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Program: Diploma in Communication & Media Studies

Subject: Photo Communication I


Course Code: COM 264

CHAPTER 4
Aperture
1. What is aperture?
In the human eye, the aperture is referred to as the iris. In the center of the iris is a
circular opening called the pupil. The diameter of the pupil contracts in bright
environments and expands in dark ones, adjusting the amount of light that reaches the
retina.
Eye color depends on the color of the iris. If the surface of the iris has a low pigment
density, eyes are blue. If pigment density is high, eyes will be brown or black.
The diameter of the human iris is a concentric circle, so the pupil is always a circle. A
cat's iris is a vertical slit and a horse's is a horizontal oval. Heart-, diamond- and gourdshaped irises also occur in nature.
1.1. Aperture mechanism
The size of an SLR camera's aperture is controlled by the movement of several aperture blades that
behave much like the human eye, changing the size of the circumference. This type of aperture is
known as an "iris aperture."
For artistic blur, the aperture should be as circular as possible. To achieve this, there should be an
odd number of shutter blades in the shape of a polygon.
When you look through the viewfinder of a modern SLR camera, the lens aperture is always fully
opened so the image is bright and easy to put into focus. When the shutter release button is
pressed, the aperture blade is adjusted to the aperture value that has been set. At the same time,
the reflex mirror in the camera body flips up and the shutter opens. When the shutter closes, the
mirror moves back to its original position and the aperture returns to a fully opened configuration.
Despite the speed of this operation, it is quite complicated. Sometimes it appears that the image in
the viewfinder is different than the actual picture. Aperture setting is one reason for this. Because the
image seen in the finder is observed with the aperture fully opened and the actual photo is taken
after the aperture has been adjusted, there is a disparity.
Some SLR cameras have a stop-down (preview) mechanism that enables you to see what the actual
picture will look like. Though this image may appear a bit dark, it is an accurate image representation
and a good way to check depth of field. (The finder image might appear a bit more focused than the
resulting photo, depending on the quality of the finder screen's matte surface.)

Program: Diploma in Communication & Media Studies


Subject: Photo Communication I
Course Code: COM 264

The lens of an SLR camera has an aperture that opens and closes in order to adjust the amount of
light the film is exposed to. Also, when the aperture changes, the portion of the image that appears
in focus, known as depth of field, is altered. By making the aperture smaller, the image in focus
becomes longer as it gets farther from the camera ; by opening the aperture, the range gets shorter.
1.2. What is an f-number ?
Aperture size is indicated by an "f-number." Many cameras note f-number as ...1, 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6,
8, 11, 16, 22, 32, 45, 64, 90...... Though the arrangement of these numbers may seem strange,
notice that every other number is doubled. Each step is a multiple of the square root of two. These
numbers indicate the lens' focal length (f) divided by the diameter of the aperture (d). Expressed as a
formula, that is "F = f / d". The amount of light that penetrates the lens, the image brightness, is
proportional to the size of the aperture. Therefore, it is inversely proportional to the square of the fnumber. The amount of light is halved with each increasing f-number increment.
Let's explore this relationship a bit further. We have just said that image brightness is inversely
proportional to the square of the f-number. However, this is the case only when the subject is on the
optical axis and is relatively far from the camera, or in other words, when the shooting magnification
is relatively small. If "m" equals shooting magnification, then image brightness is inversely
proportional to the square of F (1+m). So, when taking close-ups using an extension ring or bellows,
a positive ("+") compensation is necessary. This adjusted f-number is called the effective f-number.
(NOTE : If your camera has internal TTL metering, it is not necessary to make this calculation.)
Also, with some inexpensive wideangle lenses that are used with compact cameras and some
expensive wideangle interchangeable lenses for rangefinder cameras, the decrease in light amount
around the frame of the picture (= the four corners of the picture appear dark) becomes obvious.
When the aperture is fully opened, the f-number is referred to as maximum aperture or maximum fnumber. These f-numbers are usually shown on the camera (1:1.4, F1.4, f/1.4, etc.). Conversely, the
smallest aperture is called the minimum aperture.
By using a lens with a small maximum f-number, you will be able to take brighter pictures. Of course,
this is advantageous when shooting in dark places or when you want to blur the background. In
order to reduce the f-number, the diameter of the lens must be large, because it must be proportional
to the focal length. This poses several practical problems, namely that the lens becomes bigger,
heavier and more unwieldy. And more expensive. Lenses of this type are often called bright lenses

Program: Diploma in Communication & Media Studies


Subject: Photo Communication I
Course Code: COM 264

or high speed, though these names don't actually denote high transmittance.
In theory, the maximum brightness of a lens is f / 0.5. Though it seems logical that a lens with a
larger diameter would make an image brighter, this just isn't the case.
2. What changes with aperture
We now know that brightness is affected by aperture size, as is depth of field. This information
always appears in an SLR's manual, so it should be clear to the user.
Though it's easy to change the aperture size by adjusting the lens, it is often difficult to get the
desired results, depending on the purpose and subject of the photograph. The first step to familiarize
yourself with aperture is to learn how to set it yourself using manual mode or aperture-priority AE
mode ("A" mode). Another good idea is to make large changes in aperture size: One or two steps of
aperture change might be enough to realize noticeable differences in your photos.
As standard procedure, try taking three pictures with the following settings, and compare the results :
1.) maximum aperture,
2.) minimum aperture and
3.) f-number set somewhere in between.
2.1. Aperture and brightness

( Photos 2.a.) to ( 2.c.) were taken with manual exposure with the same shutter speed. Only the
aperture was changed.

Program: Diploma in Communication & Media Studies


Subject: Photo Communication I
Course Code: COM 264

( Photo 2.b.) is at normal exposure, f5.6. Photo (2.a.), at f2, is three(3) steps overexposed. ( Photo
2.c.), at f16, is three(3) steps underexposed.
The difference is apparent when the aperture is set at +/- 3 EV, for a total margin of 6 EV.
This does not mean the image will not be visible; if these photos are regarded as portraits, then
( Photo 2.a.), three steps overexposed, might be considered the best.
This helps highlight the value of taking a series of photos with different aperture values, then
comparing them.
2.2. Depth of field and blur
( Photos 3.a.) through ( 3.c.) was taking using the same aperture values as ( Photos 2.a.) through
( 2.c.), only the values have been set at aperture-priority AE mode and different shutter speeds to
achieve the appropriate exposure.
Background blur in each photo differs greatly. With an open aperture (( 3.a.)), the background is
significantly blurred, but with a close aperture (( 3.c.)) there is only slight blurring. Adjusting the
aperture allows you to make a difference in the distance-focus relationship.
The amount of blur is generally proportional to the diameter (d) of the aperture, and is inversely
proportional to the f-number (F). Blur is proportional to the lens' focal length (f). Also, the wider the
focusing plane and the wider the portion of the image that appears in focus, the more blur there will
be.
Depth of field is the area in which the image appears to be in focusThis means that the smaller the
aperture is, the deeper the depth of field will become.
So, depth of field changes with aperture, the lens' focal length and shooting distance. The general
rules are shown below. But be cautious when shooting with telephoto lenses (long focal length) or
when shooting close-ups (short focusing distance), because depth of field becomes quite shallow.

Program: Diploma in Communication & Media Studies


Subject: Photo Communication I
Course Code: COM 264

CHAPTER 4
Shutter
1. What is a shutter?
A camera shutter is like a tiny door that opens up for a specified length of time to allow
light to hit the film.
Eye color depends on the color of the iris. If the surface of the iris has a low pigment
density, eyes are blue. If pigment density is high, eyes will be brown or black.
Early cameras (photo provided by the JCII Camera Museum) had a lid to cover the front
of the lens. To take a picture, the photographer removed the lid, counted a certain
number of seconds, then replaced the lid.
Though awkward, this timing method was necessary because film in that period had a
very low sensitivity and it required several seconds for exposure in the daylight.
This method is still used when taking long-time exposure pictures of the starts.
Today, however, film sensitivity is very high and this manual exposure method has
become obsolete, if not quaint.
Modern shutters can be set with astounding accuracy to remain open anywhere from a
few thousandths of a second to a few full seconds.
There are two(2) major types of shutters used in modern cameras, the lens shutter and
the focal plane shutter.
A lens shutter has the shutter mechanism close to the lens (some also work as the
aperture mechanism) and is used mostly for large-format and medium-format cameras,
as well as compact cameras.
Usually, there is a light-screening mechanism a shutter blade, for example in the
front or back of the lens.
The opening and closing of this blade controls exposure time. Because the shutter is
built into the lens, another light-screening object is necessary in order to shield the film
when making the lens interchangeable. Today, most 35mm(135) format SLR cameras
with interchangeable lenses do not use this lens shutter mechanism. (One-time use
cameras use lens shutters, but their speed is fixed around 1/100 sec.)
Modern 35mm(135) format SLR cameras and IX 240 SLR cameras use focal plane
shutters.
It's a basic fact of photography that you have to press the shutter release button to take
a picture. The word "shutter" as it applies to cameras has the same meaning as the
shutters you see covering windows or store fronts; therefore, it's easy to guess what
purpose a camera shutter serves.
KUMON, Yasushi
1.1. Focal-plane shutter mechanism
The focal plane is the focusing surface, which means that the shutter is directly in front of the film.
Because it's in this position, there is no real need to screen light when changing lenses.
A conventional focal plane shutter consists of two blades or two sets of blades that block light.
Exposure time is adjusted by making these blades pass by the film at different times.

Program: Diploma in Communication & Media Studies


Subject: Photo Communication I
Course Code: COM 264

The first blade is called the front curtain; the second is called the rear curtain. The object you see
when you open the back cover of an SLR camera is the shutter curtain. Do not touch it !
One type of shutter curtain, called a horizontal-travel focal plane shutter, moves sideways. The
conventional horizontal type, called a drum-type shutter, is usually made of silk cloth or metal
(stainless steel, titanium (Ti), etc.).
A shutter curtain that travels vertically is called a vertical-travel focal plane shutter.
On occasion, you might find a drum-type shutter that travels vertically; but most modern SLR
cameras have two(2) curtains.
These are usually referred to as square shutters
This square shutter is composed of a front and rear curtain, each made of long, thin blades in a
layered configuration. Think of an elevator door, and you have an idea how they operate.

Another thing to consider is that with a conventional SLR camera, it is impossible to confirm
the shooting image when the shutter is open (in other words, the moment the picture is
actually taken). When the shutter opens, the reflex mirror flips up to expose the film, which
means it requires time to return to its original position. The amount of time needed for this is
called quick return. That is why the viewfinder "winks" when shooting with an SLR camera. If
you bear these things in mind, you might be able to take more "decisive moments", like Henri
Cartier Bresson.
Pressing the shutter release button causes the shutter to open and close. It is during this moment
when light hits the film that the film is exposed and a picture is taken.
It is the nature of photography that we sometimes see an event, a person or some other subject and
think, "I'd like to take a picture of that right now."
But sometimes the timing seems off or inopportune. This begs the question, "Is there ever a decisive
moment during photography, one best for taking any given picture ?"
When answering this question, keep in mind some of the disadvantages of SLR cameras.

Program: Diploma in Communication & Media Studies


Subject: Photo Communication I
Course Code: COM 264

First, the system for viewing objects is a bit complicated. The image in the finder is actually the
image from the reflex mirror, which is built into the SLR camera. This means when the shutter
release button is pressed, the mirror pops up and the shutter's front curtain is set in motion. This
process, from start to finish, takes about 1/20 (0.05 sec.), depending on the camera.
Additionally, you must consider the amount of time that passes between the moment you decide to
take a photo and the moment you actually press the shutter release button.
The trick is, then, to press the shutter release button before "the decisive moment." A keen sense of
anticipation, therefore, is the key to taking more rewarding photographs.
To be more exact, it requires few tenths of a second before a person decides to press the shutter
button until the finger actually presses the button. Therefore, you should press the button a bit
earlier.
Another thing to consider is that with a conventional SLR camera, it is impossible to confirm the
shooting image when the shutter is open (in other words, the moment the picture is actually taken).
When the shutter opens, the reflex mirror flips up to expose the film, which means it requires time to
return to its original position. The amount of time needed for this is called quick return. That is why
the viewfinder "winks" when shooting with an SLR camera. If you bear these things in mind, you
might be able to take more "decisive moments", like Henri Cartier Bresson.

Program: Diploma in Communication & Media Studies


Subject: Photo Communication I
Course Code: COM 264

Program: Diploma in Communication & Media Studies


Subject: Photo Communication I
Course Code: COM 264

Depth-of-field
Depth-of-field explained technique
Once you grasp the basic principles of focusing your photographs will take on a whole new depth.
Words Steve Bavister, Images Peter Bargh

The way a subject is reproduced in a photograph can be very different from how it
looked to you as you took the picture. When you cast your eye over a scene, everything
in it seems more or less equally sharp, but sometimes in the finished shot only part of
the subject appears acceptably sharp.
This zone of sharpness is called the depth-of-field, and it extends in front of and behind
the point that you actually focused on. The size of the zone is determined by three key
factors - the aperture of the lens, the focal length of the lens used, and the distance you
are from the subject. Varying these three elements allows you almost complete control
over the depth-of-field in a picture.
When most of the picture is sharp, we say there's lots of depth-of-field. When only part
is sharp, we say depth-of-field is limited. As we'll see later, whether you go for extensive
or limited depth-of-field depends upon the subject matter and how you want to depict it.

Program: Diploma in Communication & Media Studies


Subject: Photo Communication I
Course Code: COM 264

Three main factors that can be used to control depth-of-field


1 The aperture.

There's a simple, direct relationship between aperture and depth-of-field - the smaller
the aperture, the more extensive the depth-of-field. So if you want to keep as much as
possible sharp, you should set as small an aperture as possible - preferably f/16, or
even f/22 if your lens offers it.
Depending on lighting conditions and your film stock, you may need to use a tripod or
some other form of support at such small apertures, as the resulting long shutter speeds
create a risk of camera-shake.
If, however, you want to concentrate attention on just one part of the scene, and throw
the rest out-of-focus, you should select a large aperture. Exactly how large this can be
depends on the maximum aperture of the lens you're using. On a 50mm standard lens it
will be f/1.7, f/1.8 or f/2, but on a standard zoom it will typically be f/3.5 or f/4.5.
For general picture-taking, when you want most of the picture to be in focus, you might
want to set a middling aperture of around f/8 to f/11.
This is what a program exposure mode sets when left to its own devices Whenever
possible you should take control of aperture selection and use either an aperture-priority
or manual mode.

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Program: Diploma in Communication & Media Studies


Subject: Photo Communication I
Course Code: COM 264

Excuse the state of this old Nikon lens, but it helps to show what we're talking about and
by blurring the surrounding area it's easy to show the scale and depth of field. Look at
the picture with the lens set to f/22. At this setting the lens will ensure everything from
infinity (the symbol that looks like a figure eight on its side) to two feet is sharp. With the
lens set to f/8 the zone of sharpness is reduced to infinity to just over five feet.
2 The focal length of the lens.

Attach a wide-angle lens and you'll benefit from extensive depth-of-field, which makes it
easy to keep everything in focus. The wider the angle-of-view, the greater the depth-offield. Choose a telephoto lens and the depth-of-field is immediately more limited. The
longer the focal length, the more restricted the zone of sharpness is.

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Program: Diploma in Communication & Media Studies


Subject: Photo Communication I
Course Code: COM 264

Here is the affect of using a different focal length. A Nikon 28mm wide angle at f/22
would as we've seen give a sharp result from two feet to infinity; a 55mm Micro Nikkor
from seven feet to infinity and a 105mm Nikkor from about 28 feet to infinity .
3 The Camera-to-Subject Distance

For various technical reasons, the closer you get to the subject the more limited the
depth becomes. In fact, when shooting close-up subjects it can extend to just a few
millimeters in front of and behind the subject.
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Program: Diploma in Communication & Media Studies


Subject: Photo Communication I
Course Code: COM 264

So that's the theory, but what does it all mean in practical picture-taking terms?
Four common techniques using depth-of-field

Use these four common approaches when planning a shot to ensure depth-of-field
works for you
1 Everything sharp.

With subjects such as landscapes, groups, interiors and travel you'll usually want to
keep everything sharp. Using a wide-angle lens set to a small aperture will give you
extensive depth-of-field, perhaps from around one meter through to infinity. But there
will be times when foreground interest is closer than that. Here you need to resort to a
neat little technique called hyperfocal focusing that allows you to increase the depth-offield.
As a rule-of-thumb, there's twice more depth-of-field behind the subject than in front of
it. So if you photograph a distant subject such as a landscape and focus on infinity you
waste lots of depth-of-field. By focusing a little closer, you'll extend the depth-of-field at
the front so it comes nearer to the camera, while still making sure that infinity falls within
the depth-of-field behind the actual point of focus.

You can guess the hyperfocal focusing distance, but life is much easier if your lens is
marked with a depth-of-field scale. This used to be regarded as an essential feature, but
with the development of wide-ranging zooms many manufacturers now omit one. If you
do have such a scale, simply line up the infinity mark against the mark for the aperture
you've set and, although the image in the viewfinder will look out-of-focus, the finished
image will be sharp from front to back.
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Program: Diploma in Communication & Media Studies


Subject: Photo Communication I
Course Code: COM 264

If you focus on infinity all the potential sharpness beyond infinity is wasted and the
closest zone of focus, on this 28mm example, is about four feet.

Adjust the lens so that the infinity setting is on the marking of the aperture you have
selected to extend the zone of sharpness to about two feet.
2 Main subject sharp with background completely out-of-focus.

There are some subjects where you want the main subject to stand out strongly from an
out-of-focus background. Portraiture, where the emphasis is on the person, rather than
the location, is probably the most popular area. What you need here is a use a
telephoto lens at its widest aperture. It's also worth moving the subject as far away as
possible from the background - in cramped studio situations this is often impossible but
outside against a wall or foliage it's usually easier. Take care, though, that you focus
accurately, as the limited depth-of-field will be unforgiving of any focusing errors. For
portraits focus on the eye for the best results.

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Program: Diploma in Communication & Media Studies


Subject: Photo Communication I
Course Code: COM 264

Plants often have distracting backgrounds so focusing on the flower head and throwing
the background out is a common technique used to isolate the subject
3 Main subject sharp, with background out-of-focus but still recognizable.

Sometimes throwing the background completely out-of-focus is going too far. You want
to show the subject in its natural environment, but with the background toned down to it
doesn't compete for attention. A person on the beach, for instance, an animal in the zoo,
or a flower in a garden. Here a standard to short telephoto lens, somewhere from 50mm
to 135mm, is ideal - especially if it's coupled with a middle range aperture of around f/8.

In this shot of hay the background has been deliberately pushed out of focus but not by
too much so that it is still obvious what it is.
4 Zone of sharpness deliberately limited.

Occasionally you may want to limit the depth-of-field to a very specific zone. Maybe in a
portrait you want just the eyes in focus, and not even the ears or the tip of the nose.
Here, once again, a depth-of-field scale on the lens helps, or, failing that a depth-of-field
preview facility on the camera, This will give a visual indication of what will and won't be
in focus by manually stopping down the lens.
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Program: Diploma in Communication & Media Studies


Subject: Photo Communication I
Course Code: COM 264

A technique used by many flower photographers is to really limit the depth of field. Here
just the stamen is sharp making the foreground and background petal really soft.

CHAPTER 6
PICTURES COMPOSITION
Common compositional
Understanding the most common photographic shortcomings is a good starting place to begin
learning composition. The five most common photographic clichs are halves imagery, overcentering, overuse of horizontal format, and working too far from your subject.
Halved imagery
Halved imagery or breaking image into halves, one-half foreground/one-half background, makes for
a static spatial dynamic. Nothing is emphasized or featured. Nothing dominates. Solution? Ground
Thirds. This concept is also known as golden mean or golden oblong. It suggests braking images up
into one-thirds-two-thirds divisions to provide emphasis and a better sequencing to the image. That
the space is precisely broken off into pieces of one-third to two-thirds proportions is not imperative.
You might employ ground fifths, or eights or tenths. What important that you emphasize something
and break the space within the frame in an interesting and meaningful manner.

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Program: Diploma in Communication & Media Studies


Subject: Photo Communication I
Course Code: COM 264

Over-centering
Over-centering of the subject is often due to the photographers reliance on the center-weighted
metering and focusing system. Solution? Rule of thirds, also known as strategic placement or off
centering. Basically, this strategy divides the images into thirds, both vertically and horizontally. The
optimum points of placement are situated at or around those intersecting points. Those spots are
considered ideal locations for placement of subject and main elements.
Overuse of horizontal format
Linear thought. This strategy simply suggests that the shooter note the basic flow of the lines within
the frame. If they are predominantly horizontal, make a horizontal image. If the lines are
predominantly vertical, move the camera a quarter turn and accommodate the image vertically.
Working too far from the subject.
Solution? Get used to getting up close to your subjects and the action. A good rule of thumb for any
assignment that involves a portrait is to make several very tight images. It isnt by accident that
magazines and other publications run tight portrait shot the covers. They can be compelling and
capture the soul of the subject, and were all interested in people. In any event, if a photograph of the
subject is whats going to drive the story- and often is- make sure you get a variety of good shots.
That includes tight shots (filling the frame with the persons face, environmental images (showing
subjects in their surroundings or engaged in the activities that say something about who they are),
and other shots and angles that help reveal personality of the subject being photographed.

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