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Introduction
The structure of an academic text
o paragraphs and topic sentences
o Signposting and transitions
introductory sentence stems
concluding sentence stems
transition sentence stems and words
repeating key terms
Academic writing conventions
o audience
o disciplinary conventions
o acknowledging sources
o technical language and jargon
o defining terms
o active and passive voice
o use of first person
o fair critique
o assertive writing
o direct quotes
o word choice
o verb tense
o redundant writing
o acronyms
Introduction
Academic writing takes a variety of forms ranging from research proposals and grant applications, journal
articles, theses, published books and book chapters, conference papers and other presentations. This
resource will focus on the basic writing conventions that cross different kinds of academic texts.
In a way, academic writing is like a conversation. When contributing to a good conversation, the aim is to
articulate a specific idea, or to report a specific piece of information about the subject of discussion in order
to further the understanding of all participants. Effective academic writing, like good conversation, depends
upon participants making relevant, direct, concise and respectful contributions.
This can be accomplished by attending to writing structure and academic convention.
A good structure is accomplished by providing:
an introduction with a clear statement of the idea that will be contributed to the discussion;
an introduction that provides a clear statement of the order of the points to be discussed as part of
the development of this idea;
evidence, reasoned debate, data or reflective commentary to support your point;
opening and closing paragraphs, and first and last sentences within paragraphs, which carry the
main points;
signposting and transition sentences that lead the reader from idea to idea;
consistent topic order and phrasing that lead the reader from point to point.
This resource will outline the structural aspects of academic writing. It will also discuss some basic
academic writing conventions to assist you to achieve a direct and assertive style of writing.
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next most important, and so on to the least important. Each section is summarised in a key point, which is
often stated in the introduction.
Each segment of evidence is then taken up in turn in a separate section in the main body of the text in the
order in which it was introduced. Within each section, the main point is introduced and concluded in turn in
the first and last sentences and paragraphs of the section.
Introductions and conclusions of all kinds can be thought about as 'power positions' because they carry the
main points. Power positions include the main introduction and conclusion, and the introductions and
conclusions within the sections and sub-sections of a document, including the first and last sentences of
paragraphs. When constructing a text, it is important to avoid delaying the main point beyond the
introductory section, or trailing off at the end of a section without drawing together the main message of
that section.
This way of structuring an academic text is represented below.
Introduction
Statement of the overall main point or take home message (in addition to rationale, justification,
contextualisation, key definitions)
Introduction of main content areas that will support the main message
Content 1
Content 2
Content 3
Section 1, Content area 1
First paragraph provides the main idea of content area 1
Main body comprises evidence, data, reflective commentary for content area 1
Last sentence provides summary statement for content area 1 and links to content area 2
Section 2, Content area 2
First paragraph states the main point of content area 2
Main body comprises evidence, data, reflective commentary for content area 2
Last sentence provides summary statement for content area 2 and links to content area 3
Section 3, Content area 3
First paragraph states the main point of content area 3
Main body comprises evidence, data, reflective commentary for content area 3
Last sentence provides summary statement for content area 3
Conclusion
First sentences summarise main points 1, 2, and 3
Main body of conclusion comprises discussion of implications of conclusions 1, 2 and 3
Last sentence provides summative statement of the implications of the main point or take home message.
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Signposting sentences provided at the end of paragraphs and sections aim to draw together the main ideas
or conclusions, and to highlight the significance or relevance of the preceding discussion. Concluding
signposting sentences should be more numerous than introductory signposting sentences because they
provide direction, and give the text a critical, assertive tone.
'Transition' sentences and phrases are a mixture of introductory and concluding signposting sentences.
Transitions usually involve summarising or pointing to the main point or topic of a particular section of
writing, and then signalling a new topic of discussion.
Examples of different kinds of signposting and transition sentences are provided below.
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From the above discussion on it follows that ... This adds to my proposition that
Current literature often presumes
It rapidly becomes clear that the study of ... is intimately bound up in
This brief overview of shows the overall direction of
The influence of is highlighted here. It reinforces the proposition made in
As the statement above indicates,
Again it is evident that
For this reason, it can be said that
Thus, there is a strong argument for
The understandings generated from this review of the literature on show that.
In this context, then
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Transition words
Show order/sequence: first, then, next, finally, secondly, thirdly, began, ended
Show time: soon, then, finally, previously, later, last, meanwhile, earlier, at the same time,
subsequently, following on from, when, immediately, upon, since
Add some ideas: again, and, besides, therefore, also, additionally, indeed, moreover, another, as
well, likewise, furthermore, finally, next
Show cause and effect: thus, hence, therefore, consequently, so, because, since, then, finally,
accordingly, for these reasons, as a result, on that account
Indicate a summary: in brief, finally, in conclusion, to conclude, lastly, in summary, on the whole,
to sum up, in fact, indeed, in other words
Contrast ideas: however, nevertheless, yet, and yet, but, still, on the other hand, otherwise,
conversely, in spite of, by contrast, despite, although, though, even so, on the contrary,
notwithstanding, a different view
Compare ideas: similarly, likewise, correspondingly, both equally, equally important, in the same
way, in the same manner, each
Illustrate: for example, for instance, to illustrate, by way of illustration, to be specific, in
particular, in other words
Concede: naturally, granted, of course, to be sure, although, despite, in spite of, for all, while,
notwithstanding
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For the most part, academics write for academic audiences. This is because research must first be tested and
refined within its relevant field of expertise before it can be publicly disseminated. In this way, processes of
academic peer review aim to protect the public from faulty or misleading information.
Academic audiences differ widely, and it is important to consider the background knowledge of a specific
academic audience within the writing process. Some academic audiences are highly specialised, others are
more generalist, and some are comprised of researchers from a variety of different disciplinary
backgrounds.
Journal articles are written with the concerns and expertise of the journal readership in mind. For this
reason, journal articles often presume a more specialised audience than other kinds of academic writing.
This can explain the oblique references made within many journals to debates and perspectives that would
only be familiar to other experts in the journal's field of interest.
Scholarly books, on the other hand, are often targeted to wider public or novice audiences and will not
assume an extensive background knowledge in the subject area.
Conference audiences vary widely. Some are attended by researchers from different backgrounds, in which
case, papers and presentations must explain core premises explicitly. Others attract more specialist
audiences and presenters do not need to provide the same level of background explanation they would for
mixed audiences.
Internal research proposals, like those written for conferral of candidature, aim to fulfil the expected
requirements of the degree, and are written largely for the supervisor and other academics within the
School. Research proposals aim to ensure that those involved in the research are clear about the research
aims and objectives, and to demonstrate that the research can be completed within the given time frame and
resource limitations. The content of the research proposal then reflects these objectives.
Theses are written for examination by examiners with extensive knowledge in some aspect of the field of
study. They are also written for publication in specialist journals. PhD and Masters theses therefore tend to
adopt specialised language. However, even though the examiner or journal reviewer will be expert in some
aspect of the study, it is important to explain the ideas of author's cited, and any concepts and terms used in
the thesis explicitly so that your meaning of the term is clear.
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Disciplinary conventions
The structure and presentation of academic writing, as well as the point of view adopted by the writer,
varies considerably depending upon the disciplinary background of the audience it is written for. Different
disciplinary conventions apply to questions such as whether and how often to use the first person pronoun,
passive or active voice, or references to the researcher in the singular or plural ('I', 'we').
Words and phrases can also mean different things within different disciplines, and the meaning of
commonly accepted terms are sometimes contested within a discipline. For example, 'post modern' is used
to refer to a style of architecture and design within architecture, and a time period or field of social thought
within the humanities. The use of terms like 'power', 'class', 'culture' and 'identity' are theorised in different
and contested ways within the social sciences and humanities and therefore require careful use, whereas
they may be used without attracting comment in another discipline area.
The style and structure of academic texts also varies between disciplines. For example, in areas like
psychology or health sciences a 'report style' of writing is frequently adopted in which sections on 'method',
'measures', 'results', 'discussion' are expected. In other areas, texts are organised around conceptual,
historical, policy, or other groupings of ideas.
There is no 'correct' set of academic writing rules, rather different conventions apply to different disciplines
and fields or methodologies within disciplines. As a general rule of thumb, it is best to stay within the broad
conventions of the field within which you are writing. Choose a group of writers, journals or books that are
closest to your own perspective and adopt the same writing conventions they use.
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Acknowledging sources
Different fields of study also adopt different referencing systems. For more information about referencing
styles and ethics, please go to: Learning and Teaching Unit referencing resource.
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specialist language within your field, but it is best to avoid such language when writing for non academic or
general audiences.
Specialist terms must be used accurately. Philosophical, sociological and other specialist dictionaries are
the best places to confirm the meaning of terms. As a general rule, avoid using terms whose meaning you
are unsure of.
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Defining terms
Any term that is contested or not commonly known within the field within which you are writing requires a
definition.
Define any term whose meaning:
varies or is contested,
is more precise in your usage than in the general or specialist dictionary,
is not the same as the meaning provided in the common or specialist dictionary,
does not appear in a common or specialist dictionary.
The first time the term is used, it should be defined precisely and concisely, and then used in this exact
sense throughout the text. Provide references where necessary.
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Personal experience
Although sharing personal experience on its own will not be enough to persuade readers of your point of
view, it is sometimes useful and appropriate.
Sharing personal information is relevant when your experience is part of the research data. You might
explore your own experience in order to understand a specific phenomena, or because the way you engaged
with your research participants revealed something about the specific phenomena or context your study
aims to explore.
Often it is helpful to share anecdotes from your personal experience to highlight the problem the research is
concerned with, to establish your credibility with the subject matter (if you have a background in the area
for example), or to provide an example to support a key idea.
As a general rule, refer to personal experience only when it supports the development of the main ideas.
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Fair critique
When critiquing the work of others, some general rules apply:
Provide accurate and balanced summaries of the work of others. (Do not assume the reader is
familiar with the work referred to).
Represent the work of others fairly.
Reference accurately, including page numbers for ideas that are not part of the central argument or
findings.
Acknowledge points of agreement and indebtedness.
Back-up critiques with thorough explanation and substantiation.
Critique the general structure of a claim, not minor points.
Do not overplay or underplay the significance of your own or others work.
Avoid fallacious argumentation.
Fallacies in arguments
Adapted from Thornless and Thornless 1980, in Hart, C. 1988. Doing a literature review, Sage, Thousand
Oates.
Implied definition referring to something without clearly defining it.
Illegitimate definitions closing down alternatives by giving a restrictive definition.
Changing meanings defining something as A, then using A in a different way.
Emotional language using value loaded or ethically loaded terms.
Use of all rather than some using bland generalization to incorporate all variables and thereby
minimize contradictory examples.
Ignoring alternatives giving one interpretation or example as if all others could be treated or
categorized in the same way.
Selected instances picking out unusual or unrepresentative examples.
Forced analogy using and analogy without recognizing the applicability of other contradictory
analogies.
Similarity claiming there is no real difference between two things even when there is.
Mere analogy use of analogy with no resources to examples from the real world.
False credentials exaggerating your credentials or experience to convince others of your
authority.
Technical language deliberate use of jargon intended to impress the reader and/or hide the lack
of a foundation to an argument.
Special pleading claiming a special case to raise your argument above other similar positions,
often associated with emotive language.
Playing on the reader telling readers what they want to hear rather than challenging their
thinking and assumptions.
Claiming prejudice attributing prejudice to an opponent in order to discredit them.
Appealing to others for authority claiming some other in authority has made the same argument
as yourself in order to strengthen your own position.
False context giving examples out of context or using nothing but hypothetical scenarios.
Extremities ignoring centre ground position by focusing only on the extreme ends of spectrum
of alternatives.
Tautology use of language structures to get acceptance of your argument from others, often in
the form of too much of X is a bad therefore X itself is good.
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Assertive writing
An assertive tone is preferable to an ambivalent or uncertain tone, and can be accomplished by making
direct statements.
For example: This study shows that , In section 2, I assess rather than: 'This study might show that
, In section 2, I will try to assess .
One way of achieving an assertive stance when discussing the ideas of others is to foreground your own
point of view, and to use the ideas and statements of others to support it.
For example, compare the first paragraph below with the improved version that follows:
Despite decades of research, some authors still claim that the burden of family care is not well
understood. Hoenig and Hamilton (1966) first described carers subjective perception of caring,
and objective factors like the social and economic costs of caring to the carer. Yamashita (1998)
comments that only a few studies consider the health of the family unit, the strengths that families
bring to caring, and the family caregivers expertise as manager of their relatives care.
In this paragraph, the first sentence foregrounds 'some authors', the second 'Hoenig and Hamilton', and the
third 'Yamashita'. The author's voice is drowned out by the claims of other writers. This makes it difficult to
determine the main point of the paragraph.
In the next paragraph, the writer's voice is given priority and the literature is used to support it:
Despite decades of research, the burden of family care is still not well understood. Most studies
have focused upon the carers subjective perception of caring, and objective factors like the social
and economic costs of caring to the carer (see for example, Hoenig and Hamilton, 1966). Little
attention has been given to the health of the family unit, the strengths that families bring to caring,
and the family caregivers expertise as manager of their relatives care (Yamashita, 1988).
In this paragraph, the author's voice and the main point of the paragraph is strengthened by making direct
claims that are then supported by the views of others.
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Direct quotes
In general, the ideas of others should be paraphrased in your own words and followed with reference
details. Direct quotes should be used sparingly.
The use of direct quotes is appropriate when:
it encapsulates the key point of a chapter or article, in which case the quote appears below the title;
the author uses particularly distinctive or vivid language which would be lost if paraphrased;
the quote is needed to provide a direct and clear exemplification of specific ideas;
the discussion deconstructs, critiques or analyses the language of others.
When a direct quote is provided:
keep length to a minimum without misrepresenting the author;
always follow or precede the quote with an assessment of its significance in your own words.
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Word choice
Academic writing, unlike literary writing which aims to evoke images, feelings and sympathies, aims to
convey ideas concisely, simply, directly and accurately. It is important then to use language that conveys
ideas, rather than language that might distract from the key ideas. The emphasis should be upon the ideas,
not the personality of the writer.
Some general rules can be used to accomplish this:
Avoid slang, clichs and colloquialisms.
Avoid a chatty, anecdotal tone (find alternatives to 'you', 'one', 'the reader' and 'people').
Avoid phrases based on value judgements it is obvious, it is welcome, it is a fact, normally
and everyone can see.
Avoid unnecessary or imprecise words: very, fantastic, crucial, etc, so on, 'important' and
'interesting'.
Replace over used phrases like played a role in and led to with descriptive verbs like
accelerated, energised, influenced, affected, shaped, contributed to.
Avoid long-windedness by careful choice of words. For example, 'under circumstances in which'
could be replaced with 'if' or 'when'.
Use non-sexist language. (Write in the plural rather than using he or she).
Avoid racist, homophobic, or otherwise offensive language and commentary.
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Verb tense
Past tense is used to report methods and results (because they describe what was done and what was found).
For example: we interviewed, interviews were conducted.
Present tense is used to describe how data are presented and to report on figures and tables (because this is
still true). For example: data are summarised as mean + SD, or Figure 1 shows .
Past tense is used to refer to past research: 'Harrison and Quah (1990) found that in current architectural
approaches, the strong image of high tech buildings relies on a clear bright efficient look' and 'In a
recent report, Harrison and Quah (1990) determined that good design and detailing act as the first line of
defence against weathering'.
Present tense is used to indicate consensus with an author: 'Sharplin (1985) states that environmental
assessment basically requires two activities'. Present perfect tense is used to indicate ambivalence about an
authors viewpoint: 'Sharplin (1985) has stated that environmental assessment basically requires two
activities'.
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Redundant writing
Good writing avoids redundancy. Redundant writing is any writing that:
does not convey new information;
makes statements of the obvious;
repeats information that has already been provided;
over uses words or phrases in a way that does not facilitate meaning.
A common example of redundancy within research writing is signalling that literature reviews, research
designs, limitations, and definitions will be provided later in the discussion. This is redundant writing
because it is taken for granted that these elements will form part of a research thesis or research proposal.
Examples of redundant writing:
An overview of the approach and assumptions are given and the significance of this study is
explained.
The limitations of the study are described, and the use of important terms in this dissertation are
established.
Sentences of this kind can be deleted because they do not provide the reader with new information.
Another common example of redundancy within research writing is chapter reviews that do not provide
information about what will be covered in the chapter.
For example:
Chapter two will provide an overview and analysis of literature and research about nursing care. I
will identify aspects of care, and then the beginnings of a theoretical framework that will inform
this study. I will then contextualize this study by providing an overview of definitions of care
within the nursing literature.
This paragraph signals that a literature review, a theoretical framing, and a definition will be provided in
chapter two without providing detail about the fields of research that will be reviewed, or the theory and
definition that will actually be used.
The paragraph could be rewritten to provide more specific information.
For example:
Chapter two outlines theoretical conceptualisations of care within nursing literature informed by
feminist psychology and the philosophy of ethics. The chapter suggests that nursing needs to
consider whether continuing attempts to define, measure and describe care are necessary. It
suggests instead, that Wittgensteins (1958) notion of family resemblance satisfactorily resolves
many of the definitional issues of care and caring within nursing.
This paragraph is better than the one above because it informs the reader of the fields of literature to be
reviewed, and of the perspective that will be developed in the chapter.
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Acronyms
An acronym is a shortened form of a word or words that typically consists only of the first letter of each
word. Acronyms should be used only for terms whose initialised form is commonly known or used, or for a
term that will be used frequently throughout the entirety of the text.
Acronyms that consist of more than one capital letter are written without full stops (for example, USA).
The full name is provided the first time the term is used, followed by the acronym in brackets. The term is
then referred to in the initialised form thereafter.
Introduction
Planning process
o Clarify goals
o Thesis publication plan
o Research potential journals
o Link titles to journals
o Rank the journals - status and 'impact factor'
Submission process
o Steps in publication
o If you are successful
o If you are unsuccessful
o Reasons journals reject submissions
o Managing discouragement
Ethical issues in publishing
o Data fabrication, falsification, plagiarism
o Confidentiality
o Sending the same article to two or more journals
o Redundant publication
o Text recycling
o Copyright infringements
Do I need to obtain permission from the publisher if a section of my thesis has
been published and I want to submit my thesis on an online repository?
Should I make my work publicly available to an online repository if I want to
publish from it later?
o Misleading ascription of authorship
o Acknowledgements
Publishing the thesis as a book
References
Introduction
Research and scholarship aims to contribute to the resolution of questions or problems of importance to the
broader community. Making one's work publicly available is then an integral part of scholarship.
Peer review describes the process by which scholarly work is subject to assessment by experts in the field
in order to screen, select, rank or measure performance. Peer review is involved to different degrees in the
allocation of research grants, the selection of academic staff and of material for publication, the
examination of research theses, as well as the measurement of the research performance of teams and
organisations.
Although not without its flaws and critics, the peer review process aims for confidentiality and impartiality.
Ethical peer review:
is confidential (reviewers may not discuss the review process or outcomes);
uses set criteria in its assessments;
draws on recognised experts;
is free from conflicts of interest (personal prejudice, affiliations, financial remuneration, or other
consideration that might bias responses against the review criteria);
disallows reviewers taking advantage of information gleaned in the review process;
disallows rejection of research simply because it challenges existing paradigms.
This resource steps through the process for publishing in peer reviewed journals, and outlines ethical
conduct within that process.
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Planning process
Clarify goals
The first step in the publication process is to clarify your goals. Your goals will change as your research
progresses. There are a number of ways in which graduate work can be published. All UniSA students can
choose to submit the thesis to the Australian Digital Thesis Program which is an online thesis repository
accessible to a worldwide audience. Sections of theses are also published in academic or professional
journals or conference proceedings, and some one day become books, although usually in a significantly
revised form.
Possible publishing goals include:
sound out early ideas within a friendly but critical forum
attend a postgraduate conference
attend an academic conference
present a paper at a conference
have a paper published within the conference proceedings
write a journal paper
submit a journal paper for review
publish a journal paper
write a chapter for an edited volume
submit the thesis to an online repository.
Ultimately your aim is to produce a quality piece of research writing that reaches its target audience, and is
well received by that audience. Although rejections can be difficult, they are often an important element in
eventual success.
Dissemination of research conclusions within public forums beyond the scholarly community should not
occur until after the research has been peer reviewed. This is to protect the public from potentially
misleading information. If the research has not been subject to peer review and you wish to discuss your
findings within a public forum, it is important to clarify that the research is 'in progress' or 'yet to be
finalised'.
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and complement the thesis writing process by providing deadlines and critical feedback on chapters as you
go. However, this is not always possible. Do not worry if the material does not fall out as discrete
publishable papers. This does not mean your work is inferior in any way.
While you may choose to publish something which will not go into the thesis, it is important not to get too
sidetracked from the thesis.
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Notwithstanding the usefulness of measures of 'impact factor', it can say more about popularity than
prestige. The impact factor does not quantify the impact of publications within a field of scholarship across
time, nor can it quantify the impact of scholarship on people's lives, or on the future.
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Submission process
The final step in the planning process is to contact the editor. You may wish to forward an abstract to see if
the journal would be interested in your paper before submitting the entire draft. When preparing drafts be
sure to adhere to the writing guidelines stipulated on the journal web site. These usually ask for three or
more hard copies of the article, a cover page including the author's name/s, contact details, the title of the
article, and the name and contact details of the author designated to deal with correspondence (for articles
with more than one author). You might also be asked to supply brief biographies for the author/s.
After submission
Give yourself time to digest the reviewers' feedback (the advice may seem more reasonable with
time).
Carefully consider the reviewers' feedback.
Talk about your decision with your supervisor, peers, colleagues.
Rewrite the paper and resubmit to another journal.
not relevant to the context (local concerns not explained to a wider context);
not relevant to the readership/key concerns of the journal;
not new/original enough;
weaknesses within the paper (methodology, argument, findings);
a good paper, but not as good as others that were received;
methodological/theoretical conflict with the reviewers, editor and journal readership;
academic misconduct.
Managing discouragement
Remember many journals accept only a small percentage of what they receive.
Even famous, distinguished scholars experience rejection.
Publishing in quality journals is often a slow process.
Have a backup strategy (another journal to send the paper to).
Give yourself time to recover from disappointment - it's normal.
Move on to the next step in your publication plan.
You are one step closer to achieving your goal.
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Data fraud and misdemeanours can be avoided by being as scrupulous and transparent as possible about
your research design and data analysis procedures.
Do not fabricate, falsify, or plagiarise data. Report all data relevant to the research conclusions.
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Confidentiality
It is important to obtain written consent from research participants before publishing the results of data
analysis. In most cases consent forms also promise to protect the identity of the participants. This must be
scrupulously adhered to within any publications arising from the research. All traces of information that
could reveal the identity of the source must be removed in publications.
Honor commitments regarding confidentiality.
Redundant publication
In addition to the problem of publishing the same paper twice, there is the associated unethical practice of
duplicating key findings, or of 'redundant publication' (Roig, 2006). Redundant publication refers to
submitting the same data or substantive ideas to more than one journal without disclosing this to the journal
or the reader. Sections of text may be reproduced word for word, the same idea may be published more
than once using a different wording, or within a different context, or narrow slices of data may be separated
out from the core findings and published separately. Data slicing involves the separate publication of
segments of data taken from the same sample, giving the misleading impression that the data came from
different samples. Data augmentation is another unethical practice. Data augmentation consists of
publishing the results of a study in a journal, and subsequently gathering additional data and publishing that
data in a second journal as though it were from another independent study.
These practices misrepresent or magnify results and can thereby lead to false conclusions. In each case, the
findings are reproduced unnecessarily and aim to serve the career aspirations of the researcher rather than
the research aims of the scholarly community. In order to ensure selection according to merit, it is
important that a researcher's publication list reflects actual research achievements.
The best way to avoid duplication is to report findings which make more sense when combined in the same
paper (especially when the data sets come from the same sample), and to clearly indicate to editors and
readers that the ideas or data have been previously published.
It is not considered redundant publication when key findings are discussed within a conference and
published within a conference proceedings, and then significantly expanded and reworded and sent to a
journal later on. Exceptions can also be made to allow for the duplication of findings or text within
anthologies and other collections.
Do not recycle your own data or substantive ideas without disclosure in the text.
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Text recycling
Text recycling is a form of intellectual laziness that involves reproducing sections of your own text from
previous publications. This represents a violation of copyright, and can be avoided by scrupulously
referring readers to the source of any borrowed text either with direct quotes or by paraphrasing just as you
would for any other work.
Do not recycle your own previous writing.
Copyright infringements
When you sign a copyright agreement, you are transferring ownership of the material over to the publisher.
This means it is no longer yours to copy for public dissemination unless you have permission from the
copyright holder. In addition to being unethical, publishing the same paper, or sections of the same paper,
redundant publication, and data slicing are also an infringement of copyright and are unlawful.
Do I need to obtain permission from the publisher if a section of my thesis has been published and I
want to submit my thesis to an online repository?
Yes, if:
you have signed copyright in the material to the publisher without an agreement to deposit the
work in an institutional repository;
and you are reproducing the substance of the work, whether verbatim or not.
Publishing often involves signing over copyright to the publisher. In exchange for bearing the cost of
publishing your work, the publisher asks to be given control over where and how the work is printed in
future, including uploading on the internet. For the most part this is in order to secure any financial gains
flowing from the work. At UniSA online theses are available for open viewing on the Australian Digital
Theses (ADT) program, as well as Arrow@UniSA.
In publicly disseminating your work (including submitting it to an online thesis repository) you must get
permission from the copyright owner. It is a good idea to discuss this with the publisher at the time of
publication. Many contracts allow authors to deposit theses in online repositories, others do not. Read
copyright contracts carefully and do not sign away anything you do not have to. Always keep a copy for
your records.
If you want to copy less than the whole work, like a section or a paragraph, you need to determine whether
it is a 'substantive' section. Generally speaking this judgement is determined not by the amount of text
reproduced, but by its centrality to the overall work. If you are unsure, check with the copyright owner and
secure their permission before reprinting.
Permissions are sought in writing. Email is fine.
The Copyright Act permits 'fair dealing for the purpose of research or study'. You do not need to obtain
permission from publishers to copy published work in your thesis for supervisors and examiners, but check
your copyright agreement before distributing to be sure.
Should I make my work publicly available on an online repository if I want to publish from it later?
It is a good idea to submit your work to an online thesis repository. Not only will the work be more
accessible, online repositories offer safe, long term storage, and they make plagiarism more difficult.
Plagiarism from an unpublished thesis sitting on a dusty shelf is much less likely to be noticed than
plagiarism from a publicly available thesis.
At the same time, if a journal deems that the work has already been disseminated to its target audience, they
will probably not want to publish it. In most cases, merely submitting a thesis to an online repository will
not be considered dissemination to a target audience. However this could change as online repositories
become more popular.
It is a good idea to check any prior publication guidelines on journal web sites before submitting your
thesis. Note carefully the publishers stipulations and consider how wide the dissemination of your work is
likely to be before you submit to the public domain. While all UniSA theses on the ADT program are given
open access, the Arrow@UniSA repository allows author's to nominate what level of access they prefer.
The author can also choose to withdraw the work from either site at any time.
Of course, this applies not only to online thesis repositories, but to the public dissemination of your work at
conferences and other professional forums. It is wise to develop a publication plan early in your
candidature and to reserve your substantive findings for targeted, quality publications.
Journals may request that the online thesis depository accesses the work from a link to their web site, or
that the thesis version uses a different format from the journal formatting of the work. The journal may also
ask that the thesis be taken offline.
Do not publicly disseminate work without the permission of the copyright holder.
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Authorship can become unclear when several researchers are involved in the same project. Authorship is
defined by the Australian Code for the Responsible Conduct of Research (2007) as 'substantial
contributions in some combination' of the following:
'conception and design of the project
analysis and interpretation of research data
drafting significant parts of the work or critically revising it so as to contribute to the
interpretation'.
The Code notes that 'the right to authorship is not tied to position or profession and does not depend on
whether the contribution was paid for or voluntary. It is not enough to have provided materials or routine
technical support, or to have made the measurements on which the publication is based. Substantial
intellectual involvement is required'.
Authorship of any publications emerging from the research should be discussed, decisions documented at
the beginning of the research project, and submitted to the school of the senior author. All authors must
accept or decline authorship in writing. Authors may not be included as authors unless they fulfil the
requirements stipulated above. Authorship should be periodically reviewed to reflect developments in the
research process.
Do not claim authorship unless you have had substantial intellectual involvement.
Acknowledgements
All sources of support, both financial and in-kind, must be disclosed within publications to ensure proper
acknowledgement, and to avoid potential conflicts of interest. If an individual's name is included in the
acknowledgments, the person's consent must be obtained in writing.
Acknowledge all sources of support, both financial and in-kind, and obtain consent before acknowledging
individuals.
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Do not mention that the book was once a thesis in the acknowledgements or elsewhere in the
book. This is not necessary and could undermine its status in some people's minds.
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References
Australian Government, National Health and Medical Research Council and Australian Research Council
2007, Australian code for the responsible conduct of research, AGPS, Canberra, viewed February 2008.
Roig, Miguel 2006, Avoiding plagiarism, self-plagiarism, and other questionable writing practices: A
guide to ethical writing, viewed February 2008.
Introduction
Thesis styles
o 'Hypothesis testing' or question/answer style
o 'Descriptive' or argument syle
Thesis structures
Writing the thesis introduction
o The 'problem'
o The 'field' of the research
o The 'gap' in the literature
o The 'question' or 'argument'
o The methodology and method
o Definitions
o The chapter outline
Introduction
Although every thesis and journal article is unique, all academic writing aims to persuade the reader of an
idea. This central claim is otherwise referred to as the thesis; hence a research thesis is the development of
one central claim within either a research degree thesis, a book, chapter of a book, conference paper or
journal article. This idea is the significant original contribution to knowledge, and/or to the application of
knowledge within the field of study referred to in research degree requirements.
This resource will focus on the different styles and structures of research theses and journal articles, and on
the elements within the research introduction.
The introduction is the first of five major steps that form the story line of research writing. These steps
carry the thread within a large or complex academic text. The five writing steps that will be considered in
this resource include:
Step 1: introduction
Step 2: literature review
Step 3: method and methodology
Step 4: results/evidence
Step 5: discussion and conclusion
These steps can occur within a variety of thesis styles and structures. Some of the more salient of these are
listed below.
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Thesis styles
There are two readily observable thesis styles or structures, each of which represents a mode of critique or
method of persuasion common within academic writing. Mike Metcalf (2002:6-7) defines these two thesis
styles as hypothesis testing and descriptive.
Thesis structures
From Paltridge, B Thesis and dissertation writing: An examination of published articles and actual practice, in English for Specific Purposes.
1. Traditional: Simple
Introduction
Literature Review
Materials and Methods
Results
Discussion
Conclusions
2. Traditional: Complex
Introduction
Review of the literature
Background theory
General Methods
Study 1
o Introduction
o Methods
o Results
o Discussion and conclusion
Study 2
o Introduction
o Methods
o Results
o Discussion and conclusion
Study 3 etc
o Introduction
o Methods
o Results
Introduction
Topic 1
Topic 2
Topic 3 etc
Conclusions
Introduction
Background to the Study
Research Article 1
o Introduction
o Literature review
o Materials and methods
o Results
o Discussion and conclusion
Research article 2
o Introduction
o Literature review
o Materials and methods
o Results
o Discussion and conclusion
Research article 3 etc
o Introduction
o Literature review
o Materials and methods
o Results
o Discussion and conclusion
Discussion and Conclusions
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the sentence stem, 'Recent research in the field of ... has focused upon ...' in the early part of the
introduction.
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'Policy issues are often written about as though there were only one possible interpretation of the issue at
stake. We are not encouraged to reflect upon the ways in which issues take shape (provides a common
sense take on the subject to set the scene for the argument). In contrast, the approach developed in this
book takes as its starting point that it makes no sense to consider the objects or targets of policy as
existing independently of the way they are spoken about or represented, either in political debate or in
policy proposals. Any description of an issue or a problem is an interpretation, and interpretations
involve judgment and choices' (statement of argument).
The sentence opener 'I argue ...' is often used to signal the central idea of a thesis or article. For this reason,
using the phrase 'I argue ...' to introduce ideas that are not central to the thesis can mislead the reader. This
can be avoided by using this phrase only when signalling the central thesis.
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Definitions
Introductions of theses and journal articles also provide definitions for unclear or contested terms. In
general, we assume that the meaning of words complies with their dictionary definitions. Sometimes
however words are not in the dictionary, or their use within a particular context is different from the
dictionary usage, or the word can be used in a number of different ways. When the meaning of a term is
unclear or contested, it is defined the first time it is used. This often occurs in the introduction of the thesis,
though other terms can be defined as they arise in the flow of the writing. Technical, theoretical or other
terms can be defined by referring to a previously published definition. Aim to provide a precise,
unambiguous definition, and to use the term as it is defined throughout. Try to avoid unnecessarily long
definitions that break the flow of the story line.
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Since the middle chapters need to be written before the chapter outline, it is usually the last section of the
introduction to be completed. However, it is a good idea to write the chapter summaries and include them
in the introduction as you write them even though they will probably change as the focus becomes clearer.
The introduction acts like a map of the thesis. By travelling back and forward between the chapters and the
summary of the chapters in the introduction, you can ensure that the map provides an accurate reflection of
the territory or main body of the thesis.
The chapter summaries should also flow naturally from the problem, the literature review and the statement
of the method in the thesis introduction. It is helpful to read your draft introduction through as you
periodically include the chapter summaries to ensure that the ideas in the thesis flow. Weak links in the
chain of ideas will be easier to detect after writing the middle thesis chapters when you will come to the
introduction with a fresh eye. If the ideas within the introduction do not follow logically, it could mean that
either the introduction or the ideas within the chapters need some redrafting.
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In summary
After reading an introduction, the reader should know:
what problem, issue or controversy the research relates to;
what bodies of literature and fields of practice the research relates to;
why the research is significant;
for question/answer theses, the central question, hypothesis or research objective;
for descriptive theses, the central argument, idea, or theory (your thesis);
the definitions of any key terms;
the rationale underpinning the method (methodology);
how the answer or evidence was attained (research methods);
the chapter contents, and how each chapter supports the thesis objective or argument.
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References
Crasswell, G 2005, Writing for academic success: A postgraduate guide, Sage, London. p201
Metcalf, M 2002, How to critique articles.
Partridge, B Thesis and dissertation writing: An examination of published articles and actual practice, in
English for Specific Purposes.
Taylor, G 1989 The students writing guide for the arts and social sciences, Cambridge University Press.
Writing Lab, Purdue University:
Zeigler, M 2000, Essentials of writing biomedical research papers, Second edition, McGraw Hill, New
York.
Introduction
Where to discuss literature in the thesis or journal article
Getting to know your 'field'
The 'moves' in the literature review
The structure of a literature review chapter
Introduction
This topic within the series of resources on thesis and journal article writing in the social sciences,
humanities and business focuses on the literature review, and specifically writing about the 'gap' in the
literature. Writing about the gap in the literature is often referred to as the 'literature review', although
'literature review' is also used to refer more generally to writing that critically engages with the ideas of
others, which of course happens throughout the thesis or journal article. When we talk about the literature
review in this resource we are referring specifically to that part of the thesis or journal article whose task is
to outline the 'gap' in the literature and the significance of the research.
The literature review is the second of five steps in the research story line considered in this series of
resources. The five steps are:
Step 1: introduction
Step 2: literature review
Step 3: method and methodology
Step 4: results/evidence
Step 5: discussion and conclusion
The statement of the 'gap' in the field/s of literature follows after the 'problem statement', and is part of the
general justification for the research.
The 'gap' could refer to an unresolved question, a paradox, a missing piece of information, a theoretical
inconsistency or to some other area of uncertainty within existing understandings of the phenomenon under
study.
The task of the literature review within research writing is to:
take the reader from the broad topic to the research questions;
define the field/s of the research;
introduce and explain findings and theories that support the research;
draw together main conclusions of literature relevant to the topic;
highlight gaps or unresolved issues within the literature;
establish what is original, new or 'significant' about the research.
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The 'field' of research refers to the discipline, sub-discipline or multi-discipline area within which the
research is situated. Examples of disciplines are psychology, sociology, history, geography, women's
studies, media studies, area studies, education and so on. The field of research is a globally recognised body
of academic scholarship rooted in specific disciplines, with a shared set of questions or concerns, as well
as perhaps similar approaches to and theories about those questions and concerns. The literature review is
grounded in a field of research and scholarship. Although you may refer to literature from more than one
field area, typically you would only aim to contribute new knowledge to one field area.
It is important therefore to distinguish between fields of literature that are outside your own, and the field of
research to which you will contribute. The field you will contribute to is your audience. Your examiner will
be drawn from this field. If you publish, it will be in journals that publish research and scholarship of
interest to this field. If your contribution involves drawing upon insights from a field or fields outside your
own, this would need to be made clear in the literature review.
Literature reviews provide some outline of the field's major foci, contexts of research, significant
achievements, theoretical perspectives, ongoing debates or schisms, and pressing concerns, as well as
discussing the research in the immediate topic area and the gap the research will contribute to. The central
concerns that unite a field of literature are not always stated explicitly within a journal paper or book. The
underlying question or concern within environmental psychology for example might be something like:
how do human beings engage with the environment? or how does the brain process environmental
information? The underlying question within early childhood education might be something like: how do
children learn or how can we maximize childrens learning? There are usually different points of view
about the answers to the questions at the centre of a field of research and a variety of methodological
approaches may have been taken in answering them, giving rise to different kinds of answers. Different
theories also give rise to different points of view within a field. Getting to know the unerlying questions
and approaches within your field area will give your literature review added depth and breadth, and will
greatly facilitate your ability to communicate influentially within your field. It takes time to get to know a
field of research that is new to you, so it is important to be patient and to work steadily.
One way to familiarise yourself with a new field of inquiry is to read review articles or books, although it is
important to read these critically since reviews, like other published academic writing, presents the author's
perspective on the state of play within the field of research, and there may be disagreement about the
author's perspective.
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The literature review can be thought of as containing the following 'moves' or conceptual steps. These are:
1. Establish a research territory
Introduce and review items of previous research in the area.
2. Establish a niche
Indicate a gap in the previous research by raising a question about it, or extending previous knowledge in
some way.
the end of the review, the discussion narrows down to discuss more recent trends, and specific research
studies that are closer to your own topic of research. The literature review section or chapter then closes
with the statement of the question, aim or significance of the research thesis, the end point of the triangle.
In some ways the literature review is like telling a story about your field of research, its key findings, major
turns, and areas of uncertainty. You can imagine that you are telling this story to frame the contribution you
wish to make to the field's history of inquiry, positioning your own research at the centre of the story by
highlighting what you aim to discover or illuminate in your study.
One misconception about literature review writing is that we should only write about literature directly
relevant to the topic of the research. This can lead to research writing in which the general findings and
concerns of the field within which the research is situated are not introduced. This kind of literature review
is limited to a smaller pool of studies that are very similar to the topic of the research. In effect, the review
is missing the broad part of the triangle, and provides only the pointy part of the triangle, that is, those
studies of immediate relevance to the research topic and a statement of the gap and aims.
While this might be acceptable in some circumstances, it can give the reader the impression that the author
does not understand or share the broader or underpinning concerns of the field of literature within which
the research is situated. It suggests poor linkage between the research and the deeper questions or concerns
of the field, potentially missing important links between the research and these deeper questions or theories,
and perhaps thereby underselling the significance of the research topic. For this reason it is important to
identify and get to know your field of inquiry.
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Sentence stems
One way to ensure that your literature review is moving in the right direction is to check your sentence
stems. Some of the typical sentence stem for each of the different moves within the literature review are
reproduced below.
The methodology adopted in these studies led to more consideration given to ... than to ...
Establish a niche
2. Indicate a gap in the previous research by raising a question about it, or extending previous knowledge in
some way:
However, little information/attention/work/data/research
However, few studies/investigations/researchers/attempts
The research has tended to focus on , rather than on
These studies have emphasised , as opposed to
Although considerable research has been devoted to , rather less attention has been paid to
The previous research has concentrated on
Most studies have been content to
So far, investigations have been confined to
Occupy the niche
3. Outline purposes or stating the nature of the present research:
The purpose of this research project is to
The purpose of this investigation is to
The aim of this research project is to
This study is designed to
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Useful questions when reading texts for the literature review:
What is the stated aim, purpose or argument of the text?
What are the central findings?
What does the work contribute to our understanding of the problem space?
What aspect of my topic or problem space is spoken about in the article?
What position is taken (theoretical, methodological, epistemological, underlying assumptions)?
How does the text compare with other perspectives/findings on the topic or problem space?
What broad areas of agreement are there among texts on the topic or problem space?
What broad areas of disagreement, if any, are there among texts on the topic or problem space?
What research directions does the emerging work in the field suggest?
What further research is required to contribute to filling the gaps in research knowledge (to
improve scholarly understanding of my problem space)?
Introduction
Placement of method and methodology in the thesis or journal article
o When one study determines the next
How much to write?
Structuring the content within the research design chapter or section
Writing an introduction to the research design
o Link the question and the methods/methodology
Writing the main body of the research design
o The two step writerly pattern
o Sentence stems
o Point of view and tense
Introduction
This topic within the series of resources on thesis and journal article writing in the social sciences,
humanities and business focuses on writing about the research design, or the method and the methodology
used in the research. This is the third of the five key steps that hold the story line within theses and journal
articles. These steps are:
Step 1: introduction
Step 2: literature review
As for the research proposal, there is a general pattern to the content, and to the structure of the content
within most theses and journal papers. The following elements can readily be detected, often in the
following order:
general introduction (provides a concise statement of the theoretical approach, research phases,
and relationship between research phases, where applicable, and the methods, and approach to
data analysis that will be adopted for each data type);
discussion of theory or philosophy (where applicable);
introduction to the methods (including sample, selection and recording processes);
explanation of the approach to data analysis.
A good way to introduce phased research, or research which involves two or more studies, is to discuss
each phase or study under a separate heading in chronological or logical order. You can then discuss the
theory, where relevant, the methods, and the approach to data analysis for each phase or study.
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The two step writerly pattern within the main body of the research design
section
If you look closely, you will see that the main body of well written research design sections has a two step
writerly pattern. Although these steps are typically blended within the general discussion of the research
design, it is useful to consider them in their distinctive forms.
The first step describes the approach, in detail, and concisely. Typically this step takes up most of the
content of the research design section.
The second step explains why the approach, and the details within the approach, were chosen. The second
step in the pattern explains how the approach enables an exploration of the research aim, focus or question.
For example: step one, 'Grounded theory involves ... (references)'; step two, 'Grounded theory was
chosen for this study because ...'.
Try to avoid overly long, or generalised text-book-like descriptions of the nature or value of a particular
methodology, method, or approach to data analysis. The research design section should continually draw
the discussion back to a description of the current research rationale and research aims.
A researcher might write an overly general description of research methods or methodology as a result of
the mistaken belief that the research design outlines the advantages of the chosen approach for researchers
in general. It can also happen when the author is unfamiliar with the approach, particularly when the
approach is complex or highly theoretical. This is because we often write as a way of learning more about a
particular aproach or theory. While this is an effective strategy for thoroughly understanding a particular
approach, and is not at all the 'wrong' way of doing things, second and third drafts are nevertheless
probably going to be necessary to explain how and why the approach is used in your research.
It may be helpful to remember that the same research question can be investigated from a number of
different philosophical and methodological angles, using different methods and research designs, and that
there may be little consensus about what constitutes the 'best' approach within your field. What is important
in the research design is not so much to justify one approach over others, say by listing its positive benefits,
but to explain why you chose the approach you did, and what the adopted appraoch aims to reveal, or how
you wish your findings to be read.
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Sentence stems
The key conceptual sentence stem in the research design section, in its simplest form, might then be
expressed in the form: 'x methodology, method or approach to data analysis was chosen for this study
because ...'. The because part of the sentence refers back to the research aims in some way, and regularly
appears throughout the research design section of the thesis or journal article.
Possible sentence stems:
Methodology/philosophy:
The methodological assumption underpinning this research is ... . Hence the research aims to ... .
X theoretical approach assumes that ... . This idea informs ... (aspect of the research).
Theoretical approach x is used in this research because it enables an exploration of ... (aspects of
the research focus).
X's idea that ... illuminates ... (aspect of the research).
X theory provides a framework to deconstruct and understand ... (aspect of the research focus).
The research will employ x theory to analyse ... (aspect of research focus).
Methods/methodology:
Action research was adopted for this study because ...
This case study was chosen because ...
Data was collected through interviews with ... . The list of persons to be interviewed was selected
on the basis of ... (fit with research focus).
X statistical test was used to examine ... (aspect of research focus).
A group parallel randomised control design was chosen specifically to provide ... (evidence
pertaining to research focus).
Data analysis:
The ... (research data set) ... was analysed to test the hypothesis that .... .
The ... (research data set) ... was analysed to determine whether a relationship exists between ...
variable x and ... variable y.
The ... (research data set) ... was analysed to determine whether ... (research phenomenon) ...
supports the theoretical/popular/policy assumption that ... .
The ... (research data set) ... was analysed to provide a rich description of ... (research context) ...
in order to test the validity of the theoretical/popular/policy assumption that ... .
The ... (research data set) ... was analysed to reflect upon the meaning of ... (research phenomena)
... within ... (social context of research) ... in order to understand whether ... (research focus).
The ... (research data set) ... was analysed to reflect on the critical differences between the
meaning of ... (research phenomena x and research phenomena y) ... in order to understand
whether ... (research focus).
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Introduction
Developing a structure for the results or argumentation thesis chapters
o Mind mapping
Placement of results or argument substantiation
o When one study determines the next
Content of the introduction
The main body
Summarising and synthesising data
Explaining how a result is significant
Figures, tables and graphs
Introduction
This topic within this series of resources focuses on writing up the evidence or data in question/answer
style academic writing, and in providing substantiation and explication for your argument in the middle
chapters of the descriptive style thesis or main body of a journal article. This is the fourth of the five key
steps that hold the story line within theses and journal articles.
The steps are:
Key principles
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designed in advance, an overview can be provided in the study design section or chapter of thesis or journal
article. Results chapters or sections can then simply supply the results that answer the question in the order
of most to least important.
When one experiment, study or research phase determines the next however, there may not be a
separate study design section preceding the results, or if there is, it might be dedicated to more theoretical
and conceptual aspects of the research design. The technical aspects of the method, the sample and mode of
data analysis would be incorporated within separate results chapters or sections. When one study
determines the next you can adopt some combination of a four part pattern in the results chapter/s or
section/s including the following elements: question/aims (possibly also literature review), overview of the
experiments or study (methods, sampling, data analysis), results, and discussion, conclusion.
In studies in which one experiment or study determines the next, the first question in the first chapter or
section is the question of the thesis or journal article. Each results chapter or section after that opens with
the question posed to answer the next step toward the final answer of the thesis. Each answer then leads to
the next question and to a repeat of some combination of the four part pattern.
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Mind mapping
Mind mapping can be a useful tool for figuring out the structure of your results chapters. Mind mapping
cannot be done until you have analysed the data. First you would analyse your data to find out what it is
telling you in relation to your question, and in relation to your field of scholarship. As you analyse, it is
important to write. At this stage, you should write down the important points, and indeed anything that
comes to mind that seems like it might be important, noting which points emerge most strongly and which
appear to be marginal. If a clear structure does not immediately emerge within the data analysis process,
just keep writing without worrying too much about how the results will eventually be structured.
When you have a substantial body of writing, you can then look to see relationships, areas of overlap, and
distinctive ideas or themes within what you have written. This is essentially what mind mapping is. The
mind map looks like a series of linked or unlinked points tied to a central or overarching thesis statement.
The map can be constantly worked and reworked until you arrive at a fixed structure.
It is important to ensure that the map is based on statements that answer a key question or support a central
argument. In order to ensure this, write your question or argument (or your nearest approximation of your
question or argument at the stage of writing) at the top of the mind map. Under this question or statement
write the key results or ideas that answer or support it. Keep checking back and forth to see that the results
and statements on the page are closely linked to the big idea or central question at the top. Remember that
both the question and the argument can be adjusted in this process. The key is that they are tied together,
and that the question or argument will be of interest to the field of scholarship.
Another tip for developing the chapter structure is to try summarising your own writing. Pretend your job is
simply to concisely report the main points in your own text as you would when reading any other text for
your research. Once you have done this you will be able to see which points are connected and which are
distinctive.
Try to keep the key points to less than six. If you have too many points, look for a higher order label in
which two or more topics can be grouped, or draw links between them. Then redraw the map with a
composite statement divided by smaller sub topics (these then become the sections within a chapter). Keep
going until a clear structure begins to emerge.
The statements that finally emerge can then be referred to when composing the chapter headings. The
chapter headings should use some of the key terms in these statements since they are designed to point
directly to the distinctive content of the chapter.
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reflect upon and write about the data. The reader should not however have to wait until the end of the
chapter or section to find out the main point. Redrafting then often involves dragging summative statements
forward and placing them at the beginning of paragraphs and sections, and then checking that the
information supplied in that section works to support the idea or result in the opening sentence.
The same structural principle applies for journal articles, except that, because of their shorter length, it is
not always necessary to provide a summary of the main result or argument in the introduction to the results
or middle section of the paper. For question/answer style journal articles, the main aim or question is
provided in the opening of the paper and the overall finding is not presented until the conclusion paragraph
or section. The result and the overall conclusion is also provided in the abstract For descriptive style journal
articles, the argument appears in the abstract and in the introduction of the paper, and the main body
provides evidence and further explication to support the main argument which is briefly restated in the
conclusion of the paper.
Regardless of whether you are writing a chapter for a thesis or a journal article for publication, the
discussion of the results and of the data should take up more room than the data itself. The text should not
be too heavily weighted towards data, say in the form of interview quotes or figures and tables, with little
supporting commentary.
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In the 20 control subjects, the mean resting blood pressure was 85+5 (SD) mmHg. In comparison, in the 30
tennis players, the mean resting blood pressure was 94+3 mmHg (unclear what point we are to draw from
the data, whether the data are similar or different).
Refer to figures and tables in the flow of the discussion. Avoid using a figure or table title as a topic
sentence. Instead, cite tables and figures in brackets after relevant results statements.
Poor example
A summary of renal function data is presented in Fig. 2.
Better example
Renal function data showed that . (Figure 2).
Introduction
Difference between discussion and conclusion
The research implications
Linking the introduction and the conclusion
Writing recommendtions
Going out with a 'bang'
Introduction
This topic within this series of resources on thesis and journal article writing in the social sciences,
humanities and business focuses on the discussion and conclusion. This is the last of the five key steps
within theses and journal articles.
The key steps are:
Step 1: introduction
Step 2: literature review
Step 3: method and methodology
Step 4: results/evidence
Step 5: discussion and conclusion
The final step in the story line is to provide the answer to the question, or to summarise the argument and
the main evidence used to support it (depending on which of the thesis styles you will adopt). This is
followed by a discussion of the significance of the research and the implications that arise from the
research.
The goal of the conclusion is to highlight the importance of the argument, to draw together the discussion
into a final point, and to leave a lasting impression on the reader. In the same way that the paper opens with
a statement of a problem that is of broad concern, it should close with commentary that highlights the take
home message. The aim in the conclusion is to make this message as clear and accessible as possible.
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Research implications
The implications of the research and the proposals flowing from the research might be discussed in relation
to one or more of the following:
the community in the 'real world';
policy development (government, organisational);
professional practice (as an academic or other profession teacher, engineer, manager etc);
contribution to academic debates;
social or political action and research.
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Writing 'recommendations'
Conclusions offer solutions to issues and suggest courses of action flowing from the research. However, the
aim of research is primarily to produce knowledge, not law, policy or a set of recommendations. We cannot
ultimately control how our ideas are interpreted or implemented in the world. By maintaining a scholarly
tone and exploring the possible implications of your ideas in broad terms, you can avoid dating your
research unnecessarily, or limiting the reader's imagination to a specific set of outcomes.
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What is an abstract?
Purpose of writing abstracts
Conventions of writing abstracts
Further considerations
o Key words
o Author details
Types of abstracts
o Informative
o Descriptive
o Executive summary
Examples
How to write an abstract
What is an abstract?
An abstract is a brief overview, not an evaluative summary, of a longer piece of writing. There are different
kinds of abstracts which contain different information. Social science and scientific abstracts contain a
statement of the research problem or purpose, statement of the gap in the literature (for theses), the method
and methodology, the findings and the conclusions. Humanities abstracts contain a description of the
problem, statement of the gap in the literature (for theses), the main position or 'argument' and an overview
of the contents.
The purpose and conventions of abstract writing, and the elements related to the specific types of abstracts
are discussed in more detail below.
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Screening documents
The main purpose of abstracts is to enable readers to decide whether to read the longer document.
Similarly, abstracts for conference papers enable decisions about which sessions to attend. This is actually
the second level of screening the first being the title. The abstract provides further information about the
problem or aim, the methodology, findings and conclusions. It provides a framework and prepares the
reader to read or listen to the paper more closely. One important aspect of abstract writing is therefore to
ensure that the abstract provides an accurate description of the paper and does not leave anything important
out.
Indexing information
The other main purpose of abstracts is to provide key words for information searches. Librarians, and other
information managers, use abstracts and the key words contained within them to develop indexing systems.
Researchers use key words within online data bases to retrieve relevant information. This prevents searches
of full texts, which would be too broad to be useful, and titles alone, which often do not provide enough
information. Another important consideration in abstract writing is therefore to ensure that the abstract
includes the key words that are applicable to the field or topic area.
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No definitions
Definitions of key terms can be provided in the introduction of the longer work.
Well written
Check that:
information is linked together with transition words (therefore, in particular);
writing is free from spelling and grammatical errors;
the writing flows and does not distract the reader from the meaning.
No references
Abstracts do not usually contain references. This is because the abstract aims to distil the unique
contribution the current paper makes to a broader field of writing.
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Further Considerations
Key words
Conferences and journals often ask for a list of key words. Key words are designed to describe the topics
and audiences that will be interested in the longer paper. The key words in the abstract will determine who
is likely to access the abstract when they conduct a literature search. The more thoughtful your key words,
the more likely that your article or conference presentation will be found in key word search and therefore
be read.
Some tips for writing key words:
Think about the key words that best describe your main message.
Think about the kinds of key words used by your target audience. These can often be found by
checking relevant journals and conference sites in your field. Use the same key words used by
other authors in the field.
Check that at least some of these key words are included in the heading and within the abstract.
Use your best key words to open sentences.
Use two key words together, or a phrase. Most searches use two words.
Use synonyms where possible (heart disease, cardiovascular disease) to encompass different
search options.
Try to avoid over repeating the same key words in the abstract, unless key words are repeated to
links sentences and ideas.
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Author details
Sometimes authors are asked to provide specific biographic details. This is often the name and institution to
which you belong, but it can include information about your research background. Your research
background includes the discipline area or areas, and the fields of scholarship within which your research is
situated, as well as the topic areas you have researched within them. Try to describe your research area as
accurately as possible in order not to misrepresent your research history.
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Types of abstracts
Academic abstracts generally fall into three categories:
Informative abstract
Descriptive abstract
Executive summary
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Informative abstract
The informative abstract is most common. It is used within the social sciences and the sciences. This kind
of abstract describes what happened during the research process. It is also more likely to speak about the
research rather than the paper.
Although short and written to a word limit, informative abstract are longer than the descriptive abstracts
described below. Informative abstracts contain specific information about the research and, in effect, the
abstract becomes a summary of the key information from each section of the longer paper.
Upon reading an informative abstract we should know why the research was conducted, what it set out to
do, how it was done, what the main findings were, and what we can conclude from this.
The key elements of an informative abstract are:
reason for writing
gap in the literature (essential for theses, optional or often omitted in journal articles)
research question/aim
method and methodology
findings/results
conclusions or implications
Sometimes, informative abstracts are divided into subheadings for each of these elements, or broken into
two or more smaller paragraphs with transition words to signify the move between elements.
The elements of an informative abstract are described below. Each is written in a particular tense.
Reason for writing/problem
This is a brief sentence or two that establishes the reason for the research, and why the research is
important. The research problem can take a variety of forms depending on the nature of the paper.
These include: a problem, controversy, issue, or unresolved question within the literature. The
research problem is written in the past tense or present perfect tense (the past in relation to the
present, such as have been) to indicate something that was identified as an issue or ongoing
question.
Literature review
This part of the abstract is essential in a thesis, but is often not included in a journal article because
of limited space. In a thesis the examiner expects to see the research clearly situated within the
field of literature. The literature review element within thesis abstracts indicates the field of
scholarship or research that the thesis will contribute to (different from the field/s that the thesis
will draw upon). The literature review element within the abstract summarises a gap in knowledge
within the field by briefly summarising what has been done to date in the topic area within the
field.
Question/aim
The question or aim explains the precise focus that was investigated. It might also be phrased as
an objective or hypothesis. The question or aim is also often encompassed within the problem
statement. The question or aim arises from the review of the literature in the longer paper. It
indicates exactly what precise aspect of a broader problem area and field of literature the research
contributes to.
Methodology
This includes reference to the specific methods, models, approach or type of evidence used. The
methodology is written in the past tense, to indicate what was done and why it was done. It should
include critical information including the nature and size of the sample.
Results
The key results or findings are then summarized in order of greatest importance. This may include
statistics or other numeric terms, although these should be kept brief and be self-explanatory.
Results are also discussed in the past tense.
Conclusions
In this part of the abstract, one or two of the key implications of the research are summarized.
Conclusions pertain to the contribution of the research to the field, or to the kinds of changes that
are suggested by the findings. The conclusions are written in the present tense to indicate their
current relevance. Tentative verbs and modal auxiliaries (for example, could, may) are also
applicable in this section.
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Descriptive abstract
Descriptive abstracts are used for papers in which a main proposition or argument, typically stated in the
opening sections of the paper, is substantiated by reasoned debate, evidence, presentation of data, or
reflective commentary, including commentary related to practical work. Descriptive abstracts are
commonly found in the humanities disciplines. The descriptive abstract describes the main proposition or
finding of the paper, and the main themes or bodies of evidence provided in the paper. In this sense it acts
like a preview of the main event. It should relate directly to the information that is in the longer paper or
presentation, and is more likely to speak about the paper or 'the thesis/exegesis' rather than the research.
In journal articles, descriptive abstracts are short, sometimes under 100 words. Descriptive abstracts usually
contain the following elements.
topic/background (optional)
problem statement or purpose
gap in the literature (essential for theses, optional or often omitted in journal articles)
main proposition, finding or focus
overview of contents (essential for theses, optional for journal articles)
implications (essential for theses, optional for journal articles).
Each of the these elements has a particular function and is written in the present or future tense in terms of:
what is in the paper/presentation/thesis/exegesis
what will be argued or demonstrated in the paper/presentation/thesis/exegesis.
The purpose of each element within an informative abstract is as follows.
The topic
The topic tells the reader what the paper is about. If the word limit is tight, this can be omitted.
This is essential. The research problem can take a variety of forms depending on the nature of the
paper. These include: a problem, controversy, issue, or unresolved question within the literature.
Literature review
This part of the abstract is essential in a thesis, but is often not included in a journal article because
of limited space. In a thesis the examiner expects to see the research clearly situated within the
field of literature. The literature review element within thesis abstracts indicates the field of
scholarship or research that the thesis will contribute to (different from the field/s that the thesis
will draw upon). The literature review element within the abstract summarises a gap in knowledge
within the field by briefly summarising what has been done to date in the topic area within the
field.
Main point
The main point or argument of the paper, thesis, or exegesis must be provided in the abstract. This
is the take home message or central argument of the paper or thesis/exegesis.
In journal articles, an overview of contents can also be provided if there is space within the word
limit. In a thesis or exegesis it would be expected. This might include the methodology and/or the
key themes within the longer paper or thesis (often describes key points or arguments within the
chapters of the main body). Themes should be listed in the order in which they will appear in the
presentation, paper, thesis or exegesis.
Implications
The final part of the abstract, optional in journal papers but recommended in theses and exegeses,
summarises the key implications of the argument, discussion or art work. The implications should
tie back to the central aims and focus of the thesis, and refer back to the field of literture or
practice within which the work is situated.
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Executive summary
Although an Executive summary is similar to an abstract in that they both summarise a longer paper, there
are some key differences. An Executive summary:
is written primarily as a stand-alone document and can be quite long up to 10% of the wordlength of the longer paper;
starts with the key findings of the research, which are then expanded upon;
often uses dot points for emphasis and brevity;
provides relatively brief coverage of the purpose, research problem and methodology used;
has a strong focus on the recommendations and their justification;
must accurately reflect what is in the report (the recommendations are sometimes word for word
from the report);
is targeted at people who are likely to implement the recommendations.
One of the key differences is the focus on recommendations. In research abstracts, recommendations are
rarely made, or if they are, they are implicit rather than explicit. Recommendations are not made in
academic abstracts because academics operate in a discursive environment, where debates, discussions and
dialogue are meant to precede the implementation of any new research findings. The conceptual nature of
much academic writing also means that recommendations arising from the findings are widespread and not
easily or usefully encapsulated in regard to a single setting. This is quite different to the environment in
which managers operate, where quick decisions and decisive actions are required in relation to specific
issues.
Executive summaries are used mainly when a research report has been developed for an industry partner, a
government department or an organisation that has participated in the research. In such cases the research
report and executive summary are written for policy makers within non-academic organisations, while
abstracts, research papers and articles are written for the academic community.
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Abstracts are usually written after the longer paper is complete, but it is often useful to start
putting the elements together earlier on for theses. This is because the abstract can help you to
'map' the overall thesis and check that the key steps in the story line hold together.
The first step in abstract writing is to re-read the longer paper or the sections in the thesis or
exegesis, perhaps highlighting the relevant information.
Next write a sentence or two (for journal papers), or a short paragraph (for theses), for each of the
key elements within the abstract.
Check that each sentence or short paragraph summarises the key element and does not leave
anything important out.
Then put the sentences together and work towards a unified abstract in which the elements flow
naturally from one to the other. Pay particular attention to key words and transitions to ensure the
ideas flow from sentence to sentence.
The last step is to edit the abstract and to check that it fits within the word limit.