19/09/2012

Geodynamics
Basin Analysis & Petroleum Geology
Lecture 2:
Forces acting on plates
What drives plate tectonics?
To what extent does the mantle circulate and
reflect the dynamic nature of Earths surface?
How do sedimentary basins form?
How can we classify sedimentary basins?

Gravitational potential energy

All the forces acting on plates are ultimately
gravitational in origin
Differences in elevation are essential for the forces on
plates to have a dynamic effect
Gravitational potential energy is the product of mass
(volume x density), elevation difference and
acceleration due to gravity
Differences in topographic elevation arise from various
factors such as magmatism (contrast flood basalt
provinces and volcanic arcs) and orogenic processes
and mountain building

Forces acting on plates

19/09/2012

Forces acting on plates

Forces opposing motion are termed R, those that
encourage movement are F
Earthquakes indicate resistance to movement
Shallow earthquakes at ridges and transform faults are
indicative of ridge resistance (RR) and transform
resistance (RTF)
Gravity pulls lithosphere down the slope away from
ridges giving RIDGE-PUSH force (FRS)
Viscous drag at the base of the oceanic lithosphere
opposes that motion to give oceanic drag resistance
(ROD)

Forces acting on plates

At destructive margins, oceanic lithosphere becomes
denser due to phase changes and gravity imposes
negative buoyancy force (FNB)
The effect of this is to pull the subducting slab towards
the subduction zone SLAB-PULL force (FSP)
Resisting this movement is the drag on the top and
bottom surfaces of the descending slab (slab
resistance RS) and the work done in bending the slab
downwards (bending resistance RB)

Classic mantle drag mechanism

Plates move in response to viscous drag
exerted by underlying mantle convection cells
BUT cannot explain how small plates move
(e.g. Caribbean and Philippines)
Plate velocities are unrelated to plate size
opposite of what might be expected
Given the presence of a low velocity layer
underneath plates, mantle velocities would
have to be unfeasibly high

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Edge-force mechanism
Plates move due to forces applied at their
edges
Slab-pull or ridge-push or both?
The fastest moving plates are those with the
greatest percent circumference attached to a
down-going slab so slab-pull is dominant
Ridge-push must have some effect in order for
Atlantic Ocean to be opening

Relation between plate area and

velocity?

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Importance of slab-pull on plate velocities

Motion in the mantle

Clear that plate theory involves convective motion in at
least the upper part of the mantle why?
Rising mantle beneath hot spots originates below the
lithosphere, because hot spots are broadly fixed
relative to plate motions
Subduction penetrates at least to 600-700 km the
depth of deepest earthquakes associated with
subduction zones
Different views: 1) the whole mantle convects in a
single set of cells, 2) separate motions in lower and
upper mantle, the only common factor being heat
transfer from bottom to top

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Structure of the mantle

Major seismic discontinuities at 410 km and 670 km
depth presumed to result from phase conversions to
denser material
Why no earthquakes >670 km depth?
Does subducted material pond at that depth? This
might imply separate upper and lower mantle
convection cells
Or is it because any deeper penetration would involve
wholly ductile processes and hence no seismicity?
Seismic tomography provides some answers

Seismic tomography
Uses as many seismographic records of an
earthquake from as many stations as possible
Enables the 3D mapping of the mantle to
produce images that display increased or
decreased body-wave speeds relative to those
generally expected at any given depth
Cool, dense mantle transmits P and S seismic
waves at relatively high speeds, whereas warm,
lower-density mantle transmits them at lower
speeds

Vertical section from S-wave tomography

passing through Iceland

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Structure of mantle below Iceland

Evidence for low S-wave speeds and hot mantle
extends below 670 km discontinuity
Although Iceland is underlain by mantle that is
anomalously hot, the S-waves do not show a distinct
plume in the lower mantle
Greenland, NE North America and Europe are
underlain by upper mantle with high wave speeds
down to 300 km, showing cool mantle below these
continents
SW North America and NE Africa and the Middle East
are underlain by anomalously warm mantle

Newer, higher resolution imaging of P-wave

speeds below Iceland

P-wave speed images below Hawaii

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Vertical section from S-wave tomography from

Cape Horn to Arabia

Structure of mantle below Africa

A broad zone of warm upwelling material underlies
Africa, spanning the entire mantle
Arms of warm material reach up in several directions
From these examples, clear that hot spots are not
necessarily located above vertical plumes
The Afar (Red Sea) hot spot does connect to deep
mantle upwelling, but that zone is neither a narrow
plume nor is it rising vertically

Mantle section based on P-wave tomography

perpendicular to the Middle America trench

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Implications for mantle structure

A high-speed feature descends nearly to the CMB, on
line with the Benioff Zone above 600 km depth
But, note that the dipping zone is much wider than
subducted lithosphere can account for upper mantle
cooled by the descending slab may also be descending
Implies that mantle motion penetrates to considerable
depths
Whole mantle convection is implied by sections across
constructive and destructive plate margins

Deep circulation in the mantle

Tomography indicates that descending slabs approach
the CMB
As well as dragging upper mantle down with them,
these slabs must also drive material before them
This movement must change to lateral at the CMB
Downward movement must be balanced out by equal
and opposite upward movement of material
Rising material does not necessarily form a classic
plume form, and not all hot spots are underlain by
distinct zones of upwelling material

Simple model of whole mantle motion

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What is a sedimentary basin?

A region of prolonged subsidence of Earths
surface
Driving mechanisms mainly related to
processes within the relatively cool and rigid
lithosphere
Sedimentary basins therefore develop in the
context of plate motion
Hydrocarbon provinces occur in areas with >
1km of accumulated sediment.

How are sedimentary basins formed?

Foreland and back-arc basins

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Classification on basis of lithospheric substrate, type of

plate motion, location with respect to plate boundary

Basin-forming mechanisms
ISOSTATIC consequences of changes in
crustal and lithospheric thickness
Cooling (e.g. oceanic lithosphere moving away
from spreading centres) leading to subsidence
Thinning (e.g. stretching of crust) also leads to
subsidence
Thickening (e.g. orogenesis) leads to isostatic
uplift

Isostasy

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Basin-forming mechanisms
FLEXURAL due to loading of the lithosphere
Small-scale (e.g. volcanoes, seamounts)
Large-scale due to:
A) thickening in mountain belts (= foreland
basins)
B) bending of ocean lithosphere as it
approaches subduction zones

Himalayan foreland basin

Flexural loading of the subducting Indian plate

Basin-forming mechanisms
DYNAMIC temperature changes in mantle =
subsidence or uplift
Mantle plumes may assist continental rifting
Lead to igneous underplating and isostatic
regional uplift
Present-day hotspots over plumes are domes
+/- rifts
Surface reflection of downward limbs of
convection cells are broad, gentle sag basins

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Domal uplifts above mantle plumes

Major domes due to
uplift above mantle
hotspots
Domes act as sediment
sources
Are broad, open Chad
and Congo basins
located above zones of
downward return
flow?

Models for plume ascent

Isostatic effects of underplating

Plume activity results in
mantle melting and
basalt generation
Basalt forms an
underplate less dense
than underlying mantle
Underplate is relatively
buoyant and causes
lithospheric uplift
Uplift is ~10% of
underplate thickness

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Basin-forming mechanisms

Basin types in orogenic belts

Active margin basins

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