SKYLON Space Plane

Date of Submission: April 1, 2014

by
_______________________________________
Shelby Bates
Batess1@my.erau.edu

_______________________________________
Kevin Chun
chunk@my.erau.edu

_______________________________________
Eric Gambill
Gambille@my.erau.edu

Submitted to: Dr. Michael Fabian

Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering
College of Engineering

In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements
Of
AE 495S
Advanced Space Propulsion
Spring 2014

Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University

Prescott, Arizona

AE 495S

1.0

SKYLON Space Plane

Introduction

The concept of humans traveling beyond the Earths atmosphere was first realized in 1961 with the infamous flight
of Yuri Gagarin, otherwise known as the first person in space. Since then, people have had a profound interest in
mapping and traveling the stars. Leaving the safe haven that is Earth, however, is no simple feat, requiring countless
hours of research, development, and testing to even get near a launch platform. Costing upwards of $10,000 to
launch just one pound of cargo, however, space travel is an expensive venture. Therefore, the key component in the
development of new spacecraft and space technologies is reducing the weight requirement, thus reducing the cost.
Since the birth of space travel, companies have been striving to develop a cost effective way to launch people and
cargo into space. Many known and reliable launch vehicles can be used for only one launch due to the harsh
environment of launch and the design for demise that many of the vehicle components contain. With the exception
of the Space Shuttle, every launch vehicle in employment uses a single-use, multi-stage rocket system. This means
that during flight, conventional rockets consume fuel and then discard the empty fuel stages. Because of this, a large
portion of conventional rockets are destroyed after one use, a practice that is not cost effective.
The Space Shuttle, developed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), was first launched in
1981. The Space Shuttle was a revolutionary new form of space transportation because of its partial reusability.
While the Shuttle itself was reusable, there was a lot of cost and time required to manufacture new fuel, complete
inspections, and rebuild certain components for each launch. As a result of such high costs, space became the
domain of government-funded organizations. In order to continue developing space technology and space travel,
companies must now find new and innovative ways reduce cost and vehicle turn-around time. Reaction Engines
Limited (REL) believes they have a solution for this new and improved space vehicle.
Reaction Engines Limited is a private company founded in the United Kingdom in 1989 with the sole purpose of
developing air-breathing rocket technology. Founded by Alan Bond, Richard Varvill, and John Scott-Scott, REL
contains a burning belief that if humanity is to conquer space, it has to find a better way of getting there than
simply lighting the fuse on expensive fireworks [2].In order to do so, REL researches space propulsion systems in
order to aid in the development of the SKYLON space plane, which is currently in its early phases of development.
The SKYLON space plane is a concept for a single stage to orbit (SSTO) vehicle that is capable of traveling to Low
Earth Orbit. Single stage to orbit refers to a reusable launch vehicle that does not jettison hardware throughout
launch, meaning the only loss to the system is exerted propellants [3]. Because a large percentage of current launch
vehicles are comprised of propellant, this greatly reduces not only the cost, but the size and weight requirements of
the vehicle. The goal of SKYLON is to provide a new source of space transportation with an unpiloted and reusable
system. As Alan Bond says, "Expendable rockets can never deliver a credible transportation system. It is just too
labor intensive to build a vehicle of that complexity and then throw it away after one flight. Therefore, SKYLON
will be cost effective and efficient, reducing both the cost to launch to orbit and the time it takes to prepare the
vehicle to be used again. SKYLON will do this by replacing the traditional launch vehicle engines with modified jet
engines similar to those on commercial aircraft and developing the system to have horizontal launch and landing
capabilities.

2.0

Background

Single stage to orbit vehicles are not unheard of in the space community. In fact, single stage to orbit vehicles have
been in use for quite some time for travel on and around other planets. The infamous Apollo programs lunar
module was a single stage to orbit from the moon, and many of Russias Luna robotic spacecraft use single stage to
orbit vehicles as well [3]. It is on Earth that these systems become more complicated. Because of the forces exerted
on the vehicles during launch to orbit, developing a vehicle that can survive launch and reentry forces is a daunting
task. A task, however, that has been tried a few times before. Many companies and governments have attempted to
create single stage to orbit vehicles. Rockets that launch and land vertically, air-breathing scramjet vehicles, nuclear
vehicles, and jet engine vehicles have been under development for the sole purpose of the single stage to orbit
vehicle that can reduce cost and increase efficiency.
In the past, many organizations working to develop single stage to orbit vehicles have studied hydrogen and oxygen
rocket engines [4].However, this propulsion type has a relatively low specific impulse. When used for air-breathing

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SKYLON Space Plane

engines, the Hydrogen/Oxygen propulsion system is more feasible, but still contains a low thrust to weight ratio and
limited Mach range [5]. As a result, air-breathing engines alone cannot propel a system into orbit. A combination of
air-breathing engine and rocket engine, however, may be the most realistic way to get to space. The SKYLON space
plane is making strides in the movement towards a working single stage to orbit vehicle utilizing this engine
combination. The minds behind REL and SKYLON, however, have been working for decades to perfect the idea.
Before SKYLON came into development, the founders of REL worked on a similar project called HOTOL.
Standing for Horizontal Take Off and Landing, HOTOL was Alan Bonds first air-breathing space plane concept.
Development of the concept began in 1982 when the British government gave funding to a joint design team
comprised of Rolls-Royce and British Aerospace engineers. John Scott-Scott, one of the founders of REL, was one
of the engineers from British Aerospace. HOTOL utilized a Rolls-Royce RB545 engine that used an air, liquid
hydrogen, and liquid oxygen propellant system. In flight, this plane would take off and land from a runway similar
to a commercial airliner. When the plane reached between Mach 5.0 and Mach 6.0, however, it would transition to
pure rocket propulsion [6]. The HOTOL space plane was to be 63 meters in length, with a seven meter diameter
fuselage and a 28.3 meter wingspan. During design, the engines and liquid oxygen tanks for the space plane were
placed at the rear of the fuselage. The cargo bay and Hydrogen tanks were placed in the forward portion of the
fuselage. Figure 2.1: HOTOL Design shows the exterior design of the plane, with the air-breathing engines
noticeable at the rear underbelly of the vehicle.
During testing it was determined that this configuration caused severe malfunctions during ascension. During this
portion of flight, the center of pressure shifted ten meters forward due to a variety of factors including a large
fuselage cross section and small wing cross section ratio, a large forward fuselage overhang, and a large Mach
range. As a result of this pressure shift, the center of gravity shifted to the rear end of the plane. These shifts in
pressure and center of gravity would make the plane unstable during flight if not resolved [3]. As a result, the
HOTOL space plane was redesigned several times in order to remedy the center of pressure and center of gravity
shifts. However, there was little success and the government withdrew its funding in 1988. Unfortunately, the design
for HOTOL was almost complete. However, the aerodynamic problems and speculative nature within the project
proved to be its downfall.
With the loss of government funding, Alan Bond and John Scott-Scott developed REL to continue the space plane
project. British Aerospace did offer a HOTOL 2 concept in 1991. The HOTOL 2 redesign would utilize a more
conventional Liquid Hydrogen and Liquid Oxygen engine and be launched from the back of a modified aircraft.
This concept, however, was never developed further. This left REL as the only company exploring the continuation
of the HOTOL air-breathing space plane concept. After its development in 1989, RELs goal was to fix the
problems of HOTOL and develop a better mode of space transportation for the world.

3.0

Concept

If completed, the SKYLON space plane could provide humans with a fast, reusable, and reliable means of getting
into space. At its core, SKYLON is a [sleek redesign of the HOTOL project. Utilizing a lengthened, slender
fuselage, the SKYLON body is 83.3 meters in length and 6.75 meters in diameter. While SKYLON has a similar
fuselage diameter to HOTOL, it is considerably longer. Just as with the fuselage diameter, the wingspan for HOTOL
and SKYLON are similar in length, with SKYLON containing a 25.4 meter wingspan. The wing section of
SKYLON, however, was moved forward on the plane. To reduce the lift problems of HOTOL, SKYLONs wings
were moved forward on the fuselage to near the midpoint of the length and in line with the payload bay. The engines
were also moved in order to reduce the massive moments that HOTOL experienced during flight. The overall
orientation of SKYLON can be seen in Figure 3.1: SKYLON Space Plane. These changes were made in order to
keep the center of gravity near the center of the plane.
The orientation of the propellants and propellant tanks also contributed to some of HOTOLs instability. In order to
avoid this, the Hydrogen and Oxygen tanks were cut in half and placed on the two sides of the payload bay, as seen
in Figure 3.1. As a result, SKYLON is comprised of two liquid hydrogen tanks and two liquid oxygen tanks, rather
than one of each. During the air-breathing portion of the planes ascent, the Hydrogen is burned from the rear tank.
Because the center of pressure will still shift forward slightly during flight, burning from the back Hydrogen tank
ensures that the center of gravity moves forward as well. This change results in more control of the center of gravity,
which means that the stability and usability of the plane increases [1].

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SKYLON Space Plane

Because SKYLON completes both ascent to orbit and decent back to Earth, it needs to be different than typical
orbital vehicles. In the past, re-entry vehicles have been blunt in shape. This was done in order to maximize the drag
in the Earths atmosphere to slow the vehicle. Because a vehicle that produces minimum drag is needed for ascent,
REL had to re-evaluate the reasoning behind the blunt re-entry vehicle in order to ensure that SKYLON can
complete its mission. In doing so, they determined that the blunt vehicle is not the only option for re-entry. Re-entry
vehicles are required to experience very high heats during atmospheric re-entry. As a result, re-entry vehicles must
be developed to withstand these heats. Previous re-entry vehicles were designed so that the underside of the vehicle
would experience the most heat and be able to withstand it through the use of extra heat protection. This extra
protection, though, adds to the systems overall mass, which is a characteristic SKYLON seeks to avoid. Because
SKYLON utilizes a different body shape and does not contain the extra heat protection on the underside of the
vehicle, there was concern that the structure would not be able to sufficiently withstand re-entry conditions. Upon
further analysis, however, it was determined that the re-entry heats were quite manageable. With this considered, the
REL engineers still needed to provide the vehicle with adequate and lightweight heat protection.
SKYLON was developed with three methods for managing the heats experienced by the structure. These include an
aeroshell, layers of reflecting titanium foil, and water evaporation. SKYLONs structure is made up of a carbon fiber
frame reinforced with plastic struts. The frame is then covered with reinforced glass ceramic sheets, which serve as
the aeroshell, or main form of heat protection. The aeroshell is then topped with many layers of a foil heat shield to
provide additional thermal protection. Within the frame, most of the fuselage is comprised of hydrogen tanks,
making SKYLON considerably lighter and less dense during atmospheric reentry. This reduces not only how hot the
vehicle gets but also many of the complications associated with very high heats. After thermal analysis, it was
determined that SKYLON would experience around one megawatt per square meter of heat transfer. However,
standard jet engines and rocket engines could experience up to 100 times more heat transfer during flight. This
makes SKYLONs heat concerns considerably easier to manage. It was determined that three points on the plane
would experience concentrations of heat, as demonstrated by the red circles on Figure 3.2: Re-entry Heat
Concentrations. In order to ensure that the heat experienced at these areas was not damaging, around 100 kilograms
of water could be drained over the exterior, which would evaporate and provide cooling.
On paper, SKYLONs design is plausible using current and available technology. However, some of this
technology, including the air-breathing rocket engine, had not yet been perfected. Therefore, REL had to develop an
engine system that could complete SKYLONs mission requirements. The result was the Synergetic Air-Breathing
and Rocket Engine, or SABRE. Comprised of a combination of a hydrogen rocket and a jet engine, the SABRE
engine contains the best of a plane and a rocket in one. Over twenty years in the making, the SABRE engine
contains a pre-cooler and turbine that enables it to travel at up to five times the speed of sound. As seen in Figure
3.3: SABRE Engine, the SABRE contains an air intake, a pre-cooler, a compressor, a turbine, and rocket nozzles [1].
In air-breathing mode, the engine uses oxygen from the environment as oxidizer to propel the system. When turned
to rocket mode, at around a 26 kilometer altitude, the engine utilizes an on-board oxygen supply as oxidizer. The
overall system uses sub-cooled liquid hydrogen as a fuel.
The SABRE engine contains many components that set it apart from other attempts to develop a successful airbreathing rocket engine. However, at its base, it is the mastery of the combined engine cycles that set SABRE up for
success. The air-breathing and rocket engines are combined by a series of common components. The ultimate goal
of this combination is to maximize functionality in order to keep the system weight and installation drag to a
minimum [5]. Because the air-breathing mode uses the environment around it for oxidizer rather than carrying it on
board, SABRE enables a total system mass reduction. Despite numerous attempts to develop these combined
engines, SABRE is the first of its kind that utilizes realistic components and current technology. Therefore, SABRE
is the only credible engine in its field. SABREs overall goal is to provide the SKYLON plane a reusable means of
getting to and from space. Therefore, the success of the engine, and therefore SKYLON, could greatly reduce the
cost of space transportation. However, in order to utilize the same combustion chamber as a rocket engine, the airbreathing portion of the engine must be able to compress the air to the same pressures as the rocket cycle [5]. In
order to compress the air to this pressure, it must be gathered and cooled.
During flight, the axisymmetric intake draws in air. Although the air entering the engine is quite fast, the air intake
slows the air, enabling it to move through the engine at relatively low Mach numbers. When the air is slowed,
however, kinetic energy is released in the form of heat. Because the air is slowing so much and so quickly, the heat

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SKYLON Space Plane

in the engine skyrockets, reaching upwards of 1,000 degrees Celsius. As previously mentioned, however, in order
for the engine to run, the air entering the combustion chamber must be cooled. This is where the pre-cooler steps in.
The minds in REL knew that the only way their engine could work was if they developed something that could
drastically cool the air in a fraction of a second. If the oxygen were to be cooled to a liquid form, which is the
method of some air-breathing engine designs, then a high fuel flow would be required in order operate the engine. A
high fuel flow results in more fuel consumption, which ultimately requires more fuel and added mass. Therefore, the
pre-cooler within the SABRE cools the air to its vapor point, or the point just before liquefaction. This reduces not
only the need for hydrogen fuel flow, but also the additional cooling requirement. Therefore, the pre-cooler for
SABRE was developed to reduce the temperature from 1,000 degrees Celsius to minus 150 degrees Celsius in a
hundredth of a second [1]. The need for this sort of cooling is a restricting element for most aircraft traveling at very
high speeds because of the structural damage such heats can cause. In addition, cooler air is easier to compress to a
usable pressure for the rocket combustion chamber. It is how REL made their pre-cooler; however, that sets it apart.
Heat exchangers work by passing fluid or gas through tubes that are surrounded by another liquid or gas, resulting in
a transfer of heat. Fins are commonly used in heat exchangers, too, to increase efficiency [1]. For the purposes of
SABRE, however, fins contain too much weight. Therefore, REL made the tubes smaller and developed a way to
make the walls of the tubes thinner. This meant that they could increase the amount of tubes in the system without
adding too much weight. The benefit of smaller tubes is an increase in surface area, meaning that there is more area
for the heat transfer to take place. After much trial and error to manufacture the tubes required to make SABRE
work, REL found out how to make one millimeter diameter tubes with walls thinner than a strand of human hair [1].
The tubes were then mounted in a spiral arrangement, as seen in Figure 3.4: SABRE Pre-Cooler. This combination
of smaller tubes and a spiral arrangement allows for an immense amount of cooling in a smaller area.
Overall, the pre-cooler is part of a closed cycle helium loop. The on-board helium is cooled using the cold hydrogen.
The helium is then put though the pre-cooler to cool the incoming air. After leaving the pre-cooler, the helium is
further heated by the pre-burner product [1]. This heating of the helium gives it enough energy to then drive the
turbine. Therefore, described as a loop, as the air is cooled, it heats the helium that powers the engine machinery,
which uses the cooled air to power the turbine. In addition, during flight the air intake takes in more air than is
needed for the compressor. This excess air is passed around the pre-cooler and fed to the burner duct. This helps to
recover drag losses [8].
It is this cooling combined with the high compression ratio of the air that enables the air-breathing component of
SABRE to achieve a higher thrust to weight ratio. In order to accomplish a high specific impulse there must be a low
demand for fuel flow [5]. This requires an advanced thermodynamic cycle with a range of heat exchangers. In
addition to the pre-cooler, a heat exchanger with the purpose of cooling hot helium with the cold liquid hydrogen
on-board is used. The combination of the pre-cooler and the more conventional heat exchangers keep the SABRE in
a working state, allowing the engine to perform its mission.
Together, SABRE and the SKYLON space plane are a realistic solution to the need for a more cost effective way to
get to space. Once in production, the SKYLON space plane will revolutionize the space industry. In 2012, REL
completed a successful scaled test of their revolutionary pre-cooler, putting them on the forefront of the technology.
Tested in a Viper jet engine, the heat exchanging system was successfully tested in a working environment, proving
the concept worked. Since then, REL continues to develop and test their technology. With SKYLON becoming
more plausible, more thought has gone into its mission. When in use, SKYLON will be operated as an orbital
transport. Therefore, its large and adaptable payload bay was made to accomplish many missions. The design for the
payload bay was determined using existing payload requirements. Thirteen meters long and five meters in diameter,
the payload bay is a U shaped area with two opening doors. The orientation of the SKYLON payload bay can be
seen in Figure 3.5: Payload Bay. Able to accommodate over 33,000 pounds, the bay can carry both people and
cargo. As previously stated, the payload bay is placed almost midway in the fuselage and over the wing section. The
bay contains two payload connections points on each end, and, if payload mass constraints are met, both can be used
simultaneously for one large or two smaller payloads [1].
Because of the shape and size of the payload bay, it can accommodate cargo, multiple satellites, and human
transportation. This makes SKYLON an efficient and useful system. In addition to the two connection points
discussed, the payload bay can also be fitted with mounts for multiple satellites. Although SKYLON is meant for

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SKYLON Space Plane

Low Earth Orbit transportation, the plane can also be used for satellites and systems requiring geostationary orbits.
This can be done by attaching these satellites to a second stage booster, which would be used for orbital transfer. It
is also possible to reuse these upper stages by collecting them after use. In addition to satellite and cargo
deliverance, SKYLON could also be used to build infrastructure in space.

4.0

Key Physics and Engineering

The SABRE engine's Combined Cycle is a dual mode engine that, at take-off, is a pre-cooled air-breathing turboramjet and a closed cycle rocket engine after reaching Mach 5. Utilizing the same hardware for both engine cycles
keeps system weight and drag from extra engines or parts down to a minimum. Using the same hardware for both
cycles means that the air must be compressed to similar pressures as in a rocket cycle though. During the first half
of flight, the SABRE engine in air-breathing mode will intake about 1250 tons of air. 260 tons of this air is usable
oxygen that the space plane will not have to carry throughout its' ascent [2]. Unlike the LACE, the oxygen in the
SABRE's cycle will remain in a gaseous state. Alan Bond and Reaction Engines Ltd. did this to fix the LACE's high
fuel flow problems.

4.1

Combined Cycle Rocket Engine

In a normal turbo-ramjet, the air passes through an inlet and is compressed. The compressor is driven by a gas
generator fed by on-board fuel and oxidizer. In the SABRE engine though, pre-cools the air with a light-weight precooler made of consisting of many thousands of small bore thin wall tubes. The pre-cooler utilizes a closed Brayton
cycle power loop of helium as seen in Figure 4.1: SABRE cycle [9].
The helium is cooled at HX4 by on-board liquid hydrogen which acts as a heat sink. The cooled helium is then
compressed, then extracts the heat from the incoming air via the pre-cooler. After its temperature is stabilized in
HX3, the helium turns the turbine that drives the turbo-compressor as well as turning the turbine that circulates the
helium. The turbo-compressor compresses the air to the appropriate pressure for use in the engine's combustion
chamber. Therefore in this cycle, the major heat exchanger roles are: "extracting heat from incoming air in the precooler, topping up cycle flow temperatures to maintain constant turbine operating conditions and extracting rejected
heat from the power cycle via regenerator loops for thermal capacity matching" [5].
The intermediate fluid helium was interposed between the incoming air flow and on-board hydrogen heat sink to
prevent hydrogen embrittlement of materials, as well as acting as a safety barrier between fuel and oxidizer due to
its inertness and specific thermal capacity. Since the specific thermal capacity of helium is in between air and
hydrogen's, capacity matched heat exchangers were easier to design. In addition to these reasons, helium's high
specific heat ratio "reduces the cycle pressure ratios by a factor of two keeping the size of ducting small" [5].
Figure 4.1: SABRE cycle conditions were found using a Mach 5 design case and an isentropic analysis coupled with
realistic performance for each part. Isentropic conditions yields the maximum air compression ratio possible, i.e.,
the overall entropy rise of the isolated system is zero. The realistic performance calculations coupled into the
analysis included entropy generation due to a finite driving temperature difference, or T, irreversibilities due to
pressure loss and friction, and associated polytropic efficiencies for the compressors and turbines. A polytropic
efficiency is the ratio between the polytropic work to the actual work done by a component. These performance
calculations contribute to entropy rises and thus "can be considered as lost capacity to do work" [5].
For a compressor, entropy rise per unit mass flow is found using the following equation:

T
S
c p ln 2 (1 c ) [5]
m
T1
For a turbine, entropy rise per unit mass flow is found using the following equation:

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SKYLON Space Plane

T 1
S
c p ln 2 T
[5]
m
T1 T
Using the 2 previous equations, Table 4.1: Engine Component Attributes was constructed, and lists the realistic
performance attributes for the engines components. The entropy of each unit was evaluated using isentropic
conditions and the efficiencies from Table 4.1 applied. Combining these, the total entropy rise of the combined air
and hydrogen streams are found.
The compression ratio was then found using the following equation:

PRreal

S
PRideal exp air
air 1 mc p
air

T2
out

TH2inTairin

1 air
S
air
exp

air 1 mc p

air

[5]

The analysis done by Reaction Engines Ltd. yielded a pressure ratio of 3330 under isentropic conditions and 202 for
the SABRE engine under realistic conditions. This is a marked improvement over other jet engines like those used
by Boeing or Airbus which have pressure ratios around 30-40.
At Mach 5.14 and 28.5 km altitude, the intake closes and the SABRE engine uses on-board liquid Oxygen as its
oxidizer for the liquid bi-propellant system. Since the air-breathing mode takes the SKYLON vehicle to this high
speed, the second half of the mission requires less mission velocity. The majority of the V is achieved in this half
though, as the SKYLON vehicle reaches orbital velocity in this half. Though this is true, the rocket cycle must still
be as efficient as possible to make it to orbital speeds.

4.2

Pre-Cooler

The key enabling technology of the SABRE is the pre-cooler. The rate of heat transfer, , per unit heat transfer area,
A, has the following equation:

Q
U T
A
where T is the mean temperature difference between the two fluids exchanging heat, and U is the overall heat
transfer coefficient which incorporates air flow thermal resistance, helium flow thermal resistance, and the
resistance of the separating solid surface [10].
One way to maximize the rate of heat transfer per unit heat transfer area is to increase the fluid flow velocity. This
could result in an overall negative effect on performance through the increase in frictional power loss though.
Instead a very large heat transfer surface area is necessary. Since tube diameter is inversely proportional to the fluid
heat transfer coefficient, reducing the diameter of the flow passages allows for a compact high surface area density
and improved heat transfer per unit area.
In the SABRE pre-cooler, many thousand small bore tubes are brazed together to form a matrix. The matrices are
modularized, wrapped into a cylindrical drum, and arranged into a counterflow design with the hot air in an external
crossflow.
The matrix of tubes seen in Figure 4.2: Pre-cooler was chosen to give the lightest matrix due to the high pressure
difference between the two fluid streams. Fins and other extended heat transfer surfaces were not used due to their
high weight to surface area ratio. The counterflow of helium minimizes the finite driving temperature difference
within the pre-cooler. The modular design wrapped into a cylindrical drum with the hot air in an external crossflow
yields a large frontal area that prevents excessive engine nacelle wave drag by reducing flow constriction into the
turbo-compressor, as well as automatically forcing new boundary layers to grow on each tube [10].

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SKYLON Space Plane

Development of the pre-cooler started with a small experimental pre-cooler in the 1990's called the JMHX [11].
From there, a pre-cooler was made in 2001 to test frost control in a wind tunnel. After this came a single Viper jet
engine module in 2004, 2 SCIMITAR modules during LAPCAT in 2008, a prototype production line of multiple
SABRE pre-cooler modules, and a full-scale Viper jet engine pre-cooler in 2012.
The JMHX was a small high pressure staggered tube matrix heat exchanger researched and manufactured at Bristol
University in the 1990's. Development tested brazing techniques and materials to bind the small tubes together, as
well as the elements used for the intermediate interposed stream. The JMHX had 0.38 mm diameter stainless steel
tubes with 50 m walls. Its layout of 10 layers alternating between 41 and 42 tubes resulted in 415 tubes being
brazed together to form a 40mm by 40mm wafer that was 4mm thick. This thin wafer can be seen in Figure 4.3: The
JMHX [11].
Brazing methods investigated included brazing temperature, brazing material, and application to industrial furnaces.
The tubes were brazed at 910C instead of the normal 1,000C brazing temperature due to erosion of the tubes
occurring at high temperatures. The material used was a nickel phosphorus eutectic alloy manufactured by
Colomony as Nicrobraz 10. The method used to braze the tubes together was an electro-less nickel plating
technique that catalytically deposited a nickel phosphorus braze alloy onto the surface to be brazed. This would
deposit constant thickness of material with even distribution due to invariance in electric field strength over complex
surfaces like anodic electroplating would. From the research, it was found that normal vacuum furnace must be
outfitted with a molecular oxygen getter to reduce partial pressure of oxygen by 100 times below standard vacuum
atmosphere to reduce chromium oxide from forming during production process.
The JMHX was built for temperatures of 100 K N2(g) or He(g) to cool 1,000 K N2(g). The nitrogen had a maximum
change in temperature of over 200 K while the helium had a maximum change in temperature of over 500 K. The
use of helium resulted in about 1.8 GW/m^3 in power transfer rates, while nitrogen only resulted in about 0.88
GW/m^3 [11].
The Viper engine demonstration module had 0.98 mm diameter tubes with 40 m walls. Its tube layout of 460 tubes
that were 2.2 m long resulting in about 1100 m of tubing being drawn. This module investigated assembly and
manufacturing issues. The 2 full scale SCIMITAR engine modules made during the LAPCAT - Long-term
Advanced Propulsion Concepts and Technologies. These modules used 0.88mm diameter tubes with 40m wall
thickness, the same size bores that the SABRE engine would use. These modules were used to investigate brazing
under industrial process conditions.
The 9% SABRE scale Viper pre-cooler had to scale tubes, but 9% as many as the SABRE would have. It operated
at same the temperatures, pressures, mass fluxes, and Reynolds numbers as the full scale SABRE would. The test
module was about 50 kg but contained about 50 km of heat exchanging tubing. The tests that occurred in 2012
investigated aerodynamic stability and uniformity, structural integrity, freedom of vibration across a wide range of
the flight envelope, and cryogenic cooling [12].

5.0

Potential Uses

5.1

LAPCAT A2

The LAPCAT A2, seen in Figure 5.1: LAPCAT A2, or Long-term Advanced Propulsion Concepts and Technology,
is the entirely air-breathing application of the SABRE engine and lightweight heat exchanger technology, optimized
for atmospheric flight only. The LAPCAT A2 would utilize the Scimitar engine, seen in Figure 5.2: Scimitar
Engine. The four Scimitar engines would propel the LAPCAT to cruising speeds of up to Mach 5 using liquid
hydrogen instead of normal hydrocarbon fuels. With a cruising speed of Mach 5, travel time would be reduced in
"long-distance flights, e.g. From Brussels to Sydney, to less than 2 to 4 hours" [2]. The layout of the engine would
be similar to the SABRE in that it would have a pre-cooler, but would also contain "a high bypass airflow permitting
efficient subsonic flight and moderate take-off noise" [2]. The Scimitar engine would be designed for a much longer
life than the SABRE though, since the LAPCAT would need to sustain Mach 5 cruise.

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SKYLON Space Plane

The A2 vehicle configuration proposed by REL allows necessary subsonic and supersonic lift/drag ratio for efficient
commercial application. It is "designed to have adequate control authority about all axes to handle engine-out and to
achieve pitch trim over the full Mach range" [2]. The LAPCAT would be sized to carry 300 passengers
approximately 20,000 km in both subsonic and supersonic flight. This would allow the vehicle to service a large
number of routes and avoid supersonic flight over populated areas.

5.2

Orbital Base Station

An orbital base station (OBS) has been conceptualized since the 1950's and would enable "assembly and
maintenance of a Cis-Lunar transportation infrastructure and integration of vehicles for other high energy space
missions" [13]. The OBS would be modular in nature and be assembled using multiple launches of the SKYLON
space plane. The facilities of the OBS put forth by REL, seen in Figure 5.3: Orbital Base Station, would incorporate
an assembly dock, longitudinal rails to provide internal tether attachments, manipulators to handle and assemble
vehicle structures, and habitation modules.
Since the OBS would be dependent on the SKYLON launch vehicle, the payload capabilities of the vehicle are a
limiting factor. This would mean the station would need to be modularized for accommodation in the payload bay,
taken into orbit, and assembled piece by piece. Advantages of doing this include "standardized units that are
completely reusable and replaceable with the aim of lowering the cost of space operations by means of minimal
hardware development programs" [13].
Assembly of a space transport system inside the proposed dock, which would be "a large cylindrical space-frame
structure with two large doors on either end incorporating a skin of aluminized Mylar" [13], would utilize standard
tankage modules. These modules could be stacked in parallel to form a transfer stage. The amount of modules used
would be dependent on the given mission but could look like Figure 5.4: Modular Construction of a Vehicle Stage.
A SKYLON vehicle would dock using an exterior manipulator arm to engage the docking mechanism located in the
undercarriage wells instead of performing a hard docking maneuver. The payload would then be transferred inside
using the arm through one of the transfer doors into the interior.

5.3

Project Troy

Project Troy is a Mars mission concept created by REL to determine the role that the SKYLON space plane take in
the exploration of Mars. The size and mass of components of a credible Mars mission were therefore estimated and
compared to performance capabilities of the SKYLON. The mission architecture selected included maximum
coverage of Mars, safety of the crew, and minimization of cost. This yielded a mission requiring 2,300 tons of
hardware placed into orbit for each mission phase. The mission would span 14 months on the Martian surface with
18 explorers covering 90% of the surface. The mission "would have surface and orbital resources enabling extended
stop-over to wait relief should major equipment failures occur" [14].
The two phase mission includes an automated phase and a manned phase. The first phase would deliver equipment
like surface habitats and power supplies to the surface of Mars, two years prior to the manned phase. This would
allow "a working surface base and orbital facilities to be established and checked out in advance so that an aborted
exploration has the maximum chance of survival and a range of predetermined back-up options" [14].
The mission would require six Martian transport vehicles, three for each phase. Each Troy vehicle has three stages,
an Earth Departure stage, Mars Transfer stage, and Earth Return stage which are shown in Figure 5.5: Troy Space
Vehicle. The vehicles would be assembled in an OBS and brought to orbit using the SKYLON space plane. For
Phase I, approximately 2346 tons would be required to lift to orbit, while Phase II would require approximately
2234 tons. This would take about 522 total flights of the SKYLON space plane to bring all the equipment and fuel
to orbit. Clearly, only the SKYLON would be able to achieve this with relatively low costs.

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6.0

Limitations

6.1

SKYLON Limitations

SKYLON Space Plane

10

Reaching the orbit of the Earth has always been a laborious task with many limiting factors. Weight of cargo and
weight of the required propellant are the main limiting factor. A typical rocket requires around 90 percent of the
mass to be propellant. This immense fuel requirement consumes non-reusable fuel tanks which are ejected in stages
for weight reduction and a more efficient burn. The jettison of each stage is a risky action and can cause damage to
the rocket if done incorrectly. Ever since the beginning of the space race engineers have searched for ways to
implement refillable rocket fuel tanks and avoid stage jettisons. The SSTO space plane has been a dream of many
engineers and is faced with not just weight limitations but also aerodynamic limitations, structural limitations,
engine limitations, and limitations of a reusable fuel along with the storage system of this fuel. As it is with every
new rocket project there is a large research and development cost as well.
The fuel, engine, and development cost limitations for the SKYLON space plane are the main limiting factors. The
overall manufacturing cost for each SKYLON is estimated at 12 to 14 billion USD [2]. This price is still just an
estimation and could decrease as manufacturing techniques improve. Even though the manufacturing cost seems
unreasonable, the SKYLON would be able to decrease the conventional cost to reach orbit by 10 fold or greater. The
estimated cost for flight and payload delivery into orbit is about 35 million USD but could see costs as low as 10 or
even 2 million USD [2]. This may sound like a hefty budget but in reality it is small when compared to NASA
launches which range in the 100s of millions of USD. Even new private rocket companies have payload delivery
cost estimations of 50 to 90 million USD. The SKYLONs refillable fuel systems and SSTO capabilities allow for
the decreased costs but also present structural constraints to the SKYLON as well.
The SKYLON will take off from sea-level and fly to orbit. A large amount of stress will be developed on the
SKYLON internal structure. This structure must be lightweight yet incredibly strong. The purposed material for this
task is unidirectional carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP). The predicted ultimate stress of this CFRP layup is
1,500 MPa, for compression and tension [15]. The SKYLON will use a circular cross-sectional body for simpler
manufacturing techniques and for near ideal pressure vessel effects. The CFRP internal structure will consist of 4
square-tube longerons at the 45 degree points of the circular cross-section. The longerons will provide bending
resistance for take-off and reentry. Ring frames provide a circumferential strength when subject to the changing
pressures. The ring frames will be spaced 300 mm. apart to provide maximum global rigidity as well as torsional
resistance when coupled with the 4 longerons. The aerodynamic control surfaces at the nose and tail sections require
increased support structure do to the large Mach and reentry forces. An increase in the number of ring frames
combined with monocoque nose and tail cones has been the purposed approach for handling the increased stresses.
The circular design will help idealize the pressurized storage of the liquid oxygen (LOX) and liquid hydrogen
(LHX) fuels. The fuels required for the SKYLONs mission profile will consume majority of internal space of the
SKYLON. The LHX fuel accounts for most of the internal space since it is burned for both air-breathing and rocket
modes of the SABRE engine. As the SKYLON escapes and reenters of the Earths atmosphere fluctuating pressures
will stress both the support structure and fuel tanks of the SKYLON. If the internal fuel tanks collapse, do to
negative pressures, the whole body of the SKYLON will collapse. To avoid collapsing the LOX and LHX fuel tanks
must remain pressurized at all times.
The constant pressurization of the fuel tanks is also a constraint to avoid critical damage to the liquid fuel pumps; as
well as, to avoid the dew point temperature of nitrogen gas (77.35 K). If nitrogen condenses as the SKYLON
reaches orbit, then upon reentry the nitrogen will rapidly expand and cause depressurization of the SKYLON space
plane. A 10mm. PVC foam insulation covering around the fuel tanks will help to combat this effect. The constraint
on the LOX and LHX pumps come from the net-positive-suction-head limits (NPSH) [15]. NPSH limits govern that
the pressure of the liquidous gas cannot rise above a pressure which will cause cavitation in the pumps. Cavitation
within a pump can lead to intense bubble damage on the pump blades and pump failure. The NPSH limits allow for
the temperature of the LHX tanks to rise from 16 Kelvin to 18 Kelvin (K). This 2 K temperature rise is equal to an
increase of 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit. The subtle increase in temperature effectively raises the LHX temperature above
the dew point of Nitrogen to avoid depressurization while also staying within NPSH limits. This temperature rise

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also satisfies an FAA regulation which states that the SKYLON must be able to be delayed on tar mack for 2 hours.
The 2 K temperature increase for the volume of LHX fuel would take longer than 2 hours.
The circular cross-section of the SKYLON will also help atmospheric drag. The elongated body and circular crosssection create a Sears-Haak body. The Sears-Haak body is created by reducing the diameter of the fuselage over the
wing to make a classic coke-a-cola bottle like shape. The incorporation of the Sears-Haak body helps to reduce
Mach drag but a corrugated silicon-carbide (SiC) fiber reinforced glass ceramic Aeroshell will increase the skin
friction drag; however, the skin friction will only contribute a small amount of drag and not enough to be considered
a major drawback.
The SiC corrugated shell allows for thermal expansion when the SKYLON re-enters the Earths atmosphere. The
SiC shell is 25 percent more dense than C/SiC material and has a lower maximum temperature, but SiC is 100 times
less expensive to manufacture. The SiC material was chosen for its cost effectiveness. Do to the SKYLONs fuel
pressurization constraint, a dynamically controlled re-entry keeps aerodynamic heating temperatures below the
maximum temperature of the SiC shell (1470 K). Temperature sensors on all the sharp points of the SKYLON will
relay re-entry control information. This dynamic control will be paired with convective gap to help maintain a
constant re-entry temperature of no more than 1100 K. The convective gap will be powered by the low temperature
of the LHX and LOX fuel tanks along with 10 titanium foils [15]. The titanium foils have a thickness of 10m and
will be spaced 3mm apart. The foils help create a more consistent temperature gradient between the inside of the
SKYLON space plane and the exterior shell. The convective gap, through passive radiation cooling, will also keep
the skin at a predicted 855K during aerodynamic heating at Mach 5 conditions [15].
The high speeds required to reach escape velocity and the dual functionality of the SABRE engine are what drive the
large amount of fuel needed for a mission. The gross takeoff weight (GTOW) of the SKYLON is 275,000 kg with
the payload being limited to 12,000 kg. The remaining 263,000 kg is divided into 220,000 kg of fuel, and 43,000 kg
of structures and flight equipment [9][15]. These immense weights will limit the SKYLONs structure to a 0.48 g
cornering maneuver constraint. The heavy weight of the SKYLON will also limit the internal structure to a 1.9 g
pull-up + 0.1 g gust maneuver constraint at Mach 5 flight conditions. This intense speed will cause large stresses
when maneuvering with the large weights, but the large size and Mach speeds drive the gust conditions to lower
values. Mach 5 is extremely fast when compared to a wind gust therefore the SKYLON feels minimal gust effects.
The stress on the LHX tanks when fully pressurized is limited to 2 gs, which is the gust limit added to the pull-up
maneuver limit for the structural frame. If the tanks are at there depressurized pressure limits than the load limit for
the LHX tanks falls to 1.25 g.
The issues of center of gravity shifts for the fuel and payload have also been accounted for. The constant
pressurization of the fuel tanks will keep the center of gravity of the fuel from shifting. The center of gravity shift
caused by removal of the payload will be minimized by placing the payload center of gravity and total SKYLON
center of gravity locations as close to the aerodynamic center of the wing as possible. This aerodynamic center,
center of gravity placement will depress the movement of the overall center of gravity location when the payload is
unloaded. The delta shape of the wing will provide favorable Mach aerodynamic center shifts. Also aiding the
SKYLON with stability for both loaded and unload configurations is the curved shape of the SABRE engines. The
curvature provides a stabilizing pitching moment about the aerodynamic center for all loaded, unloaded, subs-sonic,
and super-sonic flight conditions. The staggering mission profile of the SKYLON space plane will limit it to a
maximum of 200 flights before retirement. The intensity of these flights will also require that the SKYLON be
serviced for 2 days after each flight.

6.2

SABRE Engine

The SABRE engine is a feat of engineering which will be one of the greatest aerospace developments in the 21 st
century. The engine is capable of both an air-breathing mode and a rocket mode. This dual functionality requires
that the SABRE engine achieves heat transfer rates which are 30 times great than previously thought possible for
modern engines. The intake air will not only be entering the engine at a drastic speed but also a drastic temperature.

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At Mach flight condition intake air must be slowed down to below Mach speeds. If it is not the engine will be blown
out and all thrust will be lost. The SABRE engine will use a 2 shock-axisymmetric closable intake cone. The 2
shock cone focuses 2 Mach waves into one another to create reflected shock waves which reflect to form an oblique
Mach wave, thus slowing the super-sonic flow to sub-sonic flow conditions. The slowing of the flow essential
diffuses the pressure and causes a large increase in temperature.
The SABRE engine intake cone is of variable geometry in the sense that it will be closable to form a smooth surface
with no intake, when the SABRE engine transitions into rocket mode. This lowers the Mach wave drag penalty of
the external engines for the remaining super-sonic rocket mode. However, the movable cone increases weight and
manufacturing cost. Motors must be added to control the opening and closing of the cone and will therefore add
weight to the overall design. The CFRPs special shape for each concentric piece could very well cause an increase
in manufacturing costs. Part reliability for the motors and moving cone parts could also develop issues for future
maintenance costs.
The intake temperature after diffusing is predicted to be upwards of 1350 K at Mach 5 speeds. The 1350 K is the
predicted maximum temperature for the intake. The SABRE engines pre-cooler must lower the 1350 K intake air to
124 K before the air enters the turbo-compressor. This is a heat transfer equal to 400 mega-Watts of power and will
cause the largest source of irreversibility throughout the engine cycle. Liquid helium is purposed to be used
throughout the pre-cooler tubes to drop the in-take air temperature. Helium was seen to have a higher heat transfer
than liquid nitrogen when tested by Reaction Engines LTD [10][11]. The turbo-compressor will use this dense, cold
air to re-compress the helium coolant used in the pre-cooler and to also drive the liquid helium pump for the precooler before entering the engines preburner. The driving of the turbo-compressor by the intake oxygen will raise
the oxygen temperature to 693 K, where it will then be combustible with the LHX fuel in the engines preburner. In
air-breathing mode the compressed air is limited to 700 K and the LHX to 876 K [10][11]. These temperature limits
are set so that the nozzle jacket of the combustion chamber can be implemented in air-breathing mode.
The intense temperature gradient across the pre-cooler must not cause a large drag penalty. Reaction Engines LTD
documented that the purposed staggered layout of the coolant tubes caused minimum drag by creating a counter
flow effect. Minimum drag is also important in combating the effects of pre-cooler frost over. The 124 K lower
temperature limit of the pre-cooler is far below the freezing point of many molecules in the atmosphere. If these
gaseous molecules freeze over with in the pre-cooler than large drag penalties will be seen from the engine. Freeze
over will also cause a loss of efficiency in the engines performance, if not stalling the engine all together. The
freezing over of the pre-cooler could even cause internal damage of the engine components and result in the
destruction of the engine.
1350 K bypass flow will be mixed with preburner exhaust gases for an assisting ramjet burner sequence. This will
help bust the thrust power of the SABRE engine. The burning of exhaust gases in the ramjet increases the engines
efficiency, making the SABRE a more effective and environmentally conscious engine. The byproduct of the LHX
and LOX burns is pure water, even in air-breathing mode. This production of pure water is a very beneficial factor
and helps further the favorability of this engine system.

6.3

Brazing Techniques

Brazing is a process like welding, in which 2 metal bodies are joined by a high heat. Before brazing the pre-cooler
components must be electroless nickel plated for improved heat resistivity. The electroless plating process was seen
to be more beneficial then anodic electroplating. Anodic electroplating is the plating process used by large car
manufactures. The anodic process uses a magnetic field to attract nickel, but small ridges and holes in the metal
cause varying magnetic fields. The varying magnetic fields lead to a poor nickel deposit over the plating surface.
The technique for brazing the small pre-cooler tubes to the larger pre-cooler tubes required refinement by Reaction
Engines LTD. The brazing process was refined on tubes with a diameter of 0.38 mm. The 0.38 mm tubes are smaller
than the purposed full size SABRE pre-cooler 0.84 mm inner diameter tubes. If the refinement process works on the
smaller 0.38 mm tubes than it will surely work on the full-sized pre-cooler tubes.
The normal brazing techniques for nickel to phosphorous call for brazing temperature of 980 degrees Celsius to
1,000 degrees Celsius. This temperature allows for proper eutectic bonding of the metal tube bodies. During brazing

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testing of the small 0.38 mm tubes, the 980-1,000 degree range was seen to cause excess erosion, which clogged the
pre-cooler tubes. Wall Colmony perfected the brazing process and found that a proper eutectic formation could be
achieved at 910 degrees Celsius with an acceptable 5 m of erosion. The formation does require longer brazing time
but resulted in such favorable effects that the time increase is seen as trivial. Colmonoys eutectic formation is now
known as Nicrobraz 10 and was his doctoral dissertation [11].

7.0

Implementation Year and NASA TRL

The latest tests done by REL occurred in 2012. The test was of a 9% scale SABRE and placed the pre-cooler on a
Viper engine and investigated aerodynamic stability and uniformity, structural integrity, freedom of vibration across
a wide range of flight envelopes, and preliminary cryogenic cooling [12]. The tests secured REL 60M from the
British government to further invest in the project, improve the heat exchanger, wind tunnel test SABRE engine
components, and demonstration of the engine. The current timeline for a prototype SABRE is 2017, with test flights
expected in 2020.
Given the current state of the SKYLON project, a NASA technology readiness level of 5 was approximated by the
group. There is no actual prototype as of yet and only the pre-cooler has demonstrated to be working outside of a
laboratory environment.

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Appendix A:
Chapter 2 Figures

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Figure 2.1: HOTOL Design [6]

15

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Appendix B:
Chapter 3 Figures

16

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Figure 3.1: SKYLON Space Plane [1]

Figure 3.2:Re-entry Heat Concentrations[7]

17

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Figure 3.3: SABRE Engine [2]

Figure 3.4: SABRE Pre-Cooler [1]

18

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Figure 3.5: Payload Bay [1]

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Appendix C:
Chapter 4 Figures

20

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Table 4.1: Engine Component Attributes
Engine Component Attribute Entropy per Unit Mass Flow (J/kgK)
T=30
257
Precooler
T=7
173
HX4
c=0.88
208
C1
c=0.88
97
C2
t=0.9
63
T1
t=0.9
8
T2

Figure 4.1: SABRE cycle [5]

Figure 4.2: Pre-cooler

21

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Figure 4.3: The JMHX [11]

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Appendix CD:
Chapter 5 Figures

23

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Figure 5.1: LAPCAT A2 [2]

Figure 5.2: Scimitar Engine [2]

24

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Figure 5.3: Orbital Base Station [13]

25

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Figure 5.4: Modular Construction of a Vehicle Stage [13]

Figure 5.5: Troy Space Vehicle [14]

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References
[1] Shubber, K. (2013, August 13). SKYLON: Alan Bond's mission to replace space rockets with spaceplanes.
Retrieved from http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2013-08/12/skylon-alan-bond
[2]Reaction Engines Limited. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.reactionengines.co.uk/
[3] Robertson, D. F. (1994). Commercial Space, Single Stage to Orbit SSTO. Retrieved from
http://www.donaldfrobertson.com/ssto.html
[4] Bond, A., &Varvill, R. (2003). A Comparison of Propulsion Concepts for SSTO Reusable Launchers Journal of
the British Interplanetary Society (56 vols.,Pg 108-117). Abington, Oxfordshire: Culham Science Centre.
[5] Webber, H., Feast, S., & Bond, A. (2008). Heat exchanger design in combined cycle engines. International
Astronautical Federation, 8(4.5.1).http://www.reactionengines.co.uk/
tech_docs/Heat%20exchanger%20design%20in%20combined%20cycle%20engines%20IAC-08C4.5.1.pdf
[6] HOTOL. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/hotol.htm
[7] Martin, J. (n.d.). SKYLON re-entry - SKYLON space plane gets a thumbs-up (images). Retrieved from
http://news.cnet.com/2300-11386_3-10007900-8.html
[8] Bond, A. (2009). SKYLON Users Manual. 0001, 1.1st ser.
[9] Varvill, R. & Bond, A. (2004). The SKYLON Spaceplane Journal of the British Interplanetary Society
(57 vols.,Pg 22-32). Abington, Oxfordshire: Culham Science Centre.
[10] Webber, H., Bond, A., & Hempsell, M. (2007). The Sensitivity of Pre-cooled Air-breathing Engine
Performance to Heat Exchanger Design Parameters Journal of the British Interplanetary Society
(60 vols.,Pg 188-196). Abington, Oxfordshire: Culham Science Centre.
[11] Murray, J., Hempsell, C., & Bond, A., (2001). An Experimental Precooler for Airbreathing Rocket Engines
Journal of the British Interplanetary Society (54 vols.,Pg 199-209). Abington, Oxfordshire: Culham
Science Centre.
[12] Reaction Engines Ltd. (10 July 2012). Major Advance Towards the Next Jet Engine[Press Release]
http://www.reactionengines.co.uk/press_release/MAJOR%20ADVANCE%20TOWARDS%20THE%20N
EXT%20JET%20ENGINE%20-%20PRESS%20RELEASE%20-%2010%20JULY%202012.pdf
[13] Feast, S., & Bond, A. (2008). A Design for an Orbital Assembly Facility for Complex Missions. International
Astronautical Federation, 8(3.3.1). http://www.reactionengines.co.uk/tech_docs/
Design%20of%20an%20orbital%20base%20facility%20for%20complex%20missions%20IAC%2008%20
D3.3.1.pdf
[14] Martin, T., Varvill, R., & Bond, A. (2007) Project Troy, A Strategy for a Mission to Mars.
http://www.reactionengines.co.uk/tech_docs/mars_troy.pdf
[15] Bond, A., Varvill, R. (2004) Application of Carbon Fibre Truss Technology to the Fuselage Structure of the
SKYLON Spaceplane. Abington, Oxfordshire: Culham Science Centre.