial

solution.

If the system is homogeneous and at least one xi 0 , then we have a nontrivial solution.

Since a homogeneous linear system always has the trivial solution; there are only 2
possibilities for its solution.
(a)

The system has only the trivial solution

(b)

The system has infinitely many solutions in

addition to the trivial solution.
(Howard,2005)

Theorem
A homogeneous system of linear equations with more unknowns than equations has infinitely
many solution.

Augmented Matrices

Linear Equations

matrix form

Augmented Matrix

a11

a21

am1

a12
a22

a1n
a2 n

am1

amn

b1

b2

bm

To find the solution(s) of a given system of linear equations, we have to reduce an augmented
matrix to row echelon form or reduced row-echelon form. The reduction is done by using
operations on the rows of the augmented matrix. The operations are called the elementary row
operations.
______________________________________________________________________________
Elementary Row Operation
An elementary row operations (ERO) on a matrix A is one of the following :
1. Multiply a row by a nonzero constant, c

cRi Ri

2. Switching any two rows

Ri Rj

3. Add c times of one row to another row

cRi + Rj Rj

Elementary row operations are used to reduce an augmented matrix or matrix to row echelon
form or reduced row-echelon form.

Reducing the matrix to row echelon form is called Gaussian elimination and to reduced rowechelon form is called GaussJordan elimination.

The process is as illustrated in figure 1:

Augmented
Matrices

Gaussian
elimination
row-echelon form (RE)

Gauss-Jordan
elimination

reduced rowechelon form (RRE)

Figure 1

Gaussian elimination is an efficient algorithm for solving systems of linear equations.

An extension of this algorithm, GaussJordan elimination, reduces the matrix further to
reduced row echelon form.
In mathematics, GaussJordan elimination is a version of Gaussian elimination that puts
zeros both above and below each pivot element as it goes from the top row of the given matrix to
the bottom. (http://en.wikipedia.org)

1.2 Gaussian Elimination

- is a method in reducing the augmented matrix of a system to row-echelon form.

- What is row-echelon form?

- a matrix / augmented matrix is said to be in row-echelon form if it satisfies the following
properties:
If there are any rows that consist entirely of zeros, then they are grouped together at the bottom
of the matrix.
1.

If a row does not consist entirely of zeroes, then the first nonzero number in the row is 1,
We call this a leading 1.

2.

If any two successive rows that do not consist entirely zeros, the leading 1 in the lower row
occurs farther to the right than the leading 1 in the higher row.

3.

In Reduced Row-Echelon, each column that contains a leading 1 has zeros everywhere
else.

* Property number 4 is referring to Gauss-Jordan Elimination which will produce a matrix in

reduced row-echelon form.
____________________________________________________________________________
Example 2:

0
0

Row-Echelon form (RE)

0
1
0

0
1
0

1
,

Example 3:

0
0

2
7

0 ,

0
0

1
3

Reduced Row-Echelon form (RRE)

0
0
1

0
0

0
0

1
0

0
0

2
3

The solution set of a system of linear will be obtained once the augmented matrix is put in rowechelon form or reduced row-echelon form.

Example 4:

(a)

(b)

1
0

1
0

How to read/get the solution

0 4

0 2

1 3

means by

x1 5

x2 2

x3 4

x3 3 x4 2, x2 2 x4 6, x1 4 x4 1

Since the 4th column has no leading 1,

x4 is assigned as a parameter. Thus, x t ,

4

x3 2 3t , x2 6 2t , x1 1 4t

(c)

(d)

1
0

0
0

1
0

4 2

3 1

use first 3 rows to solve the system of linear equation

means no solution

Example 5: Solve the system by Gaussian Elimination

x1 2 x2 3x3 5
(a)

2 x1 5 x2 3x3 3
8 x3 17

x1

Solution 5(a):

2
1

2 3 5
5 3 3
0 8 17

1
2 R1 R2 R2
0

1 2
3 5

0 1 3 7
0 2 5 12 2 R2 R3 R3

2 3 5
1 3 7
0 8 17

R1 R3 R3

1 2 3
5

0 1 3 7
0 0 1 2 (1) R3 R3

1 2 3 5 x1 2 x2 3x3 5

x2 3x3 7
0 1 3 7
0 0 1 2
x3 2

Back Substitution

x1 2 x2 3x3 5

x2 3 2 7

x2 3x3 7

x1 2 1 3 2 5

x3 2

x2 7 6 1

x1 5 2 6 1

x1 1 ,

x2 1

x3 2

10

2 x1 2 x2 2 x3 4
(b)

3x1 2 x2 x3 3
4 x1 3x2 2 x3 3

Solution 5(b):

2
2 2 4 1

R1 R1
3 2 1 3 2
4 3 2 3

1
1 1 2

3 2 1 3
4 3 2 3

1
1 1 2

0 5 4
4 3 2 3 4 R1 R3 R3

1 1 1 2

3 1
0 5 4
R R2
0 7 6 5 5 2

1 1 1

0 1 4

0 1 6
7

1 1 1

0 1 4

5
0 7 6

1
5 R3 R3
7
5

1 1 1

0 1 4

0 0 2
35

2
35
3 R3 R3

2
5

4
35

3R1 R2 R2

3 R R2 R3
3

5
7

1 1 1

0 1 4

5
0 0 1

5
2

Back Substitution

x1 x2 x3 2

4
3
2
5
5

x2

x2

4
3
x3
5
5

x2

x1 1 ,

x3 2

3 8 5
1
5 5 5

x2 1

x3 2

11

Example 6(a): Gauss - Jordan Elimination

(a)

Consider the linear system

x1 2 x2 3x3 5

2 x1 5 x2 3x3 3 .
x
8 x3 17
1

Solve the system using Gauss-Jordan elimination method.

Solution 6(a):

1 2 3 5 2 R1 R2 R2

2 5 3 3
1 0 8 17 R1 R3 R3
1 2 3 5 2 R2 R1 R1

0 1 3 7
0 0 1 2 (1) R3 R3

1 2 3 5

0 1 3 7
0 2 5 12 2 R2 R3 R3
1 0 9 19 9 R3 R1 R1

0 1 3 7
0 0 1 2 3R3 R2 R2

x1 1 ,

x2 1

1 0 0 1

0 1 0 1
0 0 1 2

x3 2

2 x1 2 x2 2 x3 4
(b)

Consider

3x1 2 x2 x3 3

4 x1 3x2 2 x3 3
Solve the system using Gauss-Jordan elimination method.

Solution 6(b):
2 2 2 4 1

R1 R1
3 2 1 3 2
4 3 2 3

1 1 1 2 3R1 R2 R2

3 2 1 3
4 3 2 3 4 R1 R3 R3

12

1 1 1 2 1

R2 R2
0 5 4 3 5
0 7 6 5

1 1

0 1

0 0

1
4
5
2
5

3
5
4
5

1 R2 R1 R1

5
R3 R3
2

1 1

0 1

0 7

1 0

0 1

0 0

x1 1 ,

Example 7:

Homogeneous Linear Systems

(a) Solve

x yz0
x 2 y z 0
3x 4 y z 0

1
4
5
6

5
7 R2 R3 R3
5

1
5
4
5
1

x2 1

7 1

5 5 R3 R1 R1

3

5
4
2
R3 R2 R2
5

1 0 0 1

0 1 0 1
0 0 1 2

x3 2

Solution 7(a):

1 1 1 0

1 2 1 0
3 4 1 0

R1 R2 R2

3R1 R3 R3

1 1 1 0

R2 R3 R3
0
1
2
0

0 1 2 0

1 1 1 0

0 1 2 0
0 0 0 0

many solutions

Since last row is entirely zero entries, the homogeneous system has nontrivial solution (many
solutions).
From the last augmented matrix:

x1 x2 x3 0

x2 2 x3 0

13

Let x3 t ,
x2 2t 0

x2 2t

x1 2t t 0 x1 3t

x1 3t ,

(b) Solve

x2 2t

x3 t

x 2 y 5z 0
3x 2 y 2 z 0
4 x 4 y 5z 0

Solution 7(b):
1 2 5 0 3R1 R2 R2

3 2 2 0
4 4 5 0 4 R1 R3 R3

1 2 5 0

0 4 13 0
0 0 2 0

1
R2 R2
4

3 0
1 0
1 R R
3
2

2 3
13

0 1 4 0

0 0 2 0

1 2 5 0 R2 R3 R3

0 4 13 0
0 4 15 0

1 2

0 1

0 0

0
5
2R R R
2
1
1

13
0

2 0

3 0
1 0
13 R R R
2
2
2

4 3
13

0 1 4 0

3
1
R3 R1 R1
0
0 0
2

Therefore the system has exactly one solution. (Trivial solution)

x1 0 ,

x2 0

, x3 0

1 0 0

0 1 0
0 0 1

0
0

14

In conclusion,

System of Linear
Equation

Homogeneous System

Non-Homogeneous
System

Consistent

Consistent

Exactly one
solution

Inconsistent
Exactly one
solution

Infinitely many
solution

Trivial
solution

Non-trivial
solution

Infinitely many
solution