Lecture 09

Dislocations & Strengthening Mechanisms

Chapter 7 - 1

Dislocations & Strengthening Mechanisms

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Why are dislocations observed primarily in metals
and alloys?
g and dislocation motion related?
How are strength
How do we increase strength?
How can heating change strength and other properties?

Chapter 7 - 2

Mechanical Behavior & Structure

Controlled by
Chemical bond
Chemistry

Controlled by Processing
via defects, crystal structure
andd microstricture
i
i
Chapter 7 - 3

Dislocations & Materials Classes

Metals: Disl. motion easier.
-non-directional bonding
-close-packed directions
for slip.
electron cloud

+
+

+
+

+
+

+
+

+
+

+
+

+
+

+
+

ion cores

Covalent Ceramics
(Si, diamond): Motion hard.
-directional
directional (angular) bonding

Ionic Ceramics (NaCl):

Motion hard.
-need to avoid ++ and - g
neighbors.

Chapter 7 - 4

Dislocation Motion
Dislocations & plastic deformation
Cubic & hexagonal metals - plastic deformation by
plastic shear or slip where one plane of atoms slides
over adjacent plane by defect motion (dislocations).

If dislocations don't move, deformation doesn't occur!

Chapter 7 - 5

Dislocation Motion (Contd)

Caterpillar

Chapter 7 - 6

Dislocation Motion
Dislocation moves along slip plane in slip direction
perpendicular
p
p
to dislocation line
Slip direction same direction as Burgers vector
Edge dislocation

Screw dislocation

Chapter 7 - 7

Comparison of Dislocation Motion

Edge vs Screw Dislocations

Chapter 7 - 8

Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
Slip plane - plane allowing easiest slippage
Wide interplanar spacings - highest planar densities

Slip direction - direction of movement - Highest linear

densities

FCC Slip occurs on {111} planes (close-packed) in <110>

directions (close-packed) => total of 12 slip systems in FCC
in BCC & HCP other slip systems occur
Chapter 7 - 9

Deformation Mechanisms
Common Slip Systems

Chapter 7 - 10

Slip Systems in Common Metals

After Dieter,
Mechanical Metallurgy
(1990)

Chapter 7 - 11

Stress and Dislocation Motion

Crystals slip due to a resolved shear stress, tR.
Applied tension can produce such a stress.
Applied tensile
stress:
= s F/A

Resolved shear
stress: tR =Fs /A s
slip plane

tR = FS /AS

tR

normal, ns
FS

Relation between
s and tR

AS

Fcos l

tR

FS

A/cos f

nS f

AS

Schmids Law

R cos cos
Chapter 7 - 12

Critical Resolved Shear Stress

Condition for dislocation motion:

R CRSS

Crystal orientation can make

it easy or hard to move dislocation

R cos cos

tR = 0
l =90
90

typically
10-4 GPa to 10-2 GPa

s
tR = s /2
l =45
45
f =45

maximum at = = 45

tR = 0
f =90
90

Chapter 7 - 13

Single Crystal Slip

Single
crystal
wire
i

Chapter 7 - 14

Ex: Deformation of single crystal

a) Will the single crystal yield?
b) If not, what stress is needed?

=60

=35

crss = 3000 psii

cos cos
6500 psi
(6500 psi) (cos 35 )(cos 60 )
(6500 psi) (0.41)
2662 psi

crss 3000 psi

= 6500 psi
So the applied stress of 6500 psi will not cause the crystal
to yield.
Chapter 7 - 15

Ex 1: Deformation of single crystal

What stress is necessary (i.e., what is the yield stress, y)?

crss 3000 psi y cos cos y (0.41)

crss
3000 psi
y

7325 psi
cos cos
0.41
So for deformation to occur the applied stress must be
greater than or equal to the yield stress

y 7325 psi
Chapter 7 - 16

Ex 2: Deformation of Single crystal

After Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy (1990)

Chapter 7 - 17

Slip Motion in Polycrystals

Stronger - grain boundaries
pin deformations

Slip planes & directions

change from one
crystal
t l to
t another.
th
R will vary from one
crystal to another.
another
The crystal with the
largest R yields first
first.
Other (less favorably
oriented) crystals
yield later.

300 mm

Chapter 7 - 18

Anisotropy in y
Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal
- before rollingg

- after rollingg

rolling direction

235 mm

- isotropic

since grains are

approx. spherical
& randomly
oriented.

- anisotropic

since rolling affects grain

orientation and shape.

Chapter 7 - 19

Anisotropy in Deformation
2. Fire cylinder
at a target.

3. Deformed
cylinder

side view

rolling d
direction

1. Cylinder of
Tantalum
machined
from a
rolled plate:

end
view

The noncircular end view shows

plate
thickness
direction

anisotropic deformation of rolled material.

Chapter 7 - 20

Deformation by Mechl Twinning

Twins also re-orient slip planes and contribute to dislocation slip indirectly

Twinning is an alternate (plastic)

deformation mechanism observed when the
strain rate is very high or at low T (dislocation slip is suppressed)
It is a strain-relief mechanism. Very common in BCC and HCP metals
when slip is restricted!
Chapter 7 -

Mechl Twinning vs. Dislocation Slip

Homogeneous
(Twin Band)

After
Dieter.
Mechl Metallurgy

Chapter 7 -

Strategies for Strengthening:

Grain
11. Reduce
R d
G
i Size
Si
Grain boundaries are
barriers to slip.
Barrier "strength"
strength
increases with
increasing angle of
misorientation.
i i
i
Smaller grain size (d):
p
more barriers to slip.
Hall-Petch Equation:

yield o k y d

1/ 2

Chapter 7 -

Strategies for Strengthening:

1.
Reduce
Grain
(Contd)
1 R
d
G
i Size
Si (C
td)

Very difficult
to synthesize polycrystalline
materials with d<100 nm

1/ 2
yield

k
d
i ld
o
y

Chapter 7 -

Strategies for Strengthening:

1.
1 Reduce Grain Size (Contd)
Primary mechanism
for strengthening by grain
boundaries

Chapter 7 - 25

Strategies for Strengthening:

Solid
Solutions
22. S
lid S
l ti
Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.
Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
Smaller substitutional impurity Larger substitutional impurity

B
Impurity generates local stress at A
and B that opposes
pp
dislocation motion
to the right.

D
Impurity generates local stress at C
and D that opposes
pp
dislocation motion
to the right.
Chapter 7 - 26

Stress Concentration at Dislocations

What makes a dislocation move & interact?

Th stress field
The
fi ld Around
A
d the
h di
dislocation
l
i
interacts with the applied stress (via R)
and the Strain field of structural
p f
such as grain
g
boundaries
imperfections
and solute atoms
Chapter 7 -

Strengthening by Alloying
Small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations
Reduce mobility of dislocation; increase strength

Chapter 7 - 28

Strengthening by alloying (Contd)

Large impurities concentrate at dislocations on low
densityy side

Chapter 7 -

Ex: Solid Solution Strengthening in Copper

Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.

400
300
200

0 10 20 30 40 50

Yield strength (MP

Pa)

Tensile sttrength (MPa)

180

120

60

wt % Ni
wt.%
Ni, (Concentration C)

Empirical relation:

0 10 20 30 40 50
wt %Ni (Concentration C)
wt.%Ni,

y ~ C1/ 2

Alloying increases sy and TS.

Chapter 7 -

Dislocation Sources: FrankFrank-Read Sources

Chapter 7 - 31

Strategies for Strengthening:

3.
3 Precipitation
P i it ti Strengthening
St
th i
Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.

Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).

precipitate

Large shear stress needed

to move dislocation toward
precipitate
i it t and
d shear
h
it.
it

Side View

T View
Top
Vi

pp p
pp
Unslipped
part of slip
plane

S
Slipped part of slip plane

Result:

1
y ~
S

Dislocation
advances but
precipitates act as
pinning sites with
spacing
p
g S.

The smaller the S, the larger the

dislocation line needs to bow out,,
the more surface energy needs to
be spend!

Chapter 7 -

Application:: Precipitation
Application
Precipitation Strengthening
Internal wing structure on Boeing 767

Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed

b alloying.
by
ll i
Black spots
p
are the ppts.

1.5mm

Chapter 7 - 33

Strategies for Strengthening:

44. Cold
C ld Work
W k (%CW
(%CW))
Room temperature deformation.

Common forming operations change the cross sectional area:

-Forging

force

die
A o blank

die
die

tensile
force

Ad

roll

force
Ad

roll

Ao

Ad

-Drawing
Ao

-Rolling

Ao
force

-Extrusion
container

ram

billet

container

Ao Ad
%CW
x 100
Ao

die holder
extrusion

die

Chapter 7 -

Ad

Dislocations During Cold Work

Ti alloy after cold working:
Dislocations entangle with one
another during cold work.
Dislocation motion becomes
more difficult.

0 9 mm
0.9

Strain hardening due to

dislocation-dislocation
interactions
cutting
cutting through a forest of
di l
dislocations
dislocations
i

Chapter 7 -

Dislocations During Cold Work

Edge and screw
dislocation interaction
leads to strain hardening

After
Dieter.
Mechl Metallurgy
gy

Chapter 7 - 36

Result of Cold Work

Dislocation density =

total dislocation length

unit volume

Carefully grown single crystal ca. 103 mm-2

Deforming sample increases density 109-1010 mm-2
Heat
H t treatment
t t
t reduces
d
d it 105-10
density
106 mm-22
Yield stress increases
as rd increases:

large hardening

small hardening

Chapter 7 -

Effects of Stress at Dislocations

Chapter 7 -

Impact of Cold Work

As cold work is increased:
Yield strength (y) increases.
Tensile strength (TS) increases.
Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Chapter 7 -

Cold Work Analysis

What is the tensile strength &
ductility after cold working?
ro2 rd2
%CW
x 100 35.6%
2
ro
yield strength
(MPa)

700

Do =15.2mm

tensile strength
(MPa)

800

300MPa

300
0

20

Cu
40

% Cold Work
y = 300MPa

60

400
200

60

Dd =12.2mm
ductility
(%EL)

40

600

500

100

Copper
Cold
Work

340MPa

20

40

Cu
60

% Cold Work
TS = 340MPa
340MP

20

Cu

7%

00

20

40

60

% Cold Work
%EL = 7%

Chapter 7 -

- Behavior vs. Temperature

800

Stress (M
MPa)

Results for
polycrystalline iron:

-200C

600

-100C
100C

400

25C

200
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

Strain
y and TS decrease with increasing
g test temperature.
p
%EL increases with increasing test temperature.
3 . disl. glides past obstacle
Why? Vacancies
p dislocations
help
2. vacancies
move past obstacles. replace
atoms on the
disl. half
plane

obstacle

1. disl. trapped
b obstacle
by
bt l
Chapter 7 -

0.5

Effect of Heating After %CW

%CW
1 hour treatment at Tannealdecreases TS & increases %EL.
Effects of cold work are reversed!
100 200
600

300 400 500 600 700

60

tensile strength

500

40

400

30

ductility
300

50

ductility ((%EL)

tenssile streng
gth (MPa))

Annealing temperature (C)

3 Annealing
stages to discuss...
discuss...

20

Chapter 7 -

Recovery
Annihilation reduces dislocation density.
Scenario 1

Results from
diffusion

Scenario
S
i 2

extra half-plane
of atoms
atoms
diffuse
to regions
of tension
extra half-plane
of atoms

3 . Climbed disl. can now

move on new slip plane
2 . grey atoms leave by
vacancy diffusion
allowing disl. to climb
1. dislocation blocked;
cant move to the right

Dislocations
annihilate
and form
a perfect
atomic
plane.

tR
4. opposite dislocations
meet and annihilate
Obstacle dislocation

Chapter 7 -

Recrystallization
New grains are formed that:

- Have a small dislocation density

- Are
A small
ll
- Consume cold-worked grains.
0 6 mm
0.6

33% cold
worked
k d
brass

0 6 mm
0.6

New crystals
nucleate
l
after
f
3 sec. at 580C.
Chapter 7 -

Further Recrystallization
All cold
cold--worked grains are consumed.
0.6 mm

After 4
seconds
d

0.6 mm

After 8
d
seconds
Chapter 7 -

Grain Growth
At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.
Why? Grain boundary area (and therefore energy) is reduced.
0.6 mm

After 8 s,
580C

0.6 mm

After 15 min,
580C

Empirical Relation:
Eexponent typ. ~ 2
Grain diam.
n
d
at time t.

d on Kt

Coefficient dependent
on material and T.
Elapsed time
Ostwald Ripening
Chapter 7 -

Grain Growth

TR = Recrystallization
temperature
TR

Cold work state, is

A metastable state.
The energy stored
Due to cold work
is the driving for
Recrystallization.
Recrystallization
Recrystallized
grain are strain
free.

Chapter 7 -

Recrystallization Temperature, TR
TR = recrystallization temperature = point of
highest rate of property change
11. Tm => TR 0.3-0.6
0 3 0 6 Tm (K)
2. Due to diffusion annealing time TR = f(t)
shorter annealing time => higher TR
3. Higher %CW => lower TR strain hardening
4. Pure metals lower TR due to dislocation movements
Easier to move in pure metals => lower TR

Chapter 7 -

Recrystallization Temperature, TR

Chapter 7 - 49

Stages of Recrystallization
33% CW Brass

3 s 580 oC Initial Recryst.

Chapter 7 -

Stages of Recrystallization
4 s 580 oC Recryst. Contd

8 s 580 oC Recryst. Complete

Chapter 7 - 51

Stages of Recrystallization
15 min 580 oC Grain Growth

10 min 700 oC Grain Growth

Chapter 7 - 52

Cold Work Calculations

A cylindrical rod of brass originally 0.40 in (10.2 mm)
in diameter is to be cold worked by drawing. The
circular cross section will be maintained during
deformation. A cold-worked tensile strength in excess
of 55,000
55 000 psi (380 MPa) and a ductility of at least 15
%EL are desired. Further more, the final diameter
mustt be
b 0.30
0 30 in
i (7.6
(7 6 mm).
) Explain
E l i how
h
thi may be
this
b
accomplished.

Chapter 7 -

Cold Work Calculations Solution

If we directly draw to the final diameter
what happens?
Brass
Cold
Work

Do = 0.40 in

Df = 0.30 in

Ao Af
%CW
Ao

A
x 100 1 f x 100

Ao
0.30 2
Df2 4
x 100 43.8%
x 100 1
1

2
0.40
Do 4

Chapter 7 -

Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

420

540

For %CW = 43.8%

y = 420 MPa
TS = 540 MPa > 380 MPa
%EL = 6
< 15
This doesnt satisfy criteria what can we do?
Chapter 7 -

Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

15

380

27

12

For TS > 380 MPa

> 12 %CW
%CW

For %EL < 15

< 27 %CW
%CW

Our working range is limited to %CW

%CW = 12
12--27
Chapter 7 - 56

Coldwork Calc Soln

Soln:: Recrystallization
Cold draw-anneal-cold draw again
For objective we need a cold work of %CW 12-27
Well use %CW = 20
Diameter after first cold draw (before 2nd cold draw)?
mustt be
b calculated
l l t d as follows:
f ll
2
Df 2 2
Df 2
%CW

%CW 1
x
100
1

2
2
100
D
D
02
02

Df 2 %CW
1

D02
100

0.5

Df 2

D02 %CW 0.5

1

100

20

I t
Intermediate
di t diameter
di
t = Df 1 D02 0.30 1
100

0 .5

0.335 m
Chapter 7 - 57

Cold Work Calculations: Solution

Summary:
1. Cold work

D01= 0.40 in Df1 = 0.335 m

0.335
x 100 30
%CW1 1
0.4

2. Anneal above D02 = Df1

3. Cold work D02= 0.335 in Df 2 =0.30
0.30 m
0 .3 2
x 100 20
%CW2 1

0.335

Therefore, meets all requirements

y 340 MPa
TS 400 MPa
%EL 24

Chapter 7 -

Rate of Recrystallization
E
logR logt logR0
kT
B
logt C
T
note : R 1 / t

50%

start

1
TR

Hot work above TR

Cold work below TR
Smaller
S ll grains
i
stronger at low temperature
weaker at high temperature

finish

log t

Chapter 7 - 59

Summary
Dislocations are observed primarily in metals
and
d alloys.
ll
Strength is increased by making dislocation
motion difficult.
Particular ways to increase strength are to:
--decrease grain size
--solid solution strengthening
--precipitate strengthening
--cold work
Heating
H i (annealing)
(
li ) can reduce
d
di
dislocation
l
i d
density
i
and increase grain size. This decreases the strength.

Chapter 7 - 60

Homework
Problems: 7.9, 7.12, 7.13, 7.15, 7.17, 7.19
7.27, 7.29, 7.31, 7.32, 7.36, 7.41,
7.D3, 7.D4.
Due date:
.

Chapter 7 - 61

Advanced Topics in Dislocation

Phenomena

Chapter 7 - 62

Slip in a Perfect Lattice

First hint as to why there

sshould
ould be crystalline
c ystalli e defects
involved!!!

Chapter 7 - 63

Slip in a Perfect Lattice

Chapter 7 - 64

Slip in a Perfect Lattice

Chapter 7 - 65

Atomic movements near dislocation in

slip (plastic deformation)

Chapter 7 - 66

Why ceramics do not exhibit plastic deformation

at ambient Temperatures?

Chapter 7 - 67

Why ceramics do not exhibit plastic deformation

at ambient Temperatures?

Chapter 7 - 68

Why ceramics do not exhibit plastic deformation

at ambient Temperatures?

Chapter 7 - 69

Stages of Dislocation slip in FCC Metals

Chapter 7 - 70

Stages of Dislocation slip in FCC Metals

Chapter 7 - 71

Stages of Dislocation slip in FCC Metals

Chapter 7 - 72

Stresses around an Edge Dislocation

Dislocation line passes through O

O and extends out of the plane of
the slide
Chapter 7 - 73

Stresses around an Edge Dislocation

Chapter 7 - 74

Forces on Dislocations

Chapter 7 - 75

Forces on Dislocations

Chapter 7 - 76

Dislocation Sources

Chapter 7 - 77