Thermal Analysis and Management of High-Performance Electrical Machines

Thermal Analysis and Management of
High-Performance Electrical Machines
SHAFIGH NATEGH
Doctoral Thesis
Stockholm, Sweden 2013
TRITA-EE 2013:022
ISSN 1653-5146
ISBN 978-91-7501-733-4
KTH School of Electrical Engineering

SE-100 44 Stockholm
SWEDEN
Akademisk avhandling som med tillstnd av Kungl Tekniska hgskolan framlgges

till offentlig granskning fr avlggande av teknologie doktorsexamen torsdag den
13 juni 2013 klockan 14.00 i F3, Kungl Tekniska hgskolan, Lindstedtsvgen 26,
Stockholm.
Shafigh Nategh, juni 2013
Tryck: Universitetsservice US AB
This thesis is dedicated to peace and freedom
iii
v
Abstract
This thesis deals with thermal management aspects of electric machinery
used in high-performance applications with particular focus put on electric
machines designed for hybrid electric vehicle applications.
In the first part of this thesis, new thermal models of liquid (water and
oil) cooled electric machines are proposed. The proposed thermal models are
based on a combination of lumped parameter (LP) and numerical methods.
As a first case study, a permanent-magnet assisted synchronous reluctance
machine (PMaSRM) equipped with a housing water jacket is considered. Particular focus is put on the stator winding and a thermal model is proposed
that divides the stator slot into a number of elliptical copper and impregnation layers. Additionally, an analysis, using results from a proposed simplified
thermal finite element (FE) model representing only a single slot of the stator and its corresponding end winding, is presented in which the number of
layers and the proper connection between the parts of the LP thermal model
representing the end winding and the active part of winding are determined.
The approach is attractive due to its simplicity and the fact that it closely
models the actual temperature distribution for common slot geometries. An
oil-cooled induction machine where the oil is in direct contact with the stator
laminations is also considered. Here, a multi-segment structure is proposed
that divides the stator, winding and cooling system into a number of angular segments. Thereby, the circumferential temperature variation due to
the nonuniform distribution of the coolant in the cooling channels can be
predicted.
In the second part of this thesis, the thermal impact of using different
winding impregnation and steel lamination materials is studied. Conventional varnish, epoxy and a silicone based thermally conductive impregnation
material are investigated and the resulting temperature distributions in three
small induction machines are compared. The thermal impact of using different
steel lamination materials is investigated by simulations using the developed
thermal model of the water cooled PMaSRM. The differences in alloy contents and steel lamination thickness are studied separately and a comparison
between the produced iron losses and the resulting hot-spot temperatures is
presented.
Finally, FE-based approaches for estimating the induced magnet eddy
current losses in the rotor of the considered PMaSRM are reviewed and
compared in the form of a case study based on simulations. A simplified
three-dimensional FE model and an analytical model, both combined with
time-domain 2D FE analysis, are shown to predict the induced eddy current
losses with a relatively good accuracy compared to a complete 3D FE based
model. Hence, the two simplified approaches are promising which motivates
a possible future experimental verification.
Index Terms: Computational fluid dynamics, directly cooled electric
machines, finite element analysis, heat transfer, hybrid electric vehicle,
induction machines, lumped-parameter thermal model, permanent-magnet
assisted synchronous reluctance machines.
vii
Acknowledgements
This PhD thesis concludes the research that I have done at the Department of Electrical Energy Conversion, KTH Royal Institute of Technology,
from September 2009 until June 2013.
First of all, I would like to thank my main supervisor and examiner Prof.
Chandur Sadarangani for providing the opportunity to continue my academic
studies at the post-graduate level. I would also thank my supervisors Assoc. Prof. Oskar Wallmark and Lic. Eng. Mats Leksell for their guidance,
supervision and encouragement throughout my PhD studies period.
I want to express my appreciation to all my current and former colleagues
at the Department of Electrical Energy Conversion (Electrical Machines and
Power Electronics) where I spent four years of my lifes best time. Special
thanks go to my current and former officemates Andreas Krings, Hui Zhang,
Ahmed Noman, Kashif Khan and Shuang Zhao for many nice and fruitful
conversations and also providing an excellent work environment.
I further would like to thank the Termoos project steering committee,
Mr. Jan Folkhammar at BEVI AB, Mr. Viktor Lassila at BAE Systems,
Prof. Mats Alakla at LTH, Mr. Magnus Lindenmo at Surahammars Bruk,
Mr. Svante Bylund formerly at BAE Systems, Lic. Eng. Zhe Huang at
LTH, Assoc. Prof. Anders Malmquist at KTH, Dr. Lars Kvarnsj at Vacuumscmelze, Mr. Tom Sundelin at BAE Systems, Kristoffer Nilsson at BorgWarner/Haldex Traction and Jerker Andersson at Dahrntrd, who guided
me with great comments and questions at the many meetings held during this
project.
Prof. Stefan stlund and Prof. Philip T. Krein are acknowledged for
providing the possibility for me to visit the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign during autumn 2012 and part of winter 2013. I would particularly
thank the Magill family, V. Tutku Buyukdegirmenci, Hao Zhu, Siming Guo,
Enver Candan, Joyce Mast, Giovanni Massa and Kai Van Horn for giving me
a rewarding stay in the US.
I am very grateful to Eva Pettersson and Celie Geira for all of administrative aid, Peter Lnn for his help regarding my computers and software, and
also the E2C laboratory technicians Olle Brnnvall and Jesper Freiberg.
I would also like to extend my thanks to my friends outside the department
for their support and kind help in different ways: Seyedali, Ebrahim, Afshin,
Mohamad, Mohammadreza, Yelena, Angela, Ara, Amin, Majid, Reza, Roya
and Saeid.
Last, but certainly not least, I would like to thank my lovely wife, Asiyeh,
without whose love, continual support and patience my contribution to this
project would not have been possible. Thanks also to my father, Abdolreza
Nategh, for showing me what a hardworking man truly is, and my mother
who without her encouragement and endeavours I would never be able to
achieve my goals.
Shafigh Nategh
Stockholm, Sweden
June 2013
Contents
Contents
ix
1 Introduction
1
1.1 Thermal Analysis and Management of Electric Machinery . . . . . .
1
1.1.1 Thermal Modeling of Electric Machines: Analytical Approaches 2
1.1.2 Thermal Modeling of Electric Machines: Numerical Methods
4
1.2 Objectives and Scope of Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
1.3 Outline of Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
1.4 Scientific Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8
1.5 List of Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
1.5.1 Contributions of Individual Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 Thermal Modeling of Liquid-Cooled Electric Machines
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Thermal Modeling of Water-Cooled PM Machines . . . .
2.2.1 LP Thermal Model of the Winding . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 LP Thermal Model of the Rotor . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Complete LP Thermal Model . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4 Experimental Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Thermal Modeling of Directly Cooled Electric Machines .
2.3.1 Thermal Modeling Approach . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Complete LP Thermal Model . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3 Experimental Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Summary of Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3 Thermal Effects Material Selection

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Thermal Effects of Using Different Impregnation Materials . . .
3.2.1 Impregnation Materials Studied . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 Impregnation Process Using SbTCM . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Thermal Effects of Using Different Steel Lamination Materials
3.3.1 Comparison Between Different Steel Laminations . . . .
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CONTENTS
3.4
3.3.2 Iron Loss Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

3.3.3 Thermal Impact of Using Laminations with Different Qualities 50
Summary of Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4 Magnet Eddy Current Loss Estimation

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Complete 3D Electromagnetic FEM . . . . . . . .
4.3 2D and Partial 3D Electromagnetic FEA . . . . . .
4.4 2D Electromagnetic FEA and Analytical Modeling
4.5 Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 Summary of Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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5 Concluding Remarks
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5.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.2 Proposal for Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
List of Figures
67
List of Tables
71
Bibliography
73
A Glossary of Symbols and Abbreviations
81
B Selected Publications
85
Chapter 1
Introduction
Thermal aspects of electric machines, particularly in high-performance applications,
are concisely presented in this chapter. Also, traditional thermal modeling approaches are reviewed, and strengths and weaknesses of each method are discussed.
Then, the scope of this thesis and the major scientific contributions are highlighted.
Finally, the publications originating from this project are listed.
1.1
Thermal Analysis and Management of Electric

Machinery
In high-performance applications such as hybrid electric vehicles and aerospace,

there is a growing need for electric machines with high torque/power densities.
A higher power density can be achieved by applying higher current densities to
the electric machine windings and/or running the machine at higher speeds. A
high current density in the stator winding results in significant copper losses and,
in turn, high hot-spot temperatures [1, 2]. Also, high rotor speeds lead to higher
current and voltage frequencies that increase the iron losses in the stator and rotor
steel laminations and the permanent magnet segments in permanent magnet (PM)
machines. The increase in copper and iron losses may, if the resulting heat is
not properly dissipated, cause increased temperatures which may be particularly
problematic in parts of the machine that are difficult to cool down (e.g. the rotor).
From the beginning of the twentieth century, considerable efforts have been
put on dealing with thermal issues of electric machines [36]. In this regard, a
considerable amount of work has been carried out on the development of complex
cooling systems that effectively extract losses from critical parts of the machine
[711]. Forced air cooling has been employed to enhance the heat transfer from
the housing fins and often also from the end winding and rotor surfaces [12, 13].
However, for high current densities, air cooling may not be sufficient and some form
of liquid cooling is required [11]. A housing water jacket enables an effective heat
transfer from the active part of the stator winding to the coolant [Paper I], [14,15].
1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
However, water cooling does not provide a successful cooling of the end windings
which can be particularly problematic for machines with long end windings, e.g.
in machines with low pole numbers. Instead of water, oil may also be used as a
cooling medium and different oil cooling methods for electric machinery have been
proposed [7, 1618]. In directly-oil-cooled machines, oil is in direct contact with the
inner parts of the machine and an effective cooling of both the stator and the end
winding body can be realized.
A variety of work has been done and published on improvements in the electromagnetic design of different kinds of electric machines to reduce losses, e.g. the iron
losses in the stator and rotor laminations, and eddy current losses in the permanent
magnets [1922].
In order to improve the thermal behavior of electric machines, a good knowledge
of heat transfer in different parts of the machine is required. Lumped parameter
(LP) thermal analysis and numerical methods are the major approaches proposed
to model thermal effects in electric machines [23].
1.1.1
Thermal Modeling of Electric Machines: Analytical

Approaches
From the time that thermal issues of electric machines first raised, engineers have
tried to develop analytical methods to estimate the temperature distribution in
electric machinery [24, 25]. An early attempt made to implement a functioning
analytical thermal model to predict the temperatures in different parts of an electric
machine is presented in [26, 27] where a simple thermal network is developed for
totally enclosed non-ventilated induction motors. Following this work, the thermal
model of a totally enclosed fan cooled electric machine was developed and tested
by Mellor et al. on a medium (75 kW) and two small size (5.5 kW) induction
machines [28, 29]. In this work, thermal models of different parts of induction
machines were derived. In [30], a thermal model of high-speed induction machines
(20000 200000 rpm) is implemented and discussed. In [31], Lindstrm applied
analytical thermal modeling to the PM machines. Following this work, Agln et
al. [32] employed thermal modeling for high-speed PM machines and EL-Refaie
et al. [33] developed a LP thermal model for multi-barrier interior PM machines.
During the last decade, many attempts have been made mainly by Staton, Boglietti,
Cavagnino et al. to develop more accurate models by solving difficult aspects of
electric machines thermal modeling and identifying thermal parameters which are
difficult to estimate [3440]. Moreover, software packages, e.g. Motor-CAD1 and
Portunus2, with the aim of simplifying thermal modeling of electric machine for
users with only a basic knowledge of heat transfer have been developed.
LP modeling is the most commonly used analytical approach to model thermal
effects in electric machines. A LP model represents a simplification, where spatially
1 Motor-CAD
2 Portunus
is a registered trademark of Motor Design Ltd, Shropshire, U.K.

is a registered trademark of the Cedrat Group, Meylan Cedex, France.
1.1. THERMAL ANALYSIS AND MANAGEMENT OF ELECTRIC

MACHINERY
Figure 1.1: LP thermal model of a sample electric machine. The abbreviations used
are reported in Table 1.1.
distributed fields are approximated as a number of single scalars. Consequently,

the lumped parameters can be configured according to heat transfer fundamentals,
dimensional data of the machine studied and the thermal properties of the materials
used. A simple LP thermal model of a sample machine can be found in Figure 1.1
where conduction is represented by dark blue blocks and convection and radiation
are represented by light blue blocks.
Table 1.1: Abbreviations used in Figure 1.1.
(F)
(R)
Cd
Cv
Rd
Brn
Ec
Es
E-Wnd
Forward
Rear
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Bearing
End cap
End space
End winding
Hs
Plt
Sht
Sl-Wl
St-Br
Yk
Tth
Wnd
Housing
Plate
Shaft
Slot wall
Stator bore
Stator yoke
Stator tooth
Winding
As seen in Figure 1.1, the LP thermal model of a complete electric machine

comprises of the analytical thermal models of different parts of the machine [13,
28, 31, 34, 35, 4143]. Given the heat sources, e.g. winding (copper losses), stator
and rotor steel laminations (iron losses), the thermal network can be solved and
the temperature distribution in different parts of the machine can be estimated.
Implementing and running LP thermal models is a fairly easy and quick task.
However, developing accurate analytical models for complex parts of electric machines, e.g. the winding and the rotor, is challenging. As a result, thermal models
developed based on only analytical modeling methods may not be adequate to
precisely model thermal effects of electric machines with complex structures.
1.1.2
Thermal Modeling of Electric Machines: Numerical

Methods
Finite element analysis (FEA) and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) are commonly used numerical methods for thermal analysis of electric machines [23]. In
a thermal finite element (FE) model, conduction in solid elements with specified
conductivities can be modeled accurately but convection and radiation must be approximated with boundary conditions based on empirical correlations [41, 4448].
Therefore, FEA can provide a fairly accurate picture of temperature distribution in
complex solid parts of the electric machine, e.g. the winding, provided the boundary
conditions are introduced accurately. The thermal FE model of the stationary part
of a sample electric machine, implemented using the software JMAG3 , is shown
in Figure 1.2 [Paper IX]. As can be seen, the solid elements including the stator steel laminations (grey), conductors (yellow), liner4 (dark blue), impregnation
(light blue) and end winding ring (green) are implemented in the FE software and
convective heat transfers are modeled using the boundary conditions.
Thermal FE modeling has been applied to different electric machine topologies.
A thermal FE model of induction motors is presented in [49]. In [50], thermal FE
modeling is applied to PM synchronous motors and a comparison between thermal
FEA and LP modeling is presented. Also, a thermal FE model of high-speed PM
machines is developed in [51].
CFD analysis can be used to accurately model convective heat transfer and also
fluid flows of the coolant in the electric machines equipped with different kinds of
cooling systems [23, 52]. However, implementing and solving CFD and/or thermal
FE models of electric machines can be very time-consuming [23, 53, 54]. Therefore, using these numerical methods for example in design optimization procedures,
where many design iterations are commonly required, is not recommended.
3 JMAG
is a registered trademark of the JSOL Corporation, Tokyo, Japan.

is a paper material insulating the stator laminations from the stator winding. It is also
called slot insulation.
4 Liner
1.2. OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THESIS

a)
b)
97.0
95.3
93.6
91.9
90.2
88.5
Figure 1.2: Thermal FEA of the stationary part of a sample electric machine: a)
FE model; b) FEA results.
1.2
Objectives and Scope of Thesis
The task of this PhD project5 was to develop a deepened knowledge in thermal
design of electric machinery, and to find out how thermal characteristics of materials
and physical design work together in order to optimize performance or to minimize
cost, volume and weight of the electric machines and their cooling systems to a
given performance. The research focuses on existing challenges and problems in
the ongoing product development for vehicle applications. It should be noted,
however, that the outcome of this research can also be applied to electric machines
5 The research presented in this thesis is part of a nationally financed research project named
TERMOOS, Thermal Design of Electric Machines for Hybrid Drive Lines. The project partners
are BAE Systems Hgglunds, KTH, BorgWarner TorqTransfer System AB (Haldex Traction AB),
Lunds Tekniska Hgskola (LTH), Bevi AB, Dahrntrd AB, MagComp, Surahammars Bruk AB
and Vacuumschmelze AB.
designed for the other applications, e.g. aircraft or electric railway traction.
As a first step, thermal modeling methods for liquid-cooled electric machines
have been considered. In this regard, the two most commonly used liquid coolants,
water and oil, were studied. Since water cannot be in direct contact of the inner
parts of electric machines, e.g. the stator and rotor steel laminations, it is normally
applied to electric machines using a housing water jacket. Using oil as coolant
provides the possibility of direct cooling of the inner parts of the machine where
hot-spot temperatures rise, e.g. the end winding. As pointed out in Section 1.1.1
and Section 1.1.2, each particular modeling approach has its own strengths and
weaknesses. On the one hand, the results obtained from the analytical approach
do not have a high accuracy and are also very much dependent on the assumptions
made to simplify the complex structure of machine parts, but on the other hand,
numerical methods are very time-consuming.
In water-cooled electric machines, the coolant is trapped in the housing jacket
and flows in controlled paths. Therefore, the heat transfer to the coolant can be
modeled with a good accuracy using available empirical correlations expressing fluid
flow and heat transfer in the coolant pipes with different cross sectional geometries
and lengths. However, the hot-spot temperature estimation in complex machine
structures including the stator slots and the end winding bodies is challenging.
In [31, 55], the stator winding is modeled by considering the impregnation and
conductors in a stator slot as a homogeneous body with an equivalent thermal conductivity. In [42], two analytical expressions for determining the equivalent thermal
conductivity of a stator slot are evaluated using thermal FEA and it is shown that
the analytical techniques may risk largely underestimating the hot-spot winding
temperature when the fill factor is low (below 0.3). In addition, the temperature
variation in the axial direction, which can be substantial (hot-spot temperatures
often appear in the end windings), is not considered. The commercial software
Motor-CAD uses a LP thermal modeling approach to determine the temperature
distribution in electric machines. In Motor-CAD, the winding is modeled as a number of layers of copper, wire insulation, and inter-conductor insulation [34, 35, 56].
However, the achieved accuracy of the results depends on several input parameters
(provided by the software user) which may have a substantial influence on the estimated end winding temperature and the hot-spot temperature of the active part of
the winding. It should be noted that the temperature of the winding has a direct
influence on the lifetime of the used insulation materials, and an accurate prediction
of the temperature distribution in the winding enables the lifetime of the machine
to be estimated [57]. Furthermore, without an accurate knowledge of the winding
temperature distribution, an effective cooling system design is not possible.
In oil cooled machines, the fluid flow distribution which is in direct contact of
the inner parts of the machine, is relatively difficult to predict. However, precise
information of the fluid velocity is necessary for an accurate temperature prediction
and available analytical expressions are generally not able to model fluid flow in
complex structures of oil cooled electric machines. One approach is to develop CFD
models of the complete machine as presented in [58, 59]. However, as previously
1.3. OUTLINE OF THESIS
mentioned, this method is very time-consuming and hardly suitable for example in
a design process where a considerable number of iterations is needed.
In this thesis, the aforementioned modeling issues are circumvented by combining analytical and numerical methods to take advantages of both approaches. This
enables accurate and relatively simple thermal models provided that the modeling
is done with care.
As highlighted in Section 1.1, the attempts made to reduce the hot-spot temperature in critical parts of the electric machines can be classified in the following
two tracks:
1. High-performance and complex cooling system designs that effectively extract
losses from the critical parts of the electric machines6 .
2. Improvements in the electromagnetic design to reduce the produced losses in
different parts of the machine.
Another parameter that plays a vital role in the thermal behavior of electric machinery, is thermal and loss characteristics of the materials used. Another objective
of this PhD project was to investigate thermal effects of using different materials
in the electric machines. The materials considered are the impregnation material
filling the stator slots and end winding bodies and the steel lamination materials
used to manufacture the stator and rotor.
Needless to say, losses as the input of the thermal models play an important role
in thermal management of electric machines. Since PM machines are commonly
used for high-performance applications, an accurate knowledge of losses produced
in this kind of electric machine is necessary. Therefore, induced eddy currents in
the rotor magnets of PM machines is also studied in this work.
1.3
Outline of Thesis
This PhD thesis is organized in the form of compilation thesis, so that the chapters
are kept brief and the scientific contributions are further presented in the appended
papers. The chapters provide the scientific background, introduce key concepts and
present important simulation and experimental results.
The thesis is outlined as follows.
Chapter 2 focuses on thermal modeling. In the first part of this chapter, a thermal modeling approach for a water-cooled permanent-magnet assisted synchronous
reluctance machine (PMaSRM) is presented. The thermal models of two critical
parts of the machine, the winding and the rotor, are detailed and thermal models
of the remaining parts are reviewed. In the second part of the chapter, a thermal
model for directly cooled electric machines is derived. The main focus is put on the
thermal model of the winding and the complex cooling system structure.
6 The research done at LTH, as one of the main TERMOOS project partners, was focused on
developing effective cooling systems.
In Chapter 3, thermal effects of the slot impregnation materials and steel

laminations are investigated. To study thermal effects of impregnation materials,
both simulation studies and corresponding experimental tests are carried out and
the results are presented. However, the study on the thermal impact of different
steel lamination qualities relies solely on simulation results using the experimentally
verified thermal model presented in the Chapter 2.
Chapter 4 presents three FE-based approaches to model eddy currents and
their associated losses in permanent magnet segments of PM machines. In the first
part of this chapter, a classic approach based on a 3D FE electromagnetic model of
the complete machine, is presented. In the second and third parts of this chapter,
with the aim to reduce the total computation time, 2D electromagnetic FEA is
combined with analytical and partial 3D FE models and the results are compared
with the complete 3D FEA of the machine.
Chapter 5 summarizes the conclusions of the work and provides some proposals
for further research.
1.4
Scientific Contributions
The main contribution presented in this thesis is summarized in the following list.
Thermal effects in a water-cooled PMaSRM is studied and modeled. A new
approach to model heat transfer in the winding, including the stator slots and
end windings, is presented [Paper I]. In this method, advantages of both LP
modeling and FEA are exploited. Particularly, partial FEA is used to develop
a LP thermal model of the winding. The proposed partial FE model of the
winding is simple and can be implemented with relative ease. To model the
temperature variation from the innermost part of the slot to the slot wall,
a LP thermal model is proposed which is based on dividing the slot into a
number of elliptical layers. This approach is attractive due to its simplicity
and the fact that it closely models the actual temperature distribution for
different stator slot geometries. Additionally, as presented in [Paper II], two
LP thermal models of the rotor of a PMaSRM are implemented and compared.
A thermal model for directly cooled electric machines is presented. Focus is
put on critical parts of the machine including the stator slots, the end winding
body and the cooling system. Due to the non-linear distribution of the coolant
in the cooling channels and on the outer surface of the end winding bodies,
and also because of the existence of gathered oil at the bottom of the machine,
the temperature distribution in different stator slots varies circumferentially.
Therefore, a multi-segment structure is proposed that divides the machine
into a number of angular sections, in the circumferential direction. Moreover,
a partial CFD analysis is adopted to estimate the coolant distribution in the
cooling channels and on the outer surfaces of the end windings. As presented
in [Paper III], the proposed approach enables thermal modeling of directly
1.5. LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
cooled electric machines with good accuracy with only a limited need for
time consuming CFD simulations.
Thermal impact of using two available impregnation materials and also an
alternative material with a higher thermal conductivity is studied. The two
available impregnation materials are varnish and Epoxylite7 with thermal
conductivities of 0.25 W/mK and 0.85 W/mK, respectively. The alternative impregnation material studied in this research is a silicone based
thermally conductive material (SbTCM8 ) with the thermal conductivity of
3.2 W/mK. As presented in [Paper IV], three identical machines using the
aforementioned materials are manufactured and tested at different current
amplitudes and cooling conditions.
The thermal and electromagnetic effects of using different steel lamination
qualities in electric machines are investigated. As presented in [Paper V],
varying the thickness and amount of alloy contents of seven commonly used
steel laminations are studied on a PMaSRM. The lamination thickness and
amount of alloy contents are the main parameters characterizing the thermal,
mechanical and electromagnetic properties of the steel laminations materials.
FE-based approaches for computing eddy current losses in permanent magnet
segments of PM machines are presented and compared.
1.5
List of Publications
The following is a list of publications in which the author has contributed to during
this PhD project.
I S. Nategh, O. Wallmark, M. Leksell, and S. Zhao, Thermal analysis of a

PMaSRM using partial FEA and lumped parameter modeling, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 477-488, June 2012.
II S. Nategh, O. Wallmark, and M. Leksell, Thermal analysis of permanentmagnet synchronous reluctance machines, in Proc. 14th European Conference
on Power Electronics and Applications (EPE), Aug. 30-Sept. 1, 2011.
III S. Nategh, Z. Huang, O. Wallmark, M. Leksell, and A. Krings, Thermal

modeling of directly cooled electric machines using lumped parameter and
limited CFD analysis, submitted to the IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion.
7 Epoxylite
is a registered trademark by Elantas PDG, INC. in St. Louis, MO 63147 USA.

SC-320 Thermally Conductive Silicone Encapsulant, LORD Corporation, NC
27511-7923 USA.
8 Thermoset
10
IV S. Nategh, A. Krings, O. Wallmark, and M. Leksell, Evaluation of impregnation materials for thermal management of liquid-cooled electric machines,
submitted to the IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics.
V S. Nategh, A. Krings, Z. Huang, O. Wallmark, M. Leksell, and M. Lindenmo,

Evaluation of stator and rotor lamination materials for thermal management
of a PMaSRM, in Proc. XXth International Conference on Electrical Machines (ICEM), 2-5 September, 2012.
VI S. Nategh, V. Lassila, Z. Huang, O. Wallmark, and M. Leksell, Evaluation

of alternative stator and rotor lamination materials for thermal management
of permanent magnet machines, in Proc. IEEE International Magnetics Conference (INTERMAG), Taipei, 25-29 April, 2011.
VII A. Krings, S. Nategh, O. Wallmark, and J. Soulard, Influence of the welding

process on the performance of slot-less PM motors with SiFi and NiFI stator
lamination, accepted for publication in IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications.
VIII V. T. Buyukdegirmenci, S. Nategh, M. P. Magill, and P. T. Krein, A fast

and flexible analytical approach for thermal modeling of a linear stator structure, in Proc. IEEE International Electric Machines and Drives Conference
(IEMDC), 12-15 May, 2013.
IX V. T. Buyukdegirmenci, M. P. Magill, S. Nategh, and P. T. Krein, Development of closed-form solutions for fast thermal modeling of rotating electric
machinery, in Proc. IEEE International Electric Machines and Drives Conference (IEMDC), 12-15 May, 2013.
X Z. Huang, S. Nategh, M. Alakula, V. Lassila, and Y. Jinliang Direct oil

cooling of traction motors in hybrid drives, in Proc. IEEE International
Electric Vehicle Conference (IEVC), 4-8 March, 2012.
XI A. Krings, S. Nategh, O. Wallmark, and J. Soulard Influence of the welding process on the magnetic properties of a slot-less permanent magnet synchronous machine stator core, in Proc. XXth International Conference on
Electrical Machines (ICEM), 2-5 September, 2012.
XII A. Krings, S. Nategh, O. Wallmark, and J. Soulard Local iron loss identification by thermal measurements on an outer-rotor permanent magnet synchronous machine, in Proc. 15th International Conference on Electrical Machines and Systems (ICEMS), 21-24 October, 2012.
XIII A. Krings, S. Nategh, A. Stening, H. Grop, O. Wallmark, and J. Soulard

Measurement and modeling of iron losses in electrical machines, invited paper, International Conference Magnetism and Metallurgy (WMM), 20-22 June,
2012.
1.5. LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
1.5.1
11
Contributions of Individual Authors
The major parts of [Paper I]-[Paper VI], including the fundamental concepts, discussions, simulation studies, experimental tests, and the manuscript are provided
by the author of this thesis. The co-authors have contributed with helpful comments on the scientific contents, results and papers outline, as well as proofreading.
It should be mentioned that in [Paper III], Zhe Huang from LTH has contributed
with the CFD simulations. In [Paper V], Magnus Lindenmo from Cogent Power
Ltd. provided the required data of the studied steel laminations.
[Paper VIII] and [Paper IX] are the output of the research carried out during
a short-time study visit at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. The
author contributed actively in all parts of this research.
In [Paper X], the author contributed in developing the main idea of this paper,
and also made contributions to Section I, Section III and Section IV of the paper.
In [Paper XIII], the author has written Section IV and contributed in the other
sections. The author has made minor contributions in [Paper VII], [Paper XI] and
[Paper XII].
Chapter 2
Thermal Modeling of
Liquid-Cooled Electric Machines
In this chapter, thermal modeling methods for liquid-cooled electric machines are
presented. The proposed modeling approaches are evaluated on a water-cooled PMaSRM designed for hybrid electric vehicles and on two directly-oil-cooled induction
machines manufactured using different impregnation materials filling the stator slots
and end winding bodies.
2.1
Introduction
As discussed in Chapter 1, LP modeling, which is an analytical approach, and numerical methods (FEM and CFD) are the major approaches used to model thermal
effects in the electric machinery. In this chapter, advantages of both LP modeling and numerical methods are exploited in order to model thermal behavior of
directly- and indirectly-liquid-cooled electric machines. For indirect liquid cooling,
a water-cooled PMaSRM designed for hybrid electric vehicle applications is modeled. Additionally, a direct cooling system implemented on two induction machines
is set up and analyzed.
In the water-cooled PMaSRM, the coolant is trapped in the channels inside
the housing and flows in the paths designed. Thereby, the cooling system can be
thermally modeled using available empirical expressions modeling the convective
heat transfer in the cooling channels. In this work, particular focus is put on the
winding and the rotor which are the critical parts from a thermal point of view
[Paper I]. A thermal model for the winding is proposed that divides the stator slot
into a number of elliptical copper and impregnation layers. Additionally, results
from a proposed simplified thermal FE model representing only a single slot of the
stator and its corresponding end winding part are used to determine the parameters
of the developed winding analytical model.
13
14
CHAPTER 2. THERMAL MODELING OF LIQUID-COOLED ELECTRIC

MACHINES
Figure 2.1: Topology of the PMaSRM in consideration.
In directly cooled machines, the coolant is in direct contact with the inner parts
of the electric machine, e.g. the stator back and the end winding. Such a cooling
system potentially enables an effective cooling of both the stator back and the end
winding body. In the directly cooled machine considered in this work, the coolant
distribution in the cooling channels and on the end winding surfaces are difficult
to predict analytically. Consequently, CFD simulations are needed to model the
coolant flow accurately. The results obtained from a simplified CFD simulation
model are then used in the resulting LP thermal model. Additionally, to model the
actual temperature distribution in the different stator slots and the end winding
regions, a multi-segment structure is proposed that divides the machine into a
number of angular sections.
The developed thermal modeling technique for the winding of the water-cooled
PMaSRM is a general approach that can be applied to the winding of other sorts of
electric machines. Also, the proposed thermal modeling approach for the directlyoil-cooled induction machines can be applied to different types of directly cooled
electric machinery, e.g. synchronous reluctance and permanent magnet machines.
2.2
Thermal Modeling of Water-Cooled PM Machines
The geometry and general data of the studied PMaSRM are reported in Figure 2.1
and Table 2.1, respectively [60, 61].
2.2.1
LP Thermal Model of the Winding
As mentioned in Chapter 1, the temperature of the winding plays an important

role in the reliability and durability of the manufactured electric machines. Each
10 C increase in the winding temperature results in approximately a 50% decrease
in the life time of the insulation material used and, consequently, the life time of the
2.2. THERMAL MODELING OF WATER-COOLED PM MACHINES
15
Table 2.1: PMaSRM data.

Rated power
Rated speed
DC link voltage
Pole pairs
Slots per pole per phase
Cooling type
Stator outer diameter
Rotor diameter
Air-gap length
Shaft diameter
Active length
Magnet segment axial thickness
19
1500
400
2
2
Water jacket
180
112
0.35
52
210
10
kW
rpm
V
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
machine. Additionally, the temperature of the winding directly affects the efficiency
of the machine. Also, the fact that the hot-spot temperature normally occurs in the
winding highlights the importance of an accurate winding temperature prediction,
especially in applications where a high power/torque density is demanded.
Among the proposed thermal models for the winding, the approaches based
on homogenization or the application of a multi-layer structure have attracted a
lot of interest. In [42], Idoughi et al. shows that modeling the stator slots as
a homogenous body may risk underestimating the winding hot-spot temperature
especially in machines with a low fill factor. The multi-layer configuration for the
winding suggested by Staton et al. in [35] 1 is able to estimate the temperature
distribution in the winding provided that the model parameters, e.g. the number
of layers and connection point between the active part of the winding and the end
winding, are selected properly.
In this thesis, the multi-layer modeling approach for the winding is chosen and
to decide on the critical parameters of the thermal model including those mentioned
above, thermal FEA is employed. The proposed partial FE model of the winding
is simple and can be implemented with relative ease. The developed analytical
thermal model is based on dividing the slot into a number of elliptical layers and
the parameters of the proposed thermal model, representing the active part of
winding and end winding, are calculated using an iterative method. The approach
is attractive due to its simplicity and the fact that it closely models the actual
temperature distribution for several common stator slot geometries. Additionally,
a FE modeling of the complete machine is not needed.
1 The winding thermal model used in the software Motor-CAD is based on this winding model
structure.
16

MACHINES
Partial Thermal FEA

In order to derive an accurate multi-layer LP thermal model of the winding, a
realistic picture of the temperature distribution in the active part and in the end
winding is required. Since the heat is transferred mainly in the axial direction
(along the z-axis) in the end winding and in the corresponding radial and tangential
directions in the active winding, a 2D thermal FEA is not suitable and 3D thermal
FEA has to be adopted. The modeling steps followed can be described as follows:
1. Model a single slot in 2D including conductors, impregnation, wedges, slot
divider, liners and stator steel laminations.
2. Extrude all parts in the axial direction by a height equal to the active length
of the machine.
3. Extrude all parts, but the stator laminations, axially by a height equal to the
distance that the liners and wedges are extended out of the active part of the
machine.
4. Extrude the conductors and impregnation by a height approximately equal to
the distance from the wedges and liners to where the winding starts to bend.
5. Model the end winding as a solid body representing the copper and impregnation.
6. Model the convective heat transfer from the end winding surfaces to the end
space air and from the stator surfaces to the air-gap and through housing
to the ambient using appropriate heat transfer boundary conditions. The
thermal model used to model the heat transfer to the air-gap is reviewed in
Appendix A of [Paper I].
7. Implement the losses in the winding and stator as heat sources.
Figure 2.2 shows the 3D thermal FE model used to model the winding. The model
is implemented using the FE software JMAG.
Iterative Approach
As shown in Figure 2.3, to model the heat transfer in the active part of the winding
(stator slots), the isothermal surfaces in the stator slots are modeled as a number of
concentric ellipses. The inner parts of the slot consist of copper and impregnation
layers, indicated by yellow and light blue colors, and the outer parts include an
elliptical layer corresponding to the liner and a layer modeling the air pockets
between the liner and steel laminations. The average thickness of the air layer
depends on the quality of the manufacturing process. In this work, the assumed
thickness of the air layer was 0.05 mm.
Based on the elliptical configuration of the stator slot presented in Figure 2.3, the
LP thermal model of the winding including the active part and the end winding can
17
Step 1
Step 2-4
Step 5
Figure 2.2: 3D thermal FE winding modeling steps. Light green: end winding ring,
dark green: slot wedge, yellow: conductors, dark blue: slot liner, light blue: slot
impregnation.
now be developed. As shown in Figure 2.4, the thermal model comprises of n layers
modeling the heat transfer in the axial direction of the windings active part and
m copper layers surrounded by the impregnation in the radial direction. Since the
thermal conductivity of copper is significantly higher than the thermal conductivity
of the impregnation material, the thermal resistances of the copper layers in the
radial direction can be neglected. However, the heat transfer in the axial direction
through the impregnation material is disregarded and only the axial heat transfer
through the copper conductors is included. As shown in Figure 2.4, the heat transfer
18

MACHINES
Air pockets
Copper
Impregnation
Liner
Figure 2.3: Proposed elliptical model of the active winding. The colors are in
agreement with the colors used in Figure 2.2.
between the end winding and stator slots is also taken into consideration. Since
the hot-spot temperature is normally located in the end winding, particularly in
machines with a low number of poles, including the end winding in the thermal
model of the winding is necessary to estimate the hot-spot temperature of the
winding with a high accuracy.
To limit the complexity of the model, both m and n should be selected as small
as possible while the accuracy is kept in a reasonable range. The selections of m and
n are in this work based on results from the thermal FEA described in Section 2.2.1.
Remark: More information about the optimum values for n and m, and also
the connection point between the active part of the winding and the end winding
is provided in Section III-B3 in [Paper I].
As shown in Figure 2.3, the minor and major radii of the m ellipses are denoted
by ri and ri where i = 1, 2, . . . , m. In addition, the ellipses are selected so that
r1 r1 = r2 r2 = = rm
rm .
(2.1)
From (2.1), the minor radius of the ith copper layer can be expressed as
ri = rm rm
+ ri .
(2.2)
19
Figure 2.4: Proposed LP thermal model of the winding with n axial layers and m
elliptical copper layers in the slot. The selected colors are in agreement with the
colors used in Figure 2.2 and Figure 2.3.
The area enclosed by the ith ellipse is given by ri ri and the (constant) winding
strand density Str in the slot can be expressed as
Pm
N1
N1 + N2
NStr
j=1 Nj
Str =
=
= =
=
,
(2.3)
r1 r1
r2 r2
rm rm
rm rm
20

MACHINES
where NStr is the total number of strands in a slot. Outside each ellipse making
up a copper layer is an impregnation layer with the constant thickness timp (see
Figure 2.3). The major radius of the outermost ellipse rm

is approximated from
the slot height hSlot as
hSlot = 2 (rm
+ tLnr + tAG + tImp ) ,
(2.4)
where tLnr is the thickness of the slot liner and tAG the equivalent air-gap length
between the liner and the slot wall. Now, by combining (2.2) and (2.3), it is found
that the major radius of the ith copper layer ri is related to rm and rm
as
Pi
j=1 Nj
+ r ) r
(rm rm
i
i
= Str .
(2.5)
To determine ri and ri , the value of rm

is first looped in an iterative manner. For
each rm , rm is also looped iteratively. Then, (2.2) and (2.5) are used to compute
approximations of ri and ri . The (known) value of the slot area ASlot is now
used to determine the thickness of the impregnation layer tImp since ASlot can be
approximated from
ASlot = (rm + tLnr + tAG + tImp ) (rm

+ tLnr + tAG + tImp )
(2.6)
and tAG and tLnr are known. With knowledge of the winding fill factor, ASlot , the
slot wedge area, and liner thickness, a known value of the total impregnation area
in the slot AImp can be determined. For the elliptical model described above, the
total impregnation area is approximated as
AImp =
m
X
(ri + tImp ) (ri + tImp ) ri ri
i=1
m
X
i=1

ri tImp + ri tImp + t2Imp .
(2.7)
When the calculated value of AImp corresponds to the (known) slot impregnation
area, the iteration of rm is stopped and hSlot is computed using (2.4). When the
calculated value of hSlot corresponds to the (known) value of the slot height, the
iteration of rm
is also stopped.
The flow chart for the above process is shown in Figure 2.5. Here, L1 and L2 are
the first guesses for rm

and rm , respectively.
As mentioned before, due to the high thermal conductivity of copper, the thermal resistance of each elliptical copper layer is neglected and only the thermal
resistances of the insulation/impregnation layers in the radial direction are considered. The thermal resistance in the jth axial layer of the insulation/impregnation
21
Figure 2.5: Iterative approach for determining winding model parameters.
between copper layer i and copper layer i + 1 can be approximated as

n h
n
RW,j,i =
ln 4(ri + tImp ) + 2r
2LA Imp NSlot

q
+ 4 (ri + tImp )2 + r(ri + tImp ) + r2 /2

q
ln 4ri + 2r + 4 ri2 + rri + r2 /2 ,
(2.8)
where LA is the active machine length, NSlot the total number of slots, and r =
r1 r1 = r2 r2 = . . . = rm
rm .
Remark: Equation (2.8) that represents the thermal resistance of an elliptical
cylinder, is derived in the Appendix B of [Paper I].
22

MACHINES
In the axial direction, the thermal resistance of the ith copper layer RAW,i is
calculated as
RAW,i =
LA
,
Cu AStr Ni n
(2.9)
where AStr is the cross sectional area of a conductor strand.

The thermal resistances between the forward (F) and rear (R) nodes of the end
winding and the active winding REW,F and REW,R are calculated as
REW,F =
LEW,a,F
Cu NSlot AStr NStr
(2.10)
REW,R =
LEW,a,R
,
Cu NSlot AStr NStr
(2.11)
and
where LEW,a,F and LEW,a,R are the lengths of the conductors that connect the
stator slot to the end winding ring in the forward (drive) and rear (non-drive) end
winding coils, respectively.
It should be noted that in the water-cooled machine studied, heat transfer is
mostly through the active part of the winding to the coolant flowing in cooling
ducts. Therefore, the convective heat transfer from the end winding to the end
space air does not play an important role in the thermal behavior of the electric
machine particularly at low rotor speeds. Consequently, in the developed thermal
model of the winding focus is put on the active part of the winding and part of the
end winding the connects the winding active part to the end winding ring. In the
next case study presented in Section 2.3, the heat transfer from the end winding
to the coolant flowing on the end winding surface has a significant influence on
the winding temperature distribution. Thereby, thermal model of the end winding
is further discussed and developed. The same argument can be made for the air
cooled electric machines where the convective heat transfer to the end space air can
significantly affect temperature distribution in the electric machine.
2.2.2
LP Thermal Model of the Rotor
Due to the risk of permanent demagnetization of the rotor magnets if too high
temperatures are reached, an accurate knowledge of the temperature distribution
in the rotor of PM machines is necessary. In addition, the temperature of the
permanent magnets has a direct influence on the performance of the machine since
their remanent flux density decreases with temperature. For the rotor, the heat
flow in the axial direction is considered and the two-dimensional heat transfers in
the x- and y-directions are assumed to be independent. Such a three-dimensional
LP thermal rotor model can be simplified further by assuming that the direction
of the heat flow in the rotor is radial only [33].
23
Remark: Different configurations for the LP thermal model of the rotor are
discussed in [Paper II].
Such an approximate radial geometry and the corresponding LP thermal model
are illustrated in Figure 2.6 where the thermal resistance of each (radially conductive) block consists of several cylindrical sections with a specific angular span. The
thermal resistance of a cylindrical section RCyl with thermal conductivity and an
angular span Span can be expressed as
RCyl =
ln(rEx /rIn )
,
LCyl Span
(2.12)
where rIn and rEx are the inner and outer radii of the cylinder and LCyl = LA /n is
the axial length of the cylindrical section [33, 45].
The eddy current losses in each magnet and the iron losses in the rotor laminations are both injected into the nodes representing the magnets as illustrated in
Figure 2.6.
Stator Bore
Air gap
Block 5
Magnet 4
Magnet 4
Magnet 3
Block 4
Magnet 3
Magnet 2
Block 3
Block 5
Magnet 2
Block 4
Block
2
Block 3
Magnet 1
Block 2
Magnet 1
Block 1
Block 1
Figure 2.6: Radial LP thermal rotor model. Loss sources are indicated as brown
dots.
2.2.3
Complete LP Thermal Model
Using the LP thermal models of the different parts of the PMaSRM described in the
previous sections and below, the complete LP thermal model of the machine is first
implemented, and then solved using the software Portunus. To model the convective
heat transfer from the stator housing to the coolant, the analytical formulations
in [47, 62] and [63] are used. Also, the convective heat transfers from the end
24

MACHINES
winding, shaft, and rotor to the end space are modeled analytically [43]. Except
for the stator winding and the rotor, the LP thermal models of the remaining parts
of the PMaSRM can be found in [2831, 55].
The complete thermal model, including the housing water jacket, is illustrated
in Figure 2.7 where the thermal resistances derived using the references listed above
are illustrated as gray blocks. The yellow and green blocks represent the active part
of the winding and part of the end winding, respectively. The corresponding models are presented in Section 2.2.1. The blue blocks represent the thermal model of
the rotor which is reviewed in Section 2.2.2. In addition to the thermal resistances
that can be calculated using analytical and numerical methods, there are a few
thermal resistances that are difficult to estimate without experimental data available for model calibration. These resistances are visualized as orange blocks and
represent the contact resistance between the stator back and stator housing, the
contact resistance between the rotor yoke and the shaft, and the thermal resistance
representing the heat transfer between the shaft and bearing. The exact values of
these thermal resistances depend on several factors, e.g. the manufacturing process,
the size of machine and the used materials. In this thesis, these resistances are first
pre-estimated according to [34] and then calibrated using data from experimental
tests.
It should be noted, however, that the contact resistance between the rotor yoke
and the shaft as well as the thermal resistance representing the heat transfer between the shaft and the bearings do not play an important role in the hot-spot
temperature determination. Also, as presented in [34, 56], the interface gap between stator steel laminations and housing varies mainly from 0.03 mm to 0.07 mm
for the electric machines with different sizes and the materials used. The estimated
value for the equivalent thickness of the interface gap between the stator steel laminations and housing for the studied machine is 0.048 mm which is in the specified
range. Therefore, even without any calibration and just using the average values
for this parameter results in estimating temperature distribution in the studied
machine with a reasonably high accuracy.
Table 2.2: Abbreviations used in Figure 2.7.
(F)
(R)
Cd
Cv
Rd
Brn
Ec
Es
E-Wnd
Forward
Rear
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Bearing
End cap
End space
End winding
Hs
Plt
Sht
Sl-Wl
St-Br
Yk
Tth
Wnd
Housing
Plate
Shaft
Slot wall
Stator bore
Stator yoke
Stator tooth
Winding
Rd-Cv
Plt
Rd-Cv
Cd
Sht(F)
Cd
Brn(F)
Cd
Ec(F)
Coolant
Cd
Cv
Cv
Cd
Cv
Cv
Es(F)
Cd
Es(F)
Cd
Hs(F)
Es(F)
Cv
Rd-Cv
Es(F)
Cv-Cd
Cv
Cd
E-Wnd(F)
Cd
Cd
Rd-Cv
Cd
Cd
Yk
Hs
Cd
Rotor
Cd
Cd
Sht
Cd
St-Br
Rotor Cv-Cd
Wnd
Cd
Cd
Tth
Coolant
Axial layer n
Cv
Active part of machine
Sl-Wl (1) Sl-Wl (n)
Cd
Yk
Cd
Hs
Wnd
Cd
Sht
Cv-Cd
St-Br
Cd
Tth
Coolant
Cv
Axial layer 1
Ambient
Cv
Cd
Cv
Cd
Es(R)
Cd-Cv
Cd
Cv
Cv
Cd
Rd-Cv
Sht(R)
Cd
Brn(R)
Cd
Ec(R)
Coolant
Es(R) Cv
Es(R)
Cv
E-Wnd(R)
Cd
Hs(R)
Rd-Cv

25
Figure 2.7: Complete LP thermal model of the PMaSRM. The abbreviations used
are reported in Table 2.2. Loss sources are indicated as brown dots. Bold words
represent temperature sensor locations in the experimental setup.
26

MACHINES
2.2.4
Experimental Evaluation
In order to verify the developed thermal model, the prototype PMaSRM described
in Table 2.1 and Figure 2.1 has been equipped with a number of temperature
sensors. All temperatures are measured using a temperature logging system. The
temperature sensors mounted in the rotor are connected to the measurement setup
using a slip-ring unit mounted on the rotor shaft.
A comparison between the experimental and LP model results can be found
in Figure 2.8. In this test, the speed is kept at 150 rpm (5 Hz) and the machine
produces 90 Nm of torque. The ambient temperature is 25 C and the flow rate
and temperature of the inlet water are 25.0 cm3 /s and 25.5 C, respectively. The
machine is also tested experimentally at the same load (90 Nm) and 1500 rpm. The
ambient temperature is 25.9 C and the flow rate and temperature of the inlet water
are 27.2 cm3 /s and 26.2 C, respectively. The results are reported in Figure 2.9.
At 150 rpm and 90 Nm load, due to the low electrical frequency (5 Hz), the
iron losses are neglected and the copper losses in the winding represent the single
source of losses. Since the resistivity of copper is temperature dependent, the calculated copper losses are corrected according to the resulting winding temperature
distribution using iteration.
At 1500 rpm and 90 Nm, the iron losses are estimated by measuring the output
and input power and then subtracting the calculated copper losses where proximity
losses have been computed using the analytical method outlined in [64] and 2D
Electromagnetic FEA. The eddy current losses in the permanent magnets are computed using 3D electromagnetic FEA (see Chapter 4). Additionally, the friction
losses are negligible at this speed [65, 66].
Remark: A detailed description of the experimental setup implemented and also
a comparison between the experimental and the thermal model results at steady
state can be found in Section V in [Paper I]. Additionally, the PM eddy current
loss computation methods are discussed in Chapter 4.
27
140
120
End winding
Temperature ( C)
100
80
Max. Magnet
60
40
Bearing
20
Experiment
Thermal model
0
0
20
40
60
80
Time (min)
100
Figure 2.8: Comparison between experimental and LP modeling results: 90 Nm,

150 rpm.
28

MACHINES
140
End winding
120
Temperature ( C)
100
80
60
Max. Magnet
40
Bearing
20
Experiment
Thermal model
0
0
20
40
60
80
Time (min)
100
Figure 2.9: Comparison between experimental and LP modeling results: 90 Nm,

1500 rpm.
2.3. THERMAL MODELING OF DIRECTLY COOLED ELECTRIC

MACHINES
a)
29
b)
Oil inlet
Housing oil
channel
Oil outlet
c)
Oil outlet
d)
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
2 1 24 23
11 12 13 14
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
12 mm
Housing oil channel
Stator oil channels
End Winding
Stator back
Stator oil channels
Figure 2.10: a) Machine outside view; b) Inside view; c) Stator lamination design;
d) Structure of the cooling system (the arrows indicate fluid flow).
2.3
Thermal Modeling of Directly Cooled Electric

Machines
The cooling system studied provides direct cooling of the stator back and on the
outer surface of the end winding body. The cooling system comprises of a housing oil
channel in the circumferential direction and 24 stator oil channels in the stator back
oriented axially. The inlet nipple is mounted close to the top part of the machine.
The housing oil channel has a height and width of 2.5 and 25 mm, respectively. The
height and width of each stator oil channel are 2 mm and 12 mm. After passing the
stator channels, the oil drops off on the outer surface of the end winding body and
is then collected at the bottom of the housing interior. The collected oil is emptied
using two outlets mounted in both end shields.
The cooling system described above is presented in more detail in Figure 2.10.
30

MACHINES
2.3.1
Thermal Modeling Approach
In this thesis, focus is put on thermal modeling of the critical parts of a directly
cooled machine including the stator slots, the end winding body and the cooling
system. Since the coolant flow is not uniformly distributed in the cooling channels,
the heat transfer to the coolant varies from channel to channel in the circumferential
direction. The same statement can be made for the heat transfer to the coolant
flowing on the end winding surfaces. Also, the gathered oil at the bottom of the
machine at higher inlet coolant flow rates enhances the heat transfer from the end
winding to the coolant at the lower parts of the machine. The above mentioned
states of fluid lead to a varying temperature distribution in the slots and also in the
different outer surfaces of the end winding. Therefore, a multi-segment structure
is proposed for the thermal model that divides the stator, slots, end windings and
cooling system into a number of angular segments, as shown in Figure 2.15 at the
end of this chapter.
In addition, to accurately model thermal effects of the cooling system designed,
a detailed information of the oil distribution in different parts of the machine is
needed. In this work, CFD simulations are used to compute the coolant flow distribution.
Thermal Model of the Stator Winding
In order to model the thermal effects in the stator winding, a realistic picture of the
heat transfer directions in the active and end winding parts of the stator winding is
needed. A cross-sectional view of the end winding arrangement extending outside
a stator slot is illustrated in Figure 2.11. As seen, the end winding arrangement
includes the end winding ring, where the conductors are oriented mainly in the
circumferential direction, and the conductors that connect the end winding ring to
the active part of the winding inside the stator slots.
Based on the coolant flow distribution in the cooling channels and the end
winding surface, as discussed above, the heat transfer inside the end winding arrangement and in the stator slots follows the following paths:
1. From the stator slots, through the steel laminations and to the oil flowing in
the cooling channels.
2. From the end winding arrangement to the oil dropped from the end of the
cooling channels.
3. From the end winding arrangement into the stator slots.
4. From the end winding arrangement to the oil gathered at the bottom of the
machine.
To model the heat transfer in the active part of the stator winding corresponding
to the first item, the thermal modeling approach presented in Section 2.2.1 is used.
Active part of
machine
LEW,a
LEW,b
LEW
Node
31
End winding ring

MACHINES
Figure 2.11: Cross-sectional view of the end winding arrangement.
The axial temperature variation is neglected here and the below expression is used
to model the conductive heat transfer in the impregnation layer between copper
layer i and copper layer i + 1.
RW,i =
n h
1
ln 4 (ri + tImp ) + 2r
2LA Imp

q
2
2
+ 4 (ri + tImp ) + r (ri + tImp ) + r /2
h
io
p
ln 4ri + 2r + 4 ri 2 + rri + r2 /2
(2.13)
In this work, the heat transfer from the end winding nodes to the stator slots
(through the distance LEW,b in Figure 2.11) is represented by REw,Dr,1 and REw,NDr,1
corresponding to the drive and non-drive ends of the machines. In this part of the
machine, the produced heat passes first through the impregnation material in the
end winding ring and then through the conductors that connect the end winding
ring to each stator slot. The thermal resistance that represents the heat transfer
in the conductors between the end winding ring and each stator slot (through the
distance LEW,a in Figure 2.11) on the drive side of the machine can be expressed
as
LEW,a
.
(2.14)
REW,Dr,1a =
Cu AStr NStr
Here, LEW,a is the length of the conductors that connect the stator slot to the
end winding ring (see Figure 2.11), Cu is the thermal conductivity of copper, AStr
32

MACHINES
is the conductor cross-sectional area, and NStr is the number of conductors in each
slot.
The thermal resistance representing the heat transfer from the end winding node
to the conductors that connect the end winding ring to each stator slot (through
the distance LEW,b LEW,a in Figure 2.11) can be expressed as
REW,Dr,1b =
LEW,b LEW,a
.
EW AEW
(2.15)
Here, EW is the equivalent thermal conductivity of the end winding ring; considered as a homogenous body and approximated as [42]:
EW = Imp
(1 + FEW ) Cu + (1 FEW ) Imp

(1 FEW ) Cu + (1 + FEW ) Imp
(2.16)
where FEW is the average end winding fill factor. Also, AEW is the end winding
cross-sectional area divided by the number of slots NSlot . Hence, AEW can be
approximated as

2
2
DEW,Out
DEW,In
AEW =
(2.17)
4NSlot
where DEW,In and DEW,Out are the inner and outer diameters of the end winding
ring. Finally, REW,Dr,1 can now be approximated as
REW,Dr,1 = REW,Dr,1a + REW,Dr,1b
(2.18)
The axially directed heat transfer from the end winding node to the axial end
of the end winding arrangement (through the distance LEWLEW,b in Figure 2.11)
is represented by REw,Dr,2 and REw,NDr,2 , and is obtained as
REW,Dr,2 =
LEW LEW,b
EW AEW
(2.19)
where LEW is the axial length of the end winding. Analogous expressions for the
non-drive side of the electric machines can be easily derived.
The heat transfer between the end winding nodes in each angular segment is
represented by REW,Bt which can be expressed as
REW,Bt =
(DEW,Out + DEW,In )
.
NSlot Cu FEW (DEW,Out DEW,In ) (LEW LEW,a )
(2.20)
Remark: The derivation of (2.20) is detailed in Appendix B of [Paper 3].

The proposed thermal model of angular segment n of the winding is illustrated in Figure 2.12. As seen, the above mentioned thermal resistances modeling the conductive heat transfer inside the end winding are represented as dark
grey blocks. Also, the C concentric elliptical impregnation layers in the stator slot,

MACHINES
33
Figure 2.12: Thermal model of angular segment n of the winding. The arrows
indicate the nodes in where loss sources are introduced.
RW,1 , RW,2 , . . . RW,C , are represented as light grey blocks. Finally, the convective
heat transfer from the end winding surface to the oil ROil,EW,n is represented in
light orange. Since the housing oil channel is centered axially (see Figure 2.10), it
is assumed that the oil distribution is identical on the drive and non-drive sides of
the machines.
Heat Transfer to Coolant: CFD Simulations
To model the heat transfer to the coolant, an accurate estimation of the fluid flow
inside the cooling channels and on the end winding surfaces is needed. In this work,
in order to determine the flow rate in the oil channels, as well as the fluid velocity
on the outer surface of the end windings, two sets of CFD simulations have been
carried out using the software Fluent2 . These CFD simulations are based on the
assumption that the level of the gathered oil at the bottom of the machines can be
neglected. Hence, they are valid only up to a certain inlet flow rate.
First, the cooling channels including the housing and stator oil channels are
implemented in the CFD software. The single inlet of the housing oil channel and
the 48 outlets of the stator oil channels are modeled using appropriate boundary
conditions. Figure 2.13 shows the predicted flow rate distribution in the oil channels
for two different inlet flow rates. On the one hand, due to the large cross-sectional
area and the low height/width ratio of the channels, the coolant is very unevenly
2 Fluent
is a registered trademark by Ansys, Inc. in the United States.
34

MACHINES
5.2e-1
3.9e-1
2.6e-1
1.3e-1
5.3e-6
Figure 2.13: Predicted fluid velocity in the housing and stator oil channels (m/s).
The inlet oil flow rate is 3.5 lit/min.
distributed between the different oil channels, so that heat transfer to the coolant
occurs mainly in the channels located close to the top part of the machine. On the
other hand, the gathered oil at the bottom of the machine cools the lower machine
parts. To compute the fluid velocity on the end winding surfaces, the obtained fluid
flow rates in the stator oil channels are used as inlet boundary conditions in the
CFD simulation model of the end winding. Figure 2.14 shows the fluid velocity close
to the outer surface of the end winding body at an inlet flow rate of 3.5 lit/min.
These results show that for this and lower flow rates, the coolant flow on the end
winding body is essentially circumferential.
The computed fluid velocity is used to model the heat transfer from the stator
back and end winding to the coolant flowing in the channels and on the end winding
surface.
The below formulation from [67] is employed to obtain the Nusselt number Nu
in a rectangular channel for a laminar flow:
Nu = 7.49 17.02 (HCh /WCh ) + 22.43(HCh /WCh )2
3
9.94 (HCh /WCh ) +
(0.065RePr DH /LCh )
h
i.
1 + 0.04(Re Pr DH /LCh )2/3
(2.21)
Here, Re and Pr are the dimensionless Reynolds and Prandtl numbers, respectively,
HCh /WCh is the height/width ratio of the channel, DH is the hydraulic diameter
of the channel, and LCh is the length of each cooling channel.

MACHINES
35
1.4e-1
1.1e-1
6.5e-2
2.9e-2
3.0e-5
Figure 2.14: Predicted fluid velocity on the outer surface of the end winding body
(m/s).
To model the heat transfer from the end winding surface to the oil, the following
equation from [45] is used to obtain the Nusselt number:
Nu = 0.664Re1/2 Pr 1/3
(2.22)
Eq. (2.22) is developed for a laminar flow on a flat surface. Since in the multilayer model, the end winding cylindrical surface is divided into a number of smaller
surfaces, each surface corresponding to a specific layer is approximated as a flat
surface.
If the temperature difference on the surface of the end winding is negligible,
e.g. for a very low inlet flow rate, that the level of the collected oil at the button
of the machine is very low, it can be assumed that all the oil comes out from the
axial channels at the top part of the machine. As a result, the following equation
from [45] can be used to find the Nusselt number for an external flow to a cylinder
(end winding), and the CFD simulation for the end winding part is not needed.

4/5
0.62Re1/2 Pr 1/3
Re 5/8
Nu = 0.3 + h
)
.
1
+
(
i1/4
282000
2/3
1 + (0.4/Pr )
(2.23)
Using the Nusselt numbers, the convective heat transfer coefficients, and as a
result, the corresponding thermal resistances can be easily obtained. It should be
pointed out that the Reynolds number parameter (Re ) used in (2.21)-(2.23) is a
function of the fluid velocity.
36

MACHINES
Remark: The formulas used to model the convective heat transfer to the coolant
are illustrated in Section III-C in [Paper 3].
For the part of the machine that is submerged in the oil at the bottom, the fluid
velocity can be simply found using the inlet coolant flow rate which is equal to the
outlet coolant flow rate at the steady state flow, and the geometry of the end space.
The level of the oil is found using the Bernoulli equation.
2.3.2
Complete LP Thermal Model
As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, the developed thermal model for
directly cooled machines has a multi-segment structure. The complete thermal
model is presented in Figure 2.15 where the stator laminations, stator winding,
housing and cooling system are divided into n angular segments. The thermal
resistances of the stator (RStat and RStat,Bt ) are visualized as light green blocks. The
light grey (RW ) and the dark grey blocks (REW,Dr , REW,NDr , and REW,Bt ) represent
the stator slots and the end winding, respectively. Note that (RW ) includes (RW,1 ),
(RW,2 ), . . . (RW,C ) corresponding to C layers of the active parts of winding (see
Figure 2.12). Also, (REW,Dr ) and (REW,NDr ) are divided into (REW,Dr,1 , REW,Dr,2 )
and (REW,NDr,1 , REW,NDr,2 ) as described in the Section 2.3.1. The dark green
blocks (RHous ) represent the thermal model of the housing and the blue blocks
(RAir,Hs,1 , RAir,Hs,2 ,..., RAir,Hs,n ) represent the convective heat transfer from the
housing fins to the ambient. The light orange blocks (ROil,EW,1 and ROil,EW,2 )
represent the convective heat transfer from the end winding to the coolant (oil) and
the dark orange blocks (ROil,St,1 , ROil,St,2 ,..., ROil,St,n ) represent the heat transfer
from the stator back to the oil flowing in the channels.
LP thermal models of the remaining parts of the machine, e.g. rotor, air-gap,
frame, end shields, and the convective heat transfer from the inner solid parts of
the machine to the air can be found in [28, 30, 43, 55].
2.3.3
Experimental Evaluation
In order to evaluate the developed thermal model, the proposed approach is tested
on two identical machines impregnated using Epoxylite and varnish which are the
most commonly used materials filling the stator slots and end winding bodies.
Additionally, a cooling loop including the container, pump, flow meter, radiator
and fan is provided to introduce the coolant (oil) with a controllable flow rate to
the machines inlet nipple.
A comparison between the measured and predicted end winding temperature
distribution in the machines impregnated using varnish and Epoxylite is presented
in Figure 2.16 and Figure 2.17, respectively. In Figure 2.16 and Figure 2.17, Sensor 1 is located in the middle of the end winding part corresponding to slot 22 (see
Figure 2.10), and the sensors 2,3,..., 6 are distributed evenly every 60 degrees clockwise. In these tests, the inlet flow rate is regulated using the pump at 3.0 lit/min
and 3.5 lit/min. Also the applied current to the winding varies from 3.7 A to 4.1 A.

MACHINES
37
Figure 2.15: The developed LP thermal model of the directly-oil-cooled electric

machines.
Remark: A detailed description of the experimental setup implemented and

also comparison between the experimental and the thermal model results at a wide
range of cooling conditions and current amplitudes can be found in Section IV in
[Paper III].
The experimental results demonstrate that the thermal model is able to estimate
hot-spot temperature in the end winding and also the temperature distribution in
different winding parts with a good accuracy (the maximum observed relative error
is 6%).
38

MACHINES
150
4.1 A, 3.5 lit/min
3.7 A, 3.0 lit/min
Temperature (C )
140
130
120
110
100
1
3
4
Sensor number (-)
Figure 2.16: A comparison between measured and estimated temperature distribution in the end winding body for the machine manufactured using varnish. The
solid and the dashed lines represent the experimental and simulation results, respectively.
2.4
Summary of Chapter
In this chapter, thermal modeling methods for liquid-cooled electric machines were
discussed. In the first part of this chapter, thermal effects of a water-cooled
PMaSRM were studied and a thermal model was developed that is able to estimate the temperature distribution with a good accuracy in both the rotor and the
winding. The approach proposed for thermal modeling of the winding is based on
partial FEA of a single slot. The suggested FE model of the winding is relatively
simple and can be implemented and run in short time.
In the second part of this chapter, a thermal modeling approach for directly
cooled electric machines was proposed. The required CFD simulations in this approach are simple and only basic skills in CFD modeling and heat transfer are
needed.
In the proposed solutions in this chapter, major advantages of LP modeling and
numerical methods are exploited by avoiding time-consuming FE or CFD analysis
of a complete machine. The main message in this chapter to the reader is that
modeling the heat transfer even in the machines with complex structures (geometry
and/or cooling system) is possible provided that the thermal modeling method is
39
2.4. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER
4.1 A, 3.5 lit/min

3.7 A, 3.0 lit/min
Temperature (C )
115
110
105
100
95
90
85
1
3
4
Sensor number (-)
Figure 2.17: A comparison between measured and estimated temperature distribution in the end winding body for the machine manufactured using Epoxylite.
The solid and the dashed lines represent the experimental and simulation results,
respectively.
chosen with care.
Chapter 3
Thermal Effects Material

Selection
In this chapter, thermal effects of different materials used in electric machines are
investigated. The materials considered are the impregnation material, filling the
stator slots and the end winding bodies, and the steel laminations used to build the
stator and rotor parts of the machine.
3.1
Introduction
In addition to electromagnetic and cooling system design, another parameter that

significantly affects the thermal behavior of the electric machinery is the thermal
properties of the materials used.
In the first part of this chapter, thermal effects of two available and one alternative impregnation materials used to fill the stator slots and the end winding bodies
are compared. The available impregnation materials are epoxy and varnish. Varnish has been used in electric machinery applications as insulation material for more
than 70 years [68]. Since varnish is cheap and can be easily applied, the majority of
standard electric machinery are still being impregnated using this material. During
the last twenty years, epoxy has been introduced to electric machines, especially
in high-performance applications. This material has a higher thermal conductivity
in comparison to varnish which enhances the heat transfer in the active part of
the winding and the end winding bodies. Therefore, a reduction in the hot-spot
temperature of the winding can be realized. However, there is still a need for
impregnation materials with higher thermal conductivities. In this regard, a silicone based thermally conductive material (SbTCM1 ) is investigated as a winding
impregnation material in this thesis.
1 Thermoset SC-320 Thermally Conductive Silicone Encapsulant, LORD Corporation, NC
27511-7923 USA.
41
42
CHAPTER 3. THERMAL EFFECTS MATERIAL SELECTION
In order to investigate the thermal effects of the aforementioned materials, appropriate cooling should be provided for both the active part of the stator winding
and the end winding where these materials are applied. Therefore, the direct cooling method presented in Chapter 2 is chosen. Three identical induction machines
using varnish, Epoxylite and SbTCM as winding impregnation materials have been
manufactured and tested. The thermal modeling method for directly cooled machines, presented in Chapter 2 is adopted to carry out a simulation study on the
studied materials.
In the second part of this chapter, the thermal effects of using different steel
laminations in the stator and rotor of electric machines are evaluated. In this regard,
two key parameters characterizing electromagnetic, loss and thermal properties of
the steel lamination materials, namely the lamination thickness and the amount of
alloy contents, are investigated in the form of a simulation study.
3.2
Thermal Effects of Using Different Impregnation

Materials
In addition to thermal conductivity, the thermal impact of different impregnation

materials is also dependent on the quality of the impregnation process, the cooling
conditions and the loss levels. A winding impregnation process with high quality
results in less air pockets in the impregnation body and a higher rate of heat transfer. Moreover, thermal effects of the impregnation material in machines operating
under different cooling conditions and levels of loss production, are not identical.
In this section, first a comparison between the thermal, electrical and mechanical
properties of the studied materials is presented and then thermal effects, considering
the above mentioned parameters, are studied.
3.2.1
Impregnation Materials Studied
The thermal, electrical and mechanical properties of the impregnation materials

considered are compared in Table 3.1. The thermal conductivity has influence on
the hot-spot temperature of the winding. The dielectric strength and volume resistivity are important since the impregnation materials should also act as an electric
insulator materials. It should be noted, however, that a high voltage difference
between the conductors in one slot is not expected and paper insulation (liners)
are normally used to separate the stator laminations from the conductors in the
slot. In the case that two coils are put in one slot, the paper dividers are used to
separate the conductors of the coils. For materials applied using vacuum bars, a
lower viscosity leads to a convenient vacuum impregnation. The values reported in
Table 3.1 for the viscosities of Epoxylite and SbTCM, are at 50 C and 25 C, respectively. These temperatures are reached during the impregnation process. The
impregnation process using SbTCM is carried out at room temperature. However,
3.2. THERMAL EFFECTS OF USING DIFFERENT IMPREGNATION

MATERIALS
43
preheating Epoxylite to 50 C results in a significantly lower viscosity that simplifies

the impregnation process.
The working temperatures of Epoxylite and varnish as standard impregnation
materials can be from 110 C to 180 C according to their classes [57]. Long-term
tests (> 1000 hr) on SbTCM at 150C is carried out and no change in the electrical,
mechanical and thermal properties of this material is observed.
Table 3.1: Comparison between the studied impregnation materials.
Materials
Thermal conductivity (W/mk)
Dielectric strength (kV/mm)
Volume resistivity at 25 C (cm)
Viscosity (Pas)
3.2.2
Varnish
0.18 0.25
80
> 1015
-
Epoxylite
0.80 1.10
20
> 1014
3.5 (at 50 C)
SbTCM
3.20
10
> 1014
25 (at 25 C)
Impregnation Process Using SbTCM
The machines manufactured using varnish and Epoxylite follow the standard procedures of impregnation. The impregnation using SbTCM is similar to Epoxylite
and the material is applied to the stator slots and the end winding using a vacuum
bar. The manufacturing process is shown in Figure 3.1.
First the material and the hardener are mixed at a 1:1 ratio by weight and
volume. A vacuum impregnation was then carried out using a vacuum bar at an
average pressure of 80 kPa. Following the vacuum impregnation, the stationery
part of the machine was put in an oven for 90 minutes where temperature was
adjusted to 125 C. Finally, the mould was removed from the end winding body.
In Figure 3.1h), the qualities of impregnation on the first and second tries are
compared. At the first attempt, the impregnation process followed the vacuum
impregnation procedure using Epoxylite. However, at the second attempt, the
impregnation process was modified, e.g. the inner surface of the mould was not
covered by the grease.
3.2.3
Results
To investigate the influence of the impregnation process quality on the thermal impact of the impregnation material, a simulation study is carried out. The simulation
study is based on the developed LP thermal model for directly cooled machines presented in Chapter 2. The influence of the other parameters, e.g. cooling conditions
and loss levels, are studied through simulation results as well as corresponding
experimental tests.
44

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
Figure 3.1: Manufacturing process: a) Mixing hardener with resin; b-d) Impregnation process in vacuum bar; e) Curing in an industrial oven; f-g) Removing mould
from the end winding; h) The final products.
3.2. THERMAL EFFECTS OF USING DIFFERENT IMPREGNATION

MATERIALS
45
160
Varnish
Epoxy
SbTCM
Hot spot temperature (C )
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Impregnation goodness (-)
0.9
Figure 3.2: A comparison between the hot-spot temperatures of the machines manufactured using different impregnation materials for different impregnation goodness
values.
Impregnation Goodness
Impregnation goodness2 is selected in order to determine the influence of the impregnation process quality on the thermal performance of different impregnation
materials. A comparison between the hot-spot temperatures of the machines manufactured using varnish, Epoxylite and SbTCM at a reasonable range of impregnation
goodness is presented in Figure 3.2. The current magnitude and inlet flow rate are
assumed to be 4.1 A and 3.5 lit/min, respectively.
As seen in Figure 3.2, using impregnation materials with higher thermal conductivities leads to appreciable reductions in the hot-spot temperatures of electric
machines. Additionally, the electric machine impregnated using the SbTCM is
less influenced by the quality of impregnation process compared to varnish and
Epoxylite which is an advantage.
Remark: The complete simulation study is elaborated in Section III in [Paper IV].
2 The impregnation goodness represents the volume of impregnation material over the total
volume of the impregnation body including the air pockets and impregnation material.
46
Cooling Conditions and Loss Levels

Three identical machines using the studied impregnation materials have been manufactured and equipped with a number of PT100 temperature sensors in the active
part of the stator winding and the end winding bodies. In order to make sure that
the sensors are located at the same positions in the three machines and temperature
differences are not due to the sensors displacements, the PT100 sensor locations are
first investigated before applying the impregnation materials to the winding.
Remark: The full description of the temperature sensors investigation process
can be found in Section IV-B in [Paper IV].
The cooling loop designed for the directly-oil-cooled machines includes a pump,
a fan, a radiator, a flow meter and an oil container. The experimental setup is
shown in Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3: Experimental setup. The metal end cap is replaced by an end cap made
of transparent material to enable visual observation of the level of oil gathered at
the bottom of the machine and also the oil distribution on the end winding surfaces.
The experimental tests are done at different current magnitudes and inlet flow
rates. The minimum and maximum flow rates are set based on the level of the
gathered oil at the bottom of the machine. At an inlet flow rate of 3.5 lit/min, the
gathered oil is close to reach the lowermost part of the rotor and below 2.5 lit/min,
there is no oil at the bottom of the machine.
The simulation and corresponding experimental results are presented for inlet
flow rates of 2.5 lit/min, 3.0 lit/min and 3.5 lit/min in Figure 3.4 Figure 3.6,
respectively. As seen, at an inlet flow rate of 2.5 lit/min, the hot-spot temperature
difference between the machines impregnated using Epoxylite and SbTCM varies
from 10 C to 24 C. Also, a temperature difference of 20 C to 28 C can be observed
3.3. THERMAL EFFECTS OF USING DIFFERENT STEEL LAMINATION

MATERIALS
47
between the machines manufactured using varnish and Epoxylite. Since the maximum working temperature of the varnish used is 150 C, it was not possible to test
the machine manufactured using varnish at current magnitudes higher than 3.7 A,
at the flow rates of 2.5 lit/min and 3.0 lit/min. At higher flow rates, e.g. 3.0 lit/min
and 3.5 lit/min, the thermal impact of using impregnation materials with higher
thermal conductivities is diminished. However, the temperature differences are still
substantial.
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
Varnish
Epoxy
SbTCM
70
60
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
Current (A)
4.2
4.4
Figure 3.4: A comparison between the hot-spot temperatures of the machines manufactured using different impregnation materials, at an inlet coolant flow rate of
2.5 lit/min. The solid lines and the dashed lines represent the experimental and
simulation results, respectively.
Remark: The full description of experimental setup, sensor locations and test
conditions can be found in Section IV of [Paper IV].
3.3
Thermal Effects of Using Different Steel Lamination

Materials
The magnetic and thermal properties of electrical steel laminations are largely a
function of the amount of alloy contents [Paper V]. Materials with a high amount
of alloy contents produce less iron losses in a specific frequency interval, and have
a lower thermal conductivity. An increase in the amount of alloy contents inhibits
48
130
120
110
100
90
80
Varnish
Epoxy
SbTCM
70
60
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
Current (A)
4.2
4.4
eddy currents and narrows the hysteresis loop of the material [Paper V]. Therefore,
a reduction in the produced iron losses can be observed. However, laminations with
higher alloy contents have lower thermal conductivities that can result in difficulties
with heat dissipation from the stator and rotor laminations. Consequently, the
hot-spot temperature in the critical parts of the machine increases. Furthermore,
increasing the Si-content decreases the saturation point of the BH curve [69, 70].
Another important parameter of non-oriented steel laminations is the lamination
thickness. Laminations with higher thicknesses produce more eddy current losses
[70]-[Paper V].
As discussed, with changing the amount of alloy contents of the steel laminations, a trade-off between the produced iron losses and the thermal conductivity is obvious. In this section, the thermal impact of laminations with different
thicknesses and amounts of alloy contents used in a PMaSRM designed for HEV
applications is investigated. The PMaSRM is detailed in Chapter 2.

MATERIALS
49
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
Varnish
Epoxy
SbTCM
70
60
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
Current (A)
4.2
4.4
3.3.1
Comparison Between Different Steel Laminations
A comparison between laminations with different amounts of alloy contents and the
same thickness is presented in Table 3.2. The thickness of the selected materials is
0.35 mm. As seen, with a 40% decrease in the amount of alloy contents, the same
percentage of increase in the produced iron losses can be observed. The change in
thermal conductivity is a function of the temperature and at higher temperatures,
the rate of change is reduced. Table 3.2 also shows that there is a strong connection
between the price and the amount of alloy contents.
Laminations with different thicknesses and identical amount of alloy contents
(by % weight) are compared in Table 3.3. Since the amount of alloy contents does
not change, the thermal conductivity of the materials is kept identical (32.0 W/mk
at 100 C). However, thicker steel laminations produce more eddy current losses.
Also, the increases in lamination thickness reduce the manufacturing cost by up to
50%.
50
Table 3.2: Comparison between laminations with different amounts of alloy contents
for the same thickness (0.35 mm). The presented losses are measured at 50 Hz and
1.5 T.
Material grade
% Si+Al (pu)
at 22 C (W/mk)
at 100 C (W/mk)
at 200 C (W/mk)
Loss (W/kg)
Price (pu)
M235-35A
1.00
19.9
29.1
32.4
2.35
1.00
M250-35A
0.91
20.6
31.0
34.4
2.50
0.89
M300-35A
0.74
22.8
32.0
35.4
3.00
0.77
M330-35A
0.58
26.2
34.4
36.8
3.30
0.62
Table 3.3: Comparison between laminations with different thicknesses and the same
amount of alloy contents. Since the produced iron losses in NO18 at 50 Hz are small,
the presented iron loss values are measured at 400 Hz and 1 T.
Material grade
Thickness (mm)
Loss (W/kg)
Price (pu)
3.3.2
NO18
0.18
12.3
1.00
M300-35A
0.35
18.8
0.69
M310-50A
0.50
27.4
0.52
M350-65A
0.65
39.6
0.50
Iron Loss Estimation
The iron losses are estimated using the frequency-dependent iron loss characteristics
of the steel laminations, and the instantaneous magnetic flux density distribution
obtained from 2D electromagnetic FEA of the studied PMaSRM.
Remark: The full description of the iron loss calculation method and the results
can be found in Section II in [Paper V].
3.3.3
Thermal Impact of Using Laminations with Different

Qualities
Estimation of the temperature distribution in different parts of the PMaSRM considered is enabled using the LP thermal model presented in Chapter 2 along with
the computed iron losses in the steel laminations and copper losses in the winding
as inputs. Additionally, eddy current losses in the permanent magnet segments of
the rotor are estimated using a 3D FEA of the electric machine (see Chapter 4 for
more details).
A comparison between the resulting hot-spot temperatures of the winding and
also the temperature of the outermost magnet in the rotor can be found in Figure 3.7 and Figure 3.8. The simulations are carried out for two operating points: 1)
1500 rpm and 108 Nm which represents an operating condition close to the nominal

MATERIALS
51
point of operation, and 2) 3000 rpm and 72 Nm which represents operating in the
field weakening region.
Max. winding temp.
a)
190
185
180
175
170
23535 25035 30035 33035

Steel lamination
b)
Max. rotor temp.
1500 rpm
3000 rpm
140
1500 rpm
3000 rpm
120
100
80
23535 25035 30035 33035
Steel lamination
Figure 3.7: Predicted temperatures ( C) in the PMaSRM: a) Winding; b) Rotor.
As can be seen in Figure 3.7 and Figure 3.8, variations in the alloy contents
for materials with the same thickness does not have a considerable impact on the
resulting temperatures of the PMaSRM in consideration at the nominal operating
point (an increase of up to 2% in the temperature of the winding and rotor is found).
Also, the increase in the temperature of the winding is minor in the field weakening
range (3000 rpm and 72 Nm) and a 10% increase in the predicted temperature
of rotor is found. It should be noted that using materials with lower amounts of
alloy contents can result in a 40% reduction in the lamination cost. The change in
thickness of the laminations has a significant influence on the thermal behavior of
the studied PMaSRM and up to 75% increase in the temperature of the rotor is
obtained in the field weakening region.
52
Max. winding temp.
a)
200
1500 rpm
3000 rpm
190
180
170
NO18
Max. rotor temp.
b)
30035 31050 35065

Steel lamination
180
160
140
1500 rpm
3000 rpm
120
100
80
NO18
30035 31050 35065

Steel lamination
Figure 3.8: Resulting temperatures ( C) in the PMaSRM: a) Winding; b) Rotor.
3.4
Summary of Chapter
In this chapter, thermal effects of using different winding impregnation materials

and steel lamination qualities were evaluated. Two commonly used impregnation
materials were first compared with a silicone based thermally conductive impregnation material. Significant reductions in the hot-spot temperature of winding were
achieved which is promising for thermal management of electric machines and also
the resulting efficiency particularly in high-performance applications. However,
more investigations especially on the mechanical properties of the studied SbTCM
are needed to introduce this material as a standard impregnation material in electric
machinery.
In the second part of this chapter, a simulation study on the thermal effects
of using different steel laminations in the PMaSRM considered in previous chapters was carried out. Two parameters characterizing the thermal, mechanical and
electromagnetic properties of the steel laminations, the amount of alloy contents
and the lamination thickness, were studied. It was shown that using expensive
materials with higher amounts of alloy contents results in a minor reduction in the
53
temperature of machine critical parts in comparison to the materials with smaller

thickness. To verify the simulations, corresponding experimental tests should be
done.
Since the thermal behavior of electric machines directly affects the electromagnetic performance and the efficiency, in the electric machine design process, the
electrical and thermal properties of the selected materials should be taken into
account. There is room for major improvements in the thermal performance of
electric machinery by selecting the right available materials and also searching for
innovative materials with improved thermal properties that can be exploited in
critical parts of the machine.
Chapter 4
Magnet Eddy Current Loss

Estimation
This chapter presents the FE-based approaches used to model eddy current losses
in the permanent magnet segments of the PM machines. In this regard, 2D electromagnetic time-domain FEA is combined with analytical models and partial 3D
frequency-domain FE models to reduce the required computation time for eddy current loss computation.
4.1
Introduction
PM machines containing rare-earth permanent magnets enable high power densities

and a high efficiency. However, during recent years the price of rare-earth based
PM materials has increased substantially which limits the practical use of these
machines to high-performance applications that can deal with the high material
cost. PMaSRMs designed using a lower amount of permanent magnets represent a
cost effective option for several high-performance applications including automotive
traction [71, 72].
As is well known, the field harmonics induce eddy current losses in the permanent magnet segments of the rotor. Since the rotor is a passive part from a thermal
point of view, to prevent from thermal demagnetization of the magnets an accurate estimation of the rotor losses is necessary. In this chapter, different FE-based
approaches used to estimate the eddy current losses in the permanent magnets are
reviewed and discussed.
First, the eddy current losses are computed using 3D electromagnetic FEA. The
PMaSRM presented in Chapter 2 is considered as a case study. This method is then
compared with a combination of a 2D time-domain FEA of the complete machine
and a 3D frequency-domain FEA of only the rotor. Finally, a combination of 2D
time-domain FEA of the PMaSRM and analytical modeling of eddy current losses
55
56
CHAPTER 4. MAGNET EDDY CURRENT LOSS ESTIMATION
is used to estimate the produced eddy current losses in the permanent magnets.
The last two approaches aim to reduce the required eddy current computation time.
4.2
Complete 3D Electromagnetic FEM
Induced eddy currents in the permanent magnets of the rotor represent a 3D phenomenon that, in general, cannot be modeled using pure 2D calculations. However,
running a 3D FEA of the complete machine is, in general, a very time-consuming
process, especially when stator phase current harmonics are considered.
To reduce the induced eddy current losses, the rotor magnets are commonly
axially divided into a number of segments. Provided that axial end effects can
be neglected and also under the assumption that the magnet segments are fully
isolated electrically from each other, the 3D FE model of the complete machine
can be reduced to a 3D model comprising of only the axial half of a single rotor
magnet. The developed 3D FE model of the PMaSRM presented in Chapter 2
is shown in Figure 4.1. As seen, the front side of the model is covered by an air
layer to model the insulation between the magnet segments. A symmetry boundary
condition is applied in the axial ends of the model. The FE software used in this
study is JMAG.
The FEA steps followed can be summarized as:
1. A quarter 3D model of the machine considered is created.
2. The computational mesh is generated. The mesh element size is determined
according to the skin depth of the induced eddy currents. The skin depth
can be approximated as [57]
=
1
f
(4.1)
where and are the magnetic permeability and electric conductivity of the
permanent magnet and f is the frequency of the applied magnetic field. The
mesh element size is then chosen considerably smaller than .
3. The proper material properties and winding configuration are applied.
4. Since half of a magnet segment in the axial direction is modeled, the proper
symmetry boundary condition is implemented.
5. Periodic boundary condition is implemented since a quarter of the machine
is modeled.
6. The FEA is executed.
4.3. 2D AND PARTIAL 3D ELECTROMAGNETIC FEA
57
a)
b)
Figure 4.1: The developed 3D FE model used for eddy current losses computation:
a) Front view; b) Behind view.
4.3
2D and Partial 3D Electromagnetic FEA
The 3D FE analysis described above is very time-consuming, especially if current

harmonics should be taken into account. In order to reduce the computation time,
a 2D FEA combined with partial 3D frequency-domain FE modeling is considered
as well. Using this approach, the air-gap flux density is computed using a 2D
transient FEA of the complete machine. Then, the 3D FE model of the rotor
is implemented and the computed air-gap flux density from the 2D FE model is
applied to the rotor surface as a boundary condition. The 3D frequency-domain
FEA (of the rotor only) is executed and the eddy current losses in the permanent
magnet segments are computed.
The 2D and partial 3D FE models of the studied PMaSRM are presented in
Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3, respectively.
58
Magnet 4
Magnet 3
Magnet 2
Magnet 1
Figure 4.2: The developed 2DFEM model used to compute the flux density in the
air-gap.
Figure 4.3: The developed partial 3DFEM model used to compute the induced
eddy current losses in the magnets.
4.4. 2D ELECTROMAGNETIC FEA AND ANALYTICAL MODELING
4.4
59
2D Electromagnetic FEA and Analytical Modeling
In this section, the partial 3D FEM presented in Section 4.3 is compared with an
analytical approach. Here, the computed rotor flux density from the 2D transient
FEA is exported to Matlab and the eddy current losses are then estimated for
different harmonic components of the flux density waveform. The eddy current
losses PEddy can then be expressed as [73, 74]
PEddy
a
a
sinh sin
bt
2
=
|H|
a
a
2
cosh cos
n 2 2ni 2 nr n 3 sinh nr b
4a4 t | 2 H|2 X
5
5
6
n=0 (2n + 1) |n | (cosh nr b + cos ni b)

n 2 2nr 2 ni n 3 sin nr b
4a4 t | 2 H|2 X
5
5
6
n=0 (2n + 1) |n | (cosh nr b + cos ni b)
(4.2)
where a, b and t are the magnet width, length and thickness, respectively as illustrated in Figure 4.4. The skin depth is obtained using (4.1) and the additional
parameters n , and n are found as
a
1+j
=
n = (2n + 1)
(4.3)
(4.4)
q
n = n 2 + 2 = nr + jni .
(4.5)
Eq. 4.2 is derived by solving Maxwells equations for time harmonic fields where
a magnetic field (H) is applied to a thin conductor (t >> a and b).
b
J
a
H
t
Figure 4.4: Assumed model geometry valid for the analytical expression of induced
eddy currents presented in (4.2).
60
4.5
Evaluation
A comparison between the computed eddy current losses in the permanent magnets
using the above described FE-based approaches is presented here for two different
operating points. The results presented in Figure 4.5 is corresponding to a rotor
speed of 3000 rpm when the stator winding is supplied by a sinusoidal current with
an amplitude of 11 A corresponding to id = 10.83 A and iq = 1.91 A. The resulting
torque at this operating point is 72 Nm which is approximately 65% of the rated
torque.
In Figure 4.6, the results are compared at 6000 rpm (200 Hz) and the current
magnitude is kept at 11 A1 (id = 10.96 A and iq = 0.96 A). The resulting torque
is 39.5 Nm.
As seen in Figure 4.5 and Figure 4.6, the eddy current loss estimation approach
based on a combination of 2D FEM and 3D partial FEM seems to enable eddy
current loss estimation with a good accuracy in the magnets located closer to the
shaft (Magnet 1, 2 and 3). However, the induced eddy current losses in Magnet
4, located close to the outer rotor surface, is underestimated which is likely due
to saturation in the rotor surface close to Magnet 4. Since the 3D partial FEA
is carried out in a frequency domain, saturation in the steel laminations is not
basically taken into account that results in underestimating the applied magnetic
field to Magnet 4 and, in turn, underestimating the produced eddy current losses.
The results obtained using a combination of 2D FEM and analytical modeling
deviate somewhat from the fully FE-based approaches considered. This can likely
be attributed to the fact that in this method, the flux variation in the permanent
magnet segments is not taken into account. It should be noted, however, that
this method represents a rapid approach to estimate the eddy current losses in
machines where the flux density distribution is close to uniform in the permanent
magnet segments.
In order to compare the required time for eddy current loss computation using
different approaches, the FE simulations are performed using a personal computer
equipped with a Core 2 Duo (TM) 3.16 GHz CPU and a 4.0 Gb memory. The
runtime for the full 3D FE simulation is 20 hours. However, the required time
for the 3D frequency-domain FEA of the rotor and the 2D FEA of the complete
machine are 21 and 12 minutes, respectively.
4.6
Summary of Chapter
In this chapter, three FE-based approaches used to model induced eddy current
losses in magnet segments of PM machines have been reviewed and compared in
the form of a small case study.
1 The operating points presented in Figure 4.5 and Figure 4.6 are selected to compare different
eddy current loss estimation methods and thermal, mechanical and voltage constrains of the
studied PMaSRM are not taken into consideration
61
Eddy current losses (W)
Full 3D
2D+Partial 3D
2D+Anly.
10
0
Magnet 1
Magnet 2 Magnet 3
Permanent Magnet
Magnet 4
Eddy current losses (W)
Figure 4.5: A comparison between the computed eddy current losses in the permanent magnet segments using different FE-based approaches at 3000 rpm.
60
Full 3D
2D+Partial 3D
2D+Anly.
40
20
0
Magnet 1
Magnet 2 Magnet 3
Permanent Magnet
Magnet 4
Figure 4.6: A comparison between the computed eddy current losses in the permanent magnet segments using different FE-based approaches at 6000 rpm.
It was found that the reduction in computational time resulted in a lower accuracy. The approach based on FEA of the complete machine can be used in
applications where a high accuracy is needed, for example in a final design verification stage. However, in design procedures where a high number of iterations is
required and the aim is mainly to compare different designs, the methods based
on the combinations of 2D FEA, partial 3D FEA and analytical models can be
suggested.
This work can be continued with experimental verification of the computed eddy
current losses in the permanent magnet segments.
Chapter 5
Concluding Remarks
The research presented in this thesis is summarized and conclusions are drawn
in this chapter. Also, some suggestions and ideas for future work related to the
different topics included in this thesis are provided.
5.1
Summary
In this thesis, thermal effects in the electric machines have been studied. The
focus has been put on machines designed for automotive traction. However, the
results can also be applied to machines designed for the other high-performance
applications, e.g. aerospace or railway traction.
The thermal modeling approaches presented in this work show how an appropriate combination of analytical and numerical methods enables accurate modeling of
heat transfer in electric machinery. The developed thermal models are fairly simple
since the approaches are restricted to a limited need for numerical solutions, e.g.
FE methods and CFD simulations.
In the PMaSRM considered the coolant is trapped in the housing jacket and the
coolant flow and heat transfer to the coolant can be modeled using the available analytical expressions. However, the hot-spot temperature estimation in the winding
and the temperature distribution in the rotor structure cannot be addressed with
equally simple means. Since modeling the heat transfer in the winding including
the stator slots and the end winding bodies using available analytical models was
not possible, a partial FE model containing the coils of a single slot of the winding
was developed. The FE modeling results were then used to determine certain key
parameters of the analytical models presented in this thesis. For the rotor, a simple
radial model is proposed and evaluated. The complete thermal LP model of the
studied PMaSRM was developed using the proposed thermal models of the winding
and rotor. Experimental results verified that the developed thermal model enables
the estimation of the temperature distribution in the machine with a high accuracy.
It should be noted that the proposed algorithm to model the heat transfer in the
63
64
CHAPTER 5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
winding is a general method that can be applied to the winding of the other kinds
of electric machines.
To model the thermal effects of the directly cooled machines considered, an accurate estimation of the coolant flow distribution is needed. Therefore, a relatively
simple set of CFD simulations are carried out to estimate the fluid distribution in
the channels and the end winding body surfaces. The results obtained from the
CFD simulations were then used to model the heat transfer to the coolant and
to develop a LP thermal model of the complete machine. The structure of the
presented LP thermal model is modified so that the heat transfer in the circumferential direction is taken into consideration. The heat transfer in the circumferential
direction is mainly due to the nonuniform distribution of the coolant on the outer
surfaces of the end winding bodies and in the cooling channels, and also because of
the gathered oil at the bottom of the machine. Corresponding experimental tests
demonstrated that the developed thermal model is able to predict the temperature
distribution in the machine with a sufficient accuracy.
The above considered examples convey the important message that suitable and
purposeful combinations of numerical and analytical techniques enable the development of accurate thermal models for electric machines with complex structures.
In this thesis, the influence of using different impregnation materials filling the
stator slots and the end winding bodies were studied. Significant reductions in the
hot-spot temperatures of the windings impregnated using materials with higher
thermal conductivities at different operating and cooling conditions were observed.
In addition, the thermal effects of using different steel laminations were investigated. The influences of the lamination thickness and amount of alloy contents
on the thermal behavior of the machine were studies separately. The simulation
results indicated that using lamination materials with different amounts of alloy
contents leads to a 2%-10% variation in the hot-spot temperatures of rotor and
winding for the PMaSRM in consideration. There is a clear trade-off in thermal
conductivity and loss characteristics of the steel lamination materials considered.
Therefore, choosing a more expensive lamination does not necessarily result in a
significant improvement in the thermal behavior of the machine.
Finally, a review of available FE based approaches used to compute the eddy
current losses in the permanent magnet segments of the rotor of a PMaSRM was
carried out and advantages and disadvantages of each approach were discussed.
5.2
Proposal for Future Work
Some ideas for future research in this field are outlined as follows.
In Chapter 3, the thermal effects of a silicone based thermally conductive material were studied. The results obtained are promising. However, more investigations, especially on the mechanical properties of the material, are needed. Additionally, the search for alternative impregnation materials with a high thermal
conductivity should be continued.
5.2. PROPOSAL FOR FUTURE WORK
65
A simulation study on the thermal impact of using different steel lamination

materials on a PMaSRM was carried out. Unfortunately, experimental evaluation
of the obtained simulation results is not included in this thesis. However, such
an experiment-based study is recommended. Furthermore, work on the thermal
impact of new materials with different thermal and electromagnetic characteristics
that have shown the possibility of being used in the stator and rotor bodies of the
electric machines is suggested.
Available commercial and educational tools for modeling heat transfer in electric
machines are mainly based on pure LP modeling or numerical methods [23]. As
shown in this thesis, in order to estimate the temperature distribution in complex
machine structures accurately, advantages of both analytical and numerical methods should be exploited. Some efforts are being made to provide tools that enable
this coupling between numerical and analytical approaches1. However, there is a
lack of a tool that provides the user with access to the LP network, the FE and
CFD models. Consequently, in the opinion of the author, the development of a tool
with the above mentioned specifications would be a major step forward in thermal
modeling of electric machines.
In Chapter 4, different FE-based approaches available for computing eddy current losses in permanent magnets were reviewed and compared. Since the amount
of eddy current losses in the permanent magnets used in the rotor is low in comparison to the other sources of losses in electric machines, measuring the accurate
amount of the produced eddy current losses is difficult. Hence, the development of
a practical method for eddy current loss measurement in the rotor of a PM machine
would be beneficial for electric machine community.
1 In the new version of the software Motor-CAD that was released in April, 2013, the user has
access to both the LP and FE models.
List of Figures
1.1
1.2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
LP thermal model of a sample electric machine. The abbreviations used

are reported in Table 1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thermal FEA of the stationary part of a sample electric machine: a)
FE model; b) FEA results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Topology of the PMaSRM in consideration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3D thermal FE winding modeling steps. Light green: end winding ring,
dark green: slot wedge, yellow: conductors, dark blue: slot liner, light
blue: slot impregnation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Proposed elliptical model of the active winding. The colors are in agreement with the colors used in Figure 2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Proposed LP thermal model of the winding with n axial layers and m
elliptical copper layers in the slot. The selected colors are in agreement
with the colors used in Figure 2.2 and Figure 2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iterative approach for determining winding model parameters. . . . . .
Radial LP thermal rotor model. Loss sources are indicated as brown dots.
Complete LP thermal model of the PMaSRM. The abbreviations used
are reported in Table 2.2. Loss sources are indicated as brown dots.
Bold words represent temperature sensor locations in the experimental
setup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Comparison between experimental and LP modeling results: 90 Nm,
150 rpm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Comparison between experimental and LP modeling results: 90 Nm,
1500 rpm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a) Machine outside view; b) Inside view; c) Stator lamination design; d)
Structure of the cooling system (the arrows indicate fluid flow). . . . . .
Cross-sectional view of the end winding arrangement. . . . . . . . . . .
Thermal model of angular segment n of the winding. The arrows indicate the nodes in where loss sources are introduced. . . . . . . . . . . .
Predicted fluid velocity in the housing and stator oil channels (m/s).
The inlet oil flow rate is 3.5 lit/min. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
3
5
14
17
18
19
21
23
25
27
28
29
31
33
34
68
List of Figures
2.14 Predicted fluid velocity on the outer surface of the end winding body
(m/s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.15 The developed LP thermal model of the directly-oil-cooled electric machines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.16 A comparison between measured and estimated temperature distribution in the end winding body for the machine manufactured using varnish. The solid and the dashed lines represent the experimental and
simulation results, respectively. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.17 A comparison between measured and estimated temperature distribution in the end winding body for the machine manufactured using Epoxylite.
The solid and the dashed lines represent the experimental and simulation results, respectively. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
4.1
4.2
4.3
Manufacturing process: a) Mixing hardener with resin; b-d) Impregnation process in vacuum bar; e) Curing in an industrial oven; f-g)
Removing mould from the end winding; h) The final products. . . . . .
A comparison between the hot-spot temperatures of the machines manufactured using different impregnation materials for different impregnation goodness values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Experimental setup. The metal end cap is replaced by an end cap made
of transparent material to enable visual observation of the level of oil
gathered at the bottom of the machine and also the oil distribution on
the end winding surfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A comparison between the hot-spot temperatures of the machines manufactured using different impregnation materials, at an inlet coolant flow
rate of 2.5 lit/min. The solid lines and the dashed lines represent the
experimental and simulation results, respectively. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Predicted temperatures ( C) in the PMaSRM: a) Winding; b) Rotor. .
Resulting temperatures ( C) in the PMaSRM: a) Winding; b) Rotor. .
The developed 3D FE model used for eddy current losses computation:
a) Front view; b) Behind view. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The developed 2DFEM model used to compute the flux density in the
air-gap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The developed partial 3DFEM model used to compute the induced eddy
current losses in the magnets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
45
46
47
48
49
51
52
57
58
58
List of Figures
4.4
4.5
4.6
69
Assumed model geometry valid for the analytical expression of induced

eddy currents presented in (4.2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
A comparison between the computed eddy current losses in the permanent magnet segments using different FE-based approaches at 3000 rpm. 61
A comparison between the computed eddy current losses in the permanent magnet segments using different FE-based approaches at 6000 rpm. 61
List of Tables
1.1
Abbreviations used in Figure 1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1
2.2
PMaSRM data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Abbreviations used in Figure 2.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
24
3.1
3.2
Comparison between the studied impregnation materials. . . . . . . . .

Comparison between laminations with different amounts of alloy contents for the same thickness (0.35 mm). The presented losses are measured at 50 Hz and 1.5 T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Comparison between laminations with different thicknesses and the same
amount of alloy contents. Since the produced iron losses in NO18 at
50 Hz are small, the presented iron loss values are measured at 400 Hz
and 1 T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
3.3
71
50
50
Bibliography
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machines for high performance operation, in 33rd Annual Conference of the
IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, IECON, Nov. 2007, pp. 210215.
[2] T. Raminosoa, C. Gerada, and M. Galea, Design considerations for a faulttolerant flux-switching permanent-magnet machine, IEEE Transactions on
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Appendix A
Glossary of Symbols and

Abbreviations
Symbols
AEW
AImp
ASlot
AStr
a
b
DEW,In
DEW,Out
DH
FEW
f
H
HCh
hSlot
LA
LCh
LCyl
LEW
LEW,a
LEW,b
LEW,F
LEW,R
m
Ni
End winding ring cross sectional area of one slot in the axial direction
Impregnation area in a slot
Slot area
Conductor cross sectional area
Magnet width
Magnet length
Inner diameter of the end winding ring
Outer diameter of the end winding ring
Hydraulic diameter
Average end winding fill factor
Frequency
Magnetic field
Stator channel height
Slot height
Active length of machine
Stator channel length
Axial length of a cylindrical rotor section
Axial length of the end winding coils
Length of the conductors that connect the active part of winding to
the end winding ring
Distance between the end winding node and the active part of
machine
Length of forward end winding coils
Length of rear end winding coils
Number of copper layers in a slot
Number of winding strands in winding layer i
81
82
NSlot
NStr
Nu
n
PEddy
Pr
RAir,Hs,n
RAW,i
RCyl
REW,Bt
REW,Dr
REW,F
REW,NDr
REW,R
Re
ROil,EW,n
ROil,St,n
RStat
RStat,Bt
RW,i
RW,j,i
rEx
rIn
ri
ri
t
tAG
tImp
tLnr
WCh
r
Span
Appendix A. Glossary of Symbols and Abbreviations

Total number of slots
Total number of winding strands in a slot
Nusselt number
Number of axial layers
Eddy current losses
Prandtl number
Thermal resistance between the housing and the ambient nodes
Thermal resistance in the axial direction of the ith copper layer
Thermal resistance of a cylindrical rotor section
Thermal resistance that represents heat transfer inside the end
winding ring
Thermal resistance that represents heat transfer from the active part
of winding to the end winding (drive side)
Thermal resistance between the forward end winding node and the
active winding
Thermal resistance that represents heat transfer from the active part
of winding to the end winding (non-drive side)
Thermal resistance between the rear end winding node and the active
winding
Reynolds number
Thermal resistance that models heat transfer from the end winding
to the coolant in the angular segment n of the thermal model
Thermal resistance that models heat transfer from the stator back to
the coolant in the angular segment n of the thermal model
Thermal resistance that models heat transfer in the stator laminations
Thermal resistance that models heat transfer in the stator laminations
between the thermal model angular segments
Thermal resistance of the impregnation between the copper layer i
and i + 1
Thermal resistance in the jth axial layer of the impregnation between
copper layer i and copper layer i + 1
Outer radius of a cylindrical rotor section
Inner radius of a cylindrical rotor section
Minor radius of elliptical copper layer i
Major radius of elliptical copper layer i
Magnet tickness
Equivalent air-gap length between the slot liner and slot wall
Impregnation layer thickness
Thickness of liner and slot insulation
Stator channel width
Magnetic permeability
Length difference between the major and minor radii of the elliptical
copper layer i
Angular span of a cylindrical rotor section
Appendix A. Glossary of Symbols and Abbreviations
Cu
EW
Imp
Str
Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity of copper
Equivalent thermal conductivity of the end winding
Thermal conductivity of the winding impregnation
Electric conductivity
Winding strand density in a slot
Skin depth
Abbreviations
Brn
Cd
CFD
Cv
Ec
Es
E-Wnd
F
FE
FEA
FEM
Hs
IPM
LP
Plt
PM
PMaSRM
R
Rd
SbTCM
Sht
Sl-Wl
St-Br
Tth
Yk
Wnd
Bearing
Conduction
Computational fluid dynamics
Convection
End cap
End space
End winding
Forward (drive) side of electric machines
Finite element
Finite element analysis
Finite element method
Housing
Interior permanent magnet
Lumped parameter
Plate
Permanent megnet
Permanent magnet assisted synchronous reluctance machine
Rear (non-drive) side of electric machines
Radiation
Silicone based thermally conductive material
Shaft
Slot wall
Stator bore
Stator teeth
Stator yoke
Winding
83
Appendix B
Selected Publications
Paper I
S. Nategh, O. Wallmark, M. Leksell, and S. Zhao, Thermal Analysis of
a PMaSRM Using Partial FEA and Lumped Parameter Modeling, IEEE
Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 477-488, June
2012.
2012 IEEE.
85
Paper II
S. Nategh, O. Wallmark, and M. Leksell, Thermal analysis of permanentmagnet synchronous reluctance machines, in Proc. 14th European Conference on Power Electronics and Applications (EPE), Aug. 30-Sept. 1,
2011.
2011 IEEE.
99
Paper III
S. Nategh, Z. Huang, O. Wallmark, M. Leksell, and A. Krings, Thermal
Modeling of Directly Cooled Electric Machines Using Lumped Parameter
and Limited CFD Analysis, submitted to the IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion.
111
Paper IV
S. Nategh, A. Krings, O. Wallmark, and M. Leksell, Evaluation of Impregnation Materials for Thermal Management of Liquid-Cooled Electric
Machines, submitted to the IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics.
According to the TIE regulations, the maximum number of pages for
the submitted manuscript is limited to eight. However, the final version
can be extended to a higher number of pages. Therefore, the shortened
version of this paper is submitted to be reviewed and the full version is
available here.
123
Paper V
S. Nategh, A. Krings, Z. Huang, O. Wallmark, M. Leksell, and M. Lindenmo, Evaluation of stator and rotor lamination materials for thermal
management of a PMaSRM, in Proc. XXth International Conference on
Electrical Machines (ICEM), 2-5 September, 2012.
2012 IEEE.
137
138

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Thermal Analysis and Management of

High-Performance Electrical Machines

KTH School of Electrical Engineering

Akademisk avhandling som med tillstnd av Kungl Tekniska hgskolan framlgges

This thesis is dedicated to peace and freedom

3 Thermal Effects Material Selection

3.3.2 Iron Loss Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

4 Magnet Eddy Current Loss Estimation

A Glossary of Symbols and Abbreviations

Thermal Analysis and Management of Electric

In high-performance applications such as hybrid electric vehicles and aerospace,

Thermal Modeling of Electric Machines: Analytical

is a registered trademark of Motor Design Ltd, Shropshire, U.K.

1.1. THERMAL ANALYSIS AND MANAGEMENT OF ELECTRIC

distributed fields are approximated as a number of single scalars. Consequently,

As seen in Figure 1.1, the LP thermal model of a complete electric machine

Thermal Modeling of Electric Machines: Numerical

is a registered trademark of the JSOL Corporation, Tokyo, Japan.

1.2. OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THESIS

Objectives and Scope of Thesis

1.3. OUTLINE OF THESIS

In Chapter 3, thermal effects of the slot impregnation materials and steel

1.5. LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

I S. Nategh, O. Wallmark, M. Leksell, and S. Zhao, Thermal analysis of a

III S. Nategh, Z. Huang, O. Wallmark, M. Leksell, and A. Krings, Thermal

is a registered trademark by Elantas PDG, INC. in St. Louis, MO 63147 USA.

V S. Nategh, A. Krings, Z. Huang, O. Wallmark, M. Leksell, and M. Lindenmo,

VI S. Nategh, V. Lassila, Z. Huang, O. Wallmark, and M. Leksell, Evaluation

VII A. Krings, S. Nategh, O. Wallmark, and J. Soulard, Influence of the welding

VIII V. T. Buyukdegirmenci, S. Nategh, M. P. Magill, and P. T. Krein, A fast

X Z. Huang, S. Nategh, M. Alakula, V. Lassila, and Y. Jinliang Direct oil

XIII A. Krings, S. Nategh, A. Stening, H. Grop, O. Wallmark, and J. Soulard

1.5. LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

Contributions of Individual Authors

CHAPTER 2. THERMAL MODELING OF LIQUID-COOLED ELECTRIC

Figure 2.1: Topology of the PMaSRM in consideration.

Thermal Modeling of Water-Cooled PM Machines

LP Thermal Model of the Winding

As mentioned in Chapter 1, the temperature of the winding plays an important

2.2. THERMAL MODELING OF WATER-COOLED PM MACHINES

Table 2.1: PMaSRM data.

CHAPTER 2. THERMAL MODELING OF LIQUID-COOLED ELECTRIC

Partial Thermal FEA

2.2. THERMAL MODELING OF WATER-COOLED PM MACHINES

CHAPTER 2. THERMAL MODELING OF LIQUID-COOLED ELECTRIC

2.2. THERMAL MODELING OF WATER-COOLED PM MACHINES

CHAPTER 2. THERMAL MODELING OF LIQUID-COOLED ELECTRIC

Figure 2.3). The major radius of the outermost ellipse rm

To determine ri and ri , the value of rm

ASlot = (rm + tLnr + tAG + tImp ) (rm

(ri + tImp ) (ri + tImp ) ri ri

the first guesses for rm

2.2. THERMAL MODELING OF WATER-COOLED PM MACHINES

Figure 2.5: Iterative approach for determining winding model parameters.

between copper layer i and copper layer i + 1 can be approximated as

CHAPTER 2. THERMAL MODELING OF LIQUID-COOLED ELECTRIC

where AStr is the cross sectional area of a conductor strand.

LP Thermal Model of the Rotor

2.2. THERMAL MODELING OF WATER-COOLED PM MACHINES

Complete LP Thermal Model

CHAPTER 2. THERMAL MODELING OF LIQUID-COOLED ELECTRIC

Active part of machine

Sl-Wl (1) Sl-Wl (n)

2.2. THERMAL MODELING OF WATER-COOLED PM MACHINES