ELG 5369

IP-Based Internetworking Technologies

Chapter 2
Networking Technology
Layer 1 Standards
Dan Ionescu
Fall 2012

The Seven Layers of Communications

1. Physical Layer: Responsible for the transmission of
unstructured bit streams over a physical medium. This
covers the mechanical, electrical and procedural
characteristics required to establish, maintain and
deactivate physical links.
Signals and Systems

Signal and Measures

Modulation Rate: 1/Duration of the smallest element=Baud rate
Data Rate: Bits per second
Data Rate = Fn(Bandwidth, signal/noise ratio,encoding)
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Systems and Measures 2

Communication Channels, Bandwith, Capacity...
H()

Channel

- c

+ c

Bw
Shannon's Theorem and Channel Capacity
Bandwidth = H Hz
sampling rate s  2c
Capacity = Maximum data rate for a channel
Nyquist Theorem:
Bilevel Encoding: Data rate = 2 Bandwidth
Multilevel coding: Data rate = 2 Bandwidth log 2 M

LAN Layer 1 Standards

Hub (a collision domain)

A hub is a L1 (physical layer) multi-port repeater.
It receives a signal on one port, regenerates it, and transmits it out all ports.
All devices connected to a hub receive any transmission on that hub,
regardless of the intended recipient.
Note: Simple hubs have a single bus that is capable of operating at either 10Mbps
or
100Mbps, but not both. These are pure L1 devices, no smarter than the original coax
Ethernet bus they replaced. The very common 10/100 hubs actually have two buses,
a
10M bus and a 100M bus, which are bridged. This bridging function is a L2 function,
so
technically speaking 10/100 hubs are not pure L1 devices.
Two or more devices on a hub cannot transmit at the same time.
When two or more devices simultaneously transmit, there is a collision.
The devices must back off and re-transmit at dispersed intervals, so that only
one device is transmitting at any given time.
Because of these characteristics, a hub (or a group of hubs connected
together) is known as a collision domain.
Hubs operate only at half duplex; attached devices cannot transmit and
receive at the same time.
Generally speaking, only four 10M hubs or two 100M hubs can be
connected together.

LAN Topologies
LAN Architectures
Topologies

Ethernet Layer 1 Standards

10BASE5: 10 Mb/s over coaxial cable (ThickWire)
10BROAD36: 10 Mb/s over broadband cable, 3600 m max segments
1BASE5: 1 Mb/s over 2 pairs of UTP
10BASE2: 10 Mb/s over thin RG58 coaxial cable (ThinWire), 185 m max segments
10BASE-T: 10 Mb/s over 2 pairs of UTP
10BASE-FL: 10 Mb/s fiber optic point-to-point link
10BASE-FB: 10 Mb/s fiber optic backbone (between repeaters). Also, known as
synchronous Ethernet.
10BASE-FP: 10 Mb/s fiber optic passive star + segments
10BASE-F: 10BASE-FL, 10BASE-FB, or 10BASE-FP
100BASE-T4: 100 Mb/s over 4 pairs of CAT-3, 4, 5 UTP
100BASE-TX: 100 Mb/s over 2 pairs of CAT-5 UTP or STP
100BASE-FX: 100 Mbps CSMA/CD over 2 optical fiber

Ehternet/Fast Ethernet

MAC Media Access Control

CSMA/CD- Carrier Sense Multiple Access With Collision Detection a network
control protocol in which:
a carrier sensing scheme is used.
a transmitting data station that detects another signal while transmitting a
frame, stops transmitting that frame, transmits a jam signal, and then waits
for a random time interval (known as "backoff delay" and determined using
the truncated binary exponential backoff algorithm) before trying to send that
frame again.

Full Duplex Ethernet

Uses point-to-point links between TWO nodes

Full-duplex bi-directional transmission
Transmit any time
Many vendors are shipping switch/bridge/NICs with full duplex
No collisions 50+ Km on fiber.
Between servers and switches or between switches

Switch (a broadcast domain)

A switch is more than just a repeater. It is a L2 (data link layer)
bridge, which means that it is aware of L2 MAC addresses.
MAC addresses and Ethernet frames will be discussed in
more detail later.
A switch keeps track of which devices are connected to which
ports by maintaining a table of the MAC-address-to-switch-port
mapping.
Well simply call this the MAC table. It is populated by
recording the source MAC addresses of incoming Ethernet
frames on each port.
MAC table entries are designed to time out, typically after a
few minutes, if no other frame from the same source is not
received on that port.

 Transmissions on a switch are sent only to the intended

recipients, determined by the destination MAC address.
The exception to this is if the destination MAC address is not
already in the MAC table, in which case the Ethernet frame is
transmitted out to all ports.
Broadcasts are sent to all recipients, as they are intended to
be.
For this reason, a switch (or a group of switches connected
together) is known as a broadcast domain.
Switches can operate at full duplex; multiple attached devices
can transmit and receive at the same time.

SONET
Synchronous Optical NETwork (SONET) Standard for digital optical
transmission(bit pipe)
Developed originally by Bellcore. Standardized by ANSI T1X1
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH): STS-n, STM-n (ITU-T)
Standardized by CCITT
STS-n = n x STS-1 (51,8Mbit/s) - STM-n = n x STM-1 (155.52Mbit/s) = STS-3n
Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH): DS-1, DS-3, etc.

IP over SONET allows IP datagram transfers over high-speed carrier links

using PPP
SONET is appearing as a competition to ATM

SONET provides for Automatic Protection Switching

100 ms or more is loss of signal
2.3 ms or less is not loss of signal
In-between is up to implementations
Most implementations use 13-27 ms
Higher speed lines maintain sync for more bits
APS allows switching circuits on fault
May take up to 50 ms to complete
SONET does not provide QoS, Dynamic bandwidth
(SVCs), QoS multiplexing, traffic management
Payload scrambling is a hot issue

Sonet Physical Layers Functions

HEC Header Error Control

B-ISDN
Broadband ISDN
(Integrated Service
Digital Networks).
Based on ATM.
Can run up to
several hundred
Mbps.

SMDS Layer 1 Standards

STM- Synchronous
Transfer Mode

PLCP -- Physical Layer

Convergence Procedure

SDH-Synchronous
Digital Hierarchy

SMDS (Switched Multimegabit Data Service) is a public, packet-switched service aimed at

enterprises that need to exchange large amounts of data with other enterprises over the wide-area
network on a nonconstant or "bursty" basis. SMDS provides an architecture for this kind of data
exchange and a set of services. In general, SMDS extends the performance and efficiencies of a
company's local area network (LANs) over a wide area on a switched, as-needed basis.

ATM Technologies
Physical Layer:
transports ATM cells between two adjacent ATM Layers
The ATM Layer is independent of the Physical Layer
Comprises two sub-layers :
Transmission Convergence (TC) Sub-Layer
Physical Medium Dependant (PMD) Sub-Layer
Various Physical Layer Implementations
Defined by ANSI, ITU-T (ex CCITT) and ATM Forum
Based on DS 1 - DS 3, Sonet

ATM Standards

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Optical Networks
1994: IBM 9729. 10 full-duplex channels in one fiber up to 50 kms. to avoid
amplifiers.
Designed to connect large mainframe datacenters.
Channel spacing is 1 nm
Lucents's WaveStar product -- 400 Gbps over a single fiber using 80 channel
DWDM (January 1998)
Lucent's LazrSPEED a- 10 Gb/s up to 300 on LazrSPEED multimode fibers
using low cast short-wavelength (850nm) vertical cavity surface-emitting laser
(VCSEL) transceivers.
Monterey made wavelength routers that allow mesh architecture and use OSPF
or PNNI like routing.

Optical Network Technologies

Tunable Lasers
Fast tuning receivers
Frequency converters
Amplifiers
Splitters, Combiners
FIBER:
Multimode Fiber: Core Diameter 50 or 62.5 mm
Wide core Several rays (mode) enter the fiber
Each mode travels a different distance
Single Mode Fiber: 10-mm core. Lower dispersion.

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WDM
Wave Division Multiplexing(WDM)
Dense Wave Division Multiplexing (DWDM)
WANs: Fiber links WDM DWDM Links
Undersea Links: Amplifiers High maintenance cost Can't put too many
fibers
DWDM highly successful in long-haul market.
Bandwidth demand is low and more dynamic.
Dark Fiber very successful for cheep optical network cabling.

WDM
Results with WDM
40 Gbps over a single wavelength up to 65 km, Alcatel in Summer of 1998.
Modulation gave 20 GHz at 3-dB point. The distance limitation was due to PMD.
2.64 Tbps to 120km (NEC'96): 132 20 Gbps
1.4 Tbps 600 km (NTT'97): 70 20 Gbps
1 Tbps 400 km (Lucent 97): 100 10 Gbps using TrueWave Fiber
320 Gbps 7200 km (Lucent 97): 64 5 Gbps

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Optical Network Topologies

Hybrid Optical Network

Centralized WDM Switch

Tunable components moved to a central switch

Each station has a preassigned receiver wavelength
Switch converts the signal to receiver wavelength

Wavelength Router
Optical Router
A crossconnect with
wavelength conversion

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Wavelength Routed Networks

Either transmitters, receivers, or both tunable.

Switches are programmable.
Signaling channel could be electronic or optical
Wavelength collisions Suitable for medium size
networks.
Wavelength converters help avoid wavelength
collisions

Standards for Optical Networks

TIA, Bellcore, Telcordia,... all work towards promoting a set of standards which
will regulate the way that the Physical Link shall work.

TIA:
Committee FO-6 develops standards:
Fiber Optic Test Procedure (FOTPs),
Informative Test Methods (ITMs),
Fiber Optic Connector Intermatability Standards (FOCISs)
and
Specifications for the individual components of a fiber optic system.
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
Technical Committee (TC) 86, Fibre Optics.

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Other Technologies for Layer 1

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network):

PPP - Point to Point Protocol

Frame Relay
CDPD (Cellular Digital Packet Data)

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