Revolution and Counter Revolution

Tuesday, May 22 2012, 2:16 PM

The Russian Revolution (1917-21)
Growth of Bolshevism
1. In its beginning itself the Russian socialist party faced the choice whether it should work to exert
pressure on the government using peaceful means and try to get concessions from it or should it try to
overthrow the government and setup an alternate structure. If it chose the latter it was facing a life or
death situation since no civil liberties existed in Russia. If it chose the latter it might have gained some
semi legal existence under the tzars but would have lost its revolutionary impulse.
2. Further in 1903 it faced another question. A section (led by Plekhanov and Ulyanov) favored the party
membership to be restricted to a small close band of workers who would personally work for the
party organization and to restrict the decision making to a narrow group of militant and active workers.
Another (led by Trotsky and Martov) supported an open membership which would also include those
who supported the party in general and thus an open party guided by the collective voting power of all
its enrolled supporters. The first one would keep intact the party's revolutionary impetus while the
second one would have produced a socialist democratic party on the lines of Germany. But in a Russia
where no civil liberties existed how could the second version ever gain popularity.
3. So in the vote which was held, the minority advocating first version won by 2 votes and were thus
called Bolsheviks. The others were called Mensheviks. Now the minimum aim of the party was to
overthrow the tsar regime and no half measures were possible.
The 1905 Revolution
1. The loss of war against Japan and subsequent massacre of a band of peaceful petitioners (led by an
orthodox priest who had gone to the tsar to petition for controlled working hours, universal suffrage
and transfer of land to the people) created a revolutionary situation in Russia.
2. Following the mutiny @ battleship Potemkin, committees of workers (soviets) were setup in Petrograd
by the Mensheviks and general strikes followed. But eventually the soviet was broken up (Lenin came
too late and Bolsheviks took no action until then) and the leaders had to flee.
German Fascism
State under Nazis
1. The 'nationalism' in Nazi meant the union of all Germans within a greater Germany and expulsion of all
alien elements like jews, gypsies, communists etc. The 'socialism' in Nazi meant a corporative state i.e.
state to have total control over all economic and social activities of people and firms. Thus in his rise to
power, Hitler got the support of the nationalists, landlords, militarists etc. as well as the unemployed,
peasants etc.
2. Hitler believed that nazism is what Marxism could have been if it broke ties with a democratic order
i.e. what was the need to socialize banks and firms when you can socialize people. Nazi Germany was
the extreme form of state socialism and state capitalism combined. The owners of property as well as
labor were subject to the dictates of the state alike. Thus the big German companies remained but
were obliged to serve the needs of the state as determined by the party. The unions of old type were
replaced with new 'corporate' unions and their purpose too was to mobilize labor to serve the needs of
the state. There was strict state control of foreign exchange, allocation of raw materials, controls on

investment and disciplined regulation of labor, wages, prices and profit. Party leaders also took part in
business and Goering works became the largest enterprise in whole Europe.
3. Unemployment was rooted out via public works, factories, conscription, production of armaments,
displacement of jews etc. Hitler launched a 4 year plan in 1936 with the aim of preparing the economy
for full scale war. The entire economy was geared up for war production.
4. The unique feature of this dictatorship was the degree of power it held over the lives of its subjects. All
the means of propaganda, education, cinema, radio etc. were used to indoctrinate people. The party
had extensive organization. It had an efficient secret police to eliminate its opponents. All this was
based on the modern concept of participation of people in state life and the dislocations caused by the
war. Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin wouldn't have been possible a century earlier.
Acts of Appeasement
Locarno
1. By 1925, was in a more conciliatory mood and was prepared to give a guarantee for the FrancoGerman border against an aggression by any party. This guarantee was extended to include BelgiumGerman border as well as the demilitarized areas of Rhineland. Italy too joined in and it was decided
that Germany should join LoN. In October 1925, 3 set of treaties were signed - (a) Treaty
guaranteeing Franco-German and Belgium-German border, (b) Treaty of mutual guarantee between
France on one side and Czechoslovakia and Poland on the other, and (c) Treaty of arbitration
between Germany on hand and France, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Belgium on the other. The effect
of the last 2 treaties was that since would not guarantee the eastern borders, France should and that
Germany would submit any border dispute to arbitration. It was the first treaty which recognized the
needs of both Germany and France. This was the best security arrangement which France could get
while Germany came back in the international circle of powers (and also reduced its chances of
affiliating with Soviet Union).
2. But it had grave implications as well for now it graded the borders with the western borders being
ranked more sacrosanct than the eastern. distinction between the frontiers which she would
guarantee and which she would not guarantee undermined the general obligations of the whole
Covenant. It divided the indivisible peace of Versailles and made it clear that now the Versailles order
depended upon the willingness of Germany and didn't have any international backing. She could now
easily disregard her eastern borders without any threat of action (in fact without threat of French
action as well since if French attacked Germany, wouldn't come to French aid and France alone
couldn't harm Germany). France clearly overburdened herself without the partnership of .
3. It also undermined the authority of LoN since now it distinguished between its members and the idea of
collective security went into drain. There were technical absurdities too for how could armed forces
prepare a joint defence plan with French if they could be made to fight against France also. This also
had the effect of weakening LoN further since while Germany was being inducted as a permanent
member, Poland, Span and Brazil too raised the same demand. Inducting Poland as a permanent
member would have canceled out Germany's vote, so a new level of semi-permanent members was
created and Poland was admitted to it. But Spain and Portugal declined and resigned from LoN. LoN
now had no representative from Americas.
4. As a result of increasing pacifism (borne out of Locarno and otherwise), all the concessions which
allies had made to Germany became a source of tension. Allied military control of Germany had ended
in 1927. The Young Plan of 1929 gave her loans and removed the financial controls imposed on her.
pressed for ending the allied occupation of rhineland and by 1930, all Allied troops were withdrawn
from Rhineland. Now it was only Germany's willingness which lay between peace and the war.
Reoccupation of Rhineland

1. In March 1936, Germany reoccupied Rhineland. This was his most open challenge to the Versailles
order and the most crucial of all. This was also in direct violation of Locarno which Germany had
signed voluntarily and not under any duress. Had or France shown any resistance even now, he was
in no position to counter. His political career could have ended. This was the last chance WW2 could
have been avoided. Belgium asked to be relieved from her Locarno commitments and huddled back in
her neutrality. France lodged a protest in LoN but did nothing else. extracted a promise from
Germany that the 'period of surprises' is over.
2. The strategic significance of the move was that now Hitler could build fortifications @ Siegfried line
which would render any attack by France impossible and thus he isolated the eastern members of the
'Little Entente' from the protection of France and put them @ German mercy.
Anschluss
1. was trying to use Italy against any German occupation of Austria and was engaging it in negotiations.
But taking even Mussolini by surprise, Hitler occupied Austria in March 1938. Even though Italy had
commercial and strategic interests in Austria and such an action even aroused popular concerns in
Italy, Mussolini was helpless.
2. Anschluss was an important step in fulfilling Hitler's concept of 'lebensraum' or the living space for
Germans. It used all the characteristic Nazi propaganda like beating up some racial ideology
(lebensraum), instigating an Austrian Nazi revolts in the territory and then intervening to support them.
In this case, the government of Austria aborted a Nazi putsch but Hitler first forced her to include the
putsch leader in the government. Then the Nazi party in Austria instigated violence in the streets of
Vienna and then invited Hitler to invade and restore order.
3. Possession of Austria brought him in touch with Hungary, Yugoslavia and enabled him to surround
Czechoslovakia from 3 sides. It also gave him strategic control over road, rail and river communication
in central Europe.
Czechoslovakia
1. Czechoslovakia had treaties both with France and Soviet Union for protection from Germany but for
the treaty with Soviet Union to come into force, France should have implemented her guarantee first.
So it was sufficient to ensure that France didn't declare a war on Germany over Czechoslovakia. In
March 1938, both Soviet Union and France reaffirmed their intention of honoring the treaty. But
Chamberlin refused to guarantee help to France in the event of a war with Germany over
Czechoslovakia. This cleared the way for Hitler and was another high watermark of the PoA. Now all
Hitler needed to do was to engage over Czechoslovakia.
2. Hitler tried to rely on his usual method of instigating violence via the Nazi party in the German
dominated area in Czechoslovakia. The local Nazi party demanded more autonomy which was
rejected by the government and instead it gave more minority rights. Hitler tried to build up pressure
but a warning failed his ploy. However negotiations began between Germany and over the issue.
3. Seeing international pressure building up, Czechoslovakia government became ready to grant
autonomy to the German dominated region but not the local Nazi leader rejected all offers and broke
off from the negotiations. Subsequently in his negotiations with Chamberlain, Hitler demanded the
application of the principle of self determination to the Germans in Sudenteland i.e. entire Sudenteland.
Carrying the PoA to its climax, Chamberlain agreed to put pressure on Czechoslovakia.
4. Doing so would have meant creating a Sudenteland in reverse i.e. putting ~1 mm Czechs in Germany
and also to violate the principle of military defensibility of Versailles since Sudenteland formed the only
defensible frontier of Czechoslovakia. Czech government refused initially but then announced that she
won't be able to guarantee her independence at all. A meeting happened @ Munich, agreed to give

Sudenteland to Germany (although it wanted a slow internationally monitored occupation) and

Chamberlain flew back holding a paper saying, "I have bought peace for our generation."
5. In March 1939, against all obligations, Hitler occupied whole of Czechoslovakia. Chamberlin
scrambled to explain his guarantee could not apply to a state which had ceased to exist!
Poland
1. Munich had taught the bitter lesson to . All hopes of avoiding war had been lost and rearmament in
had begun in full earnest and she even introduced conscription for the first time in her history. now
extended guarantees to Poland, Greece, Romania and Turkey and France followed. Soviet Union
proposed a 6 party talks over Poland but it was rejected. reaffirmed its stance to stand by Poland.
2. Hitler now knew that invading Poland will invoke a war on the western front. So he sought to calm
down the eastern front by making a pact with Soviet Union. Stalin knew this too for geography
necessitated that to attack Soviet Union, Hitler must attack Poland first which would invoke a war with
and France. So he too sought to buy some time. Soviet Union and the western powers didn't trust
each other anyways so Stalin thought he can get a better deal with Germany which would give him a
larger share of Poland which can act as a buffer also. Thus he got both space and time. It was French guarantee of Poland which gave birth to the Nazi-Soviet pact.
3. Hitler resorted to his usual propaganda demanding the free city of Danzig and routes to east Prussia.
Just a week before the attack, signed a mutual assistance pact with Poland and this too didn't deter
Hitler. It is thus clear, Hitler knew he may trigger a world war.
Spanish Civil War
1. When they should be helping out the democratic forces in Spain, and France chose to stay out.
Additionally they sought to contain the involvement of 'additional' international parties in the war
without making any attempts to check the participation of 'existing' parties. It was clear that without
additional support, the republican forces in Spain would lose out in front of the unchecked Italian and
German support to the military.
2. Furthermore and France got a resolution passed in LoN to ban international transfer of weapons to
Spain. While Germany and Italy (who were not member states) continued to transfer weapons no
attempts were made to check these. On the other hand, the republican government which relied on the
member nations for support was deprived of weapons.
Italian Fascism
Chinese Revolution (1949)