19/09/2012

Geodynamics

Aim is to understand the workings of the solid
Earth and how it has evolved since accretion at
4.6 Ga

Semester 1: main objective is to explain the
distribution and origin of largelarge-scale structures
(e.g. sedimentary basins, mountain belts) in
relation to Earth processes

First five teaching slots run in parallel with Basin
Analysis & Petroleum Geology (focus on the
tectonic development of sedimentary basins)

Geodynamics
Basin Analysis & Petroleum
Geology

Lecture 1: recap of:

Compositional and rheological zonation of
Earth

Heat distribution

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Structure of the Earth

P- and SS-waves pass through the planet in
response to earthquakes

Velocities vary with pressure (depth), temperature,
mineralogy, chemistry and degree of partial
melting

Laboratory experiments on effect of high
pressures on common minerals and rock types
provide clues as to likely composition of the deep
Earth

Seismic discontinuities divide the interior up into
different sectors

Structure of the Earth

Continental crust dioritic to granodioritic, 3030-35
km thick; oceanic crust basaltic and 77-8 km thick

Lithosphere (50(50-300 km thick) is the strong outer
layer, underlain by the low seismic velocity zone

Asthenosphere (extending from the base of the
lithosphere to the 660 km discontinuity) is a weak
layer that deforms by creep

Mantle solid (but deformable by creep),
chemically homogenous and composed of silicate
minerals

Outer liquid core, inner solid core (but near
melting point)

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Generation and transfer of heat within

the Earth

~40% of the Earths present heat output is
residual heat loss from accretion and core
formation

~60% results from the thermal decay of longlong-lived
radioactive isotopes e.g. U, Th, K

Thermal contributions of U and Th are >K and
~20% of radiogenic heat production occurs within
the crust

Granite has a greater potential for heat generation
for a given mass than mafic rocks

Oceanic lithosphere therefore has less heat
generation capacity than continental lithosphere

Thermal gradients in the Earth

Temperature of a rock depends on:

Depth of burial
Ability to diffuse heat
Its specific heat capacity
Its density
Heat generation within and below the rock
Rate of erosion or deposition above it
Rate at which T changes with depth is the
GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT

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Geothermal gradient for a simple oneonelayer model 50 km thick

Geothermal gradient

Estimated by heat flow measurements down
boreholes several km deep, results then
extrapolated by computer modelling

Different curves represent different assumed
parameters (e.g. heat flow, conductivity etc)

The effect of increased basal heat flow is to move
curves to the right, a reduced heat flow moves
curves to the left

Heat production probably much higher in the
Archaean - crust warmer than at present

Oceanic heat flow

Highest in areas of
young lithosphere

Decreases with
distance from oceanic
ridges

Data very variable
adjacent to ridges, less
variable further away

Sea floor depth
increases with age as
lithosphere cools and
thickens

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Distribution of temperature within

oceanic lithosphere
lithosphere

Distribution of heat within the oceanic

lithosphere

Curves indicate that apart from the edge of a
plate, T increases smoothly downwards,
consistent with conductive heat transfer

Beneath the oceanic lithosphere, heat transfer is
by convection

The convective geotherm is typically steeper than
the conductive geotherm within the lithosphere

The thermal boundary layer is the transitional
zone that separates the outermost rigid oceanic
lithosphere from the underlying convecting mantle

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Continental heat flow

Continental lithosphere much varied in
terms of age, thickness, composition and
tectonic history

No simple age/heat flow relationship

Heat flow depends mainly on amount of
surface crustal radioactivity and length of
time since last major tectonic event

Different places have different
characteristics and these are termed HEAT
FLOW PROVINCES

Heat flow vs,

vs, crustal age

Heat flow averaged
into groups according
to approximate crustal
age for each site

Red boxes around
crosses (= average
values) indicate
uncertainties

General trend towards
increased heat flow in
younger lithosphere
why?

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Heat flow vs,

vs, crustal age

Younger lithosphere will have been affected by
major tectonism relatively recently

Older areas of crust have typically lost large
amounts of radiogenic heatheat-producing elements
due to erosion

Not all heat is generated internally some is
provided by conduction from underlying deep crust
and/or mantle

Reduced heat flow appears to fall over the
period 00-300 Ma, then settles to a mean value for
ages >300 Ma

Reduced heat flow vs. age

Decrease of mean continental heat flow

with time

I = radiogenic heat
from the upper crust

II = heat from igneous
and metamorphic
events

III = background heat
from the lower crust
and mantle

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Continental vs. oceanic lithosphere

Heat is generated at
shallow depths in
continental lithosphere

For a given surface
heat flow, T at depth is
lower in continental
than in oceanic
lithosphere

Continental lithosphere
is thicker because of
the lower temperature

Thermal models for oceanic and old

continental lithosphere

Average geotherms meet below the surface
of the lithosphere suggesting that there is no
significant thermal difference between
mantle beneath old continental lithosphere
and old oceanic lithosphere

Consistent with the observation that
average heat flow in old oceanic lithosphere
(>65 Ma) is similar to that for the oldest
continental lithosphere

Thermal models for oceanic and old

continental lithosphere

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Strengths and weaknesses in the

lithosphere

Heat flow measured at the surface can be used to
develop models for the thickness of the
lithosphere

Old oceanic lithosphere and continental
lithosphere are similar in terms of heat flow

However, there are major compositional
differences between the two

We now review the physical properties that
determine the strength of the lithosphere

Continental vs. oceanic lithosphere

The quartzquartz-feldspar rheology of continental crust
will deform in a ductile manner at much lower
temperatures than the olivineolivine-dominated oceanic
lithosphere

Thus, oceanic lithosphere is much stronger than
continental lithosphere under the same conditions

For realistic stresses of ~25 MPa, unreasonably
high heat flow (>100 mWm-2) would be needed for
oceanic lithosphere to become ductile

For this reason, ductile deformation is rarely seen
in oceanic lithosphere

Schematic strength profiles through

oceanic and continental lithosphere

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Summary so far

Oceanic lithosphere is stronger than continental
lithosphere

Younger lithosphere, characterized by higher heat
flow, is less strong than older lithosphere (with
lower heat flow)

If Archaean geotherms were steeper than at
present (i.e. higher heat flow), presumably
Archaean lithosphere would have been weaker
than more recent lithosphere

Principal features of plate tectonics

(arrows = relative motions)

Main features of plate theory

Earth is covered in mosaic of rigid plates which
can comprise only oceanic crust or oceanic +
continental crust

Seismic and volcanic activity focused mainly on
plate boundaries

Plates are constantly in motion with respect to
each other and the Earths pole of rotation

An increase in the size of one plate must be
balanced out by a corresponding reduction in the
size of another plate or plates

Provides the main mechanism by which the Earth
is able to lose internal heat

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Plate motions and interactions

Relative plate motions

In the ocean basins these will be parallel to
transform faults and broadly perpendicular
to ridges

Can be estimated in the ocean basins from
width of magnetic stripes

On the continents can be now be measured
using GPS systems accurate to within a few
mms per yr

Lengths of arrows related to relative velocity

Plate motions and interactions

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Relative plate motions

N-S convergence in the Himalayas 50mm/yr

Africa
Africa--Europe convergence 10mm/yr

Rates of subduction around the Pacific 6565106mm/yr but rate of spreading is only 333393mm/yr, so Pacific plate is shrinking as are Nazca
and Cocos plates

African & Indian plates are enlarging by a
corresponding amount mid
mid--Atlantic ridge and the
Carlsberg ridge in the Indian Ocean are moving
apart

The African continent appears to be more or less
stationary

Absolute plate motions

Motion of the lithosphere relative to the lower
mantle which deforms more slowly than either the
asthenosphere or the outer core

By establishing age of linear volcanic island chains
(e.g. Hawaii) that are thought to have formed by
volcanism on a plate that was moving above a
fixed hothot-spot (or mantle plume)

This is the HOT SPOT FRAME OF REFERENCE
for calculating the absolute or true motions of
existing plates over the last 7070-80 myr

Existing hot spots

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Existing hot spots

Are all hotspots above longlong-lived

plumes?

~40~40-50 hotspots active at present day

Perhaps only seven longlong-lived primary
hotspots (Iceland(?), Tristan da Cunha, Afar,
Reunion, Hawaii, Louisville & Easter)

Some originated as LIPs associated with
flood basalt provinces formed during rifting
and breakup of Pangaea

Still much controversy about whether or not
a mantle plume underlies Iceland

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Plate motions calculated from hot spots

(arrow length proportional to rate of
movement)

Are hot spots stationary?

Whole premise of using hot spots to calculate
relative plate motions depends upon the
assumption that mantle plumes are stationary

This is apparently valid for at least the last 10 myr

However, there may be a small relative motion of
hot spots of a few mm/yr

Consistent with plumes that ascend through the
mantle in which horizontal velocities are an order
of magnitude smaller than plate velocities

However, some plumes may have travelled more
significant distances

Hotspot tracks in the Pacific Ocean

Bend in EmperorEmperorHawaii chain much
more pronounced than
elsewhere

Partly accounted for by
southward movement
of 5
5 of the hotspot
between 65 and 43 Ma

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Mesozoic--Cenozoic LIPs
Mesozoic

Evidence for a midmid-Cretaceous superplume

superplume?
?

Rate of production of
oceanic crust doubled at
120--125 Ma
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Increased subduction and
emplacement of major
batholiths in Peru and west
USA

Rate of geomagnetic
reversals was very low =
quiescent core due to
removal of large amounts
of heat by a plume?

Evidence for a midmid-Cretaceous superplume

superplume?
?

Global seasea-level rise
due to increase in
volume of ocean
ridges

Rise in global temps
due to volcanism and
increased CO2

Increased plankton in
wide shallow seas
extensive black shales
and source rocks

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