Handbook Sediment Transport by Currents and Waves - Leo Van Rijn

7^.
Vi r
Oj h"^
CONTENTS
Page
1,
INTRODUCTION
1,1
2.
FLUID VELOCITIES AND BED SHEAR STRESS
2.1
2.1
Introduction
2.2
Currents
2.1
2.2.1
C u r r e n t boundary l a y e r
2.1
2.2.2
H y d r a u l i c regimes
2.2
2.2.3
V e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e depth
2.3
2.2.4
F l u i d mixing c o e f f i c i e n t
2.4
2.2.5
Bed shear s t r e s s and bed f r i c t i o n
2.4
2.3
Waves
2.6
2.3.1
Near-bed o r b i t a l v e l o c i t i e s
2.6
2.3.2
Wave boundary l a y e r
2.7
2.3.3
H y d r a u l i c regime i n waves
2,8
2.3.4
V e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n wave boundary l a y e r
2,9
2.3.5
2.3.6
Breaking waves
2.3.7
Mass t r a n s p o r t i n non-breaking waves
2.3.8
Mass t r a n s p o r t by breaking waves
2.4
Combined c u r r e n t and waves
2,25
2.4.1
Introduction
2,25
2.4.2
Wave c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
2.25
2.4.3
Current v e l o c i t i e s and bed-shear s t r e s s e s
2,26
2.5
References
2.38
2.6
Figures
3.
CHARACTERISTIC SEDIMENT TRANSPORT PARAMETERS
3.1
Introduction
3.2
P a r t i c l e parameter
3.1
3.3
P a r t i c l e m o b i l i t y parameter
3.1
3.4
Excess bed-shear s t r e s s parameter
3.2
3.5
Suspension parameter
3,2
2,1
2,13
,
,"
2,15
2,19
2.24
3.1
3,1
CONTENTS ( c o n t i n u e d )
4.
FLUID AND SEDIMENT PROPERTIES
4.1
4.1
F l u i d Properties
4.1
4.1.1
Introduction
4.1
4.1.2
Fluid density
4.1
4.1.3
Fluid viscosity
4,2
4.2
Sediment P r o p e r t i e s
4.3
4.2.1
Introduction
4.3
4.2.2
D e n s i t y and p o r o s i t y
4,3
4.2.3
Shape
4.6
4.2.4
Size
4,7
4.2.5
Particle f a l l velocity
4.9
4.2.6
Angle o f repose
4.3
References
4.4
Figures
5.
INITIATION OF MOTION AND SUSPENSION
5.1
I n i t i a t i o n o f motion
5.1.1
Current
5.1
5.1.2
Waves
5.4
5.1.3
C u r r e n t and waves
5.7
5.2
I n i t i a t i o n o f suspension i n c u r r e n t s
5,9
5.3
References
5.4
Figures
6.
BED FORMS
6.1
6,1
Bed forms i n u n i d i r e c t i o n a l c u r r e n t s
6.1
6.1.1
Classification
6.1
6.1.2
F l a t bed
6.3
6.1.3
Ribbons and r i d g e s
6.3
6.1.4
Ripples
6.3
6.1.5
Dunes
6.4
6.1.6
Washed-out dunes
6.9
6.1.7
Bars
6,10
6.1.8
Upper regime w i t h Anti-dunes
6,10
4,13
4.14
5.1
'.
5.1
5,11
6.2
Bed forms i n non-steady c u r r e n t s
6.10
6.2.1
Non-steady r i v e r f l o w
6.10
6.2.2
Tidal flow
6.13
6.3
Bed forms i n Waves
6.14
6.3.1
Classification
6.14
6.3.2
Ripples
6.15
6.3.3
Sheet f l o w regime
6.21
6.3.4
S u r f zone bars or longshore bars
6.21
6.4
Bed forms i n c u r r e n t s and waves
6.22
6.4.1
Classification
6.22
6.4.2
Transverse r i p p l e s
6.24
6.4.3
Transverse sand waves
6.25
6.4.4
L o n g i t u d i n a l r i b b o n s , r i d g e s and banks
6.27
6.5
References
6.29
6.6
Figures
7.
EFFECTIVE BED ROUGHNESS
7.1
7.1
Introduction
7.1
7.2
C u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed roughness
7.1
7.2.1
Methods based on bed-form parameters
7.1
7.2.2
Methods based on i n t e g r a l parameters
7.6
7.2.3
Comparison o f methods
7.8
7.3
Wave-related bed roughness....,
7.9
7.4
Bed roughness i n combined c u r r e n t s and waves
7.11
7.5
References
7.14
7.6
Figures
8.
BED MATERIAL SSPENSIC! AND TRANSPORT I N STEADY UNIFORM

CURRENTS
8.1
8.1
Introduction
8.1
8.2
Bed load t r a n s p o r t
8.2
8.2.1
Introduction
8.2
8.2.2
P r e d i c t i o n method o f Meyer-Peter and Mller ( 1948)
8.3
8.2.3
P r e d i c t i o n method o f F r i j l i n k ( 1952)
8.4
CONTENTS
(continued)
8.2.4
P r e d i c t i o n method o f Bagnold (1966)
8.4
8.2.5
P r e d i c t i o n method o f Van R i j n ( 1984)
8.2.6
T r a n s p o r t a t low shear stresses
8.2.7
T r a n s p o r t o f non-uniform bed m a t e r i a l
8.16
8.2.8
Comparison o f bed load t r a n s p o r t formulae
8.18
8.3
Suspended load t r a n s p o r t
8.19
8.3.1
Introduction
8.19
8.3.2
Mass-balance equation f o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n
8.20
8.3.3
Sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t
8.20
8.3.4
Concentration p r o f i l e s
8.23
8.3.5
Velocity p r o f i l e
8.25
8.3.6
Reference c o n c e n t r a t i o n
8.3.7
I n f l u e n c e o f non-uniform bed m a t e r i a l
8.29
8.3.8
P r e d i c t i o n method o f E i n s t e i n (1950)
8.30
8.3.9
8.31
8.3.10
P r e d i c t i o n method o f B i j k e r (1971)
8.31
8.3.11
P r e d i c t i o n method o f Van R i j n ( 1 9 8 4 ) . . . . . , .
8.32
8.4
T o t a l load t r a n s p o r t
8,35
8.4.1
P r e d i c t i o n methods o f E i n s t e i n , Bagnold, B i j k e r and Van R i j n , , ,
8,35
8.4.2
P r e d i c t i o n method o f Engelund-Hansen (1967)
8,36
8.4.3
P r e d i c t i o n method o f Ackers-White (1973)
8.36
8.4.4
Comparison o f p r e d i c t i o n methods
8.37
8.5
References
8.39
8.6
Figures
9.
BED MATERIAL SUSPENSI(J AND TRANSPORT I N UNIFORM WAVES, , , ,
9.1
Introduction
9.2
Analysis
'
8.16
and reference l e v e l
o f measured c o n c e n t r a t i o n
8.5
8.26
9.1
9.1
p r o f i l e s and t r a n s p o r t
rates
9.3
9.2.1
Instantaneous c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
9.3
9.2.2
Time-averaged c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
9.5
9.2.3
Sediment t r a n s p o r t r a t e s
9.3
Computation o f time-averaged c o n c e n t r a t i o n
9.3.1
Introduction
9.10
on p r o f i l e s
9.12
9,12
CONTENTS
(continued)
9v3.2
Time-averaged
9.14
9.3.3
P a r t i c l e s i z e and f a l l v e l o c i t y o f suspended sediment
9.15
9.3.4
Sediment mixing
9.17
9.4.3.1
Existing relationships
9.3.4.2
New r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r wave-related mixing
9.3.5
Sediment mixing
9.3.6
Sediment mixing c o e f f i c i e n t f o r non-breaking and breaking
c o n v e c t i o n - d i f f u s i o n equation
c o e f f i c i e n t f o r non-breaking waves
9.17
c o e f f i c i e n t i n breaking
coefficient
9.22
9.26
waves
9.28
waves
9.3.7
9-29
9.3.8
Computation methods
9.3.9
Comparison
9.4
Computation o f sediment t r a n s p o r t r a t e s
9.39
9.4.1
Introduction
9.39
9.4.2
Sediment t r a n s p o r t formulae
9.39
9.4.3
Sediment t r a n s p o r t models
9.44
9.5
References
9.47
9.6
Figures
10.
BED MATERIAL SUSPENSION AND TRANSPORT I N COMBINED WAVES AND
i n near-bed r e g i o n
9.32
o f measured and computed
concentration
profiles
9.38
CURRENTS
10.1
10.1
Introduction
10.1
10.2
A n a l y s i s o f measured c o n c e n t r a t i o n
p r o f i l e s and t r a n s p o r t
10.1
rates
10.2.1
Time-averaged
10.2.2
10.3
10.3.1
Introduction
10.7
10.3.2
Computation methods
10.7
10.3.3
Comparison o f measured and computed c o n c e n t r a t i o n
10.4
Computation o f sediment t r a n s p o r t i n non-breaking waves
10.11
10.4.1
Introduction
10.11
10.4.2
Computation methods
10.11
10.4.3
Comparison
10.5
Computation o f sediment t r a n s p o r t i n breaking
concentration
10.1
profiles
o f measured and computed
10.4
profiles
profiles
transport rates
waves ( s u r f z o n e )
10.7
10.10
10.21
10.23
10.5.1
Introduction
10.23
10.5.2
Computation methods
10,23
10.5.3
Comparison o f measured and computed t r a n s p o r t r a t e s
10,26
10.6
References
10.27
10.7
Figures
11,
BED MATERIAL TRANSPORT IN NON-STEADY AND NON-UNIFORM FLOW
11,1
11.1
Introduction
11.1
11.2
Non-steady suspended sediment t r a n s p o r t
11.1
11 ,2,1
River f l o w
11,1
11,2,2
Tidal flow
11,1
11.3
Non-uniform suspended sediment t r a n s p o r t , a d j u s t m e n t l e n g t h , . , .
11.2
11.4
Mathematical d e s c r i p t i o n o f suspended sediment t r a n s p o r t
11,3
11.4.1
Mass-balance
11.4.2
Momentum balance f o r f l u i d - s e d i m e n t
11.4.3
H o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l f l u i d and sediment m i x i n g
11.9
11.4.4
Scale a n a l y s i s
11.15
11.4.5
R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f neap-spring c y c l e i n sediment t r a n s p o r t
equation
11.3
mixture
11.6
Computations
11.17
11.5
Mathematical models
11,20
11.5.1
Introduction
11.20
11.5.2
Two-dimensional v e r t i c a l suspended sediment model
11.21
11.5.3
Three-dimensional suspended sediment model
11.24
11.6
References
11.25
11.7
Figures
12.
TRANSPORT OF COHESIVE MATERIALS
12.1
12.1
Introduction
12.1
12.2
Cohesion, p l a s t i c i t y , v i s c o s i t y and y i e l d s t r e s s
12.1
12.3
Flocculation
12.3
12.4
Settling
12.5
12.5
Deposition
12.7
12.5.1
Introduction
12.7
12.5.2
C o n c e n t r a t i o n s > 10 kg/m3
12.7
12.5.3
C o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f 0.3
t o 10 kg/m3
12.8
12.5.4
C o n c e n t r a t i o n < 0.3 kg/m3
12.6
Consolidation
12.7
Erosion
12,15
12.7.1
Introduction
12,15
12.7.2
C o n s o l i d a t e d hard d e p o s i t s
12,16
12.7.3
Consolidated s o f t deposits
12,16
12.7.4
Erosion r a t e s
12.19
12.7.5
Bed forms and roughness
12,19
12.8
T r a n s p o r t o f mud by c u r r e n t s
12.20
12.8.1
Steady f l o w
12.8.2
Non-steady
12.9
T r a n s p o r t o f mud by waves
12,22
12.10
References
12,25
12.11
Figures
12.10
12,12
12.20
( t i d a l ) flow
12.20
-1.1-
1.
INTRODUCTION
T h i s handbook i s concerned mainly w i t h phenomena r e l a t e d t o movable beds cons i s t i n g o f cohesive and non-cohesive sediment m a t e r i a l i n c u r r e n t s , waves or
b o t h . The t o p i c s covered are sediment p r o p e r t i e s , i n i t i a t i o n o f m o t i o n and
suspension, bed forms, e f f e c t i v e bed roughness, the t r a n s p o r t o f non-cohesive
and cohesive sediments. A s h o r t summary o f the basic f l u i d parameters i s a l s o
g i v e n (Chapter 2 ) .
The book i s an a t t e m p t t o summarize the most r e l e v a n t t h e o r i e s and measurements. The a u t h o r has not t r i e d t o g i v e a complete summary o f the overwhelming
amount o f l i t e r a t u r e a v a i l a b l e . Only, those t h e o r i e s and data which a r e c o n s i dered r e l e v a n t by the a u t h o r , are presented and discussed. Many o f t h e o l d
ideas o f the a u t h o r r e l a t e d t o r i v e r problems are presented; new ideas a r e
proposed w i t h r e s p e c t t o sediment t r a n s p o r t i n c o a s t a l waters where the e f f e c t
o f t h e waves i s dominant. Much a t t e n t i o n i s paid t o q u a n t i t a t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n
( d a t a ) because t h e sediment t r a n s p o r t phenomena are too c o m p l i c a t e d f o r f u l l
theoretical description.
The f o l l o w i n g s u b j e c t s
( c h a p t e r s ) are presenteed:
2.
F l u i d v e l o c i t i e s and bed-shear s t r e s s e s .
3.
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c sediment t r a n s p o r t parameters.
4.
F l u i d and sediment p r o p e r t i e s .
5.
I n i t i a t i o n o f motion and suspension.
6.
Bed forms.
7.
E f f e c t i v e bed roughness.
8.
Bed m a t e r i a l suspension and t r a n s p o r t i n steady u n i f o r m
9.
Bed m a t e r i a l suspension and t r a n s p o r t i n uniform
currents.
waves.
10.
Bed m a t e r i a l suspension and t r a n s p o r t i n combined waves and c u r r e n t s
11.
Bed m a t e r i a l t r a n s p o r t i n non-steady and non-uniform f l o w .
12.
T r a n s p o r t o f cohesive m a t e r i a l s .
The a u t h o r hopes t h a t t h i s handbook w i l l serve as a p r a c t i c a l t o o l f o r r i v e r

and c o a s t a l engineers, p h y s i c a l geographers, oceanographers, g e o l o g i s t s and
earth
scientists.
-2.1-
2.
2.1
FLUID VELOCITIES AND BED SHEAR STRESS
Introduction
Sediment t r a n s p o r t processes
i n c u r r e n t s and/or waves do mainly occur i n t h e
near-bed r e g i o n . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s o f e s s e n t i a l importance t o know t h e magnitude

and d i r e c t i o n o f the near-bed v e l o c i t i e s and s h e a r - s t r e s s e s i n t h e presence o f
bed forms ( r i p p l e s , dunes) o r i n case o f a f l a t bed.
In t h i s Chapter 2 an overview i s g i v e n o f e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s and t h e o r e t i c a l
expressions r e l a t e d t o near-bed v e l o c i t i e s and bed-shear s t r e s s e s . The f o l l o wing s u b j e c t s a r e covered:
currents
waves
c u r r e n t s and waves
2.2
2.2.1
Currents
C u r r e n t boundary l a y e r
According t o t h e Reynolds' procedure, t h e shear s t r e s s a t h e i g h t z i n a steady

u n i f o r m f l o w can be described as:
(2.2.1)
^z = P ^ i - P ^
Although t h e time-averaged
v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y w i s equal t o z e r o (w = 0 ) , t h e
v e r t i c a l t u r b u l e n t f l u c t u a t i o n s are n o t equal t o zero (w' * 0 ) . Consequently,

the t u r b u l e n c e shear s t r e s s x, = - p u'w' # 0.
The t u r b u l e n t shear s t r e s s t^. i s dominant i n the major p a r t o f t h e f l o w depth.
In case o f a smooth bottom t h e v i s c o u s shear s t r e s s
becomes dominant c l o s e
to t h e bottom because the t u r b u l e n t f l u c t u a t i o n s u' and w' d i e o u t near t h e

bottom and a r e equal t o zero a t t h e bottom ( u ' = w' a t z = 0 ) . The l a y e r where
the v i s c o u s shear s t r e s s i s dominant i s c a l l e d the v i s c o u s s u b l a y e r (^).
Above t h e v i s c o u s sublayer t h e f l o w i s t u r b u l e n t . The most i m p o r t a n t t u r b u l e n t
s u b l a y e r i s t h e l o g a r i t h m i c s u b l a y e r . Between the v i s c o u s s u b l a y e r and t h e
l o g a r i t h m i c s u b l a y e r t h e r e i s a t r a n s i t i o n s u b l a y e r , sometimes c a l l e d t h e
b u f f e r s u b l a y e r . Above the l o g a r i t m i c sublayer t h e r e i s an o u t e r s u b l a y e r (see
also Figure 2.2.IA).
-2.2-
2.2.2
The
H y d r a u l i c regimes
e f f e c t o f the bottom ( o r w a l l ) roughness on the v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a
turbulent
f l o w was f i r s t i n v e s t i g a t e d
f o r pipe f l o w by Nikuradse
He
(1933).
used pipes covered w i t h u n i f o r m sand g r a i n s a t the i n s i d e and he measured

v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s a t d i f f e r e n t Reynolds' numbers (Re), pipe diameters
and g r a i n s s i z e s (d^Q). Based on these experiments, Nikuradse
concept o f the e q u i v a l e n t sand g r a i n roughness o r Nikuradse
(D)
introduced the
roughness (kg) as
a standard f o r a l l o t h e r types o f roughness elements ( k ) .
The roughness elements mainly i n f l u e n c e
the v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n c l o s e t o the
bottom, because the roughness elements generate eddies ( w i t h a s i z e o f the

o r d e r o f the roughness elements) which a f f e c t the t u r b u l e n c e s t r u c t u r e
and
hence t h e v e l o c i t i e s close t o the bottom. F u r t h e r away, the eddies w i l l

be absorbed i n the g e n e r a l e x i s t i n g t u r b u l e n c e
The
pattern.
type o f f l o w regime can be r e l a t e d t o the r a t i o o f the Nikuradse
(kg) and a l e n g t h s c a l e of the viscous s u b l a y e r ( v / u ^

v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t and
= current-related
Based on e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s , i t was
Hydraulically
smooth f l o w ,
) i n which v
bed-shear
roughness
kinematic
stress.
found:
k
1.
rapidly
f o r 7 - ^ = ^^-^ < 5
^/^*,c
The roughness elements are much s m a l l e r than the t h i c k n e s s o f the v i s c o u s

s u b l a y e r and do n o t a f f e c t the v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n .
2.
Hydraulically
k
Ujj
rough f l o w , f o r r-^ =
k
>
70
A v i s c o u s s u b l a y e r does not e x i s t and the v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i s not

dependent on the v i s c o s i t y
3.
Hydraulically
( v ) o f the f l u i d .
u^ k
t r a n s i t i o n a l flow, f o r 5 < <
The v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i s a f f e c t e d
bottom
roughness.
70
by v i s c o s i t y as w e l l as by the
-2.3-
2.2.3
V e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n over the depth
A g e n e r a l e x p r e s s i o n f o r the v e l o c i t y
and rough f l o w s
d i s t r i b u t i o n over the depth f o r smooth
is:
(2.2.2)
i n which:
Zq = z e r o - v e l o c i t y l e v e l ( u
H y d r a u l i c a l l y smooth regime:
a t z = Zq)
= 0.11
0
H y d r a u l i c a l l y rough regime:
z
0
H y d r a u l i c a l l y t r a n s i t i o n regime: z
for
u.
for
= 0.033 k
s
= 0.11
+ 0.033 k
u k
*, c s
Ul. k
*,c s
for 5 <
*'
< 5
> 70
^ < 70
,c
The zero v e l o c i t y
l e v e l should be i n t e r p r e t e d as a computation parameter
w i t h o u t p h y s i c a l meaning, because Eq. (2.2.2) i s n o t v a l i d c l o s e t o the bottom.

I n case o f a rough boundary the p o s i t i o n o f the z e r o - v e l o c i t y p o i n t i s unknown.
U s u a l l y , the bottom plane (z=0) i s d e f i n e d as the plane t h a t i s formed
after
smoothing o u t the roughness elements. For s p h e r i c a l roughness elements
this
y i e l d s a value o f about 0.75k above the underside o f the spheres ( k = sphere

d i a m e t e r ) . A r e a l i s t i c value o f the z e r o - v e l o c i t y l e v e l
(z = z^) can be found
by p l o t t i n g the values o f u/u a g a i n s t z-z^/z^ on s e m i l o g a r i t h m i c s c a l e and

v a r y i n g z^ u n t i l the b e s t f i t i s o b t a i n e d . T h i s method y i e l d s values z^ = 0,25k
f o r sand and g r a v e l
particles.
Averaging o f Eq. (2.2.2) over the depth
-^-l
yields:
(2.2.3)
J ' ^ l ^ ( ^ ) d - ^ [ ^ - 1 ^ l ^ ( ^ ] ]
z^
o
o
N e g l e c t i n g the z^/h-parameter i n Eq. ( 2 . 2 . 3 ) , t h e depth-averaged f l o w

does occur a t z = h/e
0,37h, i n which e i s the base o f the n a t u r a l
velocity
logarithm
(e - 2.72).
A p p l y i n g Eq. ( 2 . 2 . 3 ) i n Eq. ( 2 . 2 . 2 ) , the v e l o c i t y
expressed as:
d i s t r i b u t i o n can a l s o be
-2.H-
" =
/h - 1 " l n ( h / z )1
O
2.2.4
(2.2.11)
0
F l u i d mixing c o e f f i c i e n t
A p p l y i n g a l o g a r i t h m i c v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e and assuming a l i n e a r shear
stress
d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e depth, y i e l d s a p a r a b o l i c f l u i d m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t .
^ f , c = ^ z(1-z/h)u^^
(2.2.5)
Based on t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s o f Coleman (1970), Van R i j n (1984) i n t r o d u c e d

a p a r a b o l i c - c o n s t a n t m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n ; p a r a b o l i c i n t h e lower
h a l f o f t h e depth and constant i n the upper h a l f o f t h e depth:
= K z(1-z/h)u5j
= 0.25 K
f o r z/h < 0.5
(2.2.6a)
f o r z/h > 0.5
(2.2.6b)
The main reason f o r a p p l y i n g Eq. ( 2 . 2 . 6 ) i s t h a t i t produces a more r e a l i s t i c

c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e w i t h f i n i t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a t t h e water s u r f a c e (Van
Rijn,
2.2.5
1984).
The o v e r a l l time-averaged bed-shear s t r e s s i s d e f i n e d a s :

_2
^b,c = Pgî =
= P ^^c
(2.2.7)
i n which:
h
= water depth
= energy l i n e g r a d i e n t
= depth-averaged
= Chzy-coefficient (C^ = 8 g / f )
c
velocity
f g = f r i c t i o n f a c t o r o f Darcy-Weisbach
kg = e f f e c t i v e bed roughness
height
-2.5-
Laminar f l o w
The f r i c t i o n f a c t o r f o r laminar f l o w i n a wide open channel i s :
i n which:
Re = h/v
= Reynolds number
H y d r a u l i c smooth t u r b u l e n t f l o w
For a wide open channel:
f
-0.5
(g^)
= 3 + 2.5 l n ( u ^ ^ ^ h/v)
C
= 18 l o g
. )
12h
(2.2.9)
(2.2.10)
-3.3v/u^
H y d r a u l i c rough t u r b u l e n t f l o w
f
-0.5
[g^]
= 6 + 2.5 l n ( h / k g )
(2.2.11)
Equation (2.2.11) can a l s o be represented as:

f ^ = 0.24
c
log"2(12h/k^)
s
(2.2.12)
The Chzy-coefficient reads as:
= 18 l o g ( 1 2 h / k )
s
(2.2.13)
T r a n s i t i o n regime
,c
-2.6-
2.3
2.3.1
Waves
Near-bed o r b i t a l v e l o c i t i e s
A p p l y i n g l i n e a r wave t h e o r y , t h e peak value o f the o r b i t a l e x c u r s i o n
(A^) and
v e l o c i t y (U^) a t t h e edge o f t h e wave boundary l a y e r can be expressed as:
A
H
6 2 sinh(kh)
(2.3.1)
^&
(2.3.2)
^8
= T sinh(kh)
i n which:
) = 2IT/T
= angular
velocity
k = 2TI/L
= wave number
= wave h e i g h t
L = (gT2/2iT) t a n h ( k h ) = wave l e n g t h
T
= wave p e r i o d
= water depth
Based on f i e l d measurements i n t h e near-bed r e g i o n i n s i d e t h e s u r f zone ( w i t h

a r e l a t i v e wave h e i g h t o f H^/h i n the range o f 0.2 t o 0.45) and o u t s i d e t h e
s u r f zone (H^/h = 0.14 - 0.27), Van heteren and S t i v e (1985) found t h a t Eq.
(2.3.2) a p p l i e d t o instantaneous
water s u r f a c e e l e v a t i o n s produced a maximum
o v e r p r e d i c t i o n o f 25^ o f measured h o r i z o n t a l r m s - v e l o c i t i e s o u t s i d e t h e s u r f
zone and an u n d e r p r e d i c t i o n o f 5% i n s i d e t h e s u r f zone.
Dean (1986) r e p o r t s t h a t l i n e a r wave theory provides a good p r e d i c t i o n o f
near-bottom k i n e m a t i c s f o r a wide range o f r e l a t i v e wave h e i g h t s and wave
steepnesses.
A good e s t i m a t e o f t h e near-bed peak v e l o c i t i e s under t h e c r e s t and t r o u g h o f

asymmetrical
waves i n shallow water can be o b t a i n e d a p p l y i n g t h e expressions
g i v e n by Koyama and Iwata (1986), as f o l l o w s :
"'C = T sinh[k(h+nc)J
(2.3.3)
"6,t - T s L h [ k h ]
(2.3.4)
in
which:
Ug c = peak v a l u e o f near-bed
o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y under wave c r e s t
Ug
o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y under wave t r o u g h
= peak value o f near-bed
= wave c r e s t h e i g h t above s t i l l
T]^
water
= wave t r o u g h h e i g h t beneath s t i l l
water
Equation (2.3.3) and (2.3.4) a r e based on c a l i b r a t i o n u s i n g t h e stream f u n c t i o n method o f Dean f o r symmetrical and asymmetrical waves i n s h a l l o w water.
The water s u r f a c e e l e v a t i o n s n
and
C
must be known.
Tf
F i n a l l y , some remarks a r e made w i t h r e s p e c t t o l i n e a r wave t h e o r y , which i s

g e n e r a l l y a p p l i e d t o determine the near-bed
v e l o c i t i e s . I n case o f s y m m e t r i c a l
( s i n u s o i d a l ) s m a l l - a m p l i t u d e waves i n r e l a t i v e l y deep water t h i s t h e o r y y i e l d s

c o r r e c t r e s u l t s . When waves a r e approaching s h a l l o w e r w a t e r s , t h e waves w i l l
be d i s t o r t e d l e a d i n g t o asymmetrical wave p r o f i l e s and h i g h e r o r d e r wave
t h e o r i e s a r e b a s i c a l l y necessary
t o determine t h e near-bed
velocities.
Surpri-
s i n g l y , comparisons o f measured v e l o c i t i e s and computed v e l o c i t i e s a c c o r d i n g

to
l i n e a r wave t h e o r y show reasonably good r e s u l t s i n s h a l l o w water.
Another problem i s t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e wave spectrum i n a r e a l
situa-
t i o n . Assuming t h a t t h e h i g h e r waves c o n t r i b u t e most t o t h e sediment
transport
process, t h e s i g n i f i c a n t wave h e i g h t (H^ o r î/-^)
i n combination w i t h t h e peak
p e r i o d (Tp) a r e considered t o be t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c wave parameters

sediment
2.3.2
f o r the
t r a n s p o r t process.
Have boundary l a y e r
The wave boundary l a y e r i s a t h i n l a y e r f o r m i n g t h e t r a n s i t i o n l a y e r between

the
bed and t h e upper l a y e r o f i r r o t a t i o n a l o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w ( F i g . 2.2.1). The
t h i c k n e s s o f t h i s l a y e r remains t h i n (0.01 t o 0.1 m) i n s h o r t p e r i o d waves

(T
10 s ) because t h e f l o w reverses b e f o r e t h e l a y e r can grow i n v e r t i c a l
d i r e c t i o n . The boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s 6 can be d e f i n e d as t h e minimum

w
d i s t a n c e between t h e w a l l and a l e v e l where t h e v e l o c i t y equals t h e peak v a l u e
of
t h e f r e e stream v e l o c i t y
(Ug).
In
case o f l a m i n a r f l o w the f o l l o w i n g values can be g i v e n :
Jonsson 1980:
= |^
(2.3.5)
Manohar 1955:
= ^
(2.3.6)
i n which:
6 = (-n/vT)^'^ = l e n g t h parameter o f Stokes
V
= kinematic v i s c o s i t y
= o s c i l l a t i o n period.
coefficient
I n case o f t u r b u l e n t f l o w Jonsson and Carlson (1976) proposed:

30 6
30 6
(
} log[
] = 1.2
A,
)
A,
f o r 10 < < 500
(2.3.7)
Equation (2.3.7) can a l s o be represented by:

^w
/6
-0.25
= 0.072 ( )
A,
(2.3.8)
Equation (2.3.7) i s based on t h e o r e t i c a l and e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h . A r t i f i c i a l

t r i a n g u l a r roughness elements have been used i n wave t u n n e l experiments. The
kg-value o f these roughness elements was determined from water s u r f a c e s l o p e
measurements i n a steady u n i f o r m f l o w y i e l d i n g k^-value i n the range o f 2.5 t o
4 times t h e maximum h e i g h t o f the elements.
The t h e o r e t i c a l r e s u l t s o f Fredsie (1984) can be roughly ( e r r o r 20^) approximated by:

A
^w
= 0.15
h
/ -0.25
{]
(2.3.9)
Although t h e wave boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s i s r a t h e r s m a l l , the generated

shear s t r e s s e s and t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t i e s are r a t h e r l a r g e and are i m p o r t a n t
f o r t h e sediment t r a n s p o r t processes.
2.3.3
H y d r a u l i c regime i n waves
Jonsson (1966) f i r s t presented a p l o t o f the h y d r a u l i c regime i n o s c i l l a t o r y

f l o w i n terms o f the Reynolds.number and r e l a t i v e roughness, as
H y d r a u l i c regime = F [
, J
follows:
(2.3.10)
kg
F i g u r e 2.2.2
shows t h e graph o f Jonsson (1966, 1980). The r e s u l t s o f Kamphuis
(1975) are a l s o shown.
The
onset o f t u r b u l e n c e
researchers.
The
i n the wave boundary l a y e r has been s t u d i e d by many
r e s u l t s o f Sleath
(1988) are probably the most
S l e a t h i n v e s t i g a t e d the onset of t u r b u l e n c e
accurate.
i n o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w over f l a t beds
o f sand, g r a v e l and pebbles. Both h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s were measured using a l a s e r Doppler v e l o c i t y meter.
For p r a c t i c a l purposes the f o l l o w i n g expression can be a p p l i e d t o determine
the t r a n s i t i o n t o f u l l y developed t u r b u l e n t f l o w i n case o f a f l a t
bed:
(U6,cr)^
/ 6 ,0.115
= 5770 ( )
0) V
d^Q
(2.3.11)
i n w h i c h : d^Q = median p a r t i c l e s i z e o f bed m a t e r i a l .
2.3.4
V e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n wave boundary l a y e r
Experimental r e s u l t s
D e t a i l e d knowledge o f the f l o w v e l o c i t i e s i n the boundary l a y e r above r i p p l e d
and
f l a t beds i s e s s e n t i a l t o understand the sediment e n t r a i n m e n t processes.
Examples o f v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s a t maximum f l o w f o r a laminar and a t u r b u l e n t case are shown i n F i g . 2.2.IC. The

mixing
fundamental d i f f e r e n c e i s the
vertical
e f f e c t g i v i n g a more u n i f o r m p r o f i l e i n t u r b u l e n t f l o w . T u r b u l e n t
flow
i s the most i n t e r e s t i n g case f o r sediment t r a n s p o r t processes because the

w i l l be t u r b u l e n t i n case o f a mobile r i p p l e d bed
regime and a f l a t bed
flow
(sheet
f l o w ) regime.
S e v e r a l e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s have been performed i n wave t u n n e l s w i t h r i p p l e d

beds. The most i n t e r e s t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n i s presented by DuToit and
(1981) and
Sleath
by DuToit (1982). They used a l a s e r - D o p p l e r v e l o c i t y meter t o
measure the instantaneous h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t i e s above the c r e s t and
trough
of
a sand r i p p l e ( t u r b u l e n t f l o w ) .
F i g u r e 2.2.3A shows the h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t y component above a sand r i p p l e
d u r i n g a h a l f c y c l e . The
a.
e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s are, as f o l l o w s :
the f r e e stream i s moving w i t h maximum v e l o c i t y from r i g h t t o l e f t and

w e l l d e f i n e d v o r t e x f i l l s almost h a l f the trough on the downstream s i d e
the r i p p l e ,
b.
the v o r t e x increases i n s i z e as the f r e e stream
c. - t h e v o r t e x f i l l s almost the whole t r o u g h .
decelerates,
a
of
-2.lo-
ci,
the f r e e stream reverses and the v o r t e x i s being e j e c t e d over the c r e s t

and a s t r o n g surge o f f l u i d (sweeping through the trough and s p i l l i n g over
the c r e s t ) i s b u i l d i n g up,
e.
the f l o w has a l r e a d y s t a r t e d s e p a r a t i n g a t the c r e s t and a new
vortex
s t a r t s t o form,
f.
a j e t ( a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the s e p a r a t i o n ) shoots out over the t r o u g h and
has
almost reached the t r o u g h .
F i g u r e 2.2.3B shows the v a r i a t i o n range o f the peak v e l o c i t y as a f u n c t i o n o f

h e i g h t above the c r e s t f o r v a r i o u s t e s t c o n d i t i o n s and r i p p l e dimensions. Both
measurements i n o s c i l l a t i n g u-tubes and o s c i l l a t i n g t r a y r i g s were used.
r i p p l e s were s e l f - f o r m e d n a t u r a l sand r i p p l e s w i t h A,/x ^ 0.7
and
A/x
The
0.17.
As can be observed, the peak v e l o c i t y d i r e c t above the c r e s t i s about 1.5

1.6
to
times as l a r g e as the peak v e l o c i t y o u t s i d e the boundary l a y e r .
F i g u r e 2.2.4A shows v e l o c i t i e s and rms-values above the c r e s t and
trough o f
the sand r i p p l e . Small peaks i n the v e l o c i t i e s can be observed a t a phase o f

about 130
over the c r e s t and
170
over the trough. These peaks correspond t o
the surge i n v e l o c i t y as the v o r t e x i n the l e e o f the c r e s t i s c a r r i e d back

over the c r e s t when the f l o w reverses. The
rms-values are f a i r l y
d u r i n g a c y c l e v a r y i n g i n the range o f 0.1
t o 0.3
constant
. Based on t h i s , i t seems
t h a t the t u r b u l e n c e energy i s dominated by the o v e r a l l r i p p l e geometry r a t h e r

than by l o c a l phenomena. F i g u r e 2.2.4B presents
rms-values averaged over a
complete c y c l e as a f u n c t i o n o f h e i g h t above the bottom showing a maximum J u s t

above the r i p p l e c r e s t l e v e l .
F i g u r e 2.2.4C shows an example o f r e s u l t s when t h e r e i s i n t e n s e sediment motion
(600 ym perspex beads). The
bed was
f l a t except close to the moment o f r e v e r s a l .
At t h i s p o i n t i n the c y c l e v o r t e x f o r m a t i o n appeared t o occur t h r o w i n g up

o f sediment from the bed.
a l a y e r o f about 20 mm
For the most p a r t the moving sediment was
t h i c k w i t h c l e a r water immediately
t h i s l a y e r appeared l a m i n a r . The
above. The
clouds
confined
to
f l o w above
v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n , as shown i n F i g . 2.2.40,
i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t f o r a smooth bed i n laminar f l o w . I n the

l a t t e r case the maximum v e l o c i t y occurs a t 6z = 2 . 3
and
i s 7% g r e a t e r than U^.
The measurements above the l a y e r w i t h perspex beads show an overshoot o f n o t

more than 4^ a t 3z ^ 60. The phase l a g i s about 20,
whereas f o r a smooth bed
i n laminar f l o w the phase l a g i s nowhere g r e a t e r than 1. These d i f f e r e n c e s

be caused by the low-amplitude
and
r i p p l e s obscured by the l a y e r o f moving beads
by the v o r t e x f o r m a t i o n a t the end o f each h a l f c y c l e .
may
-2.11-
DuToit and S l e a t h ( 1 9 8 1 ) compared measured v e l o c i t i e s and computed v e l o c i t i e s

o f t h e models o f K a j i u r a ( 1 9 6 8 ) , Bakker ( 1 9 7 4 ) and S l e a t h ( 1 9 7 4 ) . The model o f
S l e a t h , which i s a numerical s o l u t i o n o f a 2 D V - v o r t i c i t y e q u a t i o n w i t h c o n s t a n t
v i s c o s i t y , produced t h e best agreement. The model o f K a j i u r a produced t h e l e a s t
good r e s u l t . I t should be noted, however, t h a t t h e models o f K a j i u r a ' a n d Bakker
a r e o n l y v a l i d f o r plane bed f l o w s , w h i l e the measurements r e f e r t o a r i p p l e d
bed.
Another i n f o r m a t i v e e x p e r i m e n t a l study r e l a t e d t o o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w over a

r i p p l e d bed has been performed by Sato e t a l . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . The experiments were
performed i n an o s c i l l a t o r y water t u n n e l . V e l o c i t i e s above symmetrical and
asymmetrical
r i p p l e s were measured w i t h s p l i t h o t - f i l m sensors under c o n d i -
t i o n s o f both s i n u s o i d a l and asymmetrical
o s c i l l a t i n g f l o w . The a r t i f i c i a l
r i p p l e s , which c o n s i s t e d o f cement mortar, were copied from
self-generated
sand r i p p l e s .
F i g u r e 2.2.5A shows t h e s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e equiphase mean v e l o c i t y ,
Reynolds s t r e s s e s and mean pressures
i n a h a l f p e r i o d . The f l o w i s seen t o be
l o c a l l y a c c e l e r a t e d above a r i p p l e c r e s t and d e c e l e r a t e d above a t r o u g h . The

Reynolds s t r e s s i s l a r g e i n t h e r e g i o n o f t h e l e e v o r t e x . As t h e v o r t e x i s
e j e c t e d upwards, t h e r e g i o n o f h i g h t u r b u l e n c e moves w i t h i t and then
diffuses.
F i g u r e 2,2.5B shows t h e time h i s t o r y o f t h e mean v e l o c i t y h o r i z o n t a l (U) and

v e r t i c a l (W) components and t h e t u r b u l e n t q u a n t i t i e s ( u ' ) 2 and (w')2 and u'w'
i n p o i n t s a t 0.03 m above a r i p p l e c r e s t and a r i p p l e t r o u g h ( p e r i o d = 4 s ) .
The p l o t t e d values r e p r e s e n t r e s u l t s averaged over 30 p e r i o d s . Coherent v o r t i c e s began t o be formed i n t h e l e e s i d e o f t h e r i p p l e when t h e v e l o c i t y o f
the main f l o w reached i t s maximum. These v o r t i c e s continued
t o develop u n t i l
they were e j e c t e d a f t e r f l o w r e v e r s a l . The e j e c t e d v o r t i c e s were t r a n s p o r t e d

over t h e r i p p l e d u r i n g t h e next h a l f p e r i o d . The values o f ( u ' ) 2 and (w' )2
show two peaks i n each h a l f p e r i o d , which corresponds t o t h e passage o f two
v o r t i c e s c r e a t e d i n t h e l e e s i d e o f t h e nearest and t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g
ripples.
Values o f u'w' above a c r e s t show a s t r o n g peak a c c o r d i n g t o t h e passage o f

the f i r s t v o r t e x b u t they donot show a peak w i t h t h e passage o f t h e second
v o r t e x . I t f o l l o w s t h a t t u r b u l e n c e m a i n t a i n s a coherent
structure just
after
the v o r t e x e j e c t i o n and t h a t , as t h e v o r t e x moves upwards, t u r b u l e n c e decays

and d i f f u s e s away.
-2.12-
F i n a l l y , some f l o w v i s u a l i z a t i o n experiments o f Kaneko and H o n j i ( 1 9 7 9 ) and

H o n j i e t a l ( 1 9 8 0 ) a r e r e p o r t e d . Steady laminar
A
v o r t i c e s were generated above
<
r i p p l e s i n case A^/X << 1 ( s t a n d i n g v o r t i c e s ) . Large s e p a r a t i o n
v o r t i c e s were
found f o r A^/X 1 . S i m i l a r r e s u l t s were observed by Soulsby e t a l ( 1 9 8 3 ) i n

f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s u s i n g an underwater camera.
T h e o r e t i c a l models
Neglecting
convective
a c c e l e r a t i o n s and v e r t i c a l f l u i d v e l o c i t i e s , t h e b a s i c
e q u a t i o n o f motion f o r a f l a t bed,
9t
reads as:
(2.3.12)
p 3x ~ p 3z ~
(
i n which:
U = instantaneous f l u i d v e l o c i t y a t height z
P = i n s t a n t a n e o u s f l u i d pressure a t h e i g h t z
T = i n s t a n t a n e o u s f l u i d shear s t r e s s a t h e i g h t z
V a r i o u s researchers have a p p l i e d Eq. ( 2 . 3 . 1 2 ) t o determine t h e U - v e l o c i t y . The
b a s i c problem i s t o r e l a t e t h e shear s t r e s s t o t h e g r a d i e n t o f t h e v e l o c i t y
( T K dU/dz) v i a some concept. The boundary c o n d i t i o n i s U = U. a t z = 6 .
0
w
The
pressure i n s i d e t h e boundary l a y e r i s assumed t o be equal t o t h a t j u s t
o u t s i d e t h e boundary l a y e r where t h e f l o w i s i r r o t a t i o n a l g i v i n g , - 9P/3x =

p auvat.
0
One o f t h e f i r s t a t t e m p t s t o describe
t h e t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r by a mathe-
m a t i c a l model was done by K a j i u r a ( 1 9 6 8 ) . He adopted t h e e d d y - v i s c o s i t y
concept
i n a t h r e e - l a y e r model. I n t h e s m a l l i n n e r l a y e r t h e eddy v i s c o s i t y e was taken

as a c o n s t a n t .
distance
I n t h e o v e r l a p l a y e r e was assumed t o vary l i n e a r l y w i t h t h e
from t h e bed and f i n a l l y E was kept c o n s t a n t a t a c e r t a i n
distance
from t h e bed ( t h e o u t e r l a y e r ) . By use o f t h e equation o f m o t i o n , K a j i u r a

obtained
a rather l a b o r i u s a n a l y t i c a l - n u m e r i c a l s o l u t i o n . Brevik
( 1 9 8 1 ) has
s i m p l i f i e d t h e a n a l y s i s by K a j i u r a by a v o i d i n g t h e i n n e r l a y e r , where e was
kept
constant.
K a j i u r a and B r e v i k t e s t e d t h e i r a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s a g a i n s t t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
work done by Jonsson ( 1 9 6 6 ) , see a l s o Jonsson and Carlsen ( 1 9 7 6 ) , and o b t a i n e d
reasonable agreement. However, t h r e e shortcomings i n K a j i u r a ' s and B r e v i k ' s
-2.13-
t h e o r y must be mentioned: ( i ) they d i d not take i n t o account t h a t the eddy

v i s c o s i t y i s a f u n c t i o n o f time as w e l l as o f the d i s t a n c e from t h e w a l l , ( i i )
the t h i c k n e s s o f the wave boundary l a y e r was a l s o taken as a t i m e - i n d e p e n d e n t
q u a n t i t y , and f i n a l l y
( i i i ) the v a r i a t i o n i n bed shear s t r e s s was assumed t o
be s i n u s o i d a l .
Jonsson and Carlsen
( 1 9 7 6 ) used t h e momentum e q u a t i o n i n t e g r a t e d over t h e
boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s and the assumption o f a l o g a r i t h m i c v e l o c i t y
profile
to determine the wave f r i c t i o n f a c t o r f o r a rough w a l l . T h e i r model does,

however, n o t d e s c r i b e the time v a r i a t i o n i n the shear s t r e s s and thus n o t t h e
phase lead o f t h e maximum shear s t r e s s r e l a t i v e t o the maximum v e l o c i t y i n t h e
outer layer.
FredseJe ( 1 9 8 4 ) made f u r t h e r developments along the l i n e o f Jonsson and
Carlsen,
s t i l l u s i n g t h e d e p t h - i n t e g r a t e d momentum equation and a l o g a r i t h m i c v e l o c i t y

p r o f i l e , assuming t h a t t h e f l o w f i e l d i n each h a l f p e r i o d s t a r t s from
Fredseie ( 1 9 8 4 ) used the momentum equation t o c a l c u l a t e the d e t a i l e d
of
rest.
variation
t h e boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s and the shear s t r e s s d u r i n g the wave p e r i o d .
The most r e c e n t developments o f mathematical models f o r the wave boundary

l a y e r have mainly been c o n c e n t r a t e d on the a p p l i c a t i o n o f t u r b u l e n c e models t o
d e s c r i b e the d e t a i l s o f t h e f l o w . Some o f the main c o n t r i b u t i o n s are g i v e n i n
t h e f o l l o w i n g . Bakker ( 1 9 7 4 ) used a mixing l e n g t h model t o d e s c r i b e t h e wave
boundary l a y e r , and t h e suspended sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s under waves. A twoe q u a t i o n model was used by Hagetum and E i d s v i k ( 1 9 8 6 ) .
2.3.5
Bed shear s t r e s s and bed
friction
Definition
Waves e x e r t f r i c t i o n f o r c e s a t the bed d u r i n g p r o p a g a t i o n . The bed shear
s t r e s s , which i s i m p o r t a n t f o r wave damping and sediment e n t r a i n m e n t , i s
r e l a t e d t o the f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t by:
^b,w=I^^w"?
i n which:
T.
= instantaneous bed-shear s t e s s
b ,w
f
= friction coefficient
w
(2.3.13)
-2.14-
Ug
= i n s t a n t a n e o u s f l u i d v e l o c i t y Just o u t s i d e boundary l a y e r
= fluid
density
The f r i c t i o n f a c t o r f,, i s assumed t o be constant over t h e wave c y c l e and i s

"
2
determined from t h e peak v a l u e s as: f = 2T, / ( p U J .
w
b, w
The time-averaged (over a wave c y c l e ) bed shear s t r e s s i s :
^b,w - h ' J l
(2.3.14)
Laminar f l o w
I n t h e l a m i n a r range t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t can be determined a n a l y t i c a l l y
from Eq. (2.3.12) a p p l y i n g T = pv dU/dz. T h i s y i e l d s (Jonsson, 1966):
= 2 (
w
(2.3.15)
Smooth t u r b u l e n t f l o w
I n t h e h y d r a u l i c smooth regime Jonsson (1966, 1980) o b t a i n e d from h i s model:
0.25 f--5 + 2 l o g ( 0 . 2 5 f--5) = -1.55 + log(Ug A^/v)
(2.3.16)
Equation (2.3.16) can be approximated by

A
f = 0.09 (
^6
0.2
)
(2.3.17)
K a j i u r a (1968) o b t a i n e d from h i s model:

f-0.5
^
+ l o g ( f - 0 - 5 ) = -0.135 + logiU^ Ag/v)^-^
(2.3.18)
Equation (2.3.18) i s v a l i d f o r U^ A^/X > 10^
Rough t u r b u l e n t f l o w
I n t h e rough t u r b u l e n t regime Jonsson (1966) proposed:
0.25 f--5 + l o g [ 0 . 2 5 f--5] = -0.08 + l o g t A ^ / k g )
(2.3.19)
-2.15-
" i t h f^^, = 0.3
f o r A./kg < 1.57.
Equation (2.3.19) can a l s o be expressed as:

r ^
/6.-0.19
f = e x p [ - 6 + 5 . 2 ( )
J
'^s
w i t h f^n,ax = 0.3
(2.3.20)
f o r Ag/kg < 1.57.
Equations ( 2 . 3 . 1 5 ) , ( 2 . 3 . 1 6 ) , (2.3.19) a r e shown i n F i g . 2.2.6A. Equation

(2.3.20) i s shown i n F i g . 2.2.6B.
Little
i s known about t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n regime.
2.3.6
B r e a k i n g waves
Limiting
steepness
Waves break when t h e wave steepness exceeds a c r i t i c a l v a l u e . A c r i t e r i o n f o r

a horizontal
bottom has been g i v e n by Miche ( 1 9 4 4 ) :
( H / L ) ^ ^ = 0.142 t a n h ( k h )
(2.3.21)
y i e l d i n g a maximum value o f 0.14 f o r deep water.
Miche (1951) a l s o d e r i v e d an e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e l i m i t i n g (deep w a t e r ) wave

steepness on a s l o p i n g bottom assuming
f u l l reflection
($ = bottom s l o p e an-
gle):
Liiti!2i_y_[}ii!}t_2" ^ h o r i z o n t a l
bottom
The l i m i t i n g wave h e i g h t corresponds t o t h e maximum wave h e i g h t a t t h e c r e s t

J u s t b e f o r e b r e a k i n g . Miche (1944) computed t h e l i m i t i n g wave h e i g h t on a h o r i z o n t a l bed from a Stokes wave s o l u t i o n by assuming
t h a t b r e a k i n g occurs when
the f l u i d v e l o c i t y a t the c r e s t equals t h e wave p r o p a g a t i o n v e l o c i t y ,

for
yielding
s h a l l o w water ( k h << 1 ) :
"br
Y =
= 0.88
(2.3.23)
-2.16-
Since Stokes waves a r e s y m m e t r i c a l , Equation
( 2 . 3 . 2 3 ) represents a s p i l l i n g
b r e a k i n g wave.
For a s o l i t a r y shallow-water wave the t h e o r e t i c a l l i m i t i n g v a l u e i s :
H
Y =
(2.3.24)
= 0.78
Based on t h e a n a l y s i s o f flume t e s t s w i t h r e g u l a r and i r r e g u l a r waves over a

h o r i z o n t a l bottom,
i t was found t h a t (Nelson,
1983):
"br
< 0.55
Y =
(2.3.25)
L i m i t i n g wave h e i g h t on_a s l o p i n g bed

Nelson (1983) a l s o found t h a t bottom slopes as s m a l l as 0.01 (1:100) a f f e c t
the wave mechanics s u f f i c i e n t l y t o i n c r e a s e t h e Hj^j^/h-parameter f o r i n d i v i d u a l
waves.
The wave motion on a plane s l o p i n g bed i s mainly determined
by t h e bottom
s l o p e ( t a n g ) , t h e i n c i d e n t wave h e i g h t (H) j u s t b e f o r e b r e a k i n g , t h e wave period
(T) and t h e g r a v i t y a c c e l e r a t i o n ( g ) g i v i n g two dimensionless
parameters:
tang and H/(gT2). The l a t t e r parameter u s u a l l y i s expressed as H/L^ w i t h

= gTV2TT.
Waves r e f l e c t r a t h e r than break when t h e bed slope i s r a t h e r l a r g e ( f u l l r e f l e c t i o n a g a i n s t a v e r t i c a l w a l l ) . When t h e bottom slope 6 decreases beneath a
c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l v a l u e , t h e waves become u n s t a b l e and break.
A common b r e a k i n g c r i t e r i o n i s :
"
fcan6_
^
(H/L^)0-5
(2.3.26)
G e n e r a l l y , t h r e e types o f breaking waves a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d :
s u r g i n g breaker
i n case o f f l a t i n c i d e n t waves and a l a r g e bed s l o p e ; t h e
amount o f b r e a k i n g i s s m a l l and occurs c l o s e t o t h e s h o r e l i n e , r e f l e c t i o n

i s l a r g e (2 < c < 2 . 3 ) ,
p l u n g i n g breaker when t h e wave steepness i s l a r g e r o r t h e bed steepness

i s s m a l l e r ; a c u r l i n g j e t i s generated
p l u n g i n g i n t h e wave t r o u g h ahead
accompanied by l a r g e t u r b u l e n c e p r o d u c t i o n ( F i g . 2.3.IA) and a f o r w a r d

marching bore a f t e r b r e a k i n g (0.4 < ^ < 2 ) ,
s p i l l i n g b r e a k i n g i n case o f r e l a t i v e l y steep waves and/or a r e l a t i v e l y
flat
bed; t h e water s u r f a c e near t h e c r e s t s p i l l s as t h e wave c r e s t sharpens w i t h
-2.17-
t h e decrease i n water depths; b r e a k i n g occurs a t a g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e o f f s h o r e

where t h e wave c r e s t i s s t i l l symmetric and i s accompanied by t h e g e n e r a t i o n
of
a foamy r o l l e r a t the wave f r o n t w h i l e t h e wave t r o u g h ahead i s n o t v i s i -
. b l y d i s t u r b e d ( 5 < 0.4).
Plunging breakers show s t r o n g mixing p r o p e r t i e s ( F i g . 2 . 3 . I A ) , During

a J e t i s generated
breaking
which s t r i k e s upon t h e forward slope o f t h e wave g e n e r a t i n g
a s e r i e s o f eddies t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e r a p i d decay o f t h e wave ( F i g . 2.3.1 A).

Each eddy moves f o r w a r d and downward upto t h e bottom y i e l d i n g a s t r o n g m i x i n g
process.
The f o r w a r d v e l o c i t y o f t h e eddies i s s m a l l e r than t h e wave ( b o r e )
v e l o c i t y and t h e r e f o r e t h e eddies move toward the back o f t h e wave where they

expand under escape o f t h e e n t r a i n e d a i r bubbles which r i s e t o t h e s u r f a c e .
This process e v e n t u a l l y transforms i n t o a bore t h a t moves upto t h e shore.
waves may be generated
to
New
and go through t h e breaking process a g a i n , b u t c l o s e r
t h e shore.
S p i l l i n g breakers have l e s s e f f e c t i v e mixing p r o p e r t i e s because o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l s c a l e eddies, which a r e c o n f i n e d t o t h e near-water
surface region
and donot extend much below the trough l e v e l .
Wave h e i g h t s o f i n d i v i d u a l b r e a k i n g waves i n f i e l d
c o n d i t i o n s (y = Hj^^/h) a r e
g i v e n by Kana (1979):
S p i l l i n g breakers
T r a n s i t i o n a l breakers:
Plunging breakers
y = 0.55 - 0.65
y = 0.65 - 0.75
: -y = 0.75 - 0.90
W i t h i n each range t h e y-values were found t o depend on t h e l o c a l bottom

A l a r g e r bottom slope y i e l d s a l a r g e r breaker h e i g h t .
In flumes t h e f o l l o w i n g values have been observed:
Spilling
Plunging
breakers:
breakers:
= 0.65
for
slope 1 :20
0.60
for
slope 1 40
= 0.55
for
slope 1 60
0.90
for
slope 1 20
= 0.80
for
slope 1. 40
for
slope 1: 60
0.70
slope.
-2.18-
B a t t j e s (1974) r e l a t e d the y - r a t i o t o t h e ^-parameter. Based on t h e a n a l y s i s

of f i e l d
and flume d a t a , t h e f o l l o w i n g values a r e g i v e n :
0.8
for
K < 0.2
0.9
for
1.0
for
1.1
for
0.4
0.6
1 < 5 < 2.
Basd on t h e a n a l y s i s o f l a b o r a t o r y experiments w i t h r e g u l a r waves and plane

s l o p i n g bottoms, Weggel (1972) found:
1.56
[1 . e-^9.5 t a n B j
with
43.8
2Tr [ 1
-19
tanBn
\v
(2.3.27)
L
o
= g T /2iT = wave l e n g t h a t deep water.
Equation (2.3.27) y i e l d s y = 0.78 f o r tang = 0,
Regular waves break on a plane beach a t e s s e n t i a l l y a s i n g l e l o c a t i o n ( b r e a k e r

l i n e ) w i t h an almost c o n s t a n t breaker h e i g h t .
In case o f i r r e g u l a r random waves t h e r e i s no w e l l - d e f i n e d b r e a k p o i n t f o r r a n dom waves: the l a r g e s t waves tend t o break f a r t h e s t o f f s h o r e and t h e s m a l l e r
waves break c l o s e r t o t h e shore r e s u l t i n g i n a s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f b r e a k i n g , broken and unbroken waves. A mean b r e a k e r l i n e can be d e f i n e d as t h e
l o c a t i o n where t h e wave h e i g h t (H^ o r H^) i s maximum.
Thornton e t a l (1984) present c r i t e r i a f o r random b r e a k i n g waves based on
field
and l a b o r a t o r y data. From t h e i r r e s u l t s t h e f o l l o w i n g y-values have been
d e r i v e d , showing t h a t steep waves break more e a s i l y than f l a t waves.
l i m i t i n g wave h e i g h t
wave steepness
Hs,o/Ls,o = 0.002
0.004
tang =
Yg
~-
^
0.6
1
tan$ = 2
tan6 =
y
- 0.8
- 0.6
^s -~
- 0.7
0.006
- 0.6
= 0.7
- 0.8
0.01
- 0.6
- 0.7
- 0.8
0.02
- 0,5
<^ 0.65
- 0.8
0.04
- 0.4
- 0.55
- 0.7
0.06
- 0,35
- 0.5
- 0.7
- 0.8
-2.19-
Yg
b r ' ^ \ r " ^^^^^^^ c o e f f i c i e n t r e l a t e d t o s i g n i f i c a n t wave h e i g h t
" s , b r " s i g n i f i c a n t wave h e i g h t a t b r e a k e r l i n e (maximum wave h e i g h t )

Hg Q = s i g n i f i c a n t wave h e i g h t a t deep water
Lg^Q
= s i g n i f i c a n t wave l e n g t h a t deep water
hj^j,
= water depth a t b r e a k e r l i n e
tang
= bottom slope
Thornton - Guza (1982) and S a l l e n g e r - Howd (1989) s t a t e t h a t i n t h e s u r f zone

Yc
(o""
Y^mc.)
"ins
i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y constant and independent o f t h e o f f s h o r e wave
c o n d i t i o n s because n e a r l y a l l waves are b r e a k i n g i n t h e s u r f zone (wave energy

saturation).
Thornton and Guza (1982) r e p o r t f i e l d measurements on a s l o p i n g bottom o f 1:50.

They observed a l i m i t i n g breaker h e i g h t ( i n terms o f t h e rms wave h e i g h t ) o f
Yv.mo
~ 0.4 ( y = 0.55) f o r s p i l l i n g breakers. S a l l e n g e r and Howd (1989) r e p o r t
Yv,,o
- 0.3 ( y ^ - 0.45) f o r a l o c a l bottom slope o f tang ^ 0.03 and

s
0.55) f o r tang - 0.6.
rms
(YC
rms
- 0.4
H o t t a and Mizuguchi (1980) d i d d e t a i l e d wave h e i g h t measurements i n t h e s u r f zone w i t h a s l o p i n g bottom ( v a r y i n g from 1:100 t o 1:50). Wave h e i g h t s were measured s i m u l t a n e o u s l y over a d i s t a n c e o f about 100 m w i t h space i n t e r v a l s o f
2 m. The b r e a k e r l i n e (maximum wave h e i g h t ) was about 100 m o f f s h o r e . They found
an a l m o s t c o n s t a n t r a t i o y
- H
/h
0.7 i n the r e g i o n where t h e water depth
was c o n t i n u o u s l y d e c r e a s i n g , i n d i c a t i n g f u l l y energy-satured waves. The s i g n i f i c a n t wave p e r i o d Tg was a l s o c o n s t a n t i n t h i s zone.

The v a l u e s o f Thornton-Guza (1982) and Hotta-Mizuguchi (1980) a r e r e a s o n a b l y
i n agreement w i t h the c r i t e r i a o f Thornton e t a l (see T a b l e ) .
2.3.7
Mass t r a n s p o r t i n non-breaking waves
Non-viscous
o s c i l l a t o r y flow
Stokes (1847) f i r s t p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e f l u i d p a r t i c l e s do n o t d e s c r i b e
e x a c t l y c l o s e d o r b i t a l t r a j e c t o r i e s i n case o f r e a l s m a l l - a m p l i t u d e s u r f a c e
waves p r o p a g a t i n g i n a p e r f e c t non-viscous ( i r r o t a t i o n a l ) o s c i l l a t o r y
flow.
Real waves mean n o n - s i n u s o i d a l waves. The p a r t i c l e s have a second-order mean

Lagrangian v e l o c i t y ( c a l l e d "Stokes" d r i f t ) i n the d i r e c t i o n o f wave propagat i o n . I t r e s u l t s from the f a c t t h a t t h e h o r i z o n t a l o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y i n c r e a s e s
w i t h h e i g h t ( z ) above the bed. Consequently, a p a r t i c l e a t t h e t o p o f an o r b i t
-2.20-
beneath a wave c r e s t moves f a s t e r i n the forward d i r e c t i o n than i t does i n the

backward d i r e c t i o n a t the bottom o f the o r b i t beneath a wave t r o u g h . By
defi-
n i t i o n t h e l a g r a n g i a n Stokes d r i f t cannot be d e t e c t e d by t a k i n g measurement a t

a fixed
The
point.
i n s t a n t a n e o u s h o r i z o n t a l Stokes d r i f t
(U^) o f a water p a r t i c l e w i t h a mean
p o s i t i o n o f x.^ and z.^ i s U^(x.j + a, z^j + $) where a and

of
3 are the c o o r d i n a t e s
the p a r t i c l e p o s i t i o n on the t r a j e c t o r y . An a p p r i x i m a t i o n o f U i s :
U^(x^ + a, z., + e) = U(x^,
+ " I f + e 1^
(2.3.28)
A p p l y i n g l i n e a r wave t h e o r y , and averaging over the wave p e r i o d , y i e l d s ( F i g .

2.3.2A):
g(z) ^ I . k H ^
i n which:
0
oosh[2k(z-h)]
(2.3.29)
^ i " h (^h)
= Stokes d r i f t v e l o c i t y ( r a t i o of net h o r i z o n t a l displacement
and wave
period)
u) = 2/T = wave frequency
k
= 2TT/L = wave number
= v e r t i c a l c o o r d i n a t e ( p o s i t i v e downwards from mean water
At the bed
(z=h)
level)
, 2
: 0 =
'^-^
^
8 s i n h (kh)
At the s u r f a c e ( z = 0 ) : 0
= ^ k
^
(2.3.30)
cosh(2kh)
(2.3.31)
8 s i n h (kh)
For waves p r o p a g a t i n g i n a h o r i z o n t a l l y unbounded domain the d e p t h - i n t e g r a t e d

mass f l u x (m^/s) i s :
M
= / 0 ( z ) dz - "
3inh(2kh) ^ o j h !
h
16 s i n h (kh)
in
which:
__ g _
(2.3.32)
C = (g/T)/(2Tr c o t h ( k h ) ) = wave c e l e r i t y
Equation
(2.3.32) reduces t o M
= oj
f o r deep water
(kh >> 1 ) .
For waves p r o p a g a t i n g i n a h o r i z o n t a l l y bounded domain i t i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o

impose a c o n d i t i o n o f zero mass f l u x a t each l o c a t i o n ( x ) , y i e l d i n g (see F i g .
2.3.2A):
-2.21-
gC^) =
'^^Z
[eosh{2k(.-h)} - ^ ^ ^ f p i ]
^
8 sinh'^(kh)
2kh
Equation ( 2 . 3 . 3 3 )
(2.3.33)
can be seen as the sum o f the f o r w a r d Stokes d r i f t and an
u n i f o r m r e t u r n f l o w . The g e n e r a t i o n o f a p o s i t i v e mass f l u x near t h e s u r f a c e

and a n e g a t i v e f l u x near the bottom r e q u i r e s t h e presence o f a h o r i z o n t a l
pressure g r a d i e n t (shear s t r e s s e s a r e absent i n a non-viscous f l o w ) caused by
a " s e t - u p " o f t h e f r e e s u r f a c e towards the coast ( s i m i l a r t o wind s e t - u p ) .
The mass-flux ( m V s ) a t a f i x e d l o c a t i o n ( x ) i n an unbounded domain can a l s o

be determined i n an E u l e r i a n way, as f o l l o w s :
Mg = T
in
^
h
(2.3.34)
"(^'^^
which:
U = instantaneous h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t y a t height z
n = water s u r f a c e displacement from t h e mean s u r f a c e l e v e l
Below t h e wave t r o u g h t h e time-averaged value o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t i e s i s

z e r o . However, i n t h e r e g i o n between the wave c r e s t and t r o u g h t h e r e i s an
asymmetry o f the h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t y i n d i c a t i n g t h a t more f l u i d moves i n t h e
wave d i r e c t i o n under the c r e s t than i n t h e t r o u g h r e g i o n .
For s m a l l - a m p l i t u d e waves Eq. ( 2 . 3 . 3 4 )
yields:
g
"e = 8 C ~
Consequently,
(2.3.35)
t h e t o t a l mass-flux i n an unbounded domain i s :
(2.3.36)
" = "s = ê = ^
Dalrymple ( 1 9 7 6 ) has presented i n f o r m a t i o n o f t h e v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e

E u l e r i a n m a s s - t r a n s p o r t v e l o c i t i e s i n the r e g i o n between t h e wave c r e s t and
t r o u g h , as shown i n F i g . 2.3.2B.
v i s c o u s and t u r b u l e n t o s c i l l a t o r y
Longuet-Higgens
flow
( 1 9 5 3 ) has shown t h a t f o r r e a l f l u i d s w i t h v i s c o s i t y v t h e r e
i s a time-averaged n e t downward t r a n s f e r o f momentum i n t o t h e boundary
layer
by v i s c o u s d i f f u s i o n ( v 3U/3z) causing a mean E u l e r i a n f l o w (0^) i n a d d i t i o n
-2,22-
t o t h e Stokes d r i f t
(0 ) . The mean E u l e r i a n f l o w can be seen as t h e mean

s
v e l o c i t y o f the o r b i t centers.
The t o t a l mass t r a n s p o r t v e l o c i t y (0^) i s d e f i n e d , a s :
m = e - ^ = ^ . f
J U d t . f f
f V d t
(2,3.37)
For l a m i n a r f l o w i n t h e boundary l a y e r Longuet-Higgens
(see Russel and
O s o r i o , 1957) d e r i v e d :
(,) .
- k H^
^ ^ ^ ( ^ / ^ ^ ^ 3^-2z/6j
(2,3.38)
16 sinh'^(kh)
i n which:
6 = (2v/a))0'^ = t h i c k n e s s o f l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r
Equation ( 2 . 3 . 3 8 ) , shown i n F i g , 2.3,3A, has a maximum v a l u e

k H2
(US)'
;
= 1.376 -
4 sinh'^(kh)
0)
Om,max = 1-376
(2.3.39)
For z/6 ^ 0, E q u a t i o n (2.3.38) y i e l d s :

5
0) k H^
1^ s i n h 2 ( k h )
5 (Ufi)^
^
in which:
Ug = peak v a l u e o f o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y J u s t o u t s i d e boundary
C
= wave c e l e r i t y
layer
(w/k)
Assuming z e r o mass f l u x over t h e f u l l water depth, Longuet-Higgens
(1953)
derived:
2
(z) = 0 (z) + 0^(z) =
^ g
F(z/h)
^
8 sinh'^(kh)
(2.3.41)
2
F(z/h) = c o s h { 2 k ( z - h ) } + 1 + 1 ^ s i n h { ( 2 k h ) ( 3 ^
" ^ f + D) +
The f u n c t i o n F(z/h) i s shown i n F i g . 2.3.3B f o r some v a l u e s o f kh. E q u a t i o n

( 2 . 3 . 4 1 ) can be seen as t h e sum o f t h e f o r w a r d Stokes d r i f t
(Eq. ( 2 . 3 . 2 9 ) ) and
-2.23-
a parabolic v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n . This l a t t e r d i s t r i b u t i o n gives a forward

f l o w a t the bottom and a backward f l o w a t mid-depth.
Equation
(2.3.41) i s v a l i d f o r H < 26, y i e l d i n g a wave h e i g h t range t h a t i s o f
l i t t l e p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t . Based on a comparison w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l
(Russel and Osorio,
results
1957), f a i r l y good p r e d i c t i o n s are o b t a i n e d f o r 0.7
< kh <
1.5.
At t h e bottom
1
(z=h) Equation
) k
1 (Ufij^
" sinh2(kh)
3
(2.3.41) y i e l d s (see a l s o F i g . 2.3.3B):
k
3 ("5)'
=
;
--l-^
16 s i n h 2 ( k h ) ^
0
)
) k H2
16 s i n h 2 ( k h )
(2.3.44)
5 (Ufi)^
^
For o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w i n an unbounded domain the E u l e r i a n
mass-transport
v e l o c i t y (due t o v i s c o s i t y e f f e c t s ) can be d e s c r i b e d by ( C r a i c k ,
2
= TZ "
+ ^ 0) k2 H2(h-z) c o t h ( k h )
^6 s i n h 2 ( k h )
2
Equation
1982):
(2.3.46)
(2.3.46) i s shown i n F i g . 2.3.2A f o r kh = 1.
The d e p t h - i n t e g r a t e d mass-flux i s :
M = /
h
(0
. 0 )dz = J " ^
^
+
h
cosh(2k(z-h)} ^ f
8 sinh2(kh)
^ ) k
= H " ^ ^6
. k H2
sinh2(kh)
H'^(h-z) c o t h ( k h )
" ^2
+
s i n h (kh)
Longuet-Higgens a l s o showed t h a t Eq.

mass-transport
k2 h2 H2 c o t h ( k h )
(2.3.47)
(2.3.45) can be used t o d e s c r i b e the
v e l o c i t y j u s t o u t s i d e the boundary l a y e r i n case o f t u r b u l e n t
smooth o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w . T h i s was
confirmed by Johns (1970). For t u r b u l e n t
-2.24-
c o n d i t i o n s the v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n s i d e the boundary l a y e r i s d i f f e r e n t

from Eq.
( 2 . 3 . 3 8 ) because the t u r b u l e n t (eddy) v i s c o s i t y d i f f e r s from the
molecular v i s c o s i t y .
I n f o r m a t i o n o f the mass-transport v e l o c i t i e s i n t u r b u l e n t
rough c o n d i t i o n s i s r a t h e r scarce. Some computed r e s u l t s o f Breaker Hedegaard

(1985)
are shown i n F i g . 2.3.4B.
F i n a l l y , some measuring r e s u l t s are presented. Figure 2.3.4A shows measured

E u l e r i a n mass-transport v e l o c i t i e s f o r o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w over a smooth bottom
i n a l a b o r a t o r y channel (Borghel,
1982).
The
measurements were made i n f i x e d
p o i n t s u s i n g a Laser Doppler v e l o c i t y meter. Comparison w i t h the mass-transp o r t v e l o c i t i e s o f Longuet-Higgens shows reasonable r e s u l t s .

F i g u r e 2 . 3 . 4 C presents measured r e s i d u a l E u l e r i a n v e l o c i t i e s f o r s i n u s o i d a l
o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w over a-symmetrical r i p p l e , showing a p a i r o f c i r c u l a t i o n
c e l l s . These p a t t e r n s seem t o be s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by the f o r m a t i o n o f l e e
vortices.
B i j k e r e t a l ( 1 9 7 4 ) confirmed the presence o f d r i f t v e l o c i t i e s
as
proposed by Longuet-Higgens. However, the measured v e l o c i t i e s were found t o be

considerably
smaller
than the t h e o r e t i c a l values. B i j k e r e t a l concluded
the near-bed d r i f t v e l o c i t i e s on a s l o p i n g bottom ( i n the range o f 1:10

1:40)
are determined by the l o c a l depth r a t h e r than the slope a n g l e .
r e s u l t s a l s o show a considerable
that
to
Their
r e d u c t i o n o f the near-bed d r i f t v e l o c i t y when
r i p p l e s are p r e s e n t on the bottom.
2.3.8
Mass t r a n s p o r t by b r e a k i n g
waves
Breaking waves generate a net c u r r e n t i n longshore d i r e c t i o n

r e n t ) and
in offshore direction
H e r e i n , the a t t e n t i o n
(longshore
cur-
(undertow).
i s focussed on the undertow. The
measurements o f Nadaoka
e t a l ( 1 9 8 2 ) and S t i v e ( I 9 8 O ) u s i n g a Laser Doppler v e l o c i t y meter i n flume

c o n d i t i o n s c l e a r l y show the g e n e r a t i o n
of offshore-directed v e l o c i t i e s
the breaker zone, see F i g . 2 . 3 . 5 A . The
measured v e l o c i t i e s o f Nadaoka e t a l
represent
time-averaged values o f 70 wave c y c l e s . The
inside
measured mean v e l o c i t i e s
above the wave t r o u g h are based on the assumption o f z e r o - v e l o c i t y d u r i n g

p e r i o d t h a t the measuring l o c a t i o n was
analyzed the time v a r i a t i o n s
the
above the water s u r f a c e . They a l s o
o f the v e l o c i t i e s showing a s t r o n g
asymmetric
m o t i o n w i t h r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e v e l o c i t i e s o f s h o r t d u r a t i o n i n onshore d i r e c t i o n
and
r e l a t i v e l y small v e l o c i t i e s of long duration i n offshore
direction.
-2.25-
Above t h e trough l e v e l there i s a n e t mass t r a n s p o r t i n onshore d i r e c t i o n .

According t o a f i r s t order approximation,
the mass t r a n s p o r t above t h e t r o u g h
l e v e l can be estimated as:
M =
(2.3.48)
Applying
c = (gh)*^"^ i n shallow water, i t f o l l o w s t h a t :
Assuming no n e t f l o w over the depth, t h e r e t u r n f l o w , which i s a l s o c a l l e d t h e

undertow, below t h e trough l e v e l i s given by (see F i g . 2.3.5):
".off
= I
\ '
(3.3.50,
Taking h^ ^ 0.8 h, i t f o l l o w s t h a t :
"m,off = 0-15 g-^

2.4
(2.3.5I)
Combined c u r r e n t and waves
2.4.1
Introduction
When waves propagate i n t o shallower
waters near coasts they may encounter
r e l a t i v e l y s t r o n g c u r r e n t s which a f f e c t t h e wave c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e c u r r e n t
v e l o c i t i e s and t h e bed-shear s t r e s s e s .
Herein,
t h e main a t t e n t i o n i s focussed on t h e l a t t e r two phenomena. M o d i f i -
c a t i o n o f wave h e i g h t by t h e c u r r e n t e f f e c t i s n o t s t u d i e d ,
2.4.2
Wave c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
E s p e c i a l l y , opposing c u r r e n t s have a s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e by steepening t h e

waves even t o t h e p o i n t o f breaking
( B r e v i k and Aas, 1980). A f o l l o w i n g c u r -
r e n t e n l a r g e s t h e wave trough and thereby
t h e wave l e n g t h and reduces t h e wave
h e i g h t ( B r e v i k and Aas, 1980).
Although t h e wave h e i g h t and l e n g t h may change, t h e wave p e r i o d remains u n a l tered r e l a t i v e t o a stationnary coordinate
system. L i n e a r wave t h e o r y can be
-2.26-
a p p l i e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o a c o o r d i n a t e system moving w i t h t h e c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y
(Jonsson e t a l , 1970). I n t h a t case the wave l e n g t h remains c o n s t a n t and t h e
wave p e r i o d i s a l t e r e d : l a r g e r f o r a f o l l o w i n g c u r r e n t ( u > 0) and s m a l l e r f o r
an opposing c u r r e n t ( < 0 ) .
A g e n e r a l e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e wave p e r i o d (T^) r e l a t i v e t o t h e moving c o o r d i n a t e
system i s :
= { - ^
)T
1- cos(|)/C
(2.4.1)
i n which:
= depth-averaged c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y
4) = angle between c u r r e n t and wave d i r e c t i o n (ij) = 0 f o r f o l l o w i n g , and
(J) = 180 f o r opposing)
C = wave p r o p a g a t i o n v e l o c i t y
T = a b s o l u t e wave p e r i o d
2.4.3
1.
C u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s and bed-shear s t r e s s e s
Experimental r e s u l t s
Laboratory experiments show a d i s t i n c t i n f l u e n c e o f t h e waves on t h e c u r rent velocity
profile.
Bakker and van Doorn (1978) measured (LDV) mean v e l o c i t i e s f o r r e g u l a r

waves and a f o l l o w i n g c u r r e n t over a h y d r a u l i c rough bed c o n s i s t i n g o f
brass T - p r o f i l e s ( h e i g h t = 2 mm, spacing = 15 mm) placed i n a wave flume
( l e n g t h = 30 m, w i d t h = 0.5 m, h e i g h t = 0.5 m). I n a l l experiments t h e
s t i l l water depth was 0.3 m, t h e wave p e r i o d was 2 seconds and t h e wave
h e i g h t a t t h e measuring l o c a t i o n was 0.12 m. T h e i r r e s u l t s a r e shown i n
F i g u r e 2.4.1, i n d i c a t i n g reduced v e l o c i t i e s near t h e bed and water s u r f a c e
and i n c r e a s e d v e l o c i t i e s a t i n t e r m e d i a t e depths due t o t h e presence o f
waves. These e f f e c t s seem t o be somewhat l a r g e r f o r a weak c u r r e n t ( =
0.083 m/s) than f o r a s t r o n g c u r r e n t ( = 0.21 m/s).
Kemp and Simons (1982, 1983) measured mean v e l o c i t i e s i n r e g u l a r waves

w i t h f o l l o w i n g and opposing c u r r e n t s over a smooth bed and over a rough
bed (5 mm h i g h t r i a n g u l a r s t r i p s spaced a t 18 mm). The experiments were
performed i n a wave flume ( l e n g t h = 14.5 m, w i d t h - 0.46 m, h e i g h t = 0.70
m) w i t h wave g e n e r a t i o n by a bottom-hinged paddle. Considerable a t t e n t i o n
-2.27-
was
g i v e n t o the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f an optimum i n - and o u t f l o w o f the
cur-
r e n t . The s t i l l water depth was 0.2 m and the wave p e r i o d was 1 sec. The
r e l a t i v e wave h e i g h t s
(H/h)
were i n the range 0.1 t o 0.25.
Figure 2.4.2
p r e s e n t the r e s u l t s o f Kemp and Simons. Some r e s u l t s were o n l y
reported
qualitatively.
The
f o l l o w i n g phenomena can be observed:
following current:
smooth bed
rough bed
increased
v e l o c i t i e s near the bed
reduced v e l o c i t i e s near the water
l a r g e r e f f e c t f o r higher waves
reduced v e l o c i t i e s near the bed and water
increased
surface
v e l o c i t i e s a t intermediate
surface
depths
opposing c u r r e n t :
smooth and rough bed
reduced v e l o c i t i e s near the bed
increased
v e l o c i t i e s near the
l a r g e r e f f e c t f o r higher waves
surface
Kemp and Simons a l s o determined the c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed-shear s t r e s s (x,

)
b ,G
and
the e f f e c t i v e roughness (kg) by p l o t t i n g the v e l o c i t i e s measured i n t h e
lower l a y e r on a s e m i - l o g a r i t h m i c
s c a l e . The c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed-shear
s t r e s s f o r a combination o f waves and c u r r e n t was a f a c t o r 2 t o 3 l a r g e r

than f o r a c u r r e n t a l o n e . The e f f e c t i v e roughness f o r waves w i t h an oppos i n g c u r r e n t was 0.18 m, which was as l a r g e as the water d e p t h ( ! ) ,
while
t h a t f o r a c u r r e n t alone was 0.025 m. The bed roughness i n combined c u r r e n t

and waves should be i n t e r p r e t e d an apparent bed roughness (k) because i t
l a r g e l y r e f l e c t s f l o w r e s i s t a n c e due t o pressure f o r c e s generated by t h e
s t r o n g v o r t i c e s moving forward and backward over the roughness elements.
T h e r e f o r e , t h i s k^-value aannot be r e l a t e d t o the g e o m e t r i c a l
properties
o f the roughness elements.

Mieuwjaar-Van der K a a i j (1987) and Nap-Van Kampen (1988) measured
averaged v e l o c i t i e s u s i n g an e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c
time-
v e l o c i t y meter i n i r r e g u l a r
waves over a ( n a t u r a l ) r i p p l e d bed w i t h f o l l o w i n g and opposing c u r r e n t s .
-2.28-
The experiments were performed i n a wave flume ( l e n g t h = 45 m, w i d t h
=0.8
m and depth = 1 m). The h e i g h t and l e n g t h o f the sand r i p p l e s were r e s p .

0.02 m and 0.15 m. The wave h e i g h t s were i n the range o f H^/h = 0.15-0.35.
The peak p e r i o d o f the waves was about Tp = 2.5 s. The f l u i d v e l o c i t i e s i n
each p o i n t were averaged over time (= 256 s) and over space (= 0.6
m).
Space-averaging was performed by moving the measuring c a r r i a d g e on t o p o f

the flume s l o w l y f o r w a r d and backward d u r i n g t h e measuring p e r i o d .
The r e s u l t s o f Nieuwjaar-Van der KaaiJ are shown i n F i g u r e 2.4.3
wing c u r r e n t ) and i n F i g u r e 2.4.4
(follo-
(opposing c u r r e n t ) . The c u r r e n t
velocity
p r o f i l e i n case o f a c u r r e n t alone i s also shown.

The f o l l o w i n g phenomena can be observed.
following
current:
reduced v e l o c i t i e s near the bed ( z / h < 0.2)
reduced v e l o c i t i e s near the water s u r f a c e ( z / h > 0.6)
increased v e l o c i t i e s a t i n t e r m e d i a t e depths
most pronounced e f f e c t i n case o f a weak c u r r e n t and h i g h waves
opposing c u r r e n t :
reduced v e l o c i t i e s near the bed (z/h < 0.4)
increased v e l o c i t i e s near t h e water s u r f a c e ( z / h > 0.5)
most pronounced e f f e c t i n case o f a weak c u r r e n t and h i g h waves.
V i s s e r (1986) measured time-averaged v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s i n a wave-current

b a s i n w i t h an angle o f 90 between the c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n and the wave
d i r e c t i o n ( r e g u l a r waves). A smooth bed and a g r a v e l bed (d^Q = 0.005 m)
was used. The c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s were measured w i t h an i m m e r s i b l e Laser
Doppler V e l o c i t y meter. The v e l o c i t i e s were averaged over 100 s. R e l a t i v e
wave h e i g h t s were i n the range o f 0.25 t o 0.5. The wave p e r i o d was
The mean c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y was i n the range o f 0.1 t o 0.2
1 s.
m/s.
Some r e s u l t s are presented i n Figure 2.4.9, showing reduced v e l o c i t i e s i n

the near-bed r e g i o n and increased v e l o c i t i e s i n the near water s u r f a c e
region.
Summarizing a l l r e s u l t s , i t can be concluded t h a t t h e c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s
i n t h e near-bed r e g i o n are reduced by the wave-induced v o r t i c e s i n t h e
wave boundary l a y e r . T h i s e f f e c t i s most pronounced i n case o f a r e l a t i -
-2.29-
v e l y weak c u r r e n t and r e l a t i v e l y h i g h waves. I n case o f an opposing curr e n t t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e near-bed v e l o c i t i e s i s somewhat l a r g e r than i n

case o f a f o l l o w i n g c u r r e n t . When t h e wave d i r e c t i o n i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o
the c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n , t h e near-bed v e l o c i t i e s a r e a l s o reduced. The c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e upper l a y e r s a r e increased
c u r r e n t and i n case t h e waves a r e p e r p e n d i c u l a r
i n case o f an opposing
t o t h e c u r r e n t . When t h e
waves a r e i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n as t h e c u r r e n t ( f o l l o w i n g ) , t h e v e l o c i t i e s
near t h e s u r f a c e a r e reduced.
Mathematical models
Most t h e o r e t i c a l models have some common f e a t u r e s which can be summarized
as
follows:
t h e wave motion i s a p o t e n t i a l f l o w over t h e e n t i r e water depth except

i n t h e t h i n wave boundary l a y e r ,
t h e wave p o t e n t i a l f l o w does n o t i n t e r a c t w i t h t h e t u r b u l e n c e
o f the
steady f l o w ,
t h e steady f l o w o u t s i d e t h e wave boundary l a y e r can be t r e a t e d independ e n t l y from t h e wave motion.
I n s i d e t h e wave boundary l a y e r t u r b u l e n c e
generated by t h e wave and t h e
c u r r e n t motion w i l l a f f e c t t h e v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e o f t h e mean c u r r e n t . Due

to t h e n o n - l i n e a r
i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e mean c u r r e n t and t h e wave boundary
l a y e r a l l t h e o r e t i c a l models p r e d i c t an increase
for
o f the flow
resistance
t h e mean c u r r e n t due t o t h e wave a c t i o n . The e f f e c t can be d e s c r i b e d
as an apparent wave roughness ( k ^ ) , which i s l a r g e r than t h e p h y s i c a l bed

roughness ( k ^ ) . The presence o f t h e waves w i l l t h e r e f o r e cause a l a r g e r
bed-shear s t r e s s f o r a given f l o w r a t e o r a reduced f l o w r a t e f o r a g i v e n
bed
shear s t r e s s . The models f o r combined wave/current boundary l a y e r s can
be d i v i d e d i n two main groups: models based on a combination o f time-cons t a n t eddy v i s c o s i t y p r o f i l e s and models based on h i g h e r - o r d e r
turbulence
closures.
One o f f i r s t models was presented by B i j k e r (1966).
mixing
I t s t a r t s from t h e
l e n g t h concept. B i j k e r considered a c e r t a i n p o i n t ( z ' ) above t h e
bed a t which a l i n e emanating from t h e bottom (z=0)
i s tangential to the
c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e . The wave-induced o r b i t a l motion i n t h e boundary

l a y e r i s assumed t o have a l o g a r i t h m i c p r o f i l e and t h u s a s t r a i g h t l i n e
can be drawn emanating from t h e bed t o be a l s o t a n g e n t i a l t o t h e wave
-2.30-
v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e . T h e r e f o r e , once t h e v e l o c i t y a t t h e l e v e l z' i s d e s c r i bed,
the v e l o c i t y gradient a t t h i s l e v e l i s automatically
shear s t r e s s can be determined from t h e m i x i n g l e n g t h

The model o f Lundgren (1972) i n c l u d e s
known and t h e
theory.
a description of the conditions i n
the wave boundary l a y e r . The eddy v i s c o s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n s i d e t h e boundary l a y e r was e s t i m a t e d from measured values averaged over a wave p e r i o d
(see F i g . 2 . 4 . 5 A ) .
The mean c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e i s assumed t o be have t h e normal
loga-
r i t h m i c shape above the wave boundary l a y e r , b u t t h e increased eddy

s i t y i n t h e wave boundary l a y e r w i l l g i v e a h i g h e r f l o w r e s i s t a n c e
viscothan
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e n a t u r a l bed roughness alone.

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e wave boundary l a y e r a r e determined from t h e
wave parameters alone, w i t h o u t
t a k i n g t h e c u r r e n t i n t o account. The model
i s t h e r e f o r e o n l y v a l i d i n s i t u a t i o n s w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y weak c u r r e n t .
The model f o r combined wave and c u r r e n t motion by Smith (1977) i s based on
a l i n e a r eddy v i s c o s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e wave boundary l a y e r
(see F i g .
2 . 4 . 5 A ) . T h i s eddy v i s c o s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i s continuous a t z = 6^, b u t i t

is hardly
r e a l i s t i c t h a t t h e eddy v i s c o s i t y over t h e e n t i r e f l o w depth
c o n t a i n s t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n from t h e wave-induced eddy v i s c o s i t y . I t must be

expected t h a t t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n from t h e wave-generated t u r b u l e n c e
decays w i t h t h e d i s t a n c e
gradually
from t h e wave boundary l a y e r .
Grant and Madsen (1979) presented a model which i n some r e s p e c t s i s s i m i l a r

t o h a l f o f Smith (1977). They a l s o apply a time c o n s t a n t eddy v i s c o s i t y .
The model has been improved t o cover an a r b i t r a r y angle between t h e waves
and
the current.
The eddy v i s c o s i t y v a r i e s l i n e a r l y w i t h t h e d i s t a n c e
from t h e bed. I n s i d e
the wave boundary l a y e r t h e s l o p e i s determined by t h e l a r g e s t shear

c i t y from t h e waves and t h e c u r r e n t
velo-
(see F i g . 2 . 4 . 5 A ) . Outside t h e wave
boundary l a y e r , t h e eddy v i s c o s i t y i s determined by t h e mean shear s t r e s s .

The eddy v i s c o s i t y i s d i s c o n t i n u o u s a t z = 6^. The mean c u r r e n t
i s given
as two l o g a r i t h m i c v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s i n t e r s e c t i n g a t z = 6^.
Some m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o t h e model o f Grant and Madsen (1979) have been
introduced
by C h r i s t o f f e r s e n and Jonsson (1985). They a p p l y a c o n s t a n t
eddy v i s c o s i t y i n t h e wave boundary l a y e r . The eddy v i s c o s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n

i s seen i n F l g . 2.4.5A.
-2.31-
The model o f FredseSe
(1984)
does n o t apply the eddy v i s c o s i t y d i r e c t l y i n
the d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e phenomena. The basic assumption i s t h a t t h e t i m e

scale f o r production
and decay o f t u r b u l e n t k i n e t i c energy i s s m a l l com-
pared t o t h e wave p e r i o d . This has been used t o imply t h a t t h e f o r m a t i o n

o f t h e wave boundary l a y e r can be t r e a t e d independently f o r each h a l f wave
p e r i o d , and t h a t the v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e i n t h e wave boundary l a y e r can be
taken t o be l o g a r i t h m i c , corresponding t o instantaneous e q u i l i b r i u m i n t h e
t u r b u l e n t energy.
The development o f t h e wave boundary l a y e r d u r i n g each h a l f wave p e r i o d i s
described
by t h e momentum equation i n t e g r a t e d over the wave boundary l a y e r
t h i c k n e s s . The c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e o u t s i d e t h e wave boundary l a y e r i s

used as a boundary c o n d i t i o n i n t h e momentum e q u a t i o n .
i s described
This outer
profile
as a l o g a r i t h m i c v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e , determined t h r o u g h t h e
apparent wave roughness ( k ^ ) analogous t o other models, e.g. Grant and

Madsen ( 1 9 7 9 ) . '
The eddy v i s c o s i t y concept i s n o t used d i r e c t l y i n t h i s model, b u t t h e

( t i m e - v a r i a n t ) eddy v i s c o s i t y can be estimated
and boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s
from t h e bed-shear s t r e s s
c a l c u l a t e d by t h e model.
The model o f Bakker and van Doorn
(1978)
applies a mixing
length turbu-
l e n c e model, where t h e eddy v i s c o s i t y i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e l o c a l
flow
c o n d i t i o n s . The eddy v i s c o s i t y v a r i e s w i t h time and w i t h t h e d i s t a n c e
from
the bed. I t i s t h e r e f o r e i n t e r e s t i n g , t h a t a comparison made by Bakker and

van
Doorn between t h e i r theory and Lundgren's shows r e s u l t s o f t h e same
o r d e r o f magnitude, though Lundgren assumes a time c o n s t a n t eddy v i s c o s i t y .

Davies e t a l .
(1988)
have presented a model based on an one e q u a t i o n
tur-
bulence model ( k - e q u a t i o n ) . A two-equations model has been presented by

Hagatum and E i d s v i k
(1986).
The f l o w r e s i s t a n c e p r e d i c t e d by some models have been compared, where i t

was p o s s i b l e t o make the c a l c u l a t i o n s based on the i n f o r m a t i o n g i v e n i n
the papers.
Four models have been compared:
Lundgren ( 1 9 7 2 )
Bakker and van Doorn
Grant and Madsen
Fredseie
( 1984)
(1978)
(1979)
-2.32-
The r e s u l t s a r e shown i n F i g .
2.4.5B
d e p i c t i n g the Increase i n t h e appa-
r e n t roughness (k) a c t i n g on the mean c u r r e n t o u t s i d e t h e wave boundary

l a y e r versus t h e r a t i o between the maximum wave o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y ( U 5 ) and
the mean bed shear v e l o c i t y from t h e c u r r e n t ( u * ).
Figure
2.4.5c
a l s o shows a comparison o f models and some e x p e r i m e n t a l
results.
The model o f FredseSe y i e l d s reasonable r e s u l t s . This i s a l s o concluded
by
V i s s e r (1986) comparing h i s experimental r e s u l t s (waves and c u r r e n t s p e r p e n d i c u l a r ) w i t h t h e r e s u l t s o f the Fredsde model.

F i n a l l y , F i g u r e 2 . 4 . 6 i s presented showing b a s i c r e s u l t s o f t h e Fredseiemethod f o r (j) = 0 (waves f o l l o w i n g t h e c u r r e n t ) and (j) - 90 (waves perpend i c u l a r t o the current).
E n g i n e e r i n g methods
Coffey-Nielsen
(I986):
Coffey and N i e l s e n (1986) proposed an e n g i n e e r i n g model based on a l o g a r i t h m i c v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e . The wave e f f e c t on the steady c u r r e n t i s r e p r e sented as a c o n s t a n t s h i f t o f the v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e y i e l d i n g an apparent
roughness
The r a t i o z^j/z^ was o b t a i n e d from e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s and
r e l a t e d t o t h e r a t i o o f t h e wave-related and c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed-shear

v e l o c i t i e s (u /u ) .
*,w *,c
A disadvantage
o f t h i s model i s t h a t i t r e q u i r e s an i t e r a t i v e
computations.
yan_RiJn_(1988):
The p r e s e n t w r i t e r proposes a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d method, which i s a l s o based
on t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f l o g a r i t h m i c v e l o c i t y
profiles.
The v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e f o r a c u r r e n t i n t h e presence o f waves i s d e s c r i b e d

as a t w o - l a y e r system:
e
l o g a r i t h m i c v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e a f f e c t e d by bed-form roughness ( k g ) i n s i d e
the
near-bed m i x i n g l a y e r ( 6 ) , which i s assumed t o be equal t o t h r e e
times t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e wave boundary l a y e r ,
l o g a r i t h m i c v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e a f f e c t e d by apparent roughness ( k ^ ) o u t s i d e
the
near-bed m i x i n g l a y e r ( 6 ) .
-2.33-
The e x p r e s s i o n s a r e (see a l s o F i g . 2,4.7):

, V
ln(30z/k )
V,z = - ^ \ ln(30h/k )
^ < ^
"ith
(2,4.2)
. ln(30z/k )
= V,z 'ln(306/k )
s
ln(30/k )
= V , 6 = -1 . l n ( 3 0 h / k )
(2.4.3)
(2.^.4)
Si
i n which:
V
v^
r-2
-2i0 5
- magnitude o f depth-averaged v e l o c i t y v e c t o r = [ + v ]
= t h i c k n e s s o f wave-related near-bed m i x i n g l a y e r
= c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y a t h e i g h t z above bed
( = 3 6 )
w
6^
= t h i c k n e s s o f wave boundary l a y e r , Eq. (2.3.8)
V
= current velocity a t z = 6
r,
k
= bed roughness
k
= apparent bed roughness
The o v e r a l l r e s i s t a n c e experienced by the c u r r e n t due t o f r i c t i o n and

v o r t i c e s - r e l a t e d p r e s s u r e e f f e c t s as m o d i f i e d by t h e wave m o t i o n , f o l l o w s
from Eq. (2.4.2) y i e l d i n g :
^,c = -1 + l n ( 3 0 h / k )
3,
(2,4,5)
A p p l y i n g Eq. ( 2 . 4 . 4 ) , i t f o l l o w s t h a t
""lir^)
',c " ln(30/k
3.
2
P <
^b,c
Since
C =
or
(2.4.6)
^
ln2(306/k )
3.
(2,4,7)
= (g'^/C)v , the Chzy c o e f f i c i e n t (C) can be expressed a s :
g'^[-1 + l n ( 3 0 h / k ^ ) ] - 18 l o g ( 1 2 h / k )
3
(2,4,8)
-2.34-
The l o g a r i t h m i c v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e i n s i d e the wave-boundary
l a y e r (z < 6)
depends on the p h y s i c a l bed roughness (kg) and on an a p p a r e n t bed-shear

v e l o c i t y (v ^ ) . T h i s l a t t e r parameter f o l l o w s from Eq. (2.4.3) and
(2.4.4):
or
ln(306/k )
s
2
2
= a
^'^^
(2.4.9)
ln2(306/k )
.
^''^
(2.4.10)
with
ln2(306/k )
^
ln'^(306/k )
s
vl
= pg ^
C2
and
C = 18 l o g ( ^ )
a
(2.4.11)
The a - c o e f f i c i e n t i s c o n s i d e r a b l y s m a l l e r than 1 i n case o f r e l a t i v e l y
high
waves combined w i t h a weak c u r r e n t . The apparent bed-shear s t r e s s (x,
D y CH
p r o b a b l y i s t h e e f f e c t i v e c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed-shear s t r e s s f o r t h e sediment
e n t r a i n m e n t process a t t h e bed. An i n d i c a t i o n f o r t h i s i s t h e weak i n f l u e n c e
o f t h e c u r r e n t on t h e near-bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e presence o f h i g h waves.
For example, Nap and Van Kampen (1988) measured a near-bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
about 4 kg/m3 i n a water depth o f 0.5 m w i t h waves o f 0.18 m and a c u r r e n t
v e l o c i t y o f 0.1 m/s. The near-bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n remained about t h e same when
the
c u r r e n t was i n c r e a s e d t o 0.4 m/s, showing thus a weak i n f l u e n c e o f t h e
c u r r e n t on the sediment e n t r a i n m e n t process.

To a p p l y t h e above-given e x p r e s s i o n s , t h e apparent roughness k^ must be
known. B a s i c a l l y , t h e r a t i o o f t h e k^/kg should be a f u n c t i o n o f :
0
t h e r a t i o o f t h e peak v a l u e o f o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y and depth-averaged

A.
v e l o c i t y U^/Vj.,
t h e r a t i o o f t h e peak v a l u e o f t h e o r b i t a l e x c u r s i o n and t h e bed

roughness, A^/kg,
t h e angle 4) between t h e c u r r e n t and wave d i r e c t i o n .
Thus,
= F
kg
Vr
^ , <fr)
kg
(2,4,12)
-2.35-
The
U^/Vf. r a t i o represents
m o t i o n . For Ug/Vj,
the r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h o f the wave and
1 i t f o l l o w s t h a t k g / k g +^1, The
Ag/kg
ratio
current
repre-
sents the i n f l u e n c e o f the wave p e r i o d because a t the same U^/Vj^-value a

decrease o f the Ag-value means a smaller wave p e r i o d ( f a s t e r
which p r o b a b l y r e s u l t s i n an increase
oscillations)
o f the apparent roughness k^.
The
mathematical model r e s u l t s o f Fredsde ( 1 9 8 4 ) show a r a t h e r weak i n f l u e n c e

A
o f the A g / k g - r a t i o . T h e r e f o r e ,
t h i s parameter has
been n e g l e c t e d
i n the
present a n a l y s i s .
To determine the k ^ / k ^ - r a t i o , the present w r i t e r used the v e l o c i t y d a t a o f
Nap
and
Van
kampen ( 1 9 8 8 ) .
w i t h ( f o l l o w i n g and
They measured v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s i n c u r r e n t s
opposing) waves and w i t h o u t waves. The
measured v e l o -
c i t y p r o f i l e s showed a l o g a r i t h m i c behaviour i n the lower p a r t o f the water

depth (z < 0.5
plotted against
The
h ) . Based on t h i s , the k/k-ratio was
determined
and
the U^/Vi^-ratio, as shown i n F i g . 2 . 4 . 7 B .
r e s u l t s can be represented
by:
Y Ug/Vt,
ka
(2.4.13)
TT = e
w i t h a maximum value o f about 10 f o r U^/v^ = 3 .

The
Y - c o e f f i c i e n t i s dependent on the angle between the c u r r e n t and
the
waves, as f o l l o w s :
<t> = 0
(opposing waves): y = 0,75
(2.4.14)
<t> = 180
(opposing waves): y = 1.1
(2,4.15)
F i g u r e 2 . 4 . 8 shows measured (Nap-Van Kampen, 1 9 8 8 )

p r o f i l e s a p p l y i n g Eqs.
(2,4,2), (2.4.3),
r e n t ( F i g . 2 . 4 . 8 A ) and
r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e waves (H
considerable
(2.4.13).
and
computed v e l o c i t y
I n case o f a weak c u r ^ 0.15
m)
there i s a
r e d u c t i o n o f the near-bed v e l o c i t i e s compared w i t h the
situa-
t i o n w i t h o u t waves (H^ = 0 ) . For f o l l o w i n g waves the reduced near-bed

v e l o c i t i e s a r e reasonably w e l l described
l a r g e e r r o r s can
by the computed v e l o c i t i e s ,
be observed i n the n e a r - s u r f a c e r e g i o n where the
t i e s are s t r o n g l y n o n - l o g a r i t h m i c
I n case o f a s t r o n g c u r r e n t ( ^ 0 . 4
m/s)
and
too l a r g e
(T15,-10),
r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l waves (H^ ^
s
the computed near-bed v e l o c i t i e s are about W%
(Fig. 2.4.8B).
veloci-
(T15,10). I n case o f opposing waves the
computed v e l o c i t i e s i n the near-bed l a y e r are about 30%
0.075 m)
but
t o 20^5 too
large
-2.36-
The p r e s e n t method has a l s o been a p p l i e d t o the data o f Van der S t e l and

V i s s e r (1985), who measured v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s i n c u r r e n t s combined w i t h
waves under an angle o f 90. The r e s u l t s are presented i n F i g . 2.4.9,
showing good r e s u l t s f o r an y - c o e f f I c i e n t o f 0.75.
Based on t h i s , i t i s proposed t o apply the f o l l o w i n g
y = 0.75
f o r 4) = 0, 360
y = 0.75
f o r ^ = 90, 270 ( p e r p e n d i c u l a r waves)
y = 1.1
f o r (}) = 180
y-coeffic'ients:
( f o l l o w i n g waves)
(2.4.16)
(opposing waves)
The bed-shear s t r e s s (x,

) due t o combined c u r r e n t s and waves (under an
b ,cw
angle 41) can be determined by v e c t o r a d d i t i o n o f the w a v e - r e l a t e d and t h e
current-related
bed-shear s t r e s s e s (see s k e t c h ) . The bed-shear s t r e s s e s
a r e assumed t o be r e l a t e d t o the near-bed v e l o c i t i e s a t h e i g h t s 6 above

the bed.
S u b s t i t u t i o n o f U5 - U^sinut y i e l d s :
(U6,cw)2 = ( v r , 6 ) 2 + (UgsinwtJ^ + 2 Ug v^^^
Averaging over the wave p e r i o d T, y i e l d s :
'
'
s i n w t cos4)
-2.37-
Assuming xb^c
['Vr,&]^
X5^ |- (Ug)^, the magnitude
o f the combined
time-averaged bed-shear s t r e s s i s :
^b,cw = ^b,c ^ ^b,w
(2.11.17)
i n which:
X,
= time-averaged bed-shear s t r e s s f o r combined c u r r e n t s and waves
b,cw
1
-2
T,
= time-averaged bed-shear s t r e s s r e l a t e d t o c u r r e n t = n- p f v
b,c
c r
1
'2
X,
= time-averaged bed-shear s t r e s s r e l a t e d t o waves = ir p f
D, W
The d i r e c t i o n o f the v e c t o r x,
o f Xj^
depends on the angle 4), but the magnitude
does n o t depend on the angle ({>.
As regards the sediment entrainment process, o n l y the magnitude o f x,

D
i s i m p o r t a n t because i t determines the s t i r r i n g up o f bed m a t e r i a l .
f CW
The
t r a n s p o r t i s mainly i n the d i r e c t i o n o f the v e l o c i t y v e c t o r .

F i n a l l y , the o v e r a l l r e s i s t a n c e i n the c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n i s d i s c u s s e d .
Since the apparent roughness
( k ^ ) i s o n l y weakly dependent on the a n g l e
((t)) between the. waves and the c u r r e n t , i t i s proposed t o s i m p l y a p p l y :
^b,c,x = ' ' g ^
^b,c,y =
(2.4.18)
(^-^-^^^
i n which:
= depth-averaged
velocity i n x-direction
V = depth-averaged v e l o c i t y i n y - d i r e c t i o n
2
2 0 5
v^ = ( + V ) ' = v e l o c i t y v e c t o r
C = 18 l o g ( 1 2 h / k ^ ) = Chzy-coefficient as m o d i f i e d by t h e wave e f f e c t
-2.38-
2.5
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-2.111-
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Maximum Breaker
Height
J o u r n a l o f Waterways, Harbours and Coastal Eng. Div., ASCE, V o l . 98, No. WW4
w a t e r surface
o u t e r layer
t u r b u l e n t o u t e r layer
t u r b u l e n t l o g a r i t h m i c layer
i n n e r iayer o r
b o t t o m layer
t r a n s i t i o n layer
v i s c o u s s u b . layer
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
bottom
A. CURRENT BOUNDARY LAYER
*
B.
WAVE BOUNDARY LAYER
U/U5
C. VELOCITIES IN WAVE BOUNDARY LAYER
CURRENT AND WAVE BOUNDARY LAYER
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG, 2.2.1
10^
810^
8io^
>
Reynolds' number, 5A5/V
8-50^
A. VARIATION OF THE HORIZONTAL VELOCITY COMPONENT ABOVE A RIPPLED BED

WITH TIME
1.8
6 = peak velocity outside

boundary layer
= peak velocity at height Zi in
boundary layer
z^ = height above crest
X = ripple length, (3 = ( ( j / 2 v ) - ^
1.6
<3
O
1.4
1'
ll
1.2
ll
1J
il
crest
1.0
10
15
B. VARIATION RANGE OF THE PEAK VELOCITY AS A FUNCTION OF

HEIGHT (3zi FOR VARIOUS HYDRAULIC AND RIPPLE CONDITIONS
VELOCITY F I E L D NEAR A RIPPLED BED IN

OSCILLATORY
FLOW (DUTOIT, 1982)
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 2.2.3
A.
CYCLE
OF
VARIATION
SAND
QF
rms
FLUCTUATION
(A6/X=0.71,
RIPPLE
A / \ = 0.17,
AND
VELOCITY
ABOVE
CREST
AND
TROUGH
|3\/2TT;=20)
o crest
X trough
-4
B. V A R I A T I O N
ONE
AS
CYCLE
A
OF
THE
OF
FUNCTION
THE
O F
MEAN
rms
VALUE
DURING
FLUCTUATION
HEIGHT
(A/X =0.2, A 6 / X = 0 . 7 4 , (3X/2Ti; = 20)
C.
PEAK
FOR
VELOCITY
A QUASI-FLAT
INTENSE
VELOCITY FIELD NEAR A RIPPLED

FLAT BED IN OSCILLATORY FLOW
(DUTOIT AND SLEATH. 1981)
D E L F T HYDRAULICS
AND
SEDIMENT
PHASE
BED
LAG
WITH
MOTION
AND
461
FIG. 2.2.4
/.
(cm)
0
1 8/tm V
. 9 , ? , I
X{cin)
(a)
A.
mean
(b) Reynolds
velocity
PRESSURE
20
(cm/s)
U'^
T =4 s
Aripple = 0 . 0 1 2 m
X ripple = 0 . 1 2 m
cni2/s2) 0
W'^
mean p r e s s u r e
trough
crest
(o)
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF MEAN VELOCITY, REYNOLDS'

SHEAR STRESS AND MEAN
{cm/s,
stress
(cni2/s2)o
U ' W 0.5
(cm^/s^)0
r
1
0.5
0
TT
27t
B. TIME HISTORY OF MEAN VELOCITIES AND TURBULENT CHARACTERISTICS
VELOCITIES, SHEAR STRESSES AND PRESSURES

NEAR A RIPPLED BED (SATO E T AL. 1984)
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 2.2.5
10'
^)
A. WAVE FRICTION COEFFICIENT FOR HYDRAULIC SMOOTH AND

ROUGH CONDITIONS
10
111
AV + 0
measurements
I N .
10"
t r
l_L_
ri-_L
10'
> Ae/ks
B. WAVE FRICTION COEFFICIENTS FOR HYDRAULIC ROUGH CONDITIONS
FRICTION COEFFICIENTS O F JONSSON, 1966
461
FIG. 2.2.6
A
A
X
O
o
Nelson, slope 0.0000, data set 1.

Nelson, slope 0.0000. data set 2.
Hehaute, slope 0.0000.
Keating and Webber, slope 0.0000.
others, slope .000O (see text and Table ! )
Nelson, slope 0.00286.
Goda, slope 0.0100.
Nelson, slope 0.0153.
limiting Criteria
Shore Protection Manual, slope 0.0100 (based on experimental data).
Shore Protection Manual, slope 0.0000 (based on theory).
Nelson, slope 0.0000 (based on experimental data).
BREAKING WAVE HEIGHTS
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FK3. 2.3.1
w a t e r surface
O
0,2
//
0.4
^- 0,6
O)
2 0.8
/
/
//
kh = 1
H/h = 1/3
/
/
/'s.
'
/
1.0-0.8 -0.4
y'
y'
y'
>. .
0.4
>...
0.8
>
1.2_ 1.6
2.0
4Um/)kH2
2.4
2.8
bottom
3.2
Stokes d r i f t velocity, Eq. (2.3.29)

Stokes d r i f t velocity, Eq. (2.3,33)
total m a s s - t r a n s p o r t of Longuet-Higgens, Eq, (2,3,41)
Eulerian mass-transport velocity of Craik, Eq. (2.3.46)
A. MASS-TRANSPORT VELOCITIES
Llw = maximum horizontal velocity

Ql = eulerian velocity averaged over wave period
ij2 = eulerian velocity averaged over occurrence period
B. EULERIAN MASS-TRANSPORT
VELOCITIES
ACCORDING TO DALRYMPLE (1976)
MASS-TRANSPORT VELOCITIES
IN NON-BREAKING WAVES
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 2.3.2
i
5
(O
\)
^- 4
3
0.5
1.0
1.5
C/(5)'
total m a s s - t r a n s p o r t velocity, Eq. (2.3.38)

Eulerian m a s s - t r a n s p o r t velocity
A. MASS-TRANSPORT VELOCITIES NEAR BOTTOM
ACCORDING TO LONGUET-HIGGENS (1957)
/
/
(
\
J'"
v
las
\
1.0
-2
4
F (z/h)
10
kh = 0.5
p.
kh = 1
kh = 1.5
B. VERTICAL PROFILE OF MASS-TRANSPORT VELOCITY ACCORDING

TO LONGUET-HIGGENS (1953)
MASS-TRANSPORT
VELOCITIES
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 2.3.3
8
1
1
11
f
\
i
<
)
/
i
3-'
O
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
U/Umax
A.
=()/2V)-^
=1.4S
= Q0754 m
= 0.3 m
fax= 0.0253 m/s
\
\
measured
total m o s s - t r a n s p o r t of
L o n g u e t - Higgens
eulerian m o s s - t r a n s p o r t of
Longuet - Higgens
1.4
MASS-TRANSPORT VELOCITIES MEASURED BY BORGHEI (1982)
200
laminar f l o w (5/ks = 8)
turbulent rough f l o w
150
(Ae/ks = 1000)
N
100
50
i.
0
0.4
UC/Ue
Q2
0.6
0.8
B. EULERIAN MASS-TRANSPORT VELOCITIES BY BROKER HEDEGAARD (1985)
Z6
(cm)
4
X(cm)
C. RESIDUAL EULERIAN VELOCITIES FOR SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORY

FLOW OVER A RIPPLE MEASURED BY SATO ET AL (1984)
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 2.3.4
'CASE
5)
ap (CASE
1)
-SWL
Horizontal component, K.
BORE eSTABirSHMEHT
. THAHSITPH SME
, ^
NOH-EHEJWHO j ^ ^
A. MASS-TRANSPORT VELOCITIES IN CROSS-SHORE DIRECTION

(NADAOKA ET AL, 1982)
wave propagation
<-
B. MASS-TRANSPORT VELOCITIES IN CROSS-SHORE DIRECTION
IN BREAKING WAVES
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 2.3.5
current alone,
u = 0.112 m/s
c u r r e n t and waves, = 0.083 m/s
current alone, u = 0.232 m/s

c u r r e n t and waves, = 0.21 m / s
H/h = 0.4
H/h = 0.4
MEAN CURRENT VELOCITY P R O F I L E S

AS MODIFIED BY WAVES ACCORDING
TO BAKKER AND VAN DOORN ( 1 9 7 8 )
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 2.4.1
WAVES AND FOLLOWING CURRENT
> mean fluid velocity, ul
A.
c u r r e n t alone,
0=0.18 m/s,
c u r r e n t and waves, =0.18 m/s, H/h = 0.10
c u r r e n t and waves, =0.17 m/s, H/h = 0.22
SMOOTH BED (h = 0.2m)
WAVES
c u r r e n t alone
c u r r e n t and waves
(ij and H not given)
B. ROUGH BED (h = a 2 m )
AND OPPOSING CURRENT
c u r r e n t alone
( and H not given)
A. SMOOTH BED (h=0.2m)
B.
current alone,
u=0.10 m/s
c u r r e n t and waves, = 0.11 m/s, H/h=0.14
c u r r e n t and waves, = 0.125m/s, H/h = 0.30
ROUGH BED ( h = 0 . 3 m )
MEAN CURRENT VELOCITY P R O F I L E S

AS MODIFIED BY WAVES ACCORDING
TO KEMP AND SIMONS (1982, 1983)
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 2.4.2
025
0.50
.75
TOO
125
150
0.25
0.50
Uz/
INFLUENCE O F WAVE HEIGHT ON CURRENT

VELOCITY PROFILE (FOLLOWING CURRENT)
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
0.75
1.00
1.50
Uz/
1
461
1.25
FIG. 2.4.3
0.25
0.50
0.75
>
1.00
1.25
1.50
Uz/
INFLUENCE O F WAVE HEIGHT ON CURRENT

VELOCITY PROFILE (OPPOSING CURRENT)
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 2.4.4
A. Lundgren (1972)
B. Snnith (1977)
C. G r a n t - M a d s e n (1979)
D. Christoffcrsen (1982)
E. Myrhaug (1982)
A. EDDY VISCOSITY DISTRIBUTIONS
i/hs:
>
5/Ux,c
B. COMPARISON OF MODELS
>
235
5/Ux,c
C. COMPARISON OF MODELS
MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR COMBINED

CURRENT AND WAVES
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 2.4.5
10*1
1I
l l l l l l
-II
I l l l l
I I
1 1 1 1 {
A6/ks=
5
10'
5
in
O
11nnr
l l l l l l
l l l l l l l
T T T T ' i rr
::
l l l l l l
1 I T 1 It
^ I
^
10'.
K)' -
0=9Cf
l l l l l l l
l l l l l l l
APPARENT ROUGHNESS ACCORDING TO FREDSOE,

1984
FOR 0 =0 AND 0 = 90
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FK3. 2.4.6
->
A.
velocity, Uz
INFLUENCE OF WAVES ON CURRENT VELOCITY PROFILE
1o
Y=1.1/
o /
in
/o
/Y = 0.75
/ ^
&1
1<
/ c
oh/
^\
Ue/Vr
B.
foiiowing
opposing
RATIO OF APPARENT ROUGHNESS AND

PHYSICAL
BED ROUGHNESS
INFLUENCE O F WAVES ON CURRENT

VELOCITY PROFILE
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 2.4.7
0.001j
O
0.02
0.04
0.06 '0.08
0.10
0.12
current
0.14
0.16
velocity
0.18
0.20
0.22
0.24
(m/s)
watc ! r s u r f a c e
0.5
y
/
measured
Hs
X >
T75,-40
computed
0.2
0.1
T7.5,40
(m)
Tp
(s)
0.077
0.0723
2.3
2.4
(m/s)
0.156
0.132
(m/s)
0.364
Q388
<J)
C)
180
X O ,
X
0.02
0,01
\/'
/
0.005
r i p p le c r <!St
Ap
= 0.01 3 m
= 0.0^ m
0.002
0.001
O
0.02
004
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
current
0.14
0.16
velocity
0.18
0.20
0.22
0.24
(m/s)
MEASURED AND COMPUTED CURRENT VELOCITIES

IN THE PRESENCE
O F WAVES ( 0 = 0 *
180)
H
461
FKB. 2.4.8
T241
0.5
measured
221
0.106
computed
Hs
r
0.2
sur ace
0.1
fi
(m)
(s)
(m/s)
0.25
(m/s)
0.27
()
0.23
90
0.05
)
1
/
/
/
/
/ /
0.02
//
ld
lf
0.01
Te
0.005
//
iM
1/
1/
1/
0.002
grava
k s = 0 .01 m ,
O
Q02
d90 =Qooe
1
0.06
0.001
0.04
1
0.08
0.10
>
0.12
0.14
current
0.16
velocity
0.18
0.20
0.22
Q24
(m/s)
T441
0.5
measured
401
0.068
computed
0.2
wata
0.1
s u r- f a c e
Hs
(m)
(s)
(m/s)
0.21
(m/s)
0.105
0.082
90
t
k
1
0.05
1
0.02
/
h
V
0.01
0.005
i
1
0.002
vel
k s = 0.01 m
1
0.001
O
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
>
0.12
current
0.14
0.16
velocity
0.18
0.20
0.22
0.24
(m/s)
MEASURED AND COMPUTED CURRENT VELOCITIES

WITH AND WITHOUT
WAVES ( 0 . 9 0 )
461
FIG. 2.4.9
-3.1-
3.
CHARACTERISTIC SEDIMENT TRANSPORT PARAMETERS
3.1
Introduction
The f o l l o w i n g dimensionless c h a r a c t e r i s t i c parameters are used:
p a r t i c l e parameter,
p a r t i c l e m o b i l i t y parameter, 0
excess bed-shear s t r e s s parameter, T
suspension parameter, Z
3.2
P a r t i c l e parameter
The p a r t i c l e parameter
r e f l e c t s the i n f l u e n c e o f g r a v i t y , d e n s i t y and
v i s c o s i t y and reads as:
(3.1)
V
i n which:
dr-n = medium p a r t i c l e diameter o f bed m a t e r i a l
s
= s p e c i f i c d e n s i t y (= p /p)
s
= kinematic v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t
= acceleration o f gravity
3.3
P a r t i c l e m o b i l i t y parameter
The p a r t i c l e m o b i l i t y parameter e i s t h e r a t i o o f the hydrodynamic f l u i d
(drag
and l i f t ) f o r c e and the submerged p a r t i c l e weight. The f l u i d f o r c e i s p r o p o r -
2
t i o n a l t o p d (u^)
2
and the submerged p a r t i c l e weight i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o
3
(p - p ) d g , y i e l d i n g a r a t i o o f :
3
0 . ,
,
=
^ (s-1)g d^Q
(p^-p)g d^Q
(3.2)
i n which:
= y
= time-averaged e f f e c t i v e bed-shear s t r e s s due t o c u r r e n t s and/or

waves
o v e r a l l time-averaged bed-shear s t r e s s due t o c u r r e n t s and/or waves
e f f i c i e n c y o r r e d u c t i o n parameter
-3.2-
e f f e c t i v e bed-shear v e l o c i t y
specific density
(= p -p)
s
The e f f e c t i v e bed-shear s t r e s s represents t h a t p a r t o f the o v e r a l l
bed-shear
s t r e s s a c t i n g on t h e bed m a t e r i a l p a r t i c l e s . B a s i c a l l y , i t i s assumed t h a t t h e
form drag d i s s i p a t e d i n the eddies generated by the bed forms are n o t f u l l y
e f f e c t i v e i n the e n t r a i n m e n t o f sediment p a r t i c l e s from the bed i n t o the f l u i d .
3.4
Excess bed-shear s t r e s s parameter
The excess bed-shear s t r e s s parameter T, i s d e f i n e d as:

T
b,cr
(3 3^
T .
T,
b,cr
i n which:
^b,cr " ' ^ ' " i t i c a l time-averaged bed-shear s t r e s s a c c o r d i n g t o S h i e l d s .
3.5
Suspension parameter
The suspension parameter Z r e f l e c t s the r a t i o o f the downward g r a v i t y
forces
and t h e upward f l u i d f o r c e s a c t i n g on a suspended sediment p a r t i c l e i n a

c u r r e n t and reads as:
w
in which:
Wg
= p a r t i c l e f a l l v e l o c i t y i n a clear f l u i d
u^c = o v e r a l l bed-shear v e l o c i t y i n a c u r r e n t
K
= Von Karman c o n s t a n t
= r a t i o o f sediment and f l u i d m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t
i|.
FLUID AND SEDIMENT PROPERTIES
4.1
F l u i d Properties
4.1.1
Introduction
Relevant f l u i d p r o p e r t i e s a r e : d e n s i t y and v i s c o s i t y .
4.1.2
Fluid density
The d e n s i t y o f f r e s h water v a r i e s w i t h temperature, as f o l l o w s :
p =
999.9
p = 1000
kg/m 3
kg/m 3
Te =
Te =
0C
4C
p =
999.5
kg/m 3
Te
p =
999.0
kg/m 3
p =
998.3
kg/m 3
Te = 16C
Te = 20C
p =
995.7
kg/m 3
p =
992.3
kg/m 3
Te = 30C
Te = 40C
The d e n s i t y o f sea water
1025 kg/m3) can be determined from t h e f o l l o w i n g
expression:
p = 1000 + 1.455 CL - 0.0065 (Te - 4 + 0.4 CL)^
in
(4.1.1)
which:
CL = C h l o r i n i t y ( i n /oo)
Te = temperature ( i n C)
p
= f l u i d d e n s i t y ( i n kg/m3)
The C h l o r i n i t y f o l l o w s from:
S = 0.03 + 1.805 CL
i n which: S - S a l i n i t y ( i n /oo)
(4.1.2)
-4.2-
4.1.3
Fluid
viscosity
The k i n e m a t i c v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t v i s d e f i n e d as:
(4.1.3)
i n which:
V = k i n e m a t i c v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t (m2/s)
n = dynamic v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t (Ws/m2)
p = f l u i d d e n s i t y (kg/m3)
The k i n e m a t i c v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t i s a f u n c t i o n o f temperature, as f o l l o w s
(see
a l s o F i g . 4.1.IA):
V = 1 .793
10-6 m2/s
V = 1 .567
10-6 m2/s
V = 1,.237
10-6 m2/s
V = 1.,112
10-6 m2/s
Te =
O-'C
= 4C
= 12
V = 0. 802 10-6 m2/s
Te
To
e
To
e
To
e
Te
V = 0.661 10-6 m2/s
Te -- 40C
V = 1.,011 10-6 m2/s
= 16C
= 20C
= 30C
The k i n e m a t i c v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t can be approximated by:
V = [1.14 - 0.031(Te-15) + 0.00068(Te-15)^] 10
-6
( 4 . 1.4)
The v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t i s i n f l u e n c e d by the sediment p a r t i c l e s . For d i l u t e

suspensions (c < 0.1) E i n s t e i n found:
v = v ( 1 + 2.5c)
(4.1.5)
i n which:
= kinematic viscosity c o e f f i c i e n t o f fluid-sediment mixture
V
= k i n e m a t i c v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t o f c l e a r water
= v o l u m e t r i c sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n
Based on experiments w i t h volume c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n the range o f c = 0. 1 t o

0.6, Bagnold
(1954) found:
= v(1 + X)(1 +
0.5X)
(4.1.6)
i n which:
X
[(0.74/c)
Equation
4.2
-1]-
= dimensionless c o n c e n t r a t i o n parameter
(4,1.6) i s shown i n F i g . 4.1.1B.
Sediment P r o p e r t i e s
4,2.1
Introduction
Sediment i s f r a g m e n t a l m a t e r i a l , p r i m a r i l y formed by the p h y s i c a l and
chemical
d e s i n t e g r a t i o n o f rocks from the e a r t h ' s c r u s t . Such p a r t i c l e s range i n s i z e

from l a r g e boulders t o c o l l o i d a l s i z e fragments and vary i n shape from rounded
t o a n g u l a r . They a l s o vary i n s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y and m i n e r a l c o m p o s i t i o n , the
predominant m a t e r i a l s being q u a r t z m i n e r a l and c l a y m i n e r a l s
(kaolinite,
i l l i t e , m o n t m o r i l l o n i t e and c h l o r i t e ) . The l a t t e r have a s h e e t - l i k e s t r u c t u r e ,

which can e a s i l y change ( f l o c c u l a t i o n ) i n a s a l i n e environment
under t h e
i n f l u e n c e o f e l e c t r o s t a t i c f o r c e s (cohesive f o r c e s ) . Consequently, t h e r e i s a
fundamental
d i f f e r e n c e i n sedimentary
behaviour between sand and c l a y
materials:
4.2,2
D e n s i t y and
porosity
The d e n s i t y o f q u a r t z and c l a y m i n e r a l s i s approximately equal t o p
= 2650
s
kg/m3. The s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y i s d e f i n e d as the r a t i o o f the sediment d e n s i t y

and the f l u i d d e n s i t y , s = p /p = 2.65.
s
The d r y sediment d e n s i t y i s the d r y sediment weight per u n i t volume (= concent r a t i o n ) and i s equal t o :
'dry
in
(^-P)Ps'
(^-^-D
which:
p = porosity factor.
The wet d e n s i t y or volume weight o f deposited m a t e r i a l i s the weight o f water

and sediment per u n i t volume and i s equal t o :
(4.2.2)
The
p o r o s i t y o f sediment m a t e r i a l i s o f t e n r e l a t e d t o the way
i n which the
sediment i s d e p o s i t e d . Loose packing occurs when sediments s e t t l e from suspens i o n i n s t i l l water. B a s i c a l l y , four packing arrangements are p o s s i b l e
s p h e r i c a l p a r t i c l e s . The
for
most unstable arrangement i s the cubic arrangement
w i t h the spheres c e n t r e s forming a cube y i e l d i n g a p o r o s i t y o f 48^.
The
Rhombohedral arrangement w i t h the spheres i n the h o l l o w s o f each o t h e r

the most s t a b l e packing and
yields
the s m a l l e s t p o r o s i t y o f 26^. Random packing o f
spheres y i e l d s p o r o s i t y ranges o f 3S% to 40^. N a t u r a l sediments w i t h p a r t i c l e s

o f v a r i o u s s i z e s have r e l a t i v e l y small p o r o s i t y values because the
p a r t i c l e s can occupy the l a r g e v o i d spaces. A p o u r l y s o r t e d
coarse sand has
sand has
and
a p o r o s i t y o f about 40^. A w e l l s o r t e d
a p o r o s i t y o f about 45^. The
s h e l l fragments) has
smaller
(many s i z e s )
(almost u n i f o r m ) f i n e
p o r o s i t y o f c o r a l sand ( m i x t u r e o f c o r a l
been found i n the range o f 0.5
to 0.65
(Van
der
Meulen, 1988).
Deposits c o n s i s t i n g o f c l a y , s i l t , sand and

deposits
The
and
o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l are c a l l e d
can have a l a r g e p o r o s i t y f a c t o r (upto
80%).
d r y sediment w e i g h t o f m i x t u r e s can be e s t i m a t e d from e m p i r i c a l
s h i p s . Based on the a n a l y s i s o f samples from the t o p l a y e r s

o f r e s e r v o i r s . Lane and
mud
(recent
relationdeposits)
Koelzer (1953) found:
^dry = 817 (100 P^^^^ . 2)0-13
in
2_3)
which:
^sand " ^''"action o f sand p a r t i c l e s (d > 50
Lara and
pm).
Pemberton (1963) analyzed r e s e r v o i r samples always submerged (A)
and
submerged 50^ o f the time ( B ) . They found:

^ = Pdry = 1550 P^^^^ . 1120
P^.^^ . 420
P^^^^
(4.2.4)
^ = -^dry = 1550 P^^^^ . 1135
P^,,, . 560
P^^^^
(4.2.5)
in
which:
^sand " f r ^ a c t i o n o f sand p a r t i c l e s (d > 62.5

^silt
ym)
f f ^ a c t i o n o f s i l t p a r t i c l e s (4 < d < 62.5
^ c l a y " ^''^^'^tion o f c l a y p a r t i c l e s (d < 4 ym)
ym)
Murthy and Banerjee (1976) analyzed t o p l a y e r samples (sampling depth 0.4 m)

from I n d i a n R e s e r v o i r s , which were about 50% o f t h e time empty (exposed t o t h e
sun) and f o u n d :
^dry = 1506 P^^^^ . 866 P^,,, ^ 56^ P^^^^
(4.2.6)
i n which:
^sand " ^ " " ^ ^ t i o " ^ sand p a r t i c l e s (20 ym < d < 200 ym)
^silt
" ^'"^'^îo"
s i l t p a r t i c l e s (2 ym < d < 20 ym)
P,^,, = f r a c t i o n o f c l a y p a r t i c l e s ( d < 2 ym)

ciay
Equations (4.2.3) t o (4.2,6) express v a l u e s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e i n i t i a l
(0 to
1 y e a r ) d r y weight o f t h e d e p o s i t s . The d r y weight i n c r e a s e s w i t h time due t o

consolidation.
Based on a n a l y s i s r e s u l t s o f a l a r g e amount o f s o i l samples, Allersma (1988)

proposed:
Pdry = '8*^" ^ (1300 - 280a) p j ^ ^ ^
i n which: a
(4.2.7)
= c o n s o l i d a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t ( a i n t h e range o f 0-2.4 w i t h a mean
v a l u e o f a = 1,2).
Equation (4.2,7) i s shown i n F i g . 4.2.1,
The presence o f o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l such as C e l l u l o s e , L i g n i n , P e c t i n , Coal
(with
d e n s i t i e s i n t h e range o f 1200 t o 1500 kg/m3) can g i v e a s u b s t a n t i a l r e d u c t i o n

of
the density o f the mixture.
The wet sediment w e i g h t (p^^g^.) o r bulk d e n s i t y (pj^y^j^) can be expressed a s :
%et
- ' ^
^dry
('^^S)
-4.6-
4.2.3
Shape
The shape o f p a r t i c l e s g e n e r a l l y i s represented
by the Corey shape f a c t o r ,
d e f i n e d as:
SF =
^-Q-^
(a
(4.2.9)
hf-^
i n which:
a = l e n g t h along l o n g e s t a x i s perpendicular
t o other two axes
b = l e n g t h along i n t e r m e d i a t e a x i s p e r e n d i c u l a r
C = l e n g t h along s h o r t a x i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r
The SF-factor
t o other two axes
t o other two axes.
f o r n a t u r a l sand i s approximately
0.7.
The shape f a c t o r i s e s s e n t i a l l y a f l a t n e s s r a t i o and does n o t take
into
account t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e surface area and t h e volume o f t h e p a r t i c l e .

For example, a cube o f a given l e n g t h and a sphere o f a diameter equal t o t h e
l e n g t h o f t h e cube have t h e same shape f a c t o r (SF = 1 ) . To overcome t h i s ,
another shape f a c t o r i s a l s o a p p l i e d , d e f i n e d as:
d
SF' = SF ^
(4.2.10)
n
i n which:
SF = shape f a c t o r according
t o Eq. (4.2.10)
dg = diameter o f a sphere having t h e same surface area as t h a t o f t h e p a r t i c l e

djj = diameter o f a sphere having t h e same volume as t h a t o f t h e p a r t i c l e
SF' approaching u n i t y i m p l i e s i n c r e a s i n g s p h e r i c i t y o f t h e p a r t i c l e s ( s p h e r i c i t y i s r a t i o o f s u r f a c e area o f a sphere and surface area o f t h e p a r t i c l e a t

equal volume). A b e h a v i o u r a l
measure o f shape i s expressed by t h e r e l i a b i l i t y
parameter (Winkelmolen, 1971). The concept o f r e l i a b i l i t y i s a f u n c t i o n a l

shape p r o p e r t y measured by t h e time i t takes f o r g r a i n s o f equal s i z e and
density to travel the length o f a cylinder revolving with i t s axis i n c l i n e d a t
an angle o f 2.5 t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l .
Shape f a b r i c i s t h e a t t i t u d e i n space and degree o f p r e f e r r e d o r i e n t a t i o n

d i s p l a y e d by t h e g r a i n s d u r i n g sedimentation.
Shape f a b r i c has a p h y s i c a l
cause and i s t h e r e f o r e an i n d i c a t o r o f h y d r a u l i c c o n d i t i o n s .
4.2.4
Size
U s u a l l y , sediments a r e r e f e r r e d t o as g r a v e l , sand, s i l t o r c l a y . These terms

r e f e r t o the s i z e o f the sediment p a r t i c l e . The f o l l o w i n g t a b l e presents t h e
g r a i n s i z e s c a l e o f t h e American Geophysical Union. This s c a l e i s based on
powers o f 2 mm, which y i e l d s a l i n e a r l o g a r i t h m i c s c a l e v i a the phi-parameter
d e f i n e d as ^ - - ^log d ( w i t h d i n mm).
Class Name
Millimeters
Micrometers
Phi
Values
Boulders
> 256
.< -8
Cobbles
256 - 64
-8 t o -6
Gravel
64-2
-6 t o -1
Very coarse sand
2.0 - 1.0
2000 - 1000
Coarse sand
1.0 - .0.50
1000 - 500
0 t o +1
Medium sand
0.50 - 0.25
500 - 250
+1 t o +2
Fine sand
0.25 - 0.125
250 - 125
+2 t o +3
-1
to
Very f i n e sand
0.125 - 0.062
125 - 62
+3 t o +4
Coarse s i l t
0.062 - 0.031
62 - 31
+4 t o +5
Medium s i l t
0.031
31 - 16
+5 t o +6
Fine
0.016 - 0.008
16-8
+6 t o +7
0.008 - 0.004
8-4
+7 t o +8
Coarse c l a y
0.004 - 0.0020
4-2
+8 t o +9
Medium c l a y
0.0020 - 0.0010
2 - 1
+9 t o +10
Fine c l a y
0.0010 - 0.0050
1 - 0.5
Very f i n e c l a y
0.0005 - 0.00024
silt
Very f i n e
Colloids
silt
- 0.016
< 0.0024
0.5 - 0.24
< 0.24
+10 t o +11
+11 t o +12
> +12
Various methods a r e a v a i l a b l e t o determine the p a r t i c l e s i z e . Cobbles can be

measured d i r e c t l y w i t h a r u l e r . Gravel, sand and s i l t a r e analyzed by wet or
dry
s i e v i n g y i e l d i n g s i e v e diameters. Clay m a t e r i a l s a r e analyzed
hydraulically
by u s i n g s e t t l i n g methods (Van R i j n , 1986) y i e l d i n g t h e p a r t i c l e f a l l
velocity
from which the standard f a l l diameter i s computed. Clay m a t e r i a l s can a l s o be

analyzed w i t h v a r i o u s e l e c t r o n i c techniques such as t h e C o u l t e r counter and t h e
Laser D i f f r a c t i o n technique (Van R i j n , 1986). Thus, t h e s i z e o f a sediment
p a r t i c l e i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o the a n a l y s i s method.
-4.8-
T y p i c a l "diameters" a r e :
s i e v e diameter, which i s t h e diameter o f a sphere equal t o t h e l e n g t h o f

the
s i d e o f a square s i e v e opening through which t h e g i v e n p a r t i c l e
will
J u s t pass,
e
nominal diameter, which i s t h e diameter o f a sphere t h a t has t h e same

volume as t h e p a r t i c l e ,
s t a n d a r d f a l l diameter, which i s t h e diameter o f a sphere t h a t has a

s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f 2.65 and has t h e same f a l l v e l o c i t y as t h e p a r t i c l e i n
still,
d i s t i l l e d water o f 24C.
A n a t u r a l sample o f sediment p a r t i c l e s c o n t a i n s p a r t i c l e s o f a range o f s i z e s .

The s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f such a sample i s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f sediment mater i a l by percentages o f weight, u s u a l l y presented as a cumulative f r e q u e n c y
distribution.
The frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by:
median p a r t i c l e s i z e , d^Q which i s t h e s i z e f o r which 50% by w e i g h t i s

finer,
mean p a r t i c l e s i z e ,
(Pj^ d^)/100 w i t h p^ = percentage by w e i g h t o f
each g r a i n s i z e f r a c t i o n dj^,
- Z p. (d^-d^)^/100 o r
standard deviation,
= 0.5 (^50/^15 + dgi^/dgQ)
which i s a measure based on g r a p h i c v a l u e s .
Often t h e p h i - s c a l e i s used f o r s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n :
= -21og d
(4.2.11)
where d i s t h e p a r t i c l e diameter i n m i l l i m e t e r s .
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c values a r e the mean p h i - v a l u e

standard d e v i a t i o n ( s o r t i n g ) 0 ^ ,
t h e median value <t>^Q, t h e
t h e skewness (asymmetry) and k u r t o s i s
(peakedness):
standard d e v i a t i o n :
= 0.5 ('t'84~*i6^
(4.2.12)
skewness
(4.2.13)
""^ ^0
<!>
0.5 ('t'oc-'f'n) - cr.

kurtosis
: e
(4.2,14)
I d e a l l y , a sample has a normal (Gaussian) d i s t r i b u t i o n i n terms o f t h e (t)-scale

(log-normal d i s t r i b u t i o n ) ,
yielding:
^10 = s"^'^ ^50
(4.2.15)
d i 6 = s"^"
^50
(4.2.16)
d84 = S
%0
(4.2.17)
^90 = s^"^
<^50
(4.2.18)
w i t h 0^ - 0.5(d5Q/d^g + dg^/d^Q)
4.2.5
Particle f a l l
Sphere f a l l i n g
Basically,
velocity
in a s t i l l
fluid
the f a l l v e l o c i t y i s a b e h a v i o u r a l p r o p e r t y . The t e r m i n a l
fall
velocity
(w ) o f a sphere i s the f a l l v e l o c i t y when the f l u i d drag f o r c e c

s
the p a r t i c l e i s i n e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h the g r a v i t y f o r c e , g i v i n g
_ -
(1.2.19)
in which:
w
= t e r m i n a l f a l l v e l o c i t y o f a sphere i n a s t i l l
= sphere diameter
= specific gravity
fluid
(= 2.65)
Cp = drag c o e f f i c i e n t
g
= acceleration of gravity
The drag c o e f f i c i e n t C^ i s a f u n c t i o n
o f the Reynolds number Re = w^ d/v.
In t h e Stokes r e g i o n (Re < 1) the drag c o e f f i c i e n t i s given by: C^ - 24/Re,

yielding:
O u t s i d e t h e Stokes r e g i o n t h e r e i s no simple e x p r e s s i o n f o r the drag c o e f f i c i e n t . The C-value decreases r a p i d l y o u t s i d e the Stokes r e g i o n (Re < 1) and
0 5
becomes n e a r l y c o n s t a n t f o r 10^ < Re < 10^, y i e l d i n g w d ' .
s
The e f f e c t o f temperature on the f a l l v e l o c i t y i s taken i n t o account by t h e
k i n e m a t i c v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t v. The l a r g e s t
sphere d i a m e t e r s .
e f f e c t occurs f o r t h e s m a l l e s t
-4.10-
Won s p h e r i c a l
particles
The expressions
v a l i d f o r a sphere cannot be a p p l i e d f o r a n a t u r a l
sediment
p a r t i c l e because o f the d i f f e r e n c e s i n shape. The shape e f f e c t i s l a r g e s t f o r

r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e p a r t i c l e s (> 300 ym) which d e v i a t e most from a sphere.
Experiments show d i f f e r e n c e s i n f a l l v e l o c i t y o f the order o f 30^ f o r SF =
0.7
30^.
The
terminal
f a l l v e l o c i t y o f n o n - s p h e r i c a l sediment p a r t i c l e s can be d e t e r -
mined from the f o l l o w i n g
formulae:
2
"s ^ ^^sv^'^
=^li^.
1 < d < 100 ym

0.01(s-1)gd3^0.5
Wg = 1.1[(s-1)gd]-5
in
(4.2.21)
^ ^ ^ ^000 ym
(4.2.22)
d > 1000 ym
(4.2.23)
for
which:
d = sieve
diameter
s - s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y (=
V = kinematic v i s c o s i t y
2.65)
coefficient
F i g u r e 4.2.2
shows f a l l v e l o c i t i e s according t o the Stokes Equation
F i g u r e 4.2.3
shows f a l l v e l o c i t i e s as given by the U.S.
Inter-Agency
on Water Resources (1957) and i s l a r g e l y based on e x p e r i m e n t a l

Equation
(4.2.21).
Committee
results.
(4.2.22) i s a l s o shown.
The f a l l v e l o c i t y o f c o r a l sand may
be c o n s i d e r a b l y s m a l l e r as t h a t o f q u a r t z
sand (Van der Meulen, 1988). Figure 4.2.5

m a t e r i a l s a t a temperature
shows f a l l v e l o c i t i e s f o r both
o f 20''C. The d i f f e r e n c e s are mainly caused by
d i f f e r e n c e s i n shape. Coral sand p a r t i c l e s are more angular and have, t h e r e f o r e , a s m a l l e r f a l l v e l o c i t y . The d e n s i t y o f c o r a l sand may
a l s o be somewhat
s m a l l e r (- 2500 kg/m3).
E f f e c t o f sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n
The
f a l l v e l o c i t y o f a s i n g l e p a r t i c l e i s m o d i f i e d by the presence o f o t h e r
p a r t i c l e s . A small cloud o f p a r t i c l e s i n a c l e a r
c i t y which i s l a r g e r
f l u i d w i l l have a f a l l v e l o -
than t h a t o f a s i n g l e p a r t i c l e . Experiments w i t h
uniform
suspensions o f sediment and f l u i d have shown t h a t the f a l l v e l o c i t y i s s t r o n g l y
-4.11-
reduced w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h a t o f a s i n g l e p a r t i c l e , when the sediment
concen-
t r a t i o n i s l a r g e . This e f f e c t , known as hindered s e t t l i n g , i s l a r g e l y
caused
by t h e f l u i d r e t u r n f l o w induced by the s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t i e s . A s t a t e o f f l u i d i z a t i o n may occur when the v e r t i c a l upward f l u i d f l o w i s so s t r o n g t h a t t h e

upward drag f o r c e s on the p a r t i c l e s become equal t o the downward f o r c e s o f
g r a v i t y r e s u l t i n g i n no net v e r t i c a l movement o f the p a r t i c l e s .
According t o Richardson and Zaki (1954) the f a l l v e l o c i t y i n a f l u i d - s e d i m e n t
suspension can be determined as:
3^^ = ( 1 - c ) \
(4.2.24)
"s m " p a i ' t i c l e f a l l v e l o c i t y i n a suspension

w
s
- p a r t i c l e f a l l v e l o c i t y i n a clear
fluid
= v o l u m e t r i c sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n
(-)
= coefficient
(-)
The Y- c o e f f i c i e n t v a r i e s from 4.6 t o 2.3 f o r Re = w d/v i n c r e a s i n g from 10"

3
^
to 10 . For p a r t i c l e s i n the range o f 50 t o 500 ym under normal f l o w c o n d i t i o n s
the
Y - c o e f f i c i e n t i s about Y = 4.
F i g u r e 4,2.4 shows Equation (4.2,24) and the e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s o f O l i v e r

(1961) and McMown-Lin (1952), As can be observed, Eq, (4.2,24) y i e l d s w
S f IT)
values which are 20 t o 30% too l a r g e f o r s m a l l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s .

The f o r m u l a o f O l i v e r which reads as:
w
, III
= (1-2,15c)(1-0.75c*33)
s
(4.2.25)
y i e l d s good r e s u l t s over the f u l l range o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (see F i g . 4,2.4).
Influence of o s c i l l a t o r y flow
The p a r t i c l e f a l l
v e l o c i t y o f a s i n g l e sediment p a r t i c l e i n f l o w i n g water i s
g e n e r a l l y assumed to be equal to i t s t e r m i n a l f a l l v e l o c i t y (w ) i n s t i l l
s
water. Various r e s e a r c h e r s have i n v e s t i g a t e d the p o s s i b l e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e
t e r m i n a l f a l l v e l o c i t y i n case o f an o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w . A review and
new
i n f o r m a t i o n has been presented by Hwang (1985) and N i e l s e n (1979, 1984). Thes^

s t u d i e s show t h a t the major mechanism governing the f a l l v e l o c i t y r e d u c t i o n i n
an o s c i l l a t i n g f l o w i s the drag n o n - l i n e a r i t y e f f e c t . According t o Hwang, t h e
f a l l v e l o c i t y r e d u c t i o n can be expressed as:
-4.12-
^
w
"s^
= F ( ^ ,
v
max
w
(4.2.26)
i n which:
V
= effective f a l l velocity
s
Vf.
= peak value o f f l u i d v e l o c i t y
I y max
Wg
= t e r m i n a l f a l l v e l o c i t y i n s t i l l water
d
= p a r t i c l e diameter
Equation (4,2.26) i s presented i n g r a p h i c a l form by Hwang (1984). The
ratio
V /w decreases f o r i n c r e a s i n g v a l u e s o f w d/v and v

/w . The r e s u l t s o f
s s
s
f,max s
Hwang suggest a r a t h e r l a r g e r e d u c t i o n o f the f a l l v e l o c i t y , ( v /w
==0.5 f o r
s s
v _,^/w
== 10). The r e s u l t s o f Hwang are somewhat s u g g e s t i v e , because the
i n f l u e n c e o f the o s c i l l a t i o n p e r i o d i s not shown. Some i n f o r m a t i o n o f the

i n f l u e n c e o f the o s c i l l a t i o n p e r i o d can be obtained from the r e s u l t s o f HO
(1964) given i n terms o f (see Hwang, 1985):
!s^p(V
s
wd
l ^ p a x )
^
(4.2.27)
i n which:
) = 2ir/T = angular o s c i l l a t i o n frequency.
Taking a 100 ym sediment p a r t i c l e and an o s c i l l a t i o n p e r i o d o f T = 10 s, and

^f,max = 0 . 1 m/s,
i t f o l l o w s t h a t v^/w^ ^ 1.
S i m i l a r values were a l s o found by N i e l s e n (1984), who concluded t h a t t h e

r e d u c t i o n o f the t e r m i n a l f a l l v e l o c i t y i s n e g l i g i b l e i n a pure o s c i l l a t i n g
motion (T > 1 s ) .
Turbulence i s a s p e c i a l type o f (random) o s c i l l a t i n g motion dominated by h i g h

f r e q u e n c i e s . I t has been shown by Murray (1970) t h a t the p a r t i c l e
fall
velocity
can be c o n s i d e r a b l y reduced by i s o t r o p i c t u r b u l e n c e e f f e c t s due t o drag nonl i n e a r i t i e s . Another mechanism may be eddy t r a p p i n g c l o s e t o t h e bed
v e r t i c a l l y upward motions u n t i l
inducing
the eddy d i s s o l v e s a t h i g h e r l e v e l s .
Jobson and Sayre (1970) r e v i e w i n g a l l a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n conclude t h a t t h e

t u r b u l e n t motions may s l i g h t l y increase the p a r t i c l e f a l l
velocity.
Ludwick and Domurat (1982) have s i m u l a t e d the movement o f 100 ym and 200 ym
sediment p a r t i c l e s i n a t u r b u l e n t v e l o c i t y f i e l d and found t h a t the s e t t l i n g
o f f i n e sand i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced when the v e r t i c a l t u r b u l e n t
fluid
-4.13-
v e l o c i t i e s have a symmetric d i s t r i b u t i o n . The b a s i c q u e s t i o n i s what type o f

v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i s present i n n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s ? A n a l y s i s o f
( t u r b u l e n t ) v e l o c i t y measurements near the bottom where most o f the sediment
i s t r a n s p o r t e d show the presence o f b u r s t i n g processes c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
up o f low-momentum f l u i d
the
lift-
( b u r s t s ) and a down-rush o f high-momentum f l u i d t o
w a l l (sweeps). T h i s i n d i c a t e s an asymmetric f l u i d motion i n v e r t i c a l
d i r e c t i o n w i t h r e l a t i v e l y h i g h ( s h o r t d u r a t i o n ) upward v e l o c i t i e s , which
may
r e s u l t i n a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e o f the f a l l v e l o c i t y because the downward v e l o c i t i e s are dominating. T h i s i s i n agreement w i t h the f i n d i n g s o f Jobson and
Sayre (1970).
4.2.6
Angle o f repose
Grains p i l e d up on each o t h e r have an e q u i l i b r i u m slope which i s c a l l e d the

angle o f repose. Experiments show l a r g e d i s c r e p a n c i e s between the angle o f
repose o f g r a i n s on a f i x e d bottom (== 50) and o f g r a i n s on a loose bed
(- 35). The angle increases w i t h decreasing s p h e r i c i t y .
Some i n v e s t i g a t o r s have determined the angle o f repose from i n i t i a t i o n o f
motion experiments w i t h sand. The c r i t i c a l bed-shear s t r e s s f o r a p a r t i c l e on
a s l o p i n g bottom reads as (see S e c t i o n 5 ) :
b,cr
T,
b,cr,o
sinlize)
sini}>
(4.2.28)
= c r i t i c a l bed-shear s t r e s s on a s l o p i n g bottom
T.
= c r i t i c a l bed-shear s t r e s s on a h o r i z o n t a l bottom
b,cr,o
(fl
= angle o f repose
6
= angle o f bottom s l o p e .
C h e p i l (1959) r e p o r t e d a value o f ()) - 25 f o r a h o r i z o n t a l bottom. Lysne

(1969) r e p o r t e d a value o f <)) - 38 f o r an u p s l o p i n g bottom and (!> - 50 f o r a
downsloping bottom. Luque (1976) r e p o r t e d <() = 47 f o r a downsloping
bottom.
Observations i n n a t u r e on the avalanche l e e slope o f d e s e r t dunes show values

of 4) =^ 33.
-4.14-
4.3
References
ALLERSMA, E., 1988

Composition and Density o f Sediments
( i n Dutch)
Report Z71.03, DELFT HYDRAULICS, D e l f t , The Netherlands
BAGNOLD, R.A., 1954

Experiments on a G r a v i t y - F r e e Dispersion o f Large S o l i d Spheres i n a Newtonian
F l u i d under Shear
Proc. Royal S o c , V o l . 225A, London, England
CHEPIL, W.S., 1959

Equilibrium
o f S o i l Grains o f the Threshold o f Movement by Wind
Proc, S o i l Science, Soc. o f America, V o l . 23, USA

HO, H,W,, 1964
Fall Velocity
o f a Sphere i n a F i e l d o f O s c i l l a t i n g
Fluid
Thesis, S t a t e Univ, o f IOWA, USA
HWANG, P.A., 1985

Fall Velocity
of Particles
i n Oscillating
Journal o f Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. I l l ,
Flow
No. 3
JOBSON, H.E. and SAYRE, W.W., 1970

V e r t i c a l T r a n s f e r i n Open Channels
Journal o f the Hydraulics Division,
ASCE, V o l . 96, HY3
LUDWICK, J.C. and DOMURAT, G.W., 1982

A D e t e r m i n i s t i c Model o f the V e r t i c a l Component o f Sediment
Motion i n a T u r b u l e n t F l u i d
Marine Geology, V o l , 45, p. 1-15
LUQUE, R.F., 1974
E r o s i o n o f Bed Load T r a n s p o r t
T h e s i s , D e l f t Univ. o f Technology, D e l f t , The Netherlands
-1.15-
LYSWE, D.K., 1 9 6 9
Movement o f Sand i n Tunnels
J o u r n a l o f the H y d r a u l i c s D i v i s i o n , ASCE, No. HY 6
MCNOWM, J.S. and LIN, P.N., 1 9 5 2

Sediment C o n c e n t r a t i o n and F a l l V e l o c i t y
Proc. Second Mid Western Conf., F l u i d Mechanics, Ohio S t a t e Univ., USA
p.
401-411
MURRAY, S.P., 1 9 7 0
S e t t l i n g V e l o c i t i e s and V e r t i c a l D i f f u s i o n o f P a r t i c l e s i n T u r b u l e n t Water
J o u r n a l o f Geophysical Research, V o l .
75,
No.
9,
pp.
1647-1654
MURTHY, B.N. and BANERJEE, B.K., 1 9 7 6

I n i t i a l U n i t Weight o f Deposited Sediment i n Reservoirs w i t h
Considerable
Drawdown
Diamond J u b i l e e Symp., V o l . I , paper A 6 , Poena, I n d i a
LANE, E.W. and KOELZER, V.A., 1 9 5 3

D e n s i t y o f Sediments Deposited i n Reservoirs
Report No. 9 , S t . Paul USA Eng. D i s t r i c t , St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
LARA, J.M. and PEMBERTON, E.L., 1 9 6 3

I n i t i a l U n i t Weight o f Deposited Sediments
Proc. Federal Interagency Sedimentation Conf. Publ. No.
970,
p.
818-845,
Dep. o f A g r i c u l t u r e , USA
NIELSEN, P., 1 9 8 4
On t h e Motion o f Suspended Sand P a r t i c l e s
J o u r n a l o f Geophysical Research, V o l . 8 9 , No. Cl
OLIVER, D.R., 1 9 6 1
The Sedimentation Suspension o f C l o s e l y - s i z e d S p h e r i c a l P a r t i c l e s
Chem.Eng. Science, V o l .
15,
p.
230-242
RICHARDSON, Y.F. and ZAKI, W.N., 1 9 5 4

S e d i m e n t a t i o n and F l u i d i z a t i o n , Part I
Trans. I n s t . Chem. Eng., V o l .
32,
p.
35-53
US
-4.16-
U.S. INTER-AGEWCY COMMITTEE ON WATER RESOURCES, 1957

Some Fundamentals o f P a r t i c l e Size A n a l y s i s
St.
Anthony F a l l s H y d r a u l i c Lab., Minneapolis, Minnesota
VAN DER MEULEN, A., 1988

F a l l V e l o c i t y o f C o r a l Sand ( i n Dutch)
Report Geopro 1988.01, Dep. o f P h y s i c a l Geography, U n i v e r s i t y o f U t r e c h t ,
U t r e c h t , The Netherlands
VAN RIJN, L.C, 1986

Manual Sediment T r a n s p o r t Measurements
Report S304, DELFT HYDRAULICS, The Netherlands
WINKELMOLEN,, A.M., 1971

R o l l a b i l i t y , A F u n c t i o n a l Shape Property o f Sand Grains
J o u r n a l Sedimentary
P e t r o l o g y , V o l . 4 1 , pp. 701-714
= KINEMATIC VISC05ITY(m^/ s )
1 : TEMPERArRE ( C)
"0
15
20
25
30
35
A. KINEMATIC VISCOSITY
TEMP, ( C )
COEFFICIENT
10^
8
>
volume concentration, c
B. KINEMATIC VISCOSITY COEFFICIENT AS A

OF CONCENTRATION
KINEMATIC
FUNCTION
VISCOSITY C O E F F I C I E N T
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 4.1.1
100
92
85
77
70
62
55
47
40
32
25
O)
Ol
OJ
OJ
OJ
I
1^
CO
Pwet
O)
cn
cn
ID
If)
100
00
CO
OJ
80
s a n d (%)
i
j
60
40
20
/
/
0
a--2,4
80
0,2
/
/
/
0,4
0,6
/'
/
/
/
/
0,8
>
VOOR
/
/
/
\
60
' w
/f
40
1
1
silt (%)
1
1
20
1
1
1
i
11
/
/
/
^ - n
1
1
1
/
/
)lid
1 ^'^
fluid
kg/m0
/
/
RELATIES
N
O
O
Ol
ID
h-
MINERALE
WATERLOOPKUNDIG
1,0
1,2
1,4
1,6
1,8
100
2,0
Pdry (1000 kg/m^)
GRONDEN
LABORATORIUM
461
FIG.
4.2.1
PARTICLE
FALL
VELOCITY
DELFT
ACCORDING TO
HYDRAULICS
STOKES
461
FIG.
4.2.2
particle fall velocity, Ws(m/s)
PARTICLE
F A L L V E L O C I T Y IN C L E A R , S T I L L
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
WATER
461
FIG.
4.2.3
Oliver
Mc Nown and Lin

Richardson and Zaki
X
INFLUENCE
FALL
CONCENTRATION
VELOCITY
DELFT
(RG
tests of Mc Nown and Lin

tests of Oliver
ON
SMALL)
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 4 . 2 . 4
t = 20''C
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0,6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
diameter ( m m )
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
FALL VELOCITY OF CORAL SAND
DELFT HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 4 . 2 . 5
-5.1-
5.
INITIATK! OF MOTION AND
5.1
SUSPENSION
I n i t i a t i o n of motion
5.1.1
Current
P a r t i c l e movement w i l l occur when the h y d r a u l i c f o r c e s on a p a r t i c l e are
larger
than the c r i t i c a l h y d r a u l i c f o r c e f o r i n i t i a t i o n o f motion.

The
disturbing force
i s the r e s u l t i n g f o r c e o f f l u i d and drag f o r c e s a c t i n g
on the p a r t i c l e . T h i s f o r c e i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o the bed shear s t r e s s T. and the

- 2
p a r t i c l e surface area ( F , a x.d ) . The s t a b i l i z i n g f o r c e F i s equal t o the
u
,^
submerged p a r t i c l e weight (F
(p -p)gd ) .
s
s
P a r t i c l e movement i s i n i t i a t e d when the moment o f the f l u i d f o r c e F, w i t h
d
respect
t o the c o n t a c t p o i n t P becomes l a r g e r than the moment o f the g r a v i t y
force, giving:
1 ^ b . c r ^ ' ^1 ^ ^^2^^ -
^ ^cr
i n which: x,
= c r i t i c a l bed-shear s t r e s s and
b,cr
The
s
1.,1^ = moment arms t o p o i n t
1' 2
^
- f a c t o r depends on the h y d r a u l i c c o n d i t i o n s near the bed, the
shape, the p a r t i c l e p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e t o the o t h e r p a r t i c l e s . The

c o n d i t i o n near the bed
Thus 0
= F(Rew).
cr
*
experiments o f Shields
particle
hydraulic
as a f u n c t i o n o f Re^^.
(1936) r e l a t e d t o a f l a t bed are most w i d e l y
used,
see F i g . 5.1.1. S h i e l d s used as h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f c r i t i c a l bed-shear s t r e s s

the v a l u e o f the bed-shear s t r e s s a t which the e x t r a p o l a t e d
transport rates
(measured) were zero.

I t i s noted t h a t c r i t e r i o n s based on bed-load t r a n s p o r t r a t e s may
not be
very
a c c u r a t e because the t r a n s p o r t r a t e (q^,^) i s r e l a t e d t o a r a t h e r h i g h power o f

the bed-shear
s t r e s s near the c r i t i c a l stage. For example, P a i n t a l (1971)
r e p o r t s q^ x^^.
Y a l i n (1972) showed t h a t the S h i e l d s ' curve can be expressed i n terms o f
dimensionless m o b i l i t y parameter 6
(3.1)).
P.
i s a f u n c t i o n o f the Reynolds number Re^j = Ujjd/v.
Many experiments have been performed t o determine the 8

The
(^.l.l)
and
the p a r t i c l e parameter
(Eq.
the
-5.2-
Applying these parameters, t h e S h i e l d s curve can be r e p r e s e n t e d as:
= 0.24 DZ
*
e
cr
for
i <
for
i| <
for
10 < Djf < 20
6^^ = 0.013 D2-^^

cr
*
for
20 <
9^^ = 0 . 0 5 5
for
0.64
9 ^ = 0-1^ D
0.1
< ii
Djj < 10
(5. 1.2)
< 150
D,j > 150
i n which:
9
cr
" b , c r / ( ( P . - P ) g d 5 o ) = c r i t i c a l S h i e l d s parameter
: [(S-1)g/v^]^/3^
50
b,cr
particle
parameter
time-averaged c r i t i c a l bed-shear
stress.
Influence of c r i t e r i o n
Experiments performed a t the D e l f t H y d r a u l i c s (1972) show t h a t p a r t i c l e movement can occur a t c o n s i d e r a b l y s m a l l e r c r i t i c a l values (see F i g u r e 5.1.2A).
Seven types o f c o n d i t i o n s f o r p a r t i c l e movement have been d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n
t h a t s t u d y . The S h i e l d s ' curve seems t o r e p r e s e n t permanent g r a i n movement a t
a l l l o c a t i o n s o f t h e sand bed.
L a v a l l e and M o f j e l d (1987) q u e s t i o n t h e e x i s t e n c e o f c r i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r
initiation
o f m o t i o n . Given adequate time, movement o f p a r t i c l e s somewhere
w i l l always be observed because t u r b u l e n t f l o w b a s i c a l l y i s a s t o c h a s t i c

process and there w i l l always be a bed-shear s t r e s s l a r g e enough t o move a
p a r t i c l e . Although a c r i t i c a l stage below which no s i n g l e g r a i n i s moving n o t
r e a l l y e x i s t , a c r i t i c a l stage i s necessary f o r p r a c t i c a l design purposes.
Graf and Pazis (1977) have presented curves i n terms o f the number o f p a r t i c l e s moving per u n i t area (see F i g . 5,1,2B).
I n f l u e n c e o f shape and g r a d a t i o n
Experiments w i t h p a r t i c l e s o f d i f f e r e n t shapes show t h a t t h e 9^^- parameter i s
not
much a f f e c t e d by the p a r t i c l e shape. Gradation has an i n f l u e n c e i n case o f
p o o r l y s o r t e d bed m a t e r i a l (dgQ/d.,Q > 3 ) , because t h e l a r g e r p a r t i c l e s w i l l be

more exposed, w h i l e the s m a l l e r p a r t i c l e s a r e s h i e l d e d by the l a r g e r
particles.
-5.3-
Armoring may a l s o occur which means t h a t the s m a l l e r p a r t i c l e s a r e eroded,

w h i l e t h e r e l a t i v e l y coarse p a r t i c l e s form an armor l a y e r , which p r e v e n t s
f u r t h e r scour. Mantz (1977) s t u d i e d the i n i t i a t i o n o f motion o f f i n e cohesionl e s s f l a k y sediments w i t h p a r t i c l e s i z e s i n the range o f 10 t o 100 pm and
proposed t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t i c a l bed-shear s t r e s s (see F i g . 5 . 1 . 1 ) :
/ b e .
0 . 0 3 < ^ ^ ^ ^ < 1
^,,^^^1^^'-^
The data presented by M i l l e r e t a l (1977) a l s o i n d i c a t e t h a t 6
(5.1.3)
o f Shields i s
l a r g e f o r f i n e sediments (D^ < 10). A b e t t e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e data
too
p r e s e n t e d by M i l l e r e t a l i s g i v e n by (see F i g . 5 . 1 . 4 B ) :
e = 0.11 D " - ^ ^
cr
*
for
D < 10
*
(5.1.4)
I n f l u e n c e o f bed slope
In case o f a streamwise s l o p i n g bed ( i n flow d i r e c t i o n ) , t h e e^^-parameter can
be expressed as:
e
cr
in
= k, e
1 cr,o
(5.1.5)
which:
e
cr,o
= c r i t i c a l m o b i l i t y parameter on a h o r i z o n t a l bottom
^
k.j
= sin((t)-B.j )/sin(t> f o r a downsloping bed
k.j
= sin((|)+3.j )/sin(t) f o r an u p s l o p i n g bed
4)
= angle o f repose
6.J
= bed slope angle
In case o f a sidewards s l o p i n g bed (normal t o f l o w d i r e c t i o n ) :
e
cr
= k^ 6
2 cr,o
(5.1.6)
i n which:
k^ = [ c o s &^][^-{tan^&^/tan^^)f'^
= s i d e slope angle
For a combination o f a streamwise and sidewards s l o p i n g bed i t f o l l o w s
that:
6 ^ ^ = k.k^ e^^ ^
cr
1 2 cr,o
(5.1.7)
I n f l u e n c e o f cohesive m a t e r i a l
When the bed c o n s i s t s o f s i l t y and muddy m a t e r i a l s , cohesive f o r c e s between
the sediment p a r t i c l e s become i m p o r t a n t . These f o r c e s cause a d i s t i n c t
of
increase
the s t r e n g t h o f the s o i l a g a i n s t e r o s i o n . Depending on the type o f c l a y
m i n e r a l s , t h i s e f f e c t may be more o r l e s s pronounced. Flume experiments
show
t h a t an amount o f 25% o f mud i n a sand bed causes a dramatic r e d u c t i o n ( f a c t o r

30) o f the sand c o n c e n t r a t i o n s generated
by wave a c t i o n (Van R i j n ,
1985).
Another i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r governing the e r o d i b i l i t y o f cohesive s o i l s i s t h e

r a t e o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n . Fresh mud d e p o s i t s have a very loose t e x t u r e o f mud
f l o e s which have a l r e a d y a low d e n s i t y themselves. The wet b u l k d e n s i t y o f
such a d e p o s i t may be w i t h i n the range o f 1050 t o 1100 kg/m^ o f which 95^ o r
more c o n s i s t s o f water. I n t h i s stage the cohesive f o r c e s i n the d e p o s i t a r e
s t i l l very low, and erosion can occur e a s i l y . I f the d e p o s i t s a r e not eroded
a g a i n , i t s d e n s i t y g r a d u a l l y increases as i n t e r s t i t i a l water i s pressed
out of
the f r e s h s o i l by the weight o f the d e p o s i t i t s e l f . This process o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n i n i t i a l l y goes r e l a t i v e l y f a s t but g r a d u a l l y slows down. With the compact i o n o f the s o i l t h e e r o s i o n r e s i s t a n c e r a p i d l y i n c r e a s e s . I t i s w e l l known
t h a t o l d compact c l a y s o i l s a r e h i g h l y r e s i s t a n t a g a i n s t e r o s i o n . Also sand
w i t h a s i l t / c l a y c o n t e n t o f some 10 percent ( s i l t y o r c l a y l y sand) a l r e a d y
shows a d i s t i n c t l y increased r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t e r o s i o n . L i t t l e i s known on
the e r o d i b i l i t y o f cohesive s o i l s i n a q u a n t i t a t i v e sense. More d e t a i l e d
i n f o r m a t i o n i s g i v e n i n Chapter 12.
B i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y a t the bed may a l s o i n f l u e n c e the c r i t i c a l values f o r
i n i t i a t i o n o f m o t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i n muddy and s i l t y
5.1.2
environments.
Waves
In o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w t h e r e i s no g e n e r a l l y accepted
relationship for i n i t i a t i o n
of motion on a plane bed. Many equations have been proposed. S i l v e s t e r and

Mogridge (1970) present
One
o f the more popular equations i s t h a t o f Komar and M i l l e r
\ cr
,2A
( ^ I T t i d T - - 0-21
A
13 d i f f e r e n t equations c o l l e c t e d from the L i t e r a t u r e .

(1975):
0.5
for
< 500 ,m
(5.1.8)
for
d 5 . 500 u
(5.1.9)
2A
( i r f t i 5 ^ = l."? ( - ^ )
0 25
-5.5-
i n which:
U
= c r i t i c a l peak value o f o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y near the bed

6,cr
.-,
A
6
,cr
= c r i t i c a l peak value o f o r b i t a l e x c u r s i o n near the bed

^
A n a l y s i s o f E q s . ( 5 . 1 . 8 ) and (5.1.9) shows a weak i n c r e a s e o f U^^^^ f o r an

i n c r e a s e o f t h e wave p e r i o d T.
I n t h e p r e s e n t study an attempt i s made by van R i j n t o d e s c r i b e the c r i t i c a l
A
stage i n terms o f U
, d^-^ and the p e r i o d T (see F i g . 5.1.3A) and i n terms
o f the S h i e l d s parameter ( F i g . 5 . 1 . S B ) . Various s e t s o f p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d

data have been analysed: Bagnold ( 1 9 4 6 ) , Manohar ( 1 9 5 5 ) , Ranee and Warren
( 1 9 6 8 ) , S i l v e s t e r and Mogridge
( 1 9 7 0 ) , D i n g i e r ( 1 9 7 4 ) , Bosman (1981) and
Davies ( 1 9 8 5 ) . Only experiments w i t h sand p a r t i c l e s
= 2650 kg/m3) and wave
p e r i o d s i n t h e ( f i e l d ) range o f 4 t o 15 seconds have been s e l e c t e d . The d a t a

r e p r e s e n t a p a r t i c l e range from 90 t o 3300 ym. The b a s i c data a r e p r e s e n t e d i n
Table 5 . 1 . 1 .
D e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f the data shows a c l e a r i n f l u e n c e o f t h e wave p e r i o d . For
most d a t a t h e c r i t i c a l stage ( i n terms o f the peak o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y , Ug^cr^
i n c r e a s e s w i t h the wave p e r i o d , which i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h Eqs. ( 5 . 1 . 8 ) ,
(5.1.9).
The e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s o f S i l v e s t e r and Mogridge, however, show an o p p o s i t e

t r e n d . F i g u r e 5.1.3A shows the peak v a l u e o f the c r i t i c a l near-bed
orbital
v e l o c i t y as a f u n c t i o n o f the wave p e r i o d and sediment s i z e . The average
inac-
curacy o f t h e curves i s about 25^.

The e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s have a l s o been expressed i n terms o f t h e S h i e l d p a r a meter u s i n g t h e time-averaged bed-shear
s t r e s s {i^ ^^):
((p^-p)gd5Q
'^'WH
- P(D*)
(5.1.10)
i n which:
p
= i p f (U,
) = time-averaged wave-related bed-shear
w 6,cr
= wave f r i c t i o n f a c t o r , Eq. (2,3.20)
A
T,_
b,cr
f
stress
(Eq.2.3.l4)
AW
U
6
, cr
= peak value o f c r i t i c a l near-bed o r b i t a l
The time-averaged bed-shear
s t r e s s and n o t the maximum bed-shear
used i n t h i s a n a l y s i s because the S h i e l d s ' curve, o r i g i n a l l y

u n i d i r e c t i o n a l f l o w , i s based on time-averaged parameters.
velocity
stress i s
proposed f o r
To determine the (time-averaged) wave-related bed-shear s t r e s s , the f r i c t i o n

f a c t o r must be known, which means t h a t the g r a i n roughness
( k ) and the k i n e s
m a t i c v i s c o s i t y ( v ) must a l s o be known. The k -value i s assumed t o be equal t o

adgQ w i t h a i n the range o f 1 to 3 (Van R i j n , 1982). I n some cases the d^^ was
not
r e p o r t e d i n the l i t e r a t u r e . To overcome t h i s , a v a l u e equal t o 1.5 d^^ was
assumed. When the water temperature was n o t r e p o r t e d , a v a l u e o f 20C was

assumed.
In the case o f t u r b u l e n t smooth c o n d i t i o n s the wave f r i c t i o n f a c t o r has been
computed from Eq.(2.3.17).
I n the case o f t u r b u l e n t rough c o n d i t i o n s Eq.
(2.3.20) has been a p p l i e d .

For the t r a n s i t i o n a l regime i t has been assumed ( i n analogy w i t h u n i d i r e c t i onal f l o w ) t h a t the wave f r i c t i o n f a c t o r can be determined from the e q u a t i o n
for
t u r b u l e n t rough c o n d i t i o n s (Eq, 2.3.20) r e p r e s e n t i n g the wave-related
roughness
by:
"s = "qo *
(5.1.11)
- ^'^ " 0 5
The a - c o e f f i c i e n t i s assumed t o be i n the range o f 1 t o 3 (van R i j n , 1982), To

determine the c r i t i c a l bed-shear s t r e s s f o r the t r a n s i t i o n a l regime, an
t i v e s o l u t i o n method i s necessary because the k - parameter
s
the
itera-
i s a function of
c r i t i c a l bed-shear s t r e s s (Eq.5.1.11). Figure 5.1.3B shows the dimension-
l e s s c r i t i c a l bed-shear s t r e s s as a f u n c t i o n o f the dimensionless Dj^-parameter

for
the s e l e c t e d d a t a . The S h i e l d s ' curve which i s proposed f o r u n i d i r e c t i o n a l
f l o w d a t a o n l y , i s a l s o shown, A v e r t i c a l bar i s used t o express the i n f l u e n c e

of the wave p e r i o d and the a-value (1 t o 3)
f o r each p a r t i c l e s i z e . The
varia-
t i o n between the r e s u l t s o f d i f f e r e n t i n v e s t i g a t o r s i s m a i n l y caused by t h e

d e f i n i t i o n problem f o r i n i t i a t i o n o f motion. For example. Ranee and Warren
d e f i n e the c r i t i c a l stage as the stage when one or two p a r t i c l e s are d i s l o d g e d
and moved over a s m a l l d i s t a n c e , w h i l e Bosman d e f i n e s the c r i t i c a l stage as
t h a t when about 10^ o f the s u r f a c e p a r t i c l e s are i n motion r e s u l t i n g i n a
r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e c r i t i c a l s h e a r - s t r e s s (see Figure 5 . 1 . 3 B ) .
Based on the p r e s e n t r e s u l t s , i t seems j u s t i f i e d
t o conclude t h a t the S h i e l d s '
curve can a l s o be a p p l i e d as a c r i t e r i o n f o r i n i t i a t i o n o f motion f o r o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w over a plane bed. The curve r e p r e s e n t s a c r i t i c a l stage a t which
o n l y a minor p a r t (say 1 t o 10^) o f the bed s u r f a c e i s moving.
F i n a l l y , i t i s noted t h a t the s c a t t e r i s r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e . T h i s may
n o t be too
s e r i o u s because a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s f o r plane bed c o n d i t i o n s are o n l y o f l i m i t e d
-5.7-
importance because o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w over a plane bed s u r f a c e i s a r a r e phenomenon i n n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s . U s u a l l y , s m a l l - s c a l e r i p p l e s a r e present and i n

t h a t case t h e c r i t i c a l values f o r i n i t i a t i o n o f motion a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y s m a l l e r
due t o t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f v o r t e x - m o t i o n s . For example, Carstens e t a l (1969)
r e p o r t a 5 0 ^ - r e d u c t i o n o f t h e peak v e l o c i t y (U
5.1.3
) f o r a r i p p l e d bed.
Current and waves
I n f o r m a t i o n o f i n i t i a t i o n o f motion f o r combined u n i d i r e c t i o n a l and o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w i s r a t h e r scarce. Some r e s u l t s a r e presented by Larsen e t a l (1981)

f o r t h r e e c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l f s i t e s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and i n A u s t r a l i a and
by Hammond and C o l l i n s (1979) f o r flume c o n d i t i o n s . The data o f Larsen e t a l
i n c l u d e measurements o f c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y and d i r e c t i o n a t 1 m above t h e sea
bed, mean bottom p r e s s u r e s , photographs o f t h e sea bed and bed m a t e r i a l samp l e s . The bed m a t e r i a l a t t h e two USA-sites
i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d as sandy
silt
(d^Q = 35 ym and 42 ym). The bed m a t e r i a l a t t h e A u s t r a l i a n s i t e i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d as f i n e sand (d_.^ = 170 ym). The water depths a t t h e s i t e s a r e i n t h e
50
range o f 75 t o 90 m. I n f o r m a t i o n o f t h e l o c a l bed forms ( r i p p l e s o r plane bed)
i s n o t r e p o r t e d by Larsen e t a l .
The data have been used by the present w r i t e r (van R i j n ) t o determine t h e
i n i t i a t i o n o f motion parameters according t o t h e S h i e l d s method. The b a s i c
data a r e g i v e n i n Table 5.1.2. The r e s u l t i n g time-averaged t o t a l bed-shear
s t r e s s (T,
) i s computed from Eq.(2.4.17), n e g l e c t i n g t h e wave-current
D y CW
i n t e r a c t i o n . The (time-averaged) wave-related bed-shear s t r e s s (T,
) is
Q^W
determined from t h e peak value o f thes bed-shear s t r e s s r e p o r t e d by Larsen e t

a l (1981), a p p l y i n g
^ = z '^^^
The c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed-shear s t r e s s i s
computed from t h e measured v e l o c i t y ( u ^ a t a h e i g h t (z.^) o f 1 m above t h e

bed, assuming a l o g a r i t h m i c v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e near-bed regime, as
follows:
1
i n which:
k
= e f f e c t i v e roughness h e i g h t (Eq. 5.1.11)
The sea bed i s assumed t o be f l a t . The water temperature i s assumed t o be 15C.

A p p l y i n g t h e above-given approach, t h e computed t o t a l time-averaged bed-shear
s t r e s s e s (x,
a r e somewhat ( 1 5 ^ ) l a r g e r than those r e p o r t e d by Larsen e t
a l , because t h e wave-current
approach. The dimensionless
i n t e r a c t i o n has been neglected i n t h e present

parameters f o r i n i t i a t i o n
o f motion a r e presented
i n F i g . 5 . 1 . 4 B , showing c r i t i c a l values t h a t are s m a l l e r than t h e S h i e l d s '

v a l u e s , e s p e c i a l l y f o r the two sandy s i l t s i t e s i<i^Q= 3 5 ym and 42 ym). The
r e s u l t s a r e i n b e t t e r agreement w i t h t h e curve proposed by Mantz ( 1 9 7 7 ) .
The data o f Hammond and C o l l i n s ( 1 9 7 9 ) have been c o l l e c t e d i n a flume
(length
- 3 . 7 m, w i d t h = 0 . 3 m, depth = 0 . 3 m). I n t h e flume, a perspex c a r r i a g e was

i n s t a l l e d , which could be moved i n an o s c i l l a t i n g motion. The sediment m a t e r i a l
(d^Q = 1 4 2 , 3 6 3 , 7 7 1 and 1 1 3 4 ym) was l a i d i n a depressed area o f t h e t o p
s u r f a c e o f t h e c a r r i a g e . Time-averaged v e l o c i t i e s were measured a t 0 . 0 2 above
the sediment bed by using a m i n i a t u r e p r o p e l l e r - t y p e c u r r e n t meter. I n t h i s
study only t h e t e s t r e s u l t s o f t h e two f i n e s t sediments ( 1 4 2 and 1 6 3 ym) have
been used by van R i j n , because the t e s t r e s u l t s o f the two c o a r s e s t m a t e r i a l s
( 7 7 1 and 1134 ym) may have been i n f l u e n c e d by r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e i n e r t i a l
forces
a c t i n g on t h e g r a i n s produced by t h e h o r i z o n t a l a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e sediment
bed
(on t h e c a r r i a g e ) . The basic data a r e given i n Table 5 . 1 . 3 .
F i g u r e 5 . 1 . 4 A shows the c r i t i c a l combinations
i n terms o f t h e wave-related and
c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed-shear v e l o c i t i e s computed from Eqs. ( 2 . 3 . 1 4 ) ,

(5.1.12).
Probably,
and
As can be observed, under c o n d i t i o n s o f combined u n i d i r e c t i o n a l and
o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w l a r g e r c r i t i c a l c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s (u^
achieved
(5.1.11)
) are generally
f o r s m a l l wave periods than f o r l a r g e periods a t a g i v e n
^-value.
t h i s i s t h e r e s u l t o f a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e near-bed
c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s o f s h o r t - p e r i o d waves f o r which the wave-induced v o r t e x

motions near t h e bed a r e r e l a t i v e l y i n t e n s e (see a l s o s e c t i o n 2 . 4 ) .
Consequently, t h e imposed c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y has t o be l a r g e r t o i n i t i a t e
for
motion
a s h o r t p e r i o d wave a t t h e same wave h e i g h t .
F i g u r e 5 . 1 . 4 B shows t h e experimental r e s u l t s i n terms o f t h e S h i e l d s ' parameters. The r e s u l t i n g c r i t i c a l bed-shear s t r e s s i s computed from Eq. ( 2 . 4 . 1 7 )
by summation o f t h e wave-related
and c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed-shear s t r e s s . The
v e r t i c a l bar i n d i c a t e s t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e wave p e r i o d and t h e e r r o r i n t h e

e s t i m a t e d k^-value ( 1 t o 3 d g ^ ) . G e n e r a l l y , t h e long p e r i o d waves produce t h e
s m a l l e s t c r i t i c a l m o b i l i t y parameters. As can be observed, t h e mean c r i t i c a l
values a r e c l o s e t o t h e S h i e l d s curve. The extreme values a r e about 4 0 ^ s m a l l e r
and l a r g e r than the mean values.
-5.9-
5.2
I n i t i a t i o n of suspension i n currents
For i n c r e a s i n g values o f the bed-shear
v e l o c i t y , the p a r t i c l e s w i l l be moving
along the bed by more or l e s s r e g u l a r jumps ( s a l t a t i o n s ) . When t h e v a l u e o f t h e

bed-shear v e l o c i t y becomes comparable
t o t h a t o f the p a r t i c l e f a l l
velocity,
the sediment p a r t i c l e s may go i n t o suspension.

Bagnold (1966) s t a t e d t h a t a p a r t i c l e only remains i n suspension when t h e
t u r b u l e n t eddies have dominant v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y components which exceed the
p a r t i c l e f a l l v e l o c i t y (w ) , Assuming t h a t the v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y component
(w') o f the eddies are o f the same order o f magnitude as t h e v e r t i c a l t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t y ( w ) , the c r i t i c a l value f o r i n i t i a t i o n o f suspension can be
expressed as:
0.5
w = f(w')2]
> w^
Recent s t u d i e s on t u r b u l e n c e phenomena i n boundary l a y e r f l o w p r o v i d e d e t a i l e d

i n f o r m a t i o n o f t h e v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the t u r b u l e n c e I n t e n s i t y (Hinze,
1975). The v e r t i c a l t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t y (w) has a maximum v a l u e o f t h e same
o r d e r as the bed-shear v e l o c i t y , both f o r h y d r a u l i c smooth and rough f l o w
conditions.
Using the above-mentioned
values o f the v e r t i c a l t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t y , t h e
c r i t e r i o n f o r i n i t i a t i o n o f suspension becomes:
^
w
s
= 1
(5.2,1)
which can be expressed as:
^rs
(u
f
(w )2
*,crs
s
= (s-l)gd^Q - (s-Dgd^Q
i n which:
u
w
- c r i t i c a l bed-shear v e l o c i t y f o r i n i t i a t i o n o f suspension
,crs
s
= p a r t i c l e f a l l v e l o c i t y i n c l e a r ( s t i l l ) water
d^Q
- d e n s i t y o f sediment
= density o f f l u i d
(5 2 2)
-5.10-
Another c r i t e r i o n f o r i n i t i a t i o n o f suspension has been given by Engelund

Based on a r a t h e r crude s t a b i l i t y
(1965).
a n a l y s i s , he d e r i v e d :
= 0.25
(5.2.3)
s
Equations
and
(5.2.2)
An e x p e r i m e n t a l
(5.2.3)
are shown i n F i g u r e
i n v e s t i g a t i o n was
( D e l f t Hydraulics,
1982)
5.1.1.
r e c e n t l y c a r r i e d out a t the D e l f t
Hydraulics
t o determine the c r i t i c a l f l o w c o n d i t i o n s f o r i n i t i a -
t i o n o f suspension d e f i n e d as the stage o f f l o w a t which the p a r t i c l e s

a jump l e n g t h l a r g e r than about 100 p a r t i c l e diameters.
Visual
d u r i n g the ( c r i t i c a l ) f l o w c o n d i t i o n s showed instantaneous
perform
observation
upward p a r t i c l e
motions ( t u r b u l e n t b u r s t s ) w i t h jump h e i g h t s i n the range 0 - 1 0 0 p a r t i c l e d i a meters a t v a r i o u s l o c a t i o n s of the

The
experimental
presented
< D^ <
bed.
r e s u l t s , which are shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 5 . 1 . 1
can
be
by:
10:
f ^
W3
= ^,
or e
-D,'
V s
- (J3^j2
(s-DgdÔ
(5.2.4)
D^ >
*
10:
crs
^
= 0.4,
'
ore
crs
^^J^
= 0.16 , , f ,
(s-Dgd^Q
Summarizing, i t i s suggested t h a t the c r i t e r i o n o f Bagnold may
d e f i n e an
u p p e r - l i m i t a t which a c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s t a r t s to develop, w h i l e Equation

(5.2.4)
may
d e f i n e an i n t e r m e d i a t e stage a t which l o c a l l y t u r b u l e n t b u r s t s
w i t h sediment p a r t i c l e s are l i f t e d from the bed
i n t o suspension.
-5.11-
5.3
References
BAGNOLD, R.A., 1946

Motion o f Waves i n Shallow Water; I n t e r a c t i o n between Waves and Sand Bottoms
Proc.Royal Soc.London, Ser.A, 187, p. 1-15, England
BAGNOLD, R.A., 1966
An Approach t o the Sediment Transport Problem
form General
Physics
G e o l o g i c a l Survey P r o f . Paper 422-1, Washington
BOSMAN, J . , 1981
Bed Behaviour and Sand C o n c e n t r a t i o n under O s c i l l a t o r y water Motion
D e l f t H y d r a u l i c s L a b o r a t o r y , Report Ml695-1, D e l f t , The Netherlands
BREUSERS, H.N.C. and SCHUKKING, W.H.P., 1971

I n i t i a t i o n o f Motion o f Bed M a t e r i a l ( i n d u t c h )
D e l f t H y d r a u l i c s L a b o r a t o r y , Report S159-I, D e l f t , The Netherlands
CARSTENS, M.R., NEILSON, F.M. and ALTINBILEK, H.D., 1969

Bed Forms Generated
i n t h e Laboratory under an O s c i l l a t o r y
Flow
U.S. Corps o f Eng.,
Coastal Eng. Res. Center, Tech. Memo, No. 28, USA
DAVIES, A.G., 1985

F i e l d O b s e r v a t i o n o f the Threshold o f Sediment Motion by Wave A c t i o n
Sedimentology,
Vol.32, p. 685-704
DELFT HYDRAULICS, 1972

Systematic I n v e s t i g a t i o n
o f Two-Dimensional and Three-Dimensional
Scour ( i n
Dutch)
Report M648/M863, D e l f t , The Netherlands
DELFT HYDRAULICS, 1982

I n i t i a t i o n o f Motion and Suspension, Development o f C o n c e n t r a t i o n P r o f i l e s i n
a Steady, Uniform Flow w i t h o u t I n i t i a l Sediment Load
Report M 1 5 3 1 - I I I , D e l f t , The Netherlands
-5.12-
I
DINGLER, J.R., 1 9 7 4
Wave-Formed Ripples i n Nearshore Sands
Ph.D.Thesis, U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , San Diego, USA
ENGELUWD, F., 1965
A C r i t e r i o n f o r the Occurence o f Suspended Load
La H o u i l l e Blanche, No. 8 , France
GRAF, W. H. and PAZIS, G.G., 1977

Les Phenomenes de D e p o s i t i o n e t D'Erosion dans un Canal
Alluvionnaire
J o u r n a l o f H y d r a u l i c Research, V o l . 1 5 , No. 2
HAMMOND, T.M. and C o l l i n s , M.B., 1 9 7 9
On the Threshold o f Transport o f Sand-Sized Sediment under the Combined

I n f l u e n c e o f U n i d i r e c t i o n a l and O s c i l l a t o r y Flow
Sedimentology, V o l .
2 6 , p. 7 9 5 - 8 1 2
HINZE, J.C, 1975

Turbulence
McGraw H i l l Book Company
KOMAR, P.D. and MILLER, M.C., 1975

On the Comparison between the Threshold o f Sediment Motion under Waves and
U n i d i r e c t i o n a l Currents w i t h a Discussion o f the p r a c t i c a l E v a l u a t i o n o f t h e
Threshold
J o u r n a l Sedimentary
LARSEN L.H.,
P e t r o l . , V o l . 4 5 , p. 3 6 2 - 3 6 7
'
STERNBERG, R.W., SHI, N.C., MARSDEN, M.A.H. and THOMAS, L., 1 9 8 1
F i e l d I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f the Threshold o f Grain Motion by Ocean Waves and

Currents
Sedimentary
The
Dynamics o f C o n t i n e n t a l Shelves, E l s e v i e r ,
Amsterdam,
Netherlands
LAVELLE, J.A. and MOFJELD, H.O., 1987

Do C r i t i c a l Stresses f o r I n c i p i e n t Motion and Erosion R e a l l y E x i s t
J o u r n a l o f H y d r a u l i c E n g i n e e r i n g , V o l , 1 1 3 , No. 3
-5.13-
MANTZ, P.A.,
1977
I n c i p i e n t T r a n s p o r t o f Fine Grains and Flakes by Fluids-Extended S h i e l d s

Diagram
J o u r n a l o f the H y d r a u l i c s D i v i s i o n , ASCE, V o l . 103, HY6
MANOHAR, M.,
1955

U.S. Army Corps Engineers, Beach Erosion Board, Tech. Memo No. 75
MILLER, M.C.,
McCAVE, I.N. and KOMAR, P.D.,
1977
Threshold o f Sediment Motion under U n i d i r e c t i o n a l

Sedimentology,
V o l . 24, p. 507-527
PAINTAL, A.S.,
1971
Current
Concept o f C r i t i c a l Shear Stress i n Loose Boundary Open Channels

J o u r n a l o f H y d r a u l i c s Research V o l . 9, No, 1
RANGE, P.J. and WARREN, N.F.,
1968
The Threshold o f Movement o f Coarse M a t e r i a l i n O s c i l l a t o r y

Proc.
Flow
11th Conf, Coastal Eng., V o l . I , p. 487-491, London, England
SHIELDS, A.,
1936
Anwendung der Ahnlichkeitsmechanik und der Turbulenz Forschung a u f d i e

Geschiebebewegung
M i t t , der Preuss, Versuchsamst. f i i r Wasserbau und S c h i f f b a u ,
H e f t 26, B e r l i n ,
Deutschland
SILVESTER, R, and MOGRIDGE, G.,
1970
Reach o f Waves t o t h e Bed o f the C o n t i n e n t a l S h e l f

Proc,
12th Conf. Coastal Eng., V o l . I I , p. 651-667, Washington, U,S,A.
VAN RIJN, L.C,,
1982
E q u i v a l e n t Roughness o f A l l u v i a l Bed
J o u r n a l o f the Hydr, D i v , , ASCE, No. HY 10, 1982
VAN RIJN, L.C.,
1985
The e f f e c t o f Waves on K a o l i n i t e / S a n d Beds

Report M2060, DELFT HYDRAULICS, D e l f t , The
Netherlands
YALIN, M.S.,
1972
Mechanics o f Sediment Transport

Pergamon Press
Investigator
^50
^^90
(pm)
(vim)
(s)
Bagnold 1946
90
(laboratory)
90
0.10
10
0.13
0.11
10
0.15
0.20
10
0.26
0.22
10
0.29
0.46
10
0.63
0.20
14
0.22
0.25
15
0.27
0.32
15
0.33
160
160
360
360
800
3300
3300
Ranee and Warren
240
( l a b o r a t o r y ) I968
240
390
390
820
820
(m/s)
800
"6,or
S i l v e s t e r and
420
0.29
Mogridge 1970
420
12
0.23
(laboratory)
580
0.32
580
15
0.22
D i n g i e r 1974
177
0.10
(field)
177
10
0.22
0.13
10
0.23
0.27
10
0.51
1454
0.33
1454
10
0.65
310
310
910
910
Table 5.1.1 Data o f i n i t i a t i o n o f motion f o r o s c i l l a t o r y
flow
Vor
(ym)
(s)
\ ill/ u /
210
320
0.25
210
320
10
0.32
163
180
0.14
163
180
10
0.23
230
250
0.17
230
250
10
0.25
Manohar 1955
280
400
4.5
0.25
(laboratory)
280
400
8.5
0.30
280
400
11
0.35
790
950
0.31
950
0.33
790
950
10.5
0,35
1010
1150
0.32
1010
1150
0.33
1010
1150
10
0.38
1830
2150
0,38
1830
2150
5.5
0.43
1830
2150
0,47
1980
2200
3.5
0,40
1980
2200
0,44
1980
2200
0.44
750
1350
11
0.36
%0
Investigator
Bosman
I98I
(laboratory)
790
D a v i e s 1985
(field)
T a b l e 5.1.1
(continued)
^90
location
bed m a t e r i a l
size
date
current velocity
a t 1 m above bed
%0
(ym)
"1
(m/s)
peak v a l u e o f
wave-induced
bed-shear s t r e s s
^b,w,max
(N/m2)
wave
period
T
(s)
Washington
Dec.
21
35
0.13
0.075
13.5
continental
Dec.
21
35
0.097
0,086
12.8
shelf,
Dec.
22
35
0.15
0,078
13.1
Dec.
24
35
0.10
0.081
13.6
1978
Australia
Mar.
42
0.158
0.075
10.8
continental
Mar.
42
,0.13
0,078
13.5
shelf,
Mar,
42
0,10
0,069
13.5
Mar.
42
0,089
0.076
13.0
Australia
Dec,
170
0,078
0,24
14.9
continental
Dec,
170
0.098
0.179
12.2
shelf,
Dec,
13
170
0.07
0.186
12,9
1979
1979
T a b l e 5.1,2
Data o f i n i t i a t i o n o f motion f o r combined u n i d i r e c t i o n a l and

o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w ( L a r s e n e t a l , 1981)
bed m a t e r i a l
size
wave
period
peak value
orbital velocity
A
(ym)
(s)
142
363
Table 5.1.3
current velocity
a t 0.02 m above bed
IT
(m/s)
U2
(m/s)
0.156
5.2
0.173
11.8
0.254
0.04
0.183
0.08
0.177
0.12
0,164
0.18
0.081
15
0.0267
0.156
15
0.06
0.14
15
0.10
0.125
15
0.12
0.109
15
0.16
0.096
15
0.20
0.069
0.219
4.8
0.25
11.1
0.27
0.04
0.216
0.08
0.204
0.12
0.18
0.18
0.155
15
0.0267
0.194
15
0.06
0.174
15
0.10
0.159
15
0.12
0.143
15
0.16
0.112
15
0.20
0.092
Data o f i n i t i a t i o n o f motion f o r combined u n i d i r e c t i o n a l and

o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w (Hammond and C o l l i n s , 1979)
1.
CD
t.t
JD
E
c
n
O
E
O
u
->
Q05
n-
Q2
0.3
0.5
particle parameter, D
H
>
10
20
30
p a r t i e l e diameter, dgo^lO ( m ) a t T, = 15C
INITIATION OF MOTION AND SUSPENSION

FOR UNIDIRECTIONAL FLOW
DELFT HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 5.1.1
0.10
Shields' c u r v e
Q08
IT)
"D
O)
Q.
0.05
tn
^Q.'
0.04
L.
U
JD"
-7
Q06
"^-^^
>
O03
>
3 - - "
<
1 % - - "
002
"s.
0.01
11
5 6 7 8 9io'
10^
'10
u d 5 0 /V
A.
measured
occasional
frequent
particle movement at some
frequent
p a r t i c l e m o v e m e n t a t m a n y locations
frequent
p a r t i c l e m o v e m e n t a t nearly all
frequent
p a r t i c l e m o v e m e n t a t all l o c a t i o n s
permanent
general t r a n s p o r t
EXPERIMENTAL
particle movement a t some
particle movement
locations
locations
locations
( i n i t i a t i o n of ripples)
RESULTS
ao7
at all
locations
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
(1972)
N=
Shields' c u r v e
Q06
o
in
"D
CJ)
Q.
0.05
Q04
DOO
Q.
in
'
I.
IH
10
0.03
,1
0.02
Q01
10"
6 8
>
N = n u m b e r of p a r t i c l e s m o v i n g p e r
B.
EXPERIMENTAL
RESULTS O F
6 8io^
Ud50/V
unit a r e a
G R A F AND PAZIS
(m^)
(1977)
INITIATION OF MOTION FOR UNIDIRECTIONAL

FLOW OVER A PLANE BED
H 461
FIG. 5.1.2
10'
Dso =
n
<3
TJ-
c1
n
i1
>
.tl
u
O
11
pm
1600
jjm
11
-'
1
1^
3200
800
"
c
400
c5
""*^
c1
^^."^
\
,'
\
\
'
5
t;
'(_
u
<
200 jjm
^'
^^^^^ ^
150 jjm
100 p m
^^^^
<
10-^
(
^ w a v e p e r i o d , T
measured:
1 0 0 - 1 5 0 pm
400-
150 - 2 0 0 p m
8 0 0 - 1600 p m
V 2 0 0 - 4 0 0 îm
(s)
800pm
1600 - 3 2 0 0 p m
B o s m a n (Flume)
Dingier
(Flume)
Bagnold
(Flume)
Silvester and M o g r i d g e ( F l u m e )
Ranee and W a r r e n ( F l u m e )
Manohar
Davies
(Flume)
(Field)
Shields' c u r v e equation (5.1.2)
5 6 7 8 10'
5 6 78 lo^
particle parameter,
5 6 7 8 IQ
D^
INITIATION OF MOTION FOR OSCILLATORY

FLOW OVER A P L A N E
DELFT
BED
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 5.1.3
in
0.02
0.02
d s o = 142 [irn
d s o = 3 6 3 \lvn
u
_o
T=5 s
T=15s
T=5 s
T = 15s
0.01
Q01
U)
I
I
I
>
O
Q01
'
Q02
>
A. CRITICAL
c u r r e n t - related
'
0.01
0.02
bed - shear velocity, u ^ c (m/s)
B E D - S H E A R VELOCITIES FOR CURRENT AND WAVES
7 8
p a r t i c l e p a r a n n e t e r , D.
B. SHIELDS'
CURVE
INITIATION OF MOTION FOR COMBINED

UNIDIRECTIONAL AND OSCILLATORY
FLOW OVER A PLANE BED
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG 5.1.4
6.
BED FORMS
6.1
Bed forms i n u n i d i r e c t i o n a l currents
6.1.1
Classification
Bed forms a r e r e l i e f f e a t u r e s generated by f l o w i n g water over a bottom o f

movable sediment m a t e r i a l s . Many types o f bed forms can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d and
b a s i c a l l y a l l types i n nature have a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l geometry. When t h e bed
form c r e s t i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r ( t r a n s v e r s e ) t o the main f l o w d i r e c t i o n , t h e bed
forms are c a l l e d t r a n s v e r s e bed forms, such as r i p p l e s , dunes and a n t i - d u n e s .
R i p p l e s and dunes t r a v e l downstream
by e r o s i o n a t the upstream f a c e ( s t o s s
s i d e ) and d e p o s i t i o n a t the downstream
f a c e ( l e e s i d e ) , Antidunes t r a v e l
upstream by l e e s i d e erosion and s t o s s s i d e d e p o s i t i o n . Bed forms w i t h
their
c r e s t p a r a l l e l t o the f l o w are c a l l e d l o n g i t u d i n a l bed forms such as r i b b o n s

and r i d g e s .
H e r e i n the bed forms are considered from a h y d r a u l i c p o i n t o f view and n o t from
a sedimentary p o i n t o f view. T h i s means t h a t the o v e r a l l shape, dimensions and
e f f e c t i v e roughness o f the bed forms are d e s c r i b e d , w h i l e t h e d e t a i l e d
internal
sedimentary processes are n o t considered. D e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n o f these l a t t e r

processes i s presented by A l l e n ( 1 9 6 8 ,
1982),
The m o r p h o l o g i c a l regimes f o r u n i d i r e c t i o n a l c u r r e n t s can be c l a s s i f i e d

(see
a l s o F i g . 6 . 1 , 1 and
into
6.1.2):
lower regime w i t h f l a t bed, ribbons and r i d g e s , r i p p l e s , dunes and b a r s ,
t r a n s i t i o n a l regime w i t h washed-out dunes,
upper regime w i t h f l a t mobile bed, sand waves and a n t i - d u n e s .
In
t h e l i t e r a t u r e , roughly two groups o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n methods a r e d e s c r i b e d ,
Engelund ( 1 9 6 7 ) uses the Froude number as a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n parameter, w h i l e

Simons-Richardson
( 1 9 6 6 ) d e s c r i b e the type o f bed forms i n terms o f a suspen-
s i o n parameter and a p a r t i c l e - r e l a t e d Reynolds number.

H e r a i n , the a t t e n t i o n i s focused on the lower and t r a n s i t i o n a l f l o w regimes
o n l y , because these regimes are the most i m p o r t a n t f o r f i e l d
conditions.
As
w i l l be shown, these regimes can be q u i t e w e l l - d e f i n e d w i t h o u t t h e use o f t h e

Froude number, s i n c e the sediment t r a n s p o r t i s n o t r e l a t e d t o t h e Froude number
i n t h i s regime.
This may a l s o be i n d i c a t e d by the f a c t t h a t the t r a n s i t i o n a l stage w i t h washedout dunes i s generated f o r a Froude number o f about 0.6 i n flume c o n d i t i o n s , a n d
o f about 0,2-0.3 i n f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s . Only i n the upper f l o w regime w i t h a n t i dunes i s the Froude number o f importance, since t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f a n t i - d u n e s i s
m a i n l y governed by f r e e - s u r f a c e phenomena, as i n d i c a t e d by the f a c t t h a t t h e
l e n g t h o f the a n t i - d u n e s i s equal t o the wave l e n g t h o f the f r e e s u r f a c e .
Since t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e Froude number seems t o be r e s t r i c t e d t o the upper

f l o w regime, t h i s parameter i s , t h e r e f o r e , n o t used as a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n parameter by Van R i j n ( 1 9 8 ^ ) , but the type o f bed forms are d e s c r i b e d i n terms o f
a d i m e n s i o n l e s s bed-shear s t r e s s parameter (T) e x p r e s s i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e
g r a i n - s h e a r s t r e s s and a p a r t i c l e parameter (D^), as shown i n F i g u r e 6,1,2.
Both flume and f i e l d data have been used t o develop t h i s diagram.
I n t h e lower f l o w regime, which seems t o be p r e s e n t f o r T s m a l l e r than 15, t h e
dune-type bed forms a r e t h e dominant f e a t u r e s . A combination o f mega-ripples
and dunes may be p r e s e n t f o r
dominant bed forms f o r
< 10 and 3 < T < 10. M i n i - r i p p l e s a r e the
< 10 and T < 3.
The upper f l o w regime w i t h plane bed and a n t i - d u n e s can be d e f i n e d
t o occur
f o r T l a r g e r than 25. The a c t u a l onset o f anti-dunes cannot be p r e d i c t e d f r o m

F i g u r e 6.1.2, because the Froude number i s not used as a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n parameter. I n t h e t r a n s i t i o n zone (15 < T < 25) the bed c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s somewhat
obscure. I t may range from t h a t t y p i c a l o f the lower f l o w regime (dunes) t o
t h a t t y p i c a l o f t h e upper f l o w regime (plane bed), depending m a i n l y on t h e
proceeding f l o w c o n d i t i o n s ( r i s i n g or f a l l i n g
stage).
Summarizing, the f o l l o w i n g c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s proposed:
Bed f o r m c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
1 <
< 10
(50 um < d(-^ < i|50 ym)
Lower f l o w
0 < T < 3
Mini r i p p l e s
regime
3 < T < 15
Mega r i p p l e s and dunes
Transitional
15 S T < 25
Washed-out dunes and plane bed
f l o w regime
Upper f l o w
regime
T > 25
Plane bed and a n t i - d u n e s
Djj > 10
(d
50
> 450
Dunes
ym)
and 6.1.4
F i g u r e s 6.1.3
show the bed form c l a s s i f i c a t i o n diagrams o f Van
den
Berg and Van Gelder (1989). These diagrams are based on a l a r g e amount o f
flume and f i e l d d a t a . The b a s i c parameters are the dimensionless p a r t i c l e
parameter D and t h e m o b i l i t y parameter 0' = ( u ; ) 2 / ( ( s - 1 ) g d^^) w i t h
(g'^/C') and C'
= 18 log(12h/3dgQ). A l l flume data have a water depth l a r g e r
than 0.1 m and a w i d t h l a r g e r than 0.3 m. A l l f i e l d data have a water d e p t h

l a r g e r than 1 m and a w i d t h l a r g e r than 2 m. The method o f Vanoni-Brooks
has been used t o e l i m i n a t e s i d e w a l l roughness
6.1.2
Flat
(1957)
effects.
bed
A f l a t immobile bed may
be observed Just b e f o r e the onset o f p a r t i c l e m o t i o n ,
w h i l e a f l a t m o b i l e bed w i l l be present Just beyond t h e onset o f motion.

The bed s u r f a c e b e f o r e the onset o f motion may
a l s o be covered w i t h r e l i c t
bed
forms generated d u r i n g stages w i t h l a r g e r v e l o c i t i e s .
6.1.3
Ribbons and
ridges
S m a l l - s c a l e r i b b o n and r i d g e type bed forms p a r a l l e l t o the main f l o w d i r e c t i o n

have been observed i n l a b o r a t o r y flumes and s m a l l n a t u r a l channels, e s p e c i a l l y
in case o f f i n e sediments
(d^Q < 100 ym) and are p r o b a b l y generated by
dary f l o w phenomena and near-bed
secon-
t u r b u l e n c e e f f e c t s (burst-sweep c y c l e ) i n t h e
lower f l o w regime and t r a n s i t i o n f l o w regime. These bed forms are a l s o c a l l e d

p a r t i n g l i n e a t i o n s because o f the streamwise r i d g e s and h o l l o w s w i t h a v e r t i c a l
s c a l e equal t o about 10 g r a i n diameters and are mostly found i n f i n e
(say
50 t o 250 ym), The w i d t h s c a l e i s o f the o r d e r o f 100
6.1.4
v/u^.
Ripples
When t h e v e l o c i t i e s are somewhat l a r g e r (10-20^) than the c r i t i c a l

for
sediments
velocity
i n i t i a t i o n o f motion and the median p a r t i c l e s i z e i s s m a l l e r than about
450 ym, s m a l l ( m i n i ) r i p p l e s are generated a t the bed s u r f a c e . R i p p l e s t h a t

are
developed d u r i n g t h i s stage remain s m a l l w i t h a r i p p l e l e n g t h much s m a l l e r
than t h e water depth ( x ^ < < h ) , Y a l i n (1985) r e p o r t values i n the range o f

= 50 t o 200 d^Q and
= 500 t o 1000 d^^. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f m i n i
r i p p l e s are commmonly assumed t o be r e l a t e d t o t h e t u r b u l e n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

near t h e bed (burst-sweep c y c l e ) . Current r i p p l e s have an asymmetric
profile
-6.il-
w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y steep downstream face ( l e e s i d e ) and a r e l a t i v e l y g e n t l e

upstream face ( s t o s s s i d e ) . As the v e l o c i t i e s near the bed become l a r g e r , the
r i p p l e s become more i r r e g u l a r i n shape, h e i g h t and spacing y i e l d i n g
strongly
t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l r i p p l e s ( F i g . 6.1.5. A). I n t h a t case the v a r i a n c e o f the

r i p p l e l e n g t h and h e i g h t becomes r a t h e r l a r g e . These r i p p l e s are c a l l e d l u n a t e
r i p p l e s when the r i p p l e f r o n t has a concave shape i n the c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n
( c r e s t i s moving slower than wing t i p s ) and are c a l l e d l i n g u o i d r i p p l e s when
the r i p p l e f r o n t has a convex shape ( c r e s t i s moving f a s t e r than wing
The l a r g e s t r i p p l e s may
have a l e n g t h upto the water depth and are commonly
c a l l e d mega-ripples. F i g u r e 6.1.6
r i p p l e s observed
tips).
shows the r e l a t i v e h e i g h t (A/h) o f mega-
i n Pakistan i r r i g a t i o n channels (Mahmood ,et a l , 1984) as a
f u n c t i o n o f a dimensionless bed-shear s t r e s s parameter, T (Eq, 3.3).
The
r e l a t i v e h e i g h t o f the mega-ripples v a r i e s i n the range o f 0.02 t o 0.06.
c l e a r i n f l u e n c e o f the T-parameter cannot be d e t e c t e d . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s

r e a l i s t i c t o assume t h a t the r e l a t i v e h e i g h t has a maximum value f o r a
T-value
o f about 5. For s m a l l e r and l a r g e r T-values the r i p p l e h e i g h t i s reduced.

Here, i t i s assumed t h a t the r i p p l e s w i l l completely disappear f o r T
also Fig.
10 (see
6.1.2).
T e n t a t i v e expressions f o r the r e l a t i v e h e i g h t and l e n g t h o f mega-ripples
are
g i v e n by:
= 0.02
XJ, = 0.5
d-e"'^-^'^) (10-T)
f o r 1 < 0,^ < 10
(6.1.1)
(6.1.2)
Equation (6.1.1) i s shown i n F i g u r e 6.1.6A.

A n a l y s i s o f bed m a t e r i a l samples has shown t h a t coarser p a r t i c l e s are concent r a t e d i n t r o u g h areas o f the r i p p l e s . Thus, samples o f the trough area show
l a r g e r median p a r t i c l e diameters and are l e s s s o r t e d than samples from the
c r e s t areas (Harms, 1969).
6.1.5
Another
Dunes
t y p i c a l bed form type o f the lower f l o w regime i s the dune-type
bed
form. Dunes have an asymmetrical ( t r i a n g u l a r ) p r o f i l e w i t h a r a t h e r steep

l e e s i d e and a g e n t l e s t o s s s i d e ( F i g . 6.1.5C). A g e n e r a l f e a t u r e o f dune type
bed forms i s l e e s i d e f l o w s e p a r a t i o n r e s u l t i n g i n s t r o n g eddy motions down-
stream o f t h e dune c r e s t ( F i g . 6.1.7). The presence o f these phenomena a r e

e a s i l y observable a t the water s u r f a c e i n the form o f l a r g e b o i l s r i s i n g up
from t h e s e p a r a t i o n r e g i o n s . The l e n g t h o f the dunes i s s t r o n g l y r e l a t e d t o
the water depth w i t h values i n t h e range o f 3 t o 15 h. Extremely
l a r g e dunes
w i t h h e i g h t s o f t h e order o f 7 m and l e n g t s o f the order o f 500 m have been

observed i n t h e Rio Parana r i v e r i n water depths o f about 25 m, v e l o c i t i e s o f
about 2 m/s and bed m a t e r i a l s i z e s o f about 300 ym.
The f o r m a t i o n o f dunes may be caused by l a r g e - s c a l e eddies as d e s c r i b e d by
Y a l i n (1972). Due t o the presence o f l a r g e (low frequency) eddies, t h e r e
will
be r e g i o n s a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s w i t h decreased and increased bed-shear s t r e s ses, r e s u l t i n g i n the l o c a l d e p o s i t i o n and e r o s i o n o f sediment p a r t i c l e s .

When the bed m a t e r i a l i s non-uniform,
v e r t i c a l s o r t i n g takes p l a c e , which
means t h a t the coarser p a r t i c l e r accumulate i n the dune t r o u g h r e g i o n (see

S e c t i o n 8.2.7).
Based on the a n a l y s i s o f flume and f i e l d
data, the p r e s e n t w r i t e r has proposed
t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r t h e dune h e i g h t and l e n g t h (Van R i j n , 1 9 8 2 ,

1984):
jT
0.11 i-f)
(6.1.3)
(l-e"-5^) (25-T)
. 7.3 h
(6.1.4)
The dune c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a c c o r d i n g t o Eqs. ( 6 . 1 . 3 ) and ( 6 . 1 . 4 ) a r e shown i n

Fig,
6.1.8. The dunes are assumed t o be washed o u t r e s u l t i n g i n a f l a t
bed f o r T > 25 (see F i g . 6.1.2). Equation
(mobile)
( 6 . 1 . 3 ) y i e l d s a maximum dune h e i g h t
i n t h e range o f 0.1 t o 0.2 h f o r T =^ 5. Figure 6 . 1 . 6 A shows measured and computed dune h e i g h t f o r some P a k i s t a n I r r i g a t i o n channels (Mahmood e t a l 1984).
The g e n e r a t i o n o f m i n i or mega-ripples
on the s t o s s s i d e s o f t h e dunes i s a l s o
a t y p i c a l phenomenon o f t h e lower f l o w regime ( F i g . 6.1.5B).

Other i n v e s t i g a t o r s who have proposed r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r dune dimensions, a r e :
Tsubaki-Shinohara,
1959
O r i g i n a l l y , they presented
t h e i r r e s u l t s i n g r a p h i c a l form. A best f i t o f
t h e i r r e s u l t s (determined by the present w r i t e r ) can be r e p r e s e n t e d by:
r:^ = 2.1 ( 0 ' ) ^ - ^
f o r 0.05 <
G' < 0.3
(6.1.5)
-6.6-
7^ = 0.5 ( 0 ' ) ^ - ^
(6.1.6)
(6.1.7)
= 4-2
in which:
0.
rV~ri
tPg- P) g
= y T|_^
~ particle mobility
parameter
= grain-shear s t r e s s
C_
C'
= TTT
= r i p p l e or e f f i c i e n c y
factor
= o v e r a l l Chzy-coefficient
12 h
C' 18 l o g ( j )
^65
= Chzy-coefficient r e l a t e d
to grains
= water depth
U s u a l l y , the bed-form f a c t o r i s r e l a t e d
t o t h e second power o f t h e C / C - r a t i o ,
but Tsubaki-Shinohara proposed a l i n e a r
relationship.
Yalin_1964, 1972
= ^
(6.,.8,
b
X ,
f
= 5
(6.1.9)
i n which:
= p g h 1 = o v e r a l l bed-shear
stress
- c r i t i c a l bed-shear
stress
Based on t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , Y a l i n proposed i n 1972:

X
h " = 2TT
(6.1.10)
Ranga_RaJu-Soni, 1976
^ 6.5 10^ ( 0 ' ) ^
So
for
0.03 < 0' < 0.6
(6.1.11)
-6.7-
(6.1.12)
So
in
h
which:
F. =
r^
(gh)-5
= Froude number
F^ =
= particle mobility
parameter
= particle mobility
parameter
jT"^
( ( 3 - 1 ) g dô)'-^
^b
(Pg- P)g d^Q
Tjl^ = p g h' i
h' = 0 . 0 0 8 5
s
= grain-shear stress
(i-q)^'^^
= p /p
s
()^ ^ ( i ) " ' ^ " ' ^ ^
= depth r e l a t e d t o g r a i n s
= s p e c i f i c density
= energy g r a d i e n t
= mean f l o w v e l o c i t y
O r i g i n a l l y , t h e data f o r t h e bed-form l e n g t h were g i v e n i n g r a p h i c a l f o r m .

Equation ( 6 . 1 . 1 2 )
i s a r a t h e r crude r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e g r a p h i c a l
results.
However, a l s o t h e o r i g i n a l data a r e n o t very r e l i a b l e because t h e p r e d i c t e d

bed form l e n g t h s a r e a t l e a s t a f a c t o r 1 0 t o o s m a l l f o r f i e l d
conditions,
p r o b a b l y because o n l y flume data were used f o r c a l i b r a t i o n .
Allei2^_1968
= 0 . 0 8 6 h'^^
(6.1.13)
(6.1.14)
^=hO-^
Fredsê^_1980
Equation ( 6 . 1 . 1 5 )
i s g i v e n i n g r a p h i c a l form by Fredseie
The 0^^p -parameter

of
(1980).
i s the p a r t i c l e m o b i l i t y parameter a t t h e c r e s t ( o r t o p )
t h e bed forms. Since Fredseê i s n o t c l e a r about t h e computation o f t h e
top ~P^'"^"'6ter, t h e present w r i t e r has used t h e f o l l o w i n g method:
-6.8-
i)^Qp
" p a r t i c l e m o b i l i t y parameter a t
the top o f the bed forms
u't o p
^
0.5 g
u,
" p C'
ri
^
top
'^top
~ h
~ depth-averaged v e l o c i t y a t the
^
top o f the bed forms
12(h-iA^)
- 18 l o g ( 5 1
)
^"^^ 2 dg^
C'
'top
= grain-shear v e l o c i t y a t the top

o f the bed forms
= Chzy-coefficient r e l a t e d t o the g r a i n s
a t the top o f the bed forms-
= discharge per u n i t w i d t h
Fredsê^_1982
, ^
(6.1.16)
= F(0', S o )
i n which:
' " ( s - 1 ) g d
0.5
" P^'"til^ m o b i l i t y parameter
= p ,
C'
= grain-shear v e l o c i t y
C' = 18 l o g ( - 2 ^ ]
- Chzy-coefficient r e l a t e d t o g r a i n s
^65
h'
= ( t u r b u l e n t ) boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s
a c c o r d i n g t o Engelund and Hansen, I 9 6 7
For reasons o f s i m p l i c i t y , the h'-parameter
i s assumed t o equal t o 0 . 5 h
(by
the p r e s e n t w r i t e r ) .
Comparsion_of methods
The r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r t h e bed-form h e i g h t were e v a l u a t e d by computing t h e bedform h e i g h t f o r a sand bed w i t h a p a r t i c l e diameter d^^ = 6OO ym ( d g ^ = 750
dgo = 1500 ym), mean f l o w depths h = 1 and 10 m and mean f l o w v e l o c i t i e s =
0.5,
1.0 and
1.5
m/s.
ym,
As t h e methods o f Tsubaki-Shinohara, Y a l i n and Ranga Raju-Soni r e q u i r e t h e

s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f the bed-shear s t r e s s and/or the energy g r a d i e n t , these methods
were used i t e r a t i v e l y
_2
= pghi, i . ^
h C
with:
, C = 18 l o g ( ^ ) ,
s
and k^ . 0.5 A^.
The r e s u l t s are shown i n F i g u r e 6 , 1 . 9 . As can be observed, the methods o f Ranga

Raju-Soni, Tsubaki-Shinohara and Fredseie (1980) show an i n c r e a s i n g t r e n d , t h e
l a t t e r two y i e l d i n g extremely l a r g e v a l u e s . The method o f Y a l i n produces v a l u e s
which approach to
= j h. Only e q u a t i o n ( 6 . 1 . 3 ) and Fredszie, 1982 p r e d i c t a
decreasing bed-form h e i g h t f o r i n c r e a s i n g f l o w v e l o c i t e s (washed-out dunes).

For a s m a l l depth ( h = 1 m) the methods o f Van R i j n and Fredseie ( 1982) show
good agreement, w h i l e f o r a l a r g e depth (h = 10 m) the method o f Freds(z)e y i e l d s
v a l u e s which are about two times as l a r g e as a c c o r d i n g t o t h e method o f Van
R i j n . The method o f Ranga Raju-Soni y i e l d s remarkably s m a l l bed-form h e i g h t s
i n t h e case o f l a r g e f l o w depths, probably because o n l y flume data were used
for
calibration.
6.1.6
Washed-out dunes
I t i s a well-known phenomenon t h a t the bed forms generated a t low v e l o c i t i e s

are washed o u t a t h i g h v e l o c i t i e s . I t i s not c l e a r , however, whether t h e d i s appearance o f the bed forms i s accomplished by a decrease o f t h e bed f o r m
h e i g h t , by an i n c r e a s e o f the bed form l e n g t h or b o t h . Recent flume e x p e r i ments (Termes,
1986) w i t h sediment m a t e r i a l o f about 450 ym show t h a t t h e
t r a n s i t i o n from t h e lower t o the upper regime I s e f f e c t u a t e d by an i n c r e a s e o f

the bed form l e n g t h and a simultaneous decrease o f the bed form h e i g h t .
U l t i m a t e l y , r e l a t i v e l y l o n g and smooth bed forms w i t h a roughness equal t o
g r a i n roughness a r e generated (see F i g . 6 , 1 . 6 B ) .
The t r a n s i t i o n process s t a r t s a t T-values o f 15 (see F i g . 6 . 1 . 2 ) , w h i l e f o r
T > 25 t h e bed s u r f a c e becomes wavy w i t h l a r g e f l a t r e g i o n s (see F i g . 6.1.5D).
L o c a l l y , s m a l l s c a l e r i b b o n s or r i d g e s may
due t o secondary
currents.
be generated p a r a l l e l t o the f l o w
-6.10-
6.1.7
Bars
The l a r g e s t bed forms i n the lower regime are sand bars (such as s i d e b a r s ,
b r a i d bars and t r a n s v e r s e b a r s ) , which u s u a l l y are generated i n areas w i t h
r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e t r a n s v e r s e f l o w components ( r i v e r bends).
B r a i d bars a c t u a l l y are a l l u v i a l " i s l a n d s " which separate the anabranches o f
b r a i d e d streams. Numerous bars can be observed d i s t r i b u t e d over the c r o s s s e c t i o n s . These bars have a marked streamwise e l o n g a t i o n . Transverse bars a r e
d i a g o n a l shoals o f t r i a g u l a r - s h a p e d p l a n along the bed. One
s i d e may
be
a t t a c h e d t o the channel bank. These type o f bars g e n e r a l l y are generated i n

steep s l o p e channels w i t h a l a r g e w i d t h - d e p t h r a t i o . The f l o w over t r a n s v e r s e
bars i s sinuous (wavy) i n p l a n . Side bars are bars connected t o r i v e r banks i n
a meandering
channel. There i s no f l o w over the bar. The p l a n f o r m i s r o u g h l y
t r i a n g u l a r . S p e c i a l examples o f s i d e bars are p o i n t b a r s and s c r o l l b a r s .
6.1.8
Upper regime with Anti-dunes
For i n c r e a s i n g v e l o c i t i e s (Froude number > 1) anti-dunes are generated i n the

upper regime. These type o f bed formes do not e x i s t as a c o n t i n u o u s t r a i n o f
bed waves, but they g r a d u a l l y b u i l d up from a f l a t bed. As the a n t i - d u n e s form,
they move uptream due t o s t r o n g l e e - s i d e e r o s i o n and s t o s s - s i d e d e p o s i t i o n .
Anti-dunes are bed forms o f s m a l l a m p l i t u d e and a l e n g t h s c a l e o f about
10
times the water depth (X ^ 10 h ) . The l o n g i t u d i n a l p r o f i l e has a s i n u s o i d a l

shape i n phase w i t h the water s u r f a c e .
When the f l o w v e l o c i t y f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e s , f i n a l l y a stage w i t h chute and p o o l s
i s generated ( F i g . 6.1.1H).
6.2
6.2.1
Bed forms i n non-steady c u r r e n t s
Non-steady r i v e r flow
I n r i v e r f l o w the d i s c h a r g e and water l e v e l vary as a f u n c t i o n o f time

and f a l l i n g stages) depending on seasonal and c l i m a t o l o g i c a l
S m a l l - s c a l e bed forms l i k e r i p p l e s respond r a p i d l y t o a new
(rising
conditions.
s i t u a t i o n but
l a r g e - s c a l e bed forms l i k e dunes have a l e s s r a p i d response and t h e r e may

c o n s i d e r a b l e phase l a g between the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the new
time
be a
flow conditions at
and the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the new dune dimensions a t time
-6.11-
T h i s l a g behaviour o f dunes has been s t u d i e d by A l l e n ( 1 9 7 6 ) , FredseJe ( 1 9 7 9 ) ,

Wijbenga-Klaassen ( 1 9 8 1 ) ,
Tsujimoto-Nakagawa ( 1 9 8 3 ) ,
by F o u r n i e r ( 1 9 8 4 )
and
by
Termes ( 1 9 8 6 ) . A l l e n developed a s t o c h a s t i c model d e s c r i b i n g t h e c r e a t i o n and

d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e dunes. A f t e r a dune has t r a v e l e d a c e r t a i n assigned
i t i s destroyed
distance
and a new dune i s created. At t h e moment o f c r e a t i o n t h e dune
dimensions correspond t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g f l o w c o n d i t i o n s assuming steady f l o w .

D u r i n g t h e l i f e o f t h e dunes t h e dune h e i g h t can a d j u s t t o changes i n t h e f l o w
c o n d i t i o n s , b u t t h e dune l e n g t h remains constant.
Fredseie proposed an a n a l y t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r t h e i n i t i a l change o f t h e dune
h e i g h t which i s based on f l o w and sediment t r a n s p o r t parameters a t t h e dune
c r e s t . The dune shape i s e s s e n t i a l l y constant.
Wijbenga and Klaassen performed flume experiments t o study
t h e changes o f dune
dimensions f o r unsteady f l o w c o n d i t i o n s (sudden increase and decrease o f

d i s c h a r g e ) . Comparison o f the experimental
r e s u l t s and t h e model r e s u l t s o f
A l l e n and Fredseie d i d n o t g i v e s a t i s f a c t o r y agreement.

T s u j i m o t o and Wakagawa ( 1 9 8 3 ) performed flume experiments and proposed semie m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r t h e change i n time o f t h e dune h e i g h t and t h e dune
l e n g t h . Various cases were s t u d i e d : dune development from an i n i t i a l l y
bed under a constant d i s c h a r g e ,
flat
dune t r a n s i t i o n under a suddenly d e c r e a s i n g
d i s c h a r g e and dune t r a n s i t i o n under a g r a d u a l l y v a r y i n g
discharge.
F o u r n i e r a l s o performed flume experiments and proposed e x p r e s s i o n s f o r t h e

dune h e i g h t change and t h e t r a n s i t i o n time s c a l e . According t o F o u r n i e r , t h e
dune l e n g t h f i r s t a d j u s t s i t s e l f i n a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r i o d t o t h e new f l o w
c o n d i t i o n s , w h i l e t h e dune h e i g h t remains e s s e n t i a l l y c o n s t a n t .
After this
p e r i o d ("coalescence" time) t h e growth i n dune h e i g h t becomes s i g n i f i c a n t .
According t o t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r (Van R i j n ) , t h e dune t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d T^,

d u r i n g which t h e dune dimensions change from those o f stage 1 t o those o f
stage 2 , i s r e l a t e d t o t h e r a t i o o f t h e change i n c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area o f t h e
dune and t h e average bed l o a d t r a n s p o r t i n the t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d . Thus,
(1-p) (AX - A.X.)
Assuming a f i r s t order adjustment process, the changes i n dune h e i g h t and dune

l e n g t h can be expressed as:
t
= e
(6.2.2)
-6.12-Yt/T
(6.2.3)
i n which:
\ '
^1'
^1
dune h e i g h t , l e n g t h a t time t
e q u i l i b r i u m dune h e i g h t , l e n g t h a t stage 1
e q u i l i b r i u m dune h e i g h t , l e n g t h a t stage 2
% , 1 '
e q u i l i b r i u m bed load t r a n s p o r t r a t e s a t stage 1 , 2
%,2
p o r o s i t y o f bed m a t e r i a l
dune t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d
coefficients.
a, e, Y
The experimental
r e s u l t s ( T 2 6 , T 2 7 ) o f Wijbenga-Klaassen (1981) have been used
t o determine the a, 6 and y - c o e f f i c i e n t s . The t e s t s were performed i n a l a r g e

100 m, w i d t h
s c a l e flume ( l e n g t h
1.5 m, depth ^ 1 m) w i t h bed m a t e r i a l o f
770 ym. The dune h e i g h t and l e n g t h were measured as a f u n c t i o n o f time a f t e r a

sudden i n c r e a s e o f t h e discharge.
h = 0.4 m. The e x p e r i m e n t a l
The water depth changed from h^= 0 . 2 m t o
r e s u l t s a t stage 1 , a t stage 2 and d u r i n g t h e
t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d o f about 4 hours (= T^^) a r e , as f o l l o w s :
stage 1
f l o w parameters
stage 2
discharge
(mVs)
0.1
0.27
water depth
(m)
0.2
0.4
bed
q^^ ( m 2 / s )
7.3
load t r a n s p o r t
10"^
20
10"^
dune h e i g h t
'A
(m)
0.07
0.11
dune l e n g t h
(m)
1.35
1.55
Time
dune h e i g h t A
dune l e n g t h X
(hours)
(m)
(m)
t = 0
0.07
1.35
t = 0.5
0.09
1.35
t = 1
0.10
1.40
t = 2
0.105
1.45
t = 3
0.105
1.50
t = 4
0.11
1.55
-6.13-
A p p l y i n g these v a l u e s , i t f o l l o w s t h a t a =^ 4, 6 =^ 3 and y ^ ^. k v a l u e o f 6 =^
has a l s o been found by F o u r n i e r (1984).
The above g i v e n expressions can be a p p l i e d t o o b t a i n on order o f magnitude
e s t i m a t e o f t h e dune t r a n s i t i o n parameters
i n unsteady r i v e r f l o w . The e q u i l i -
brium dune dimensions are given by Eqs. (6.1.3) and ( 6 . 1 . 4 ) .
6.2.2
T i d a l flow
The bed forms most f r e q u e n t l y found i n t i d a l c u r r e n t s i n e s t u a r i e s a r e megar i p p l e s , asymmetrical sand dunes and symmetrical sandwaves. T i d a l c u r r e n t s may
have an asymmetrical v a r i a t i o n depending on t h e channel and shoal
system.
Mega r i p p l e s have a h e i g h t o f t h e order o f 0.5 t o 1 m and a l e n g t h o f t h e

o r d e r o f t h e water depth( 5 t o 20 m). G e n e r a l l y , they a r e generated i n t h e
main f l o o d and ebb channels w i t h bed m a t e r i a l s i z e s s m a l l e r than 300 ym. The
l e e s l o p e o f t h e mega r i p p l e s i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y equal t o t h e angle o f repose
(avalanche a n g l e ) . The shape i s t y p i c a l l y asymmetrical i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e
main c u r r e n t . Thus, r e o r i e n t a t i o n takes p l a c e w i t h t h e r e v e r s a l o f t h e t i d e .
The sand dunes and sand waves have l e n g t h s o f s e v e r a l times t h e water depths.
These l e n g t h s , however, a r e s m a l l e r than those o f t h e sand dunes i n steady
r i v e r f l o w because t h e t i d a l p e r i o d i s n o t l a r g e enough f o r t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f
e q u i l i b r i u m v a l u e s . G e n e r a l l y , t h e sand dunes and waves a r e found i n t h e
deeper wider t i d a l channels w i t h bed m a t e r i a l s i z e s l a r g e r than about 300 ym.
Sand waves a r e t y p i c a l l y symmetrical w i t h t h e i r c r e s t s a p p r o x i m a t e l y midway
between t h e t r o u g h s . The l e e s i d e angles a r e much s m a l l e r than t h e a n g l e o f
repose and seldom exceed 10. This means t h a t f l o w s e p a r a t i o n w i l l n o t ocur
y i e l d i n g s m a l l e f f e c t i v e roughness v a l u e s . Sand waves a r e t y p i c a l l y found i n
areas w i t h symmetrical t i d a l c u r r e n t s g e n e r a t i n g an equal amount o f sediments
t r a n s p o r t e d backwards and forwards over t h e c r e s t on each phase o f t h e t i d e .
Bucx and Tobias (1986) have analyzed a s e r i e s o f echo soundings c a r r i e d o u t

over a l e n g t h o f 20 km i n t h e e a s t e r n (landward) p a r t o f t h e Westerschelde
e s t u a r y i n t h e Netherlands. The t o t a l t r a c k l e n g t h o f t h e bed forms i n t h e
v a r i o u s ebb and f l o o d channels was about 100 km. The water depths i n t h a t p a r t
o f t h e e s t u a r y were i n t h e range o f 7 t o 25 m. The t i d a l range was 4 t o 5 m.
The c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s were i n the range o f 1 t o 1.5 m/s. The ebb c u r r e n t s a r e
s l i g h t l y d o m i n a t i n g i n most channels. V e r t i c a l s a l i n i t y s t r a t i f i c a t i o n does
n o t occur. The s i z e o f the bed m a t e r i a l was i n t h e range o f 200 t o 300 ym.
-6.14-
A n a l y s i s o f the echo sounding t r a c k s shows the presence o f megaripples i n most

channels. The h e i g h t s o f the megaripples were i n the range o f 0.2
to 1 m w i t h
a mean v a l u e o f about 0.6 m. The l e n g t h s were mostly i n the range o f 1 t o 20 m

w i t h a mean v a l u e o f about 10 m. About 20^ o f the bed forms had a l e n g t h
l a r g e r than 20 m. Large asymmetrical sand waves w i t h a l e n g t h o f 100 m and a
h e i g h t o f 2 m were p r e s e n t i n some deep channels ( d e p t h ^ 25 m). Most (80^) o f
the megaripples were s l i g h t l y asymmetrical i n the d i r e c t i o n o f the d o m i n a t i n g
c u r r e n t . About 10^ o f the megaripples had a symmetrical shape and about ^0% o f
the bed forms were more or l e s s plane (steep slope a r e a s , d r e d g i n g a r e a s ,
muddy a r e a s ) .
Voogt e t a l
(1989)
observed asymmetrical mega-ripples w i t h a h e i g h t o f about
0.5 m and a l e n g t h o f about 10 m i n water depths o f about 10 m, bed m a t e r i a l

s i z e s o f about 250 ym and mean v e l o c i t i e s up t o 1.75 m/s.
These asymmetrical
mega-ripples changed i n t o s y m m e t r i c a l sand waves w i t h a reduced h e i g h t o f

about 0.4 m and an increased l e n g t h o f 30 m f o r i n c r e a s i n g v e l o c i t i e s up t o
2.5 m/s.
The t i d a l p e r i o d was too s h o r t t o generate a f u l l y
the h i g h e s t v e l o c i t y o f 2.5
6.3
m/s.
Bed forms i n Waves
6.3.1
Two
plane bed even a t
Classification
t y p i c a l regimes can be observed i n n a t u r e :
lower regime w i t h f l a t immobile bed, r i p p l e s and b a r s ,
upper regime w i t h f l a t mobile bed (sheet f l o w ) .
A t y p i c a l t r a n s i t i o n regime does n o t occur. F i g u r e 6.3.1
shows a c l a s s i f i c a -
t i o n diagram g i v e n by Bosman ( I 9 8 I ) f o r sediments i n the range o f 150 t o

250 ym. F i g . 6.3.2
shows a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n diagram g i v e n by A l l e n (1982) and
based on 648 s e t s o f d a t a .
R i p p l e s are g e n e r a l l y generated when the peak o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y
bed i s about 1.2 times the c r i t i c a l
peak v e l o c i t y
(U^) near t h e
f o r i n i t i a t i o n o f motion o f
a f l a t bed. R i p p l e s are washed out again when the parameter
(U^) / ( ( s - l ) g d g Q )
i s l a r g e r than about 200 t o 250 ( D i n g l e r - I n m a n , 1976 and Horikawa
et al,1982).
A
According t o Wilson ( 1 9 8 9 ) , the sheet f l o w regime i s p r e s e n t f o r 0 = T , /
((Pg-p)g CI^Q) > 0 . 8 . S u r f zone bars may be generated near t h e breaker l i n e and
t y p i c a l l y r e f l e c t t r a n s p o r t processes r e l a t e d t o b r e a k i n g waves.
6.3.2
Ripples
Types
Wave r i p p l e s a r e formed once t h e o s c i l l a t o r y motion i s o f s u f f i c i e n t s t r e n g t h
t o cause g e n e r a l movement o f t h e s u r f a c e p a r t i c l e s . The h e i g h t and l e n g t h o f
the r i p p l e s grow u n t i l a s t a b l e r i p p l e i s o b t a i n e d depending on t h e p r e v a i l i n g
c o n d i t i o n s . Wave-generated r i p p l e s show an almost s y m m e t r i c a l and rounded
p r o f i l e . Wave r i p p l e s occur i n a wide range o f environments: f l o o d e d overbank
areas o f r i v e r s , f l o o d p l a i n s , l a k e bottoms, i n t e r t i d a l f l a t s , deep-sea bottom,
s h e l f bottoms and nearshore sea bottoms. Wave r i p p l e s have been observed i n
depths upto 2 0 0 m. I n deep water wave r i p p l e s a r e probably formed by i n t e r n a l
d e n s i t y c u r r e n t s r a t h e r than by s u r f a c e waves. F i g u r e 6 . 3 . 3 shows a symmetry
parameter
1985).
f o r o f f - s h o r e r i p p l e s generated by r e g u l a r waves (Sakakiyama e t a l ,
The r i p p l e s a r e s l i g h t l y asymmetrical (X^^/X^ -
t i o n , probably due t o a s m a l l wave asymmetry. Bagnold
0.45)
(1946)
i n the wave d i r e c d e f i n e d two t y p e s
o f r i p p l e s : two-dimensional r i p p l e s r e l a t e d t o r o l l i n g g r a i n s and three-dimens i o n a l r i p p l e s r e l a t e d t o eddy motions. According t o Bagnold, t h e r o l l i n g
grain
r i p p l e s a r e s t a b l e a t v e l o c i t i e s s m a l l e r than two times t h a t o f i n i t i a t i o n o f

m o t i o n . When f u l l y developed, r o l l i n g g r a i n r i p p l e s a r e g e n e r a l l y two-dimens i o n a l , r e g u l a r and have a s i n u s o i d a l shape. A t l a r g e r v e l o c i t e s t h e f l o w i s
separated from t h e r i p p l e s and s t r o n g eddies a r e generated which can sweep t h e
p a r t i c l e s from t h e troughs t o c r e s t s and v i c e versa. S e p a r a t i o n s t a r t s when t h e
o r b i t a l diameter exceeds t h e r i p p l e l e n g t h .
The time s c a l e o f r i p p l e growth from f l a t bed t o e q u i l i b r i u m values can v a r y
from about 1 hour i n case o f r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l waves (Davies, 1 9 8 5 ) t o about 1
minute i n case o f r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e waves ( D i n g i e r ,
1975).
I n deeper water where
t h e wave a c t i o n g e n e r a l l y i s t o o weak t o move t h e sand p a r t i c l e s , t h e bed may

c o n s i s t o f r e l i c t r i p p l e s formed under e a r l i e r more i n t e n s e wave a c t i o n .
A c o n c e p t u a l model f o r wave-formed sedimentary s t r u c t u r e s was g i v e n by C l i f t o n
(1976).
For waves o f u n i f o r m h e i g h t and p e r i o d p r o p a g a t i n g normal t o a s t r a i g h t
s h o r e l i n e over a g e n t l e s l o p i n g bottom, C l i f t o n assumes:
Bed c o n f i g u r a t i o n = F (U^, AU^ T, d)
( 6 . 3 . 1 )
-6.16-
i n which:
Ug
= peak v e l o c i t y near the bed
AUg = d i f f e r e n c e between (near-bed) peak v e l o c i t i e s under t h e c r e s t

and
trough o f a wave
= wave p e r i o d
A
The
AUg -parameter i s a measure o f the v e l o c i t y asymmetry and i t a p p l i e s t o
f u l l y o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w and t o o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w superimposed by a c u r r e n t .
Thus, A U . = U
- U p + u . The main reason f o r wave-induced asymmetry i s t h e
6
on
off
c
J
J
s h o a l i n g process. As a wave begins t o shoal, the c r e s t e l e v a t e s and steepens
A
and
t h e trough shallows and becomes f l a t t e r . The volume o f water c a r r i e d
forward
( i n wave d i r e c t i o n ) under the c r e s t must be equal t o the volume o f
water c a r r i e d backward under t h e t r o u g h . Because t h e steepened c r e s t passes a

g i v e n p o i n t i n a s h o r t e r time than the broader t r o u g h , t h e v e l o c i t y under t h e
wave c r e s t w i l l be l a r g e r than under t h e trough. C l i f t o n used second-order
A
wave t h e o r y t o e s t i m a t e
AU . The t r a n s i t i o n from symmetric t o asymmetric

0
A
r i p p l e s w i l l occur f o r AU^ > 0.05 m/s
caused by asymmetric o s c i l l a t o r y m o t i o n
w i t h o r w i t h o u t a superimposed longshore c u r r e n t .
Mobile asymmetric r i p p l e s g e n e r a l l y m i g r a t e
i n the d i r e c t i o n o f t h e i r
leeside
slope. According t o C l i f t o n , t h r e e types o f r i p p l e s can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d

A
depending on the v a r i a b l e s d_, A^ and X . , :

A
50* 6
ripple
1.
O r b i t a l r i p p l e s {Zk^/^^ < 1000), which form under s h o r t p e r i o d waves, t h e

l e n g t h depends d i r e c t l y on t h e l e n g t h o f the o r b i t a l diameter.
A
2.
S u b o r b i t a l r i p p l e s (1000 < 2A^/d^Q < 5000) which form under l o n g e r

waves, the l e n g t h increases
period
w i t h i n c r e a s i n g g r a i n s i z e b u t decreases w i t h
i n c r e a s i n g o r b i t a l diameter.
A
3.
A n o r b i t a l r i p p l e s (2A^/d^Q > 5000) which form under waves w i t h very
large
o r b i t a l diameters, t h e l e n g t h depends on g r a i n s i z e b u t i s independent on

o r b i t a l diameter.
Observations i n c o a s t a l zones w i t h medium t o coarse-grained
sand (250-750 ym)
i n d i c a t e t h a t asymmetric bed forms develop i n a c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n , as shown

in Figure 6 . 3 . 4 ( c l i f t o n ,
1976). The most s i g n i f i c a n t f e a t u r e s
are:
r i p p l e s become i n c r e a s i n g l y i r r e g u l a r f o r i n c r e a s i n g energy c o n d i t i o n s
(longshore
bar and upper
shoreface),
-6.17-
i r r e g u l a r r i p p l e s may
grade i n t o c r o s s - r i p p l e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g wave h e i g h t s
and o r b i t a l asymmetry; c r o s s - r i p p l e s c o n s i s t o f two s e t s o f r i p p l e s both

o r i e n t e d o b l i q u e t o the o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w , one s e t tends t o be
and
long-crested
the other set i s composed o f s h o r t e r r i p p l e s i n the troughs o f
the
l o n g e r r i p p l e s ; c r o s s - r i p p l e s are not d e t e c t i b l y r e l a t e d t o longshore

c u r r e n t s or t o waves approaching from d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s ,
c r o s s - r i p p l e s may
grade i n t o l u n a t e mega-ripples f o r i n c r e a s i n g
orbital
asymmetry; these mega-ripples have a l e n g t h scale o f about 1 m and

common i n medium t o coarse-grained
sand (250-750 ym)
are
in conditions of
i n t e n s e asymmetric o r b i t a l motion (AU^ > 0.25
m/s)
generated by l o n g
period
waves.
Shipp (1984) used the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f C l i f t o n (1976) t o d e s c r i b e
the
form types observed i n a s i n g l e - b a r r e d c o a s t a l system a t L o n g - I s l a n d ,

York. The
bed
New
r e s u l t s of Shipp are v a l i d f o r f a i r weather c o n d i t i o n s ; longshore
c u r r e n t s were not present. The most i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e s are (see a l s o
Figure
6.3.4B).
upper shore face
: l i n e a r r i p p l e s , asymmetric r i p p l e s , f l a t
(sheet
longshore
trough
landward slope of__bar
bed
flow)
: l i n e a r r i p p l e s (X^ ^ 0.7
m,
A^ ^ 0.15
: cross r i p p l e s , i r r e g u l a r r i p p l e s and
m)
linear ripples
(from top t o bottom)

l o n g s h o r e bar c r e s t
i r r e g u l a r and
cross r i p p l e s f o r low-energy c o n d i t i o n s
l u n a t e mega-ripples (X^ = 0.7
m,
A^
0.15
m)
f o r higher energy c o n d i t i o n s
seaward slope o f bar
c r o s s - r i p p l e s and l i n e a r r i p p l e s
t r a n s i t i o n a l zone
l i n e a r r i p p l e s o f f i n e sand (200
l o c a l l y coarse-grain
deposits
l i n e a r mega-ripples ( x ^ = 0.7
offshore
ym);
(600 ym)
m,
forming
A^ = 0.15
l i n e a r r i p p l e s o f f i n e sand (150-200
ym)
m)
-6.18-
F i g u r e 6 . 3 . 5 show r i p p l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s along a beach p r o f i l e , as measured by

Sakakiyama e t a l ( 1 9 8 5 )
i n a l a r g e scale wave flume.
Case 3 - 2 shows a r i p p l e d bed i n the o f f s h o r e and onshore zone, w h i l e a f l a t

bed can be observed near t h e breaker p o i n t ( p l u n g i n g b r e a k e r s ) . I n case 3 - 4
r i p p l e s can a l s o be observed near t h e breaker p o i n t , probably because s p i l l i n g
breakers a r e p r e s e n t which cannot wash o u t t h e bed forms.
Dimensions
In t h e l i t e r a t u r e many equations are a v a i l a b l e t o determine t h e dimensions o f
wave-generated bed forms ( r i p p l e s ) . I m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s were made by
Inman(1957),
Mogridge and
Kamphuis ( 1 9 7 2 ) ,
Dingier ( 1 9 7 5 )
and
Nielsen
Based on t h e a n a l y s i s o f l a b o r a t o r y and f i e l d d a t a , N i e l s e n concluded
(1981).
that:
t h e s i z e and shape o f t h e r i p p l e s are i n f l u e n c e d by t h e i r r e g u l a r i t y o f t h e

waves; f o r i r r e g u l a r waves t h e r i p p l e s a r e s h o r t e r and f l a t t e r than f o r
r e g u l a r waves,
f i e l d data conform best w i t h l a b o r a t o r y data when t h e f i e l d wave
parameters
are based on t h e s i g n i f i c a n t wave h e i g h t .
For l a b o r a t o r y c o n d i t i o n s N i e l s e n proposes
A
-
"A"
= 0.275
0.022
= 2.2
0.345
iP-^
(6.3.2)
A
6
^
iP-^^
(6.3.3)
For f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s N i e l s e n
proposes:
A
^
= 21
10
(6.3.4)
>. 10
(6.3.5)
f o r ll) >
V = e.p
Ag
in
1000 + 0 . 7 5
1" )
ln'i|)
for
which:
A^ = r i p p l e h e i g h t
= r i p p l e length
^r
A. = peak value o f o r b i t a l e x c u r s i o n
i|)
= peak v a l u e o f o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y
= m o b i l i t y parameter = ( U ) / ( ( s - l ) g d
50'
-6.19-
I n t h e p r e s e n t study another a t t e m p t i s made by Van R i j n t o analyze t h e a v a i l a b l e r i p p l e data f o r non-breaking wave c o n d i t i o n s . The data a r e s e l e c t e d from
l a b o r a t o r y and f i e l d experiments w i t h sand beds having mean p a r t i c l e s i z e s i n
t h e range o f 1 0 0 t o 5 0 0 ym. Regular and i r r e g u l a r wave c o n d i t i o n s a r e c o n s i dered.
With r e g a r d t o r e g u l a r waves t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g a u t h o r s have been
used: Carstens e t a l ( 1 9 6 9 ) ,
al (1984)
(1957),
Hayakawa e t a l ( 1 9 8 3 ) ,
and Sakakiyama e t a l ( 1 9 8 5 ) .
Dingier
der K a a i j ( 1 9 8 7 ) .
(1975),
Ribberink
Steetzel ( 1 9 8 4 ) ,
DuToit e t
With regard t o i r r e g u l a r waves: Inman
et a l (1987),
Van R i j n ( 1 9 8 7 ) ,
Nieuwjaar-Van
The b a s i c data a r e g i v e n i n Table 6 . 1 and 6 . 2 . The f i e l d
experiments o f Inman ( 1 9 5 7 )
and D i n g i e r ( 1 9 7 5 )
are d e s c r i b e d i n more d e t a i l
below.
Inman_(1957)
Data were c o l l e c t e d i n shallow and deep water ( u p t o 5 0 m) by d i v e r s . The r i p p l e

dimensions were determined by marking w i t h a grease p e n c i l on a p l a s t i c
strip
l a i d on t o p o f t h e r i p p l e s . I n a l l , about 1 0 0 0 r i p p l e s were measured d u r i n g

about 2 0 0 o b s e r v a t i o n s ( d i v e s ) . Surface waves were recorded by use o f a f a t h o meter mounted on a s m a l l boat. F i r s t - o r d e r wave theory was used t o compute t h e
near-bed o r b i t a l e x c u r s i o n and v e l o c i t y (based on t h e s i g n i f i c a n t wave h e i g h t
and p e r i o d ) . S o l i t a r y wave t h e o r y was used f o r t h e wave data o f s h a l l o w w a t e r s .
The r i p p l e d a t a o f t h e f i n e sand beds ( 1 5 0 ym) were n o t used i n t h e p r e s e n t
study because these r i p p l e s may have been d i s t u r b e d by t h e d i v i n g
activities.
As s t a t e d by Inman, t h e s m a l l r i p p l e h e i g h t s o f a few m i l l i m e t e r s p r e v e n t e d
a c c u r a t e measurements because t h e measuring
instruments f l a t t e n e d the r i p p l e
crests.
Dingler_(1974)
The r i p p l e d a t a were c o l l e c t e d by u s i n g a h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n sonar capable o f a

v e r t i c a l r e s o l u t i o n o f 1 mm. The sonar head was mounted i n an open a l u m i n i u m
framework
a t about 0 . 2 5 m above t h e bed. Simultaneous wave-pressure
measure-
ments were made t o determine t h e wave parameters. The pressure meter was
a t t a c h e d t o t h e sonar frame, which was lowered t o t h e bed by d i v e r s . Each
experiment l a s t e d a t l e a s t 8 minutes. A f t e r removing t h e frame, a bed m a t e r i a l
sample was c o l l e c t e d .
-6.20-
F i r s t - o r d e r wave t h e o r y was used t o compute the near-bed wave parameters u s i n g

the root-mean-square value o f t h e wave h e i g h t s . I n t h e present a n a l y s i s these
values a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e s i g n i f i c a n t wave h e i g h t ( H = / 2 H
).
s
rms
The p r e s e n t w r i t e r r e l a t e s t h e r i p p l e h e i g h t and l e n g t h t o t h e peak v a l u e o f
the o r b i t a l e x c u r s i o n
A
(A^) and a p a r t i c l e m o b i l i t y parameter
as f o l l o w s :
A
(6.3.6)
in which:
^ = ( U g ) 2 / ( ( s - 1 ) g d^Q)
F i g u r e 6 . 3 . 6 shows the r i p p l e h e i g h t f o r r e g u l a r and i r r e g u l a r waves. F i g u r e

6.3.7
shows t h e r i p p l e steepness (A^/X^). The r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f N i e l s e n (Eqs.
6.3.2
to 6 . 3 . 5 )
f o r r e g u l a r and i r r e g u l a r waves a r e a l s o shown.
Comparing t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
r e s u l t s o f r e g u l a r and i r r e g u l a r waves, i t appears
t h a t t h e r i p p l e h e i g h t and steepness a r e s m a l l e r f o r i r r e g u l a r waves than f o r

r e g u l a r waves when the ifi-parameter i s l a r g e r than about 2 5 . For these
latter
c o n d i t i o n s t h e r i p p l e g e n e r a t i o n i s i n c r e a s i n g l y dominated by suspended s e d i ment t r a n s p o r t processes t h a t have a more d i f f u s i v e c h a r a c t e r r e s u l t i n g i n a

smoothing o f t h e r i p p l e s . This was a l s o r e p o r t e d by N i e l s e n
(1981).
The r e l a -
t i o n s h i p s o f N i e l s e n f o r i r r e g u l a r waves seem t o g i v e a r i p p p l e h e i g h t t h a t i s
somewhat t o o s m a l l f o r i|j-values i n t h e range o f 2 0 t o 6 0 . F u r t h e r i t i s noted
t h a t t h e f i e l d d a t a o f D i n g i e r ( 1 9 7 5 ) a r e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l compared w i t h t h e
l a b o r a t o r y d a t a f o r i|)-values i n the range o f 4 0 t o 8 0 . The reason f o r t h i s i s
not c l e a r . I t may be caused by t h e l i m i t e d accuracy o f t h e r i p p l e h e i g h t measurements i n f i e l d
c o n d i t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y when t h e r i p p l e h e i g h t s a r e s m a l l .
More f i e l d experiments a r e necessasry t o v e r i f y t h e r e s u l t s o f D i n g i e r .

The p r e s e n t w r i t e r (Van R i j n ) proposes t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r i r r e g u l a r waves:
'
for
i|) <
10
(6.3.7)
for
i|) >
250
-6.21-
for
^ = 0 . 1 8
= 2.10"'(250
- ll))
2.5
ll) < 10
for
10 < ll) < 2 5 0
for
i|) > 2 5 0
(6.3.8)
The upper regime w i t h sheet f l o w c o n d i t i o n s i s assumed t o be p r e s e n t f o r

ll) > 2 5 0 .
From E q s . ( 6 . 3 . 7 ) and ( 6 . 3 . 8 ) ,
X^ = 1 . 2 2
r
i t can be d e r i v e d
for
A.
6
which i s c l o s e t o t h e value
that:
ll) < 10
= 1.3
(6.3.9)
r e p o r t e d by D i n g i e r and Inman ( 1 9 7 6 ) ,
M i l l e r and Komar ( 1 9 8 0 ) and N i e l s e n ( 1 9 8 1 ) .

The proposed expressions are v a l i d f o r non-breaking wave c o n d i t i o n s . I n case
of
b r e a k i n g wave c o n d i t i o n s t h e m o b i l i t y parameter
(ili) w i l l , i n g e n e r a l , be
l a r g e r than 2 5 0 y i e l d i n g sheet f l o w over a f l a t bed. I n s p i l l i n g b r e a k i n g

waves t h i s may be r e a l i s t i c . However, i n p l u n g i n g b r e a k i n g waves t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e waves w i t h the bed i s so v i g o r o u s l y t h a t a r a t h e r i r r e g u l a r bed
s u r f a c e may be generated.
6.3.3
Sheet flow regime
Based on F i g . 6 . 3 . 6 ,
for
the sheet f l o w regime w i t h a plane mobile bed w i l l
ilj = U g / ( ( s - 1 ) g d^^) > 2 5 0 . According t o Wilson ( 1 9 8 9 ) ,
t i o n s w i l l be generated f o r 0 =
T^/[{p^-p)g
occur
sheet f l o w c o n d i -
d^^) > 0 . 8 .
G e n e r a l l y , sheet f l o w c o n d i t i o n s a r e assumed t o be p r e s e n t i n t h e s u r f zone

where b r e a k i n g waves are dominant. Kroon and Van R i j n ( 1 9 8 9 ) ,
however, d i d n o t
observe a f u l l y plane bed i n t h e s u r f zone. The bed was always i r r e g u l a r
with
bumps and h o l e s o f t h e order o f 0 . 0 2 m h i g h and about 1 m l o n g .
6.3.4
S u r f zone bars or longshore
bars
These type o f bars have t h e i r o r i e n t a t i o n ( c r e s t s ) p a r a l l e l t o t h e c o a s t l i n e

and a r e found i n t h e s u r f zone near the b r e a k e r l i n e ( F i g . 6 . 3 . 3 ) .
The b a s i c
mechanism may be the g e n e r a t i o n o f n e t o n s h o r e - d i r e c t e d v e l o c i t i e s seaward o f
"6.22-
the b r e a k e r l i n e and net o f f s h o r e - d i r e c t e d v e l o c i t i e s (undertow) i n the s u r f

zone. Incase o f high-energy coasts c o n s i s t i n g o f f i n e sediment m a t e r i a l
(200
3 0 0 ym) two or more p r a l l e l bars are generated, w h i l e no bars are generated i n

case o f low-energy coasts o f r e l a t i v e l y coarse sediment (> 5 0 0 ym).
Longshore v a r i a t i o n s i n bar shape and dimensions may be a f f e c t e d by t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f s w e l l waves and edge waves y i e l d i n g beach cusps and w i n g - t y p e bars
connected t o t h e beach i n case o f high-energy r e f l e c t i v e
6.4
6.4.1
beaches.
Bed forms i n c u r r e n t s and waves
Class i f i c a t i o n
R i p p l e s are the d o m i n a t i n g type o f bed forms i n the nearshore and s u r f zone.

Two g e n e r a l types o f c u r r e n t s e x i s t : cross-shore r e t u r n f l o w and l o n g s h o r e
c u r r e n t s . T i d a l c u r r e n t s are a l s o i m p o r t a n t , e s p e c i a l l y i n p e r i o d s w i t h calm
weather.
The cross-shore r e t u r n f l o w s r e f e r t o a g e n e r a l seaward f l o w o r t o a c h a n n e l i zed narrow seaward
r i p c u r r e n t . General seaward f l o w i s most s i g n i f i c a n t
close
t o the shore under b r e a k i n g wave c o n d i t i o n s and accounts f o r s e a w a r d - f a c i n g

bed forms. I n r i p c u r r e n t s which are opposing the waves, seaward-facing megar i p p l e s have been commonly observed ( C l i f t o n ,
1976).
Longshore c u r r e n t s r e f e r t o the c u r r e n t i n the zone between the l o n g s h o r e bar

and the s h o r e l i n e . They feed the r i p c u r r e n t s a t breaks i n the l o n g s h o r e bar.
U s u a l l y , the wave p r o p a g a t i o n d i r e c t i o n i s almost normal t o t h e c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n . L i t t l e i s known o f the type o f bed forms which are generated under these
conditions.Some i n f o r m a t i o n i s g i v e n by N i e l s e n ( 1 9 8 3 ) , who r e p o r t s t h e p r e sence o f wave-generated
r i p p l e s w i t h t h e i r c r e s t l i n e s p a r a l l e l t o t h e shore
i n t h e l i t t o r a l d r i f t zone, showing no i n f l u e n c e o f t h e (weak) l o n g s h o r e c u r r e n t o f about 0 . 3
m/s.
Shipp ( 1 9 8 4 ) r e p o r t s the g e n e r a t i o n o f c r o s s - r i p p l e s
and i r r e g u l a r 3 D - r i p p l e s i n the s u r f zone (see F i g . 6 . 3 . 4 ) . Complex r i p p l e

p a t t e r n s (sometimes c a l l e d i n t e r f e r e n c e r i p p l e s ) are found i n areas where wave
and c u r r e n t s cross a t a c e r t a i n a n g l e , r i p c u r r e n t s w i t h waves o r
cross-waves
r e f l e c t i o n s with longshore currents.

Bed forms i n the o f f s h o r e zone are generated by t i d a l c u r r e n t s superimposed
waves. The c u r r e n t s may
be f o l l o w i n g , opposing o r o b l i q u e t o t h e waves. Bed
forms i n t i d a l seas are r e l a t e d t o t h e peak c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s , water d e p t h ,

sediment diameter and t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f sediment.
by
-6.23-
The
bed forms i n the o f f s h o r e zone f a l l i n t o two main c a t e g o r i e s :
t r a n s v e r s e r i p p l e s and sand waves w i t h t h e i r c r e s t s almost p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o

the
current direction,
l o n g i t u d i n a l f u r r o w s , r i b b o n s , r i d g e s and banks w i t h t h e i r c r e s t s and

t r o u g h s almost p a r a l l e l t o the peak t i d a l
L o n g i t u d i n a l f u r r o w s may
current.
develop i n t i d a l seas o v e r l y i n g a rocky f l a t
bottom
covered w i t h g r a v e l , pebbles and cobbles and where t h e r e are s t r o n g c u r r e n t s

(1-1.5
al.,
m/s)
and a shortage o f mobile sediments.
Observations
(Henderson e t
1 9 8 8 ) have shown t h a t v a r i a b l e amounts o f coarse sand and f i n e g r a v e l are
t r a n s p o r t e d along the axes o f the f u r r o w s . With decreasing v e l o c i t i e s
these
f u r r o w s develop through a t r a n s i t i o n zone i n t o sand r i b b o n s (see F i g . 6 . 4 . 3 A ) .

f u r r o w s can have a l e n g t h o f the order o f 1000 m, a w i d t h o f the o r d e r o f
The
10 m and a depth o f the o r d e r o f 1 m. The

may
c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l shape o f t h e f u r r o w s
be somewhat a s y m m e t r i c a l . The p l a n form i s s l i g h t l y
sinuous.
A n a l y z i n g some a v a i l a b l e d a t a , the present w r i t e r has composed a
classifi-
c a t i o n diagram f o r t r a n s v e r s e bed forms under combined c u r r e n t s and waves

(Fig.
6.4.2).
The
b a s i c parameters are the c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d and the wave-
r e l a t e d m o b i l i t y parameters d e f i n e d a t :
0'
>^
c " ( s - l ) g d 50
(6.4.1)
01
w
(6.4.2)
in
i'^
( s - l ) g d 50
which:
c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d e f f e c t i v e bed-shear v e l o c i t y
wave-related e f f e c t i v e bed-shear v e l o c i t y
c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d f r i c t i o n f a c t o r according to
Eq.
f'
w
w i t h k^ = 3 d
wave-related f r i c t i o n f a c t o r a c c o r d i n g t o
Eq.
(2.2.12)
(2.3.20)
depth-averaged
w i t h k^ = 3 d
velocity
peak o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y a t bed based on

wave p e r i o d .
relative
^6.24
The r i p p l e data o f Nieuwjaar- Van der K a a i j (1987) y i e l d the f o l l o w i n g
wave-dominated r i p p l e s
(X,/X < 1 . 3 )
\ c u r r e n t - d o m i n a t e d r i p p l e s (X./X > 1 . 5 )
results:
< 0.25
for
u^
for
JC
JW
u^ /u^
>
/u^
F i g u r e 6 . 4 . 2 shows d i s t i n c t r e g i o n s w i t h 2 dimensional r i p p l e s which become 3 dimensional a t increasing m o b i l i t y .

According t o Amos and C o l l i n s
(1978),
who analyzed f i e l d measurements i n t h e
i n t e r t i d a l zone o f a sand f l a t , r i p p l e s can be c l a s s i f i e d as f o l l o w s :

f o r U./u
> 10
A
*, c
c u r r e n t - d o m i n a t e d r i p p l e s f o r U /u^j
< 1
wave-dominated r i p p l e s
in which:
= o v e r a l l c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed-shear v e l o c i t y .
The bed forms generated by combined c u r r e n t s and waves bear some f e a t u r e s o f

both h y d r a u l i c e f f e c t s . Where t h e wave component dominates, t h e bed forms a r e
s i m i l a r t o f u l l y developed wave-related bed forms. As t h e c u r r e n t component
g a i n s i n s t r e n g t h , t h e bed forms become more asymmetrical and l a r g e r i n h e i g h t
and l e n g t h , e s p e c i a l l y i n case o f an opposing c u r r e n t . The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e
waves i s t h a t t h e bed form c r e s t w i l l become more rounded.
6.4.2
Transverse r i p p l e s
In n a t u r e mega-ripples a r e found as t h e dominant f e a t u r e s i n t h e s u r f zone and

as t h e secondary f e a t u r e s on the back o f sand waves i n the o f f s h o r e zone. T h e i r
shape i s asymmetrical w i t h a steep l e e s i d e slope and they respond r a p i d l y t o
l o c a l c u r r e n t s and waves. They a r e generated e a s i l y , b u t they a r e a l s o e a s i l y
washed o u t a t h i g h e r v e l o c i t i e s . Wave-current
and
r i p p l e s w i t h l e n g t h s between 0 . 1
m have been observed on i n t e r t i d a l f l a t s (Reineck and Wunderlich,
1968).
These type o f r i p p l e s have more rounded c r e s t s than c u r r e n t - r i p p l e s . The r i p p l e

steepness l i e s between those o f wave r i p p l e s (==
ripples
0.15-0.2)
and those o f c u r r e n t
0.05-0.15).
The g e n e r a t i o n o f r i p p l e s ( l e n g t h s m a l l e r than water depth) have been s t u d i e d

i n f l u m e s w i t h f o l l o w i n g and opposing c u r r e n t s by Harms
Shuto
(1984),
Nieuwjaar - Van der K a a i j
(1987)
(1969),
Tanaka and
and Nap- Van Kampen
(1988).
F i g u r e 6 . 4 . 1 shows some r i p p l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (d^Q^^ 2 0 0 pm) as a f u n c t i o n o f

the
c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d and wave-related g r a i n - s h e a r v e l o c i t i e s ( u ^
/u^
).
-6.25-
Figre
6.4.IA
shows t h a t the wave-generated r i p p l e s are a p p r o x i m a t e l y symme-
t r i c a l , b u t become almost d i r e c t l y asymmetrical when a c u r r e n t i s
superimposed.
G e n e r a l l y , t h e r i p p l e s i n a c u r r e n t opposing the waves are l e s s a s y m m e t r i c a l

than i n a c u r r e n t f o l l o w i n g the waves. T h i s i s caused by the f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s
a r e l a t i v e l y s t r o n g (wave-induced)
r e d u c t i o n o f the near-bed
i n case o f ah opposing c u r r e n t (see S e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 3 ) . For u^
current v e l o c i t i e s
> 1.5 a 2 the
/u^
,c
,w
asymmetry o f the r i p p l e s i s about equal t o t h a t f o r r i p p l e s i n a c u r r e n t a l o n e .

I n t h i s l a t t e r case an asymmetry parameter
Van der K a a i j
Figure
6.4.IB
X^^/X^
1.65
was found by N i e u w j a a r
(1987).
shows a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c r e a s e o f the r i p p l e l e n g t h when a c u r -
r e n t i s superimposed
on the waves, e s p e c i a l l y when the c u r r e n t i s opposing
the
waves. T h i s e f f e c t s t a r t s f o r u i / u i
> 0 . 6 a 0 . 7 . V a r i a t i o n s s m a l l e r than
*,c '*,w
2 0 ^ a r e n o t s i g n i f i c a n t because o f the r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e standard d e v i a t i o n o f
the
r i p p l e l e n g t h . S i m i l a r r e s u l t s were observed by Harms
Shuto
(1984).
Figure
6.4.10
and by Tanaka-
(1969)
shows a s m a l l increase o f the r i p p l e h e i g h t when an
opposing c u r r e n t i s superimposed; a f o l l o w i n g c u r r e n t does n o t y i e l d a s i g n i f i cantly larger r i p p l e height.

6 . 4 . 3 Transverse sand waves
F i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t the f o r m a t i o n o f symmetrical and

sand waves i s r e l a t e d to the c u r r e n t c o n d i t i o n s . S t r i d e
lower l i m i t i s a peak t i d a l c u r r e n t o f 0 . 6 5 m/s
(<
(1982)
asymmetrical
s t a t e s t h a t the
f o r f i n e t o medium sediments
5 0 0 ym). Sand waves probably have an o r i g i n r e l a t e d t o t i d a l
velocities
( i n t e n s i f i e d by wave o r b i t a l v e l o c i t i e s ) . They are found i n areas w i t h a v a i l a b l e sediments. They could have grown up from a f l a t bed w i t h o n l y s m a l l s c a l e bed forms. Sand waves are r e s t r i c t e d t o t i d a l environments o c c u r i n g i n
e s t u a r i e s and i n s h e l f seas.
At h i g h c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s the sand waves tend t o disappear, s i m i l a r l y t o t h e
disappearance
o f dunes i n the upper r i v e r f l o w regime. Sand waves can
be
s y m m e t r i c a l w i t h an almost t r o c h o i d a l shape or s l i g h t l y asymmetrical w i t h a

g e n t l e s t o s s s i d e and a steeper l e e s i d e . Symmetrical sand waves are expected
to be found under almost symmetrical t i d a l f l o w and are n o t expected t o
m i g r a t e s u b s t a n t i a l l y . The asymmetrical sand waves are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n e t
sediment t r a n s p o r t r a t e i n the d i r e c t i o n faced by the steeper l e e s i d e .
sand wave l e n g t h i s i n the range o f 3 t o 2 0 times the water depth. The
The
sand
wave h e i g h t i s i n the range o f 0 . 1 t o 0 . 3 times the water depth. Smaller sand
-6.26-
waves may
have l e e s i d e slopes c l o s e t o the angle o f repose, w h i l e l a r g e
sand
waves (> 2 m) have g e n t l e l e e s i d e s l o p e s . M i g r a t i o n v e l o c i t i e s are i n t h e

o r d e r o f 0-1 m per week i n t i d a l c u r r e n t s ( a s y m m e t r i c ) . O f t e n , m e g a - r i p p l e s
are
m i g r a t i n g over the sand waves. The t r a n s i e n t behaviour o f sand waves due
t i d a l v a r i a t i o n s ( n e a p - s p r i n g c y c l e ) and storm events ( h i g h waves) i s a l s o o f

i n t e r e s t . The e f f e c t o f a storm has been observed t o cause a s i g n i f i c a n t
decrease o f t h e sand wave h e i g h t (50% r e d u c t i o n , Langhorne 1982). The
of
effects
t i d a l v a r i a t i o n s seem t o be c o n f i n e d t o the c r e s t r e g i o n o f t h e sand waves.
(Langhorne, 1982), showing o s c i l l a t i n g c r e s t movements (over 2 m) i n t h e neapspring cycle.
Tobias (1989) analyzed echo sounding data c o l l e c t e d i n 10 areas near t h e

approach channel ( E u r o g e u l ) t o the harbour o f Rotterdam ( p e r i o d
1975-1985).
The water depths ( t o mean bed l e v e l ) were i n the range o f 20 t o 35 m. The peak
c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s o f the s p r i n g t i d e were 0 . 8 m/s
which i m p l i e s an asymmetry o f Au = 0.1 m/s
( f l o o d ) and 0.7 m/s
i n the f l o o d d i r e c t i o n .
(ebb),
The
1.4 m d u r i n g
s
1.0 m d u r i n g t h e summer p e r i o d
monthly-mean s i g n i f i c a n t wave h e i g h t i n the area was about H

the
w i n t e r p e r i o d (November-February)
and H
s
(May-September). The monthly-maximum s i g n i f i c a n t wave h e i g h t s were r e s p . 4 m

and 2 . 8 m. The bed m a t e r i a l s i z e s were i n t h e range o f 250 t o 500
ym.
A n a l y s i s o f t h e echo soundings shows t h e presence o f t r a n s v e r s e sand waves

w i t h m e g a r i p p l e s m i g r a t i n g over the back o f t h e sand waves (see F i g . 6 . 4 . 3 B ) .
The b a s i c data o f t h e sand waves (X > h) and megaripples ( x < h) a r e g i v e n i n
the
following
tables.
MEGARIPPLES
areas
relative
height
relative
length
number o f
r i p p l e s on
stoss-side
number o f
r i p p l e s on
lee-side
A/h
X/h
0.012
0.66
12
0.03
0,95
0.014
0.37
-6.27-
SAND WAVE DATA
areas
relative
height
A/h
relative
length
X/h
asymmetry
relative crest
w i d t h normal
to current
X2/X.,
X /h
c
water depth
h
(m)
propagation
velocity
c (m/year)
-
0.122
9.4
0.76
82
24
0.260
12.6
0.42
104
20
0.131
9.0
0.49
105
22
0.226
15.9
0.28
278
24
0.103
10
0.76
58
30
0.153
12.4
0.37
65
28
0.148
15.6
0.36
52
24
0.128
5.7
0.71
77
34
0.124
7.9
0.88
30
0.181
9.5
0.64
26
35
10
m to
2.5
m to
NE
m to
As can be observed, the megaripples are an order o f magnitude s m a l l e r than
the
sand waves.
Computation o f the r a t i o
/
, w i t h U.
= peak o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y
6, max
mean'
6, max
r e l a t e d t o the maximum s i g n i f i c a n t wave and
= peak c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y
mean
r e l a t e d t o the mean t i d e shows a value s m a l l e r than u n i t y f o r the summer

p e r i o d and a v a l u e l a r g e r than u n i t y f o r the w i n t e r p e r i o d . This means a
current-dominated
t r a n s p o r t mechanism d u r i n g the summer and a wave-dominated
t r a n s p o r t mechanism d u r i n g the w i n t e r p e r i o d .
A n a l y s i s o f bed m a t e r i a l samples shows the presence o f s m a l l e r s i z e s i n the
t r o u g h s and
l a r g e r s i z e s on the c r e s t s o f the bed forms. Probably, the
smaller
p a r t i c l e s are suspended by r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e v e l o c i t i e s a t the c r e s t , a f t e r

which the p a r t i c l e s are deposited
6.4.4
i n the t r o u g h r e g i o n s
Longitudinal ribbons, ridges and
bed
features.
(smaller v e l o c i t i e s ) .
banks
S m a l l - s c a l e r i b b o n s and l a r g e - s c a l e r i d g e s and
NE
banks are t y p i c a l l o n g i t u d i n a l
SW
-6.28-
The
s m a l l - s c a l e r i b b o n s ( h e i g h t = 0.1 m) are a l i g n e d ( p a r a l l e l ) w i t h the main
f l o w d i r e c t i o n and are b e l i e v e d t o be generated by secondary c u r r e n t s superimposed on the main f l o w y i e l d i n g a s p i r a l type o f f l u i d motion.

Sand r i d g e s and banks (North Sea,
East China Sea)
are the l a r g e s t sedimentary
f e a t u r e s i n marine c o n d i t i o n s w i t h h e i g h t s o f the order o f 10 m, w i d t h s o f the

order o f 1 km and l e n g t h s o f the order o f 10 km. T h e i r p a r a l l e l spacing
the o r d e r o f the w i d t h (=' 1 km). G e n e r a l l y ,
i s of
sand banks are formed from medium
to coarse sand (> 500 pm) and are l a r g e sources o f sediment. Sand banks are
q u i t e s t a b l e f e a t u r e s . Mega-ripples and sand waves may
m i g r a t e over the banks
i n r e g i o n s where the v e l o c i t i e s are l a r g e enough t o i n i t i a t e p a r t i c l e m o t i o n .

C l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o the s t r e n g t h and d i r e c t i o n o f the c u r r e n t s , sediments are
c i r c u l a t i n g round and over the bank. The
c a l l y about 10 t o 20
c r e s t a x i s o f the bank d e v i a t e s
from the d i r e c t i o n o f the peak t i d a l c u r r e n t , which
be caused by C o r i o l i s e f f e c t s g i v i n g an a n t i c l o c k w i s e r o t a t i o n on the
hemisphere ( S t r i d e ,
Chang-Shu and J i a Song (1988). They are mainly present

p a l a e o v a l l e y o f the Changjlang r i v e r and
have a l e n g t h i n the range o f 10-60
o f 8-14
may
Norhtern
1982).
Large t i d a l sand r i d g e s have been observed i n the East China Sea
spacing
typi-
km,
km and a h e i g h t o f 5-20
Shelf
by
i n the submerged
the a d j a c e n t area. The
sand r i d g e s
a w i d t h i n the range o f 2-5
km,
m. They mainly c o n s i s t o f w e l l - s o r t e d
f i n e sands w i t h abundant d e b r i s o f marine s h e l l s . The
l o c a l water depths v a r y
i n the range o f 50 t o 100 m. The presence o f ( s h a l l o w ) marine f o s s i l s suggests

t h a t the sand r i d g e s are probably
developed d u r i n g the p o s t - g l a c i a l sea
level
t r a n s g r e s s i o n ( r e l i c t sand r i d g e s ) when the water depths were much s h a l l o w e r

and
t i d a l c u r r e n t s were s t r o n g e r . As the sea l e v e l rose and
the t i d a l
currents
became weaker, the sand r i d g e s g r a d u a l l y ceased growing and became " r e l i c t "
sand bodies.
I n the nearshore area they were l a t e r covered by f i n e - g r a i n e d
sediments o f the l a t e Holocene age

peak c u r r e n t s
0.2
m/s)
( b u r i e d sand r i d g e s ) . The
present-day
tidal
are almost p a r a l l e l t o the l o n g axes o f the r i d g e s .
-6.29-
6.5
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1976
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1981
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1984
Time Development
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FREDS0E, J . , 1 9 7 9
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9 1 ,
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3,
497-512
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The Formation o f Dunes
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Shape and Dimensions o f S t a t i o n a r y Dunes i n Rivers
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Sand Waves and Regimes o f Flow i n A l l u v i a l Channels
lAHR-Congres, Paper 2 8 , Montreal Canada
HARMS, J . C , 1 9 6 9
H y d r a u l i c S i g n i f i c a n c e o f Some Sand Ripples
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363-396,
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V e l o c i t y D i s t r i b u t i o n and Suspended Sediment C o n c e n t r a t i o n
over Large Scale
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Sediment T r a n s p o r t under Sheet Flow C o n d i t i o n s
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1335-1352,
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Wave-generated R i p p l e s i n Nearshore Sands
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Space Averaging Aspects o f Sediment C o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e S u r f Zone near
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89-03,
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A Study o f Dynamics o f a Marine Sand Wave
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O s c i l l a t i o n Sand Ripples generated by Laboratory Apparatus
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Entrainment and D i s t r i b u t i o n o f D i f f e r e n t Sand Sizes under Water Waves

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F r i c t i o n o f Wave-Induced Sheet Flow
C o a s t a l E n g i n e e r i n g , 12
{
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Mechanics o f Sedimnts T r a n s p o r t
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On t h e D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f Ripple Geometry
Journal o f Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. I l l ,
No. 8
source
^50
X
r
(m)
source
'^50
im)
(s)
(pm)
(s>
(m/s)
r
(m)
Steetzel,
220
0.325
0.03
0.2
Sakakiyama
270
1984
220
0.2
0.028
0.19
e t a l , 1985
270
(wave
270
flume)
r
(m)
(m/s)
(m)
1.14
1.18
1.21
(wave
220
0.25
0.033
0.24
tunnel)
220
0.29
0.035
0.22
270
1.02
220
0.35
0.025
0.175
270
1.12
220
0.35
0.032
0.22
270
0.7
0.055
0.903
0.035
0.26
270
0.84
0.065
0.701
270
1.5
0
0.471
220
0.35
Sakakiyama
270
3.5
0.2
0.026
0.143
270
.6
0,61
0.049
e t a l , 1985
270
3.5
0.3
0.025
0,152
270
0,83
0.0482
1.05
(wave
flume)
Table 6.1
270
3.5
0.42
0.019
0.154
270
1.64
270
3.5
0.53
0.032
0.191
270
12
0.77
0.117
1.10
270
3.5
0.79
0.046
0.325
270
12
1.39
270
4.5
0.62
0.036
0.247
270
12
1.68
270
4.5
0.71
0.059
0.374
270
3.1
0.45
0.038
0.247
270
5.8
1.97
270
3.1
0.60
0.041
0.637
270
5.8
0.31
0.032
0.175
270
3.1
0.81
0.033
0.246
270
5.8
0.51
0.036
0.221
270
3.1
1.36
270
5.8
0.6
0.046
0.345
270
3.1
0.82
0.024
0.304
270
5.8
0.67
0.055
0.407
270
0.85
0.104
0.83
270
5.8
0.83
0.048
0.398
470
1.02
0.089
0.769
270
5.8
0.9
0.056
0.427
470
0.37
0.022
0.154
270
1.19
470
0.63
0.063
0.41
270
0.57
0.053
0.458
470
4.5
0.4
0.043
0.239
270
0.67
0.033
0.30
470
4,5
0.49
0.037
0.215
270
0.75
0.06
0.725
470
4.5
0.25
0.043
0.248
270
0.85
0.117
1.48
470
4.5
0.43
0.029
0.183
270
0.94
0.095
0.95
470
4.5
0.36
0.043
0.265
270
0.99
0.036
1.47
R i p p l e d a t a f o r r e g u l a r wave m o t i o n
source
^50
(m/s)
source
X
r
(m)
(s)
(m/s)
470
1.14
0.094
0.749
et a l , 1 9 8 5 470
0.93
0.04
0.302
470
1.01
0.04
0.475
470
1.2
0.64
0.47
0.218
470
1.78
0.87
0.056
0.431
0.8
0.058
0.531
(pm)
(s)
Sakakiyama
470
4.5
0.51
0.037
0.217
Sakakiyama
et a l , 1985
470
4.5
0.44
0.052
0.298
470
4.5
0.17
0.029
0.171
470
4.5
0.31
0.027
0.155
0.5
0.035
T a b l e 6.1
r
(m)
(pm)
(m)
^50
(m)
470
4.5
470
0.65
0.051
0.359
470
470
0.72
0.067
0.42
470
470
0.98
0.074
0.724
470
0.87
0.052
0.53
470
0.54
0.078
0.464
470
0.69
0.074
0.484
470
0.85
0.073
0.538
470
0.97
0.069
0.691
470
0.69
0.087
0.601
470
4.5
0.25
0.04
0.221
470
4.5
0.37
0.049
0.274
470
4.5
0.65
0.06
0.465
470
4.5
0.69
0.031
0.203
470
4.5
0.19
0.042
0.24
470
4.5
0.29
0.028
0.181
470
4.5
0.4
0.031
0.187
470
4.5
0.51
0.042
0.238
0.342
470
4.5
0.63
0.048
470
0.39
0.042
0.27
470
0.59
0.058
0.356
470
0.84
0.044
0.317
470
0.58
0.055
0.375
470
1.19
0.048
0.406
R i p p l e d a t a f o r r e g u l a r wave m o t i o n
source
So
Carstens
et
al,
1969
(wave
tunnel)
A
r
(m)
source
^^50
(pm)
P
(s)
(m/s)
r
(m)
r
(m)
(pm)
(s)
(m/s)
190
3.6
0.16
0.021
0.12
DuTolT
410
0.094
0.010
0.076
190
3.6
0.21
0.025
0.15
et
410
3.9
0.105
0.0118
0.065
190
3.5
0.32
0.015
0.11
(wave
410
4.7
0.113
0.0216
0.120
190
3.5
0.42
0.0133
0 . 11
410
0.138
0.0279
0.164
410
5.4
0.142
0.0292
0.172
(m)
a l , 1981
flume)
190
3.5
0.55
0.005
0.10
190
3.5
0.15
0.021
0.11
410
4.2
0.144
0.0327
0.116
297
3.6
0.16
0.0184
0.11
410
3.2
0.198
0.0272
0.136
297
3.6
0.24
0.026
0.15
410
4.9
0.250
0.0430
0.253
297
3.6
0.37
0.033
0.20
410
3.2
0.277
0.0336
0.210
297
3.5
0.46
0.033
0.25
410
5.8
0.088
0.0205
0,108
297
3.5
0.63
0.022
0.20
410
4.6
0.116
0.0189
0.099
297
3.5
0.79
0.005
0.19
410
4.7
0.221
0.0439
0,244
410
3.8
0.178
0.030
0.150
297
3.5
0.69
0.015
0.22
297
3.6
0.5
0.032
0.25
297
3.7
0.17
0.021
0.12
Steetzel,
220
0.25
0.02
0.135
297
3.8
0.14
0.018
0.11
1984
220
0.3
0.025
0.14
(wave
220
0.34
0.03
0,16
Hayakawa
210
4.05
0.372
0.0352
0.257
tunnel)
220
0,40
0.03
0.25
et
240
4.05
0.468
0.0381
0.275
220
0.44
0.035
0.205
4.05 0.547
0.0381
0.260
220
0,5
0.035
0.28
0.0377
0,287
220
0,2
0.025
0.155
0.0265
0.341
220
0,25
0.033
0.15
220
0.45
0.045
0.3
220
0.48
0.033
0.315
a l , 1983
(wave
210
tunnel
240
5.0
0.379
data)
240
6.02
0.315
Table
6.1
Ripple
data
f o r
regular
wave
motion
220
0.225
0.025
0.13
220
0.25
0.03
0.16
220
0.275
0.035
0.195
220
0.3
0.045
0.28
source
source
0.10
O.OI6
0.36
10.3
0.21
0.067
0.16
110
10.0
0.21
0.113
0.71
0,09
110
12
0.27
0.125
0.81
0.011
0.13
100
11
0.26
0.133
0.78
0.501
0.0175
0.10
160
12
0.21
0.137
0.78
0.301
0.011
0.105
310
0.30
0.091
0.62
0.011
0.135
310
11
0.21
0.121
0.79
0.017
0.125
150
9.7
0.27
0.116
0.91
160
10.3
0.18
0.116
0.91
Ribberink
210
et
210
(wave
210
tunnel)
210
^50
(pm)
r
(m)
r
(m)
0.287
0.015
0.08
I n m a n , 1957
260
9.7
0.381
0.01
0.09
(Field
300
0.177
0.015
0.107
0.272
0.0175
210
0.101
210
210
210
210
0.391
5
(s)
"6
(m/s)
a l , 1987
r
(m)
^50
(pm)
0.309
data)
(s)
(m/s)
(m)
Nieuwjaar
200
2.5
0.15
0.015
0.090
130
12
0.21
0.133
0.83
et
200
2.1)
0.176
0.011
0.093
160
10
0.36
0.076
0.53
310
0.10
0.115
0.70
0.15
0.0036
0.088
a l , 1987
(wave
Van
1987
flume)
Rijn,
200
2.5
0.205
0.015
0.091
210
2.1)
0.239
0.018
0.085
205
2.5
0.301
0.018
0.090
6.3
1.26
0.001
190
5.9
1.22
0.001
190
5.5
0.98
0.003
190
1.8
0.89
0.001
190
Dingier,
177
1975
158
(Field
data)
3.5
10
6.9
0.19
0.0038
O.O8I
176
10,9
0.18
0.OOI7
0.079
151
8.1
0.56
0.0011
0.080
132
8.2
0.12
0.0019
0.077
128
10.9
0.51
0.0056
0.079
0.072
190
1.8
0.70
0.005
0.2
131
12
0.38
0.0052
190
1.6
0.11
0.02
0.2
131
10.9
0.55
0.0050
0.082
170
11
0.52
0.0018
0.079
170
11
0.11
0.0063
0.08
155
12.1
0.17
O.OOI8
0.075
0.071
155
12.1
0.12
0.0016
176
9.7
0.33
0.0062
0.076
206
9.3
0.18
0.0060
0.085
0.19
0.0018
0.081
0.69
0,0025
0.083
159
159
Table 6.2 R i p p l e d a t a f o r i r r e g u l a r wave m o t i o n
13
12.7
water surface
water surface
A Typical ripple p a t t e r n
^weak boH
F
B Dunes and superposed ripples
boil
Antidune standing waves
boil
C Dunes
Antidune
breaking waves
Chute and pool
iiifcpliiii
D Washed-out dunes or t r a n s i t i o n
BED FORM T Y P E S AFTER SIMONS

AND
RICHARDSON
1966
461
FIG. 6.1.1
Q
O
a
(fl
c
o
'0.05
0.1
0.2
->
0.3 0.4 0.5

1.0
2.0
v3 (m) at Tc = 15 C
d5o IO'-"
102
3.0 4.0
plane bed (no motion)
washed-out dunes (transition)
miniripplcs
plane bed
megaripples and dunes
anti - dunes (standing waves)
dunes
antl -dunes (breaking waves)
B E D - F O R M CLASSIFICATION DIAGRAM
FOR
UNIDIRECTIONAL
FLOW, VAN RIJN
461
FK3. 6.1.2
BED FORM CLASSIFICATION DIAGRAM FOR

UNIDIRECTIONAL FLOW, VAN DEN BERG ( 1 9 8 9 ) ,
FLUME DATA
DELFT HYDRAULICS
461
FIC. 6.1.3
10
r-
4^
0)
3^
7B
15^6
sts
6Z5
25
25
500
TOOO
2000
4000
D50(/< m)at 20C
BED FORM CLASSIFICATION DIAGRAM FOR

UNIDIRECTIONAL FLOW, VAN DEN BERG ( 1 9 8 9 ) ,
FIELD DATA
DELFT HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 6.1.4
flow
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120 130
140
150
160
170 180
A. RIPPLES (water depth =6 feet)
150
50
B. RIPPLES AND DUNES ( w a t e r depth = 11 feet)
180
160
x:
4 2
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170 180
C. DUNES (water depth = 5 f e e t )
50
60
70
80
90
100 110 120 130 140 150 160
D. WASHED-OUT DUNES (transition) (water depth = 8 feet
170
180
> distance (feet)
BED
FORMS IN PAKISTAN IRRIGATION
CHANNELS
MAHMOOD E T A L . 1984
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 6.1.5
0.25,
020
1O
d
0.15
0.10
0.05 K
4
7
10"
bed-shear
mega
ripples
mega
ripples
dunes
4
stress
s.
5 6 7 8 9 io'
parameter,
(X<h)
and
dunes
(h<X<3h)
( X >3h)
dso
= 100 - 3 5 0
= 1 . 5 - 4
p m
m
O = 0.5-1
m/s
A. P A K I S T A N IRRIGATION CHANNELS
1.0
bed m a t e r i a l
:C^=450pm
0.9 + 18
oa + 1 6
^- I
0.7 -j-14
c
O)
c
w
O)
CT)
0.6 -1-12
0.5 -1-10
c
O
0.4-1-8
03 - 6
'
1 1k
A/h
02 4
0.1 - 2
L
10
12
14
bed-shear
16
18
stress
20
22
parameter
24
26
28
30
, T
B. FLUME TESTS (TERMES, 1 9 8 6 )
RELATIVE HEIGHT OF BED FORMS
DELFT HYDRAULICS
461
FIG, 6.1.6
FLOW,
PRESSURE AND
A DUNE (AFTER LANGHORNE,

DELFT
SHEAR STRESS OVER

1978
HYDRAULICS
461
1 FIG
6.1.7
>
1
/
DO
<
11
\,6
"
IS
/'
--
Ih.4?
"n"
<
If
ll
"--^
-t
"^50
h
= 0.1
-0.5
5-TD
-e
\
,\
r i r
\\
10
10
15
transport
paramatar,
25
20
Ml
--
i
i
4,"o
r - --
i ^ ^
Tr- = ^
n^
$
- [
t
1/
- - J
+/
\
\
v. \
c
10
8
\ h /
\
-\
\\
mK M _ , - o . s
;a"
^,
6
4
10
10
15
transport
flow v e l o c i t y
C(m/s)
soufce
f l o w depth
h(m)
parameter,
particle i e temperature
r o
dgodrni)
0 G u y et a 1
Q34-1.17
0.16-0.22
190
8-34
X Ouy et al
OA 1 - 0 . 6 5
0.14-0.34
270
8-34
A G u y et al
a47-1.1S
0.16-0.32
280
8-34
0.77-0.98
o.ie
330
8-34
048-1.00
ato-oj3
490
8-34
0.83-1.1S
0.54-1j08
0.12-0.34
0.15-0.22
630
1350
^ O e l f t Hydr. L a b .
0;4S-Q87
028-046
790
8-34
2 5 ^
12-18
QS2-a^
aS3-0jBO
0.24-0.31
0.11-0.21
400
BOO
b G u y et al
f l u n w G u y e t al
dato
9 G u y et al
e Williams
Stln
Znamentliaya
25
20
souroe
(m/)
(m)
0.B5-1.B5 4 . 4 - 6 . 5
e Dutch Rivers
field ^ R l o P a r a n a
12.7
1.0
data
f J t ^ n s s e Channels 0.53-0.89 a 2 5 - 0 8
1.35-145
6-16
dso
Uim)
temp.
CO
480-3600 5-20
40O
1100-2300
350-
550
20-26
DUNE CHARACTERISTICS A F T E R VAN RIJN. 1982
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 6.1.8
van
Rijn
Tsubaki - Shinohara
Yalin
Rangu Roju - Soni
o
o
Allen
Freds0c, 1980
Freds0e, 1982
COMPARISON OF COMPUTED
BED-FORM HEIGHTS
DELFT HYDRAULICS
H 461
1 FIG.
6.1.9
5.0
dgo 150 - 2 5 0
H / h = 0.7,
h
20
period T ( s )
\lm
maximum
= water
10
depth
in
wave
height
breaking
at
breaking
waves
BED FORM REGIMES IN OSCILLATORY FLOW,

BOSMAN. 1981
H 461
FIG. 6.3.1
12
Author
Manohar, 1955
inman, 1957
Inmon a Bowen, 1963
Hom-mo et ol., 1965
Kennedy 8 Foloon, 1965
Carstens 'et ol., 1969
Lofquist, 1978
Sleattl a Ellis, 1978
Omtan, ^50X10'' m
2-8,101
0-81-9-28
2-2
178, 1-85
0 95, 3 2
1-9, 5-85
1-8, 21,5-5
0-5
0-2 h
NO BED-MATERIAL
00004
MOVEMENT
00006
00008
00010
00012
Sediment particle diometer (m)
Vertical form-Index, VFI = L/H

L
08
06
05
E
D
02
NO BED-MATERIAL
J
MOVEMENT
\
0 0001 0O002 0 0003 0 0004 0 0005 0 0006 0OO07 0 0008 00009 0 001 OOOli 0 0012
Sediment partiele diameter (ml
BED FORM REGIMES IN OSCILLATORY FLOW,

ALLEN,
1982
DELFT HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 6 . 3 . 2
1,6
270 |lm
(Sakakiyama c t
al,
1985)
4 7 0 |i m
(Sakakiyama ct
al, 1 9 8 5 )
1.4
CM
-i->
E
o
L.
O
1.2
1.0
a
>. 0 . 8
L.
-t-'
C
E
E
0.6
@
0.4
0.2
10"
5 6 78
^
>
offshore
wave
2
mobility
parameter
5 6 7 8
6 7 8 10-=
5^/((s-1) g d s o )
direction
onshore
SYMMETRY O F WAVE - GENERATED RIPPLES

O F F S H O R E O F BREAKING ZONE
461
FIG. 6.3.3
->
X no current
o following current
opposing current
2,0
value for current
ripples (G = 0 . 4 5 m/s, e = 0 )
1.5
1.0
oo
05
1.5
1.0
3.0
2.5
2.0
u',c/u'.w
2.0
B
13
1.5
o
o
O
<
1.0
0% ^
0
= r ip p l e
length
fc)r
waves
o n e!
pple
length
fc) r
waves
olori e
^=o=
Q5
0 5
1.5
1.0
current
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
13
()
1.0
O
0# 9
O
A
1
0.5
= r i pple h e i g h t
AG=O = r i Dpie h e i g h t
f or
waves
fo
waves
and current
alone
1
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
U'
RIPPLE CHARACTERISTICS FOR COMBINED

WAVES AND CURRENT (DATA O F
NIEUWJAAR-VAN KAMPEN, 1987)
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
F(G. 6.4.1
10'
8
6
5
4
7 ^
7
current
flat
bed
o
in
^
cn
flat
bed
10
current
d u n e s a n d w a v e s (3D)
;4
53
current
ripples
(3D)
3D
,5
3P
10'
-current
ripples
(2D)
a!
3D
2D
no
9^
3D,
P2D
IM
u'^.c =1/4 u'*t,w
7?
motion
s
2D
2D
tl
10"^
8
IE
6
5
4
0
7'
7 ^
wave
no
motion
10
4 56
8 10'
wave
r i p p l e s (3D)|
_J
i_
10'
ripples (2D)
4 56
8 10"
wave-related
w a v e flat bed
(sheet flow)
LJ
l_
4 56
8 10"
4 56
8 10'
m o b i l i t y , (u'*^,w) / ( s - 1 ) g d s o
u
asymmetry
p a r a m e t e r , X1/X2
2D
= 2 dimensional
bed
following
opposing
current
current
current
wave
0.9 -
dominated
1.1
transition
1.3 -
1.5
current
1.5 -
1.7
>
1.7
1,1
- 1,3
forms
3D = 3 dimensional
bed
no
forms
dominated
B E D FORM C L A S S I F I C A T I O N D I A G R A M FOR
COMBINED UNIDIRECTIONAL AND OSCILLATORY
FLOW ACCORDING TO VAN RIJN
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 6.4.2
land
asymmetric
symmetric
lunate
inactive
linear
bed
ripples
irregular ripples
/
I
A.
SEQUENCE
OF
BED FORMS
c r o s s - ripples
4
megaripples
flat
beds
7
'/
( I ( ( / / / / .
IN C O A S T A L
ZONE
(Clifton, 1976)
= 300 m
INNER
SHOREFACE
SHELF
longshore
offshore
longshore
upper
shoreface
transition
1600 [J.m;
SAND
BED
'
10 a
e
D
1 5 0 ^ 2 0 0 M-m
1 5 0 - 2 0 0 M - m . - i I . :
J-15
B.
TYPE
(Shipp,
OF
BED
FORMS
IN C O A S T A L
ZONES
DURING
FAIR W E A T H E R
CONDITIONS
1984)
BED FORM TYPES IN COASTAL ZONES ACCORDING

TO CLIFTON. 1976
AND SHIPP. 1984
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 6.3.4
CASE 3-2 6.5h

Ho = 1.05 m
T = 6.0 s
Ho/Lo = 0.019
DgQ = 0.27 mm
CASE 3-4 6.1h

Ho = 1.62 m
T =3.1 s
Ho/Lo = 0.108
D^Q
= 0.27 mm
n = ripple height
X = ripple length
dp = o r b i t a l d i a m e t e r
Hp = wave h e i g h t deep w a t e r ( r e g u l a r waves)
dgQ = 270 ^m
B.P.= b r e a k e r p o i n t
RIPPLE CHARACTERISTICS
ALONG BEACH
A F T E R SAKAKIYAMA ET AL,
DELFT
PROFILE
1985
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 6.3.5
DATA
REGULAR
WAVES
0.8
I.
0.7
S a k a k i y a m a (zt a l , 1985
(270
[im)
Sakakiyama
(470
p.m)
c t a l , 1985
C a r s t e n s c t al,
Dutoit
U)
Hayakawa
r:
S t e e t z e l , 1984
<
06
et al,
1969 (190-300 \im)

1981
e t a l , 1983
(220
(410
flm)
(240
|im)
\im)
Q5
Q.
Q.
(fl
(fl
Q4
s
2
(fl 03
c
E
O2
0.1
0
10^
5 6 78
>
DATA
10
IRREGULAR
2
mobility
5 6 7 8 lo^
parameter
Ue^/((s-1 ) g d 5 o )
WAVES
5 6 7 8 10'
>
nnobility
.mi
parameter
I I
5 6 78 10^
5 6 7 8 lo^
52 / ( ( s - D g d s o )
RIPPLE HEIGHT IN OSCILLATORY FLOW

ACCORDING TO VAN RIJN
461
FIG. 6.3.6
DATA
REGULAR
WAVES
0.40
<
0.30
in
c
a
0.25
e
0.20
;;
XX
X
X<
>
L,
D
0.15
A
iNie sen
X
0.10
So
do
s
0
C
fid
O 05
(]
ol
10^
10"
>
DATA
10"
IRREGULAR
nnobility paranneter
Ue^/CCs-l ) g d 5 o )
WAVES
5 6 7 8 10'
->
5 6 7 8 10^
nnobility p a r a m e t e r
5 67
a 10^
Ug^/((s-Dgdso)
RIPPLE STEEPNESS IN OSCILLATORY FLOW

ACCORDING
TO VAN RIJN
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 6.3.7
'^
100
recording
200
July 1975
300
F e b r u a r y 1976
400
500
600 m
April 1976
B. TRANSVERSE S A N D WAVES WITH MEGARIPPLES IN NORTH

(TOBIAR,
SEA
1989)
BED FORM IN TIDAL SEAS

DELFT HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 6 . 4 . 3
-7.1-
7.
7.1
EFFECTIVE BED ROUGHNESS
Introduction
Nikuradse (1932) i n t r o d u c e d t h e concept o f an e q u i v a l e n t o r e f f e c t i v e sand

roughness h e i g h t ( k g ) t o s i m u l a t e the roughness o f a r b i t r a r y roughness
ele-
ments o f t h e boundary. I n case o f a movable bed c o n s i s t i n g o f sediments t h e

e f f e c t i v e bed roughness ( k ^ ) mainly c o n s i s t s o f g r a i n roughness ( k ^ generated
by s k i n f r i c t i o n f o r c e s and o f form roughness ( k ' ' ) generated by p r e s s u r e
f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e bed forms. The e f f e c t i v e bed roughness f o r a g i v e n bed
m a t e r i a l s i z e i s n o t c o n s t a n t but depends on t h e f l o w c o n d i t i o n s ( d e p t h , v e l o c i t y , wave h e i g h t ) which a f f e c t t h e bed form dimensions. For example. F i g u r e
7.1.1A shows kg-values o f t h e M i s s i s s i p p i r i v e r determined from measured s u r face s l o p e s , depths and c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s a p p l y i n g Eqs.(2,2.7) and ( 2 . 2 . 1 3 ) .
As can be observed, t h e k^-values s t r o n g l y decrease f o r i n c r e a s i n g v e l o c i t i e s
because t h e bed forms a r e washed o u t a t l a r g e v e l o c i t i e s . U l t i m a t e l y , g r a i n
roughness w i l l be present.
7.2
C u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed roughness
Assuming a c o n s t a n t plane bed f r i c t i o n f a c t o r ( o r Chzy-coefficient), E q u a t i o n

(2.2.7) shows a p a r a b o l i c r e l a t i o n s h i p between
and (see F i g . 7.2.1A).
When bed forms a r e generated, the f r i c t i o n i n c r e a s e s due t o t h e presence o f

form roughness.
B a s i c a l l y , two approaches can be found i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e t o e s t i m a t e t h e bed

roughness:
methods based on bed-form and g r a i n - r e l a t e d parameters such as bed-form

l e n g t h , h e i g h t , steepness and b e d - m a t e r i a l s i z e ,
methods based on i n t e g r a l parameters such as mean depth, m e a n - v e l o c i t y and

bed m a t e r i a l s i z e .
7.2.1
Methods based on bed-form parameters
The bed-shear s t r e s s (x^) i n an a l l u v i a l channel can be d i v i d e d
f r i c t i o n r e l a t e d t o g r a i n roughness (xjl^),
f r i c t i o n r e l a t e d t o form roughness ( T " ) .
into:
-7.2-
Based on F i g . 7 . 2 . I B r e p r e s e n t i n g
the f o r c e s on a bed f o r m , i t f o l l o w s t h a t :
V, +
p
G r a i n - r e l a t e d f r i c t i o n : T' = 7^ =
b
X
^
F
Form-related f r i c t i o n
in
= 3^ = ^
" ^ 1 T = i pf'^
X
' s
o
A
| P
0
^'^'^
(7.2.2)
(7.2.3)
= g pf"'"^
which:
F = s k i n - f r i c t i o n
force
F|. = p r e s s u r e f o r c e
X
= bed form l e n g t h
A
T
= bed form h e i g h t
= g r a i n - r e l a t e d shear
= c o e f f i c i e n t {'^ 5)
Cq = drag
u
coefficient
= l o c a l flow v e l o c i t y
From Eqs.
stress
= f
(.7.2.1),
( 7 . 2 . 2 ) and
(7.2.3)
i t follows that:
(7.2.11)
+ f"
I n the p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s i t assumed, f o r reasons o f s i m p l i c i t y , t h a t :
k^ ^
= k'
(7.2.5)
k''
OfC
OyC
i n which: k'
= g r a i n roughness h e i g h t and k"
= form roughness h e i g h t .
S Jc
S JC
Assuming h y d r a u l i c a l l y rough f l o w , the c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d f r i c t i o n
f ^ = 8g C " ^ = 0.24
factor i s :
(7.2.6)
[log(P^)]"^
s, c
= 18 l o g ( P ^ )
s ,c
(7.2.7)
G r a i n roughness
G r a i n roughness i s the roughness o f i n d i v i d u a l sediment
p a r t i c l e s as p r e s e n t
i n the t o p l a y e r o f a n a t u r a l plane movable o r non-movable bed.
-7.3-
Experimental r e s e a r c h shows t h a t g r a i n roughness i s l a r g e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e

l a r g e s t p a r t i c l e s o f t h e t o p l a y e r o f t h e bed (dgQ). The p r e s e n t w r i t e r (Van
R i j n , 1982) has analyzed about 120 sets o f flume and f i e l d data w i t h and
w i t h o u t a mobile bed t o determine the g r a i n roughness. The k'
values were
computed from t h e Chzy-coefficients, which were d e r i v e d from t h e measured

water depths, depth-averaged v e l o c i t i e s and energy g r a d i e n t s . Based on t h i s
a n a l y s i s , the g r a i n roughness was found t o be i n t h e range o f 1 t o 10 d^Q o f
the bed m a t e r i a l as shown i n F i g . 7.1.IB. A c l e a r i n f l u e n c e o f t h e m o b i l i t y o f
t h e p a r t i c l e s cannot be observed. Experiments w i t h an i n t e n s i v e m o b i l e bed do
n o t show a s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r gain roughness than those w i t h an immobile
bed.
Van R i j n proposed (1982):
K,c
= 3
(7.2.8)
S i m i l a r values have been r e p o r t e d by:

Kamphuis (1974)
: kg
= 2.5 d^Q
(7.2.9)
G l a d k i (1975)
: k''^ = 2.3 dgn
(7.2.10)
Hey (1979)
: k^'^ = 3.5 dgn
(7.2.11)
Mahmood (1971)
(7.2.12)
c ^ ^'^ ^^84
Form roughness
The e f f e c t i v e form roughness i s r e l a t e d t o t h e bed-form h e i g h t A, t h e bed-form
steepness (A/x) and t h e bed-form shape ( y ) . The f o l l o w i n g f u n c t i o n a l
relation-
s h i p i s assumed t o be v a l i d :
''sic =
(7.2.13)
Data o f r i p p l e s and dunes have been analyzed t o determine Eq. (7.2.13).
Ripples
R i p p l e s a r e h e r e i n d e f i n e d as bed forms w i t h a l e n g t h s m a l l e r than t h e water
depth. Assuming h y d r a u l i c a l l y rough f l o w and a dominant form roughnes, t h e
k^'^-value can be determined from t h e Chzy-coefficient
C = 18 l o g (12 h/
k ^ ' ^ ) . A n a l y s i s o f t h e r i p p l e data o f B a r t o n - L i n (1955), Ackers (1964),

Vanoni-Brooks (1957) and o f Mahmood e t a l (1984), t h e l a t t e r
representing
f i e l d data o f Pakistan i r r i g a t i o n channels, show two d i s t i n c t ranges ( F i g .

7.2.2A). The k'' -value v a r i e s i n t h e range o f 0.5 t o 1.5 A f o r A/X
< 0.1
sJ c
f
r* 1?
and i n t h e range o f 1 t o 4
f o r A^/X^ > 0.1. The data can be reasonably
r e p r e s e n t e d by:
(7.2.14)
k-^ = 2 0 A ^ ( ^ )
in
which:
X^ = r i p p l e l e n g t h
Dunes
Based on t h e a n a l y s i s o f dune d a t a , t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r (1984) has proposed
(see F i g .
k"
7.2.2B):
(7.2.15)
= 1.1 A. (l-e'^^^d^'^d]
S yC
E q u a t i o n ( 7 . 2 . 1 5 ) i s v a l i d f o r t y p i c a l t r i a n g u l a r - s h a p e d dunes w i t h a l e e s i d e
s l o p e equal t o the angle o f repose. Ogink (1988) analysed f i e l d data o f dunes
and found t h a t r i v e r dunes o f t e n have r e l a t i v e l y m i l d l e e s i d e s l o p e s . Based on
t h i s , Ogink (1988) i n v e s t i g a t e d the i n f l u e n c e o f t h e l e e s i d e slope i n a
l a b o r a t o r y f l u m e . He found a c o n s i d e r a b l e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e form roughness f o r
s m a l l e r l e e s i d e slopes (no f l o w s e p a r a t i o n ) . T h i s e f f e c t can s i m p l y be r e p r e sented by a p p l y i n g a form f a c t o r y^,
in
as f o l l o w s :
which:
A^ = dune h e i g h t
X j = dune l e n g h t
= form f a c t o r
Using t h e data o f Ogink, t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r determined t h e Yj-pat'ameter as a

f u n c t i o n o f a l e e s i d e slope parameter
(X.j/A), as shown i n F i g . 7 . 2 . 3 r e l a t i -
v e l y l a r g e r e d u c t i o n o f the form roughness can be observed

l e e s i d e slope (X^^/A
i n case o f a m i l d
10), which i s caused by the f a c t t h a t f l o w s e p a r a t i o n
does n o t occur f o r these c o n d i t i o n s .
-7.5-
R i p p l e s and dunes
I n case o f dunes superimposed by r i p p l e s i t i s proposed t o combine Eq,
and Eq. (7.2.15) i n t r o d u c i n g a r i p p l e - p r e s e n c e parameter
(7.2.14)
t o account f o r t h e
number o f r i p p l e s present on the back o f a dune, as f o l l o w s :
k' ' = k' '

+ k'
s,c
" s , r i p p l e * s,dune
o i-TX
(7.2.17)
A
K',c
20
+ 1.1 Yd ^d (1-e"^^'d/^d)
(7.2,18)
i n which:
A^, A^ = r i p p l e and dune h e i g h t
^ r ' ^d " '"^PP-'- ^""^ ^^^^ l e n g h t
= form f a c t o r
= "
n
= iîppie presence parameter (0.6 - 0.8)
= number o f r i p p l e s on a dune
To a p p l y Eq. (7.2.18), the
and Y ^ - parameters must be known. At p r e s e n t
stage o f r e s e a r c h these parameters can o n l y be determined when bed f o r m

r e c o r d i n g s are a v a i l a b l e .
To show t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h i s approach, the present w r i t e r has a p p l i e d
Eq.
(7.2.18) t o determine the o v e r a l l roughness o f ( a r t i f i c i a l ) dunes superimposed

by r i p p l e s , as t e s t e d by Ogink (1988). Sand p a r t i c l e s w i t h a median s i z e o f
780 ym were g l u e d on the bed forms t o s i m u l a t e g r a i n roughness. The b a s i c bed
form dimensions are presented i n F i g . 7.2.4. The g r a i n roughness ( k '
) is
S yc
assumed t o be k^ ^ = 0.001 m. The p r e d i c t e d and computed kg ^-values a r e g i v e n

i n the f o l l o w i n g
Test
table.
p r e d i c t e d k_ .
measured k .
(m)
(m)
0,018
0.027
0,025
0.029
0,022
0.025
0,024
0.019
0,018
0.014
The l a r g e s t d e v i a t i o n i s about 60^ f o r t e s t A, which seems r a t h e r l a r g e . However, t h e p r e d i c t e d and measured Chzy-coefficient do n o t d i f f e r more than ]0%.
7.2.2
Methods based on i n t e g r a l parameters
Two i n t e g r a l methods, as proposed i n t h e L i t e r a t u r e , a r e g i v e n here: t h e method

o f Engelund-Hansen (1967) and t h a t o f White e t a l (1979). These two methods
gave t h e b e s t r e s u l t s i n an e x t e n s i v e a p p r a i s a l o f a v a i l a b l e methods,
reported
by White e t a l (1979) f o r r i v e r f l o w c o n d i t i o n s .
Engelund-Hansen, 1967
T h i s method, which i s based on flume data o n l y , i s as f o l l o w s :
1.
Compute h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s , R
2.
Compute p a r t i c l e m o b i l i t y parameters, 0 and 0'

R i
- ( s - 1 ) dô
0' = 0.4 0^ + 0.06
for
0' = 0
f o r 0.55 < 0' < 1
0' = [0.3 + 0.7 0"''-^]"O-56
fof,
s =
(s-1) d^. 0'

T^
(7.2.21)
Compute average f l o w v e l o c i t y ,
(7.2.22)
Compute bed-shear v e l o c i t y , u
6.
Qt > ^
gradient
= [ g R' i]-5 [6 + 2.5 l n [ ^ 4 ) ]

2 "^65
5.
(7.2.20)
Compute h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s r e l a t e d t o g r a i n s , R'
R' =
4.
0' < 0.55
Pg/P
i = energy
3.
(7.2.19)
= [ g R i]-5
Compute Chzy-coefficient, C
,
0.5
_ K
u
(7.2.23)
c
(7.2.24)
-7.7-
T h i s method, which i s based on e x t e n s i v e flume data (1432) and f i e l d a t a ( 2 6 3 )

i n t h e lower f l o w regime, i s as f o l l o w s :
1.
Compute p a r t i c l e parameter D^t, n, Y^^,, P

1 /2
D = d35 [ ^ ^ ]
V
(7.2.25)
n = 1 - 0.56 log(D)
f o r 1 < D,j < 60
^cr =
for1 <
< 60
n = 0
for
< 60
Ycr = 0-17
for
'ô 5 + 0.14
D,, < 60
P = [log(D)]^-7
2.
(7.2.27)
Compute bed-shear v e l o c i t y , u^
",c =
(7.2.28)
3.
Compute m o b i l i t y parameter, Y^^g
4.
Compute m o b i l i t y parameter, Yg^

Y
- Y
Y ^ " " _ Y'''' = 1 - 0.76 [1-e-P]

fg
cr
5.
(7.2.30)
Compute average f l o w v e l o c i t y , from

Y
^"^c^"
V(s-1)g d3.]0-5^
6.
(7.2.26)
0
5.66
l o g ( ^ ) ^
Compute Chzy-coefficient, C^
^
=
(7.2.32)
,c
To apply the method o f Engelund-Hansen as w e l l as t h a t o f White e t a l , t h e

h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s ( R ) , the f l o w w i d t h ( b ) , the s u r f a c e slope ( i ) and the
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p a r t i c l e parameters must be known. The d i s c h a r g e need n o t be
known. I n case o f a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e w i d t h - d e p t h r a t i o (b>>h) i t f o l l o w s t h a t
R - h.
7.2,3
Comparison o f methods
The methods o f Engelund-Hansen, White e t a l and Van R i j n have been compared

for
a l a r g e amount o f flume and f i e l d data. The method o f Van R i j n was based
on t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f the dune h e i g h t and l e n g t h by Eqs,

The e f f e c t i v e roughness was determined from Eqs,
t i n g t h e form roughness r e d u c t i o n parameter
(A
( 7 . 2 . 8 )
( y ^ = ' ^ ) -
( 6 , 1 , 3 )
and
and
( 7 . 2 . 1 6 )
( 6 , 1 , 4 ) ,
neglec-
Ripples were a l s o n e g l e c t e d
=0).
To e v a l u a t e the accuracy o f the t h r e e p r e d i c t i o n methodes, t h e percentage o f

the
p r e d i c t e d values i n t h e f o l l o w i n g e r r o r ranges were determined:
^measured ^ 0 ^ , C^^^^^^^^ 20% and C^^^^^^^^ 30%.
The r e s u l t s are presented i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
Flume data ( 7 5 8 )
10^
error
table.
20^
error
30^
error
1.
Engelund-Hansen
37^
65^
75%
2.
Van R i j n
345J
56%
3.
White e t a l
335^
5H
66%
F i e l d data ( 7 8 6 )
1.
Van R i j n
43^
n%
89%
2,
White e t a l
33^
5S%
79%
3,
Engelund-Hansen
25^
47^
62%
For flume c o n d i t i o n s the method o f Engelund-Hansen produces t h e best r e s u l t s ,

w h i l e f o r f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s t h e ( p r e s e n t ) w r i t e r ' s method i s s u p e r i o r .
P a r t i c u l a r l y , the method o f Engelund-Hansen produces r a t h e r poor r e s u l t s f o r
f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s , probably because o n l y flume data were used f o r c a l i b r a t i o n .
-7.9-
For f i e l d data the method o f Engelund-Hansen and White e t a l y i e l d v a l u e s

which a r e , on the average, too l a r g e .
7.3
Wave-related bed
roughness
The e f f e c t i v e wave-related bed roughness i s expressed as:
= k'
S,W
(7.3.1)
+ k' '
S,W
S,W
I ' 3 '
IJ
The wave-related f r i c t i o n f a c t o r (f^_^) i s expressed by
f = e x p [ - 6 .
Grain
5.2(Vk^^J-0-19]^
,ith
f^^^^^= 0 . 3
(7.3.2)
roughness
G r a i n roughness i s dominant when the bed i s plane or when the peak o r b i t a l

e x c u r s i o n a t the bed i s s m a l l e r than the r i p p l e l e n g t h
Based on l a b o r a t o r y
500,
2200,
12200
(A^ < X^).
experiments w i t h a p e r f e c t l y f l a t non-movable bed (d^Q =
and 4 6 0 0 0 ym), Kamphuis ( 1 9 7 5 )
In n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s
proposed:
t h i s value may be somewhat l a r g e r , because a p e r f e c t l y
arranged f l a t bed w i l l n o t be p r e s e n t .
r"
Grant and Madsen (1982) re-analyzed the movable bed data o f Carstens e t a l
(1969) and concluded t h a t the g r a i n roughness f o r a mobile bed s h o u l d be
r e l a t e d t o the t h i c k n e s s o f the moving bed-load l a y e r . Based on data a n a l y s i s .
Grant and Madsen have proposed a f u n c t i o n t h a t y i e l d s :
s,w
50
K ,, " 3 5 0 d^^
s,w
50
for
cr
0' - 2 0 0
cr
in which:
0'
= e f f e c t i v e m o b i l i t y parameter (based on k^ ^ = d^^)
0^^ = c r i t i c a l m o b i l i t y
parameter
-7.10-
The method o f Grant and Madsen y i e l d s i r r e a l i s t i c l a r g e k'
- v a l u e s , which
may
be caused by the f a c t t h a t r i p p l e regime d a t a have been analyzed by Grant and

Madsen. T h i s i n t r o d u c e s the problem o f e s t i m a t i n g the r i p p l e form roughness.
Small e r r o r s i n t h i s l a t t e r parameter may
the grain
lead t o r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e e r r o r s i n
roughness.
S i m i l a r i r r e a l i s t i c l a r g e g r a i n roughness values were found by R a u d k i v i (1988)

a p p l y i n g the same data s e t o f Carstens e t a l (1969). R a u d k i v i proposes
an
e x p r e s s i o n which y i e l d s k'
= 0.16 m f o r U = 1 m/s.
s Jw
0
According t o the p r e s e n t w r i t e r , the e f f e c t i v e g r a i n roughness o f a sheet f l o w
bed i s o f the order o f the boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s ( k '
6 ) . T h i s i s based
on the e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s o f Horikawa e t a l (1982), who measured t h e boundary

l a y e r t h i c k n e s s ( 6 ^ ^ 0.02 m f o r
dgQ
= 1.27 m/s,
T = 3.6 s, d^^ = 200
300 ym). A p p l y i n g Eq. (2.3.8) o f Jonsson-Carlsen
6 /A, = 0.072 (A,/k)~"2^, i t f o l l o w s t h a t k

W o
ym,
( 1976):
=^ 0.015
m which i s somewhat
S,W
O S
s m a l l e r than the observed boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s o f 6

w
Since dgQ =^ 300 ym, i t f o l l o w s t h a t
0.02
m.
= 50 dg^ f o r the Horikawa-experiment.
S i m i l a r r e s u l t s have been found by Wilson (1989). Based on p i p e experiments

w i t h u n i d i r e c t i o n a l f l o w , Wilson found kg-values i n the range o f 1 t o ^0 d^Q
f o r 0 = Tj^/((p-Pg)g dgg) i n the range o f 0.8
t o 8 ( g i v i n g k^/d^^ ^ 5 0 ) .
The p r e s e n t w r i t e r proposes the f o l l o w i n g v a l u e s :
k^ M= 3 dgQ
i n the r i p p l e regime
k^ = 3(0.044)-9)dgQ i n the sheet f l o w regime
(U ) ^
f o r ip = (g_,,g^
< 250
(7.3.4)
(U )'^
f o r 4) = ^g_.j^g^
> 250
(7.3.5)
Equation (7.3.5) y i e l d s a roughness value i n the range o f 3 dgQ t o 33 dgQ f o r

i> = 250 t o 500. More research i s necessary t o i n v e s t i g a t e the v a l i d i t y o f t h e
proposed e x p r e s s i o n , which i s now t e n t a t i v e l y based on i n t u i t i v e c o n s i d e r a tions.
Form roughness
R i p p l e s are the dominant bed forms generated by o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w . R i p p l e s may
be p r e s e n t on a h o r i z o n t a l bed o r on the back o f l a r g e sand waves. I n the
-7.11-
l a t t e r case t h e sand waves have no f r i c t i o n e f f e c t on the water waves, because

the
water waves experience t h e sand waves as a g r a d u a l bottom topography. When
the
near-bed
o r b i t a l e x c u r s i o n i s l a r g e r than the r i p p l e l e n g t h , t h e r i p p l e s
are t h e dominant roughness elements on t h e bed. Sayao

e x p e r i m e n t a l r i p p l e data o f Carstens e t a l
(1969)
(1982)
analyzed t h e
and L o f q u i s t
(1980)
and
found k'' -values i n t h e range o f 2 t o 4 times t h e r i p p l e h e i g h t . No i n f l u e n c e

S Jw
o f t h e r i p p l e steepness was n o t i c e d ( 0 . 1 < A^/X^ < 0 . 2 5 ) : Thus,
Sayao
(1982):
Equation
k'
t>,w
= 3
for
2 <
< 5
(7.3.6)
i s a l s o assumed t o be v a l i d f o r A./X
(7.3.6)
>
because eddy
o r
motions a r e dominant i n t h i s range. For A^/X^ < 2 Equation ( 7 . 3 . 6 ) becomes

l e s s r e l i a b l e because o f t h e reduced importance o f t h e eddy g e n e r a t i o n
A
mechanism. For A^/X^< 1 t h e f l o w along t h e bed forms w i l l be n o n - s e p a r a t i n g

( p o t e n t i a l ) f l o w mainly a f f e c t e d by g r a i n roughness ( H o n j i e t a l ,
Davies,
1985).
= 20
Equation
The present w r i t e r proposes (see Eq.
1 9 8 0 and
(7.2.14)):
( ^ )
(7.3.7)
r i p p l e steepness
(7.3.7)
y i e l d s values i n agreement w i t h those o f Sayao
(1982)
for a
i n t h e range o f 0 . 1 t o 0 . 2 .
Other e x p r e s s i o n s a v a i l a b l e i n t h e L i t e r a t u r e a r e :
A^
Swart
(1976)
: k'- , =
25
A^
(-^)
: k"
=
s,w
28
()
: k"
=
i.,w
16
(7.3.8)
A
Grant-Madsen
Raudkivi
7.4
(1984)
(1988)
(7
3 9)
V ( . 3 . :>/
A
A^ (-^)
r
(7.3.10)
Bed roughness i n combined c u r r e n t s and waves
The most i m p o r t a n t bed form regimes a r e :
r i p p l e s i n case o f weak c u r r e n t s and low waves,
sand waves w i t h r i p p l e s i n case o f s t r o n g c u r r e n t s and low waves,
plane bed w i t h sheet f l o w i n case o f s t r o n g c u r r e n t s and h i g h waves ( s u r f

zone),
-7.12-
sand waves w i t h sheet f l o w i n case o f s t r o n g c u r r e n t s and h i g h waves

( o u t s i d e s u r f zone)
Grain roughness
G r a i n roughness i s dominant f o r both the wave-related and
current-related
f r i c t i o n when the bed i s plane. When bed forms are p r e s e n t and
the^peak
o r b i t a l e x c u r s i o n a t the bed i s smaller than the bed form l e n g t h (A^ < X^),
the
g r a i n roughness i s a l s o dominant f o r the wave-related f r i c t i o n . I n t h a t
case t h e waves f e e l the bed forms as topographic f e a t u r e s .

Equation ( 7 . 3 . 4 )
and
(7.3.5)
are assumed t o be
valid.
Form roughness
Ripples:
The r i p p l e roughness i s dominant f o r the c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d f r i c t i o n .
Ripple
roughness i s a l s o dominant f o r the wave-related f r i c t i o n when the peak v a l u e o f

the
o r b i t a l e x c u r s i o n a t the bed i s l a r g e r than the r i p p l e l e n g t h (A^ > X^).
Nap and Van Kampen
(1988)
performed flume experiments w i t h combined c u r r e n t s
and waves over a sediment bed o f 100 ym. R i p p l e type bed forms ( 0 . 1 < A^/X^
< 0 . 2 ) were generated d u r i n g the experiments. The e f f e c t i v e roughness o f t h e
r i p p l e s was s t u d i e d by g e n e r a t i n g a c u r r e n t ( w i t h o u t waves) over the r i p p l e s
and measuring the v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the v e l o c i t i e s and the water s u r f a c e
s l o p e s . The f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t s were o b t a i n e d :
k''
s yc
k''
s,c
= 3
7 A
r*
from measured water s u r f a c e slopes
(7.4.1)
from measured v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s
^
(7.4.2)
A c l e a r i n f l u e n c e o f the r i p p l e steepness, which v a r i e d i n the range o f 0 . 1 t o

0.2,
was n o t observed. E q u a t i o n ( 7 . 4 . 1 ) probably y i e l d s t h e most r e a l i s t i c
r e s u l t s because i t i s based on the measured water s u r f a c e slope which i s an

i n t e g r a l parameter over the flume l e n g t h , w h i l e v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e data r e p r e s e n t
l o c a l data a t a p a r t i c u l a r c r o s s - s e c t i o n .
The r e s u l t s o f Nap and Van Kampen (Eq. 7 . 4 . 1 )
Eq.
can reasonably be represented by
which y i e l d s k'' -values i n the range o f 2 t o

S Jc
h e i g h t f o r a r i p p l e steepness o f 0 . 1 < A^/X^ < 0 . 2 . Thus,
(7.2.14)
times the r i p p l e
-7.13-
Equation ( 7 . 4 . 1 ) or Eq.
( 7 . 4 . 3 ) express the p h y s i c a l form roughness o f the
r i p p l e s generated by a c u r r e n t (superimposed
by waves). The o v e r a l l roughness
experienced by the c u r r e n t ( i n the presence o f waves) may
be c o n s i d e r a b l y
l a r g e r than the p h y s i c a l bed roughness ( k ^ ^ ) , as shown i n s e c t i o n
2.4.3.
This
roughness increase can be represented as an apparent roughness ( k ^ ) , which i s

r e l a t e d t o the e f f e c t o f the wave boundary l a y e r on the c u r r e n t . The
roughness s t r o n g l y depends on the r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h o f the wave and
apparent
current
m o t i o n . I n case o f a decreasing wave h e i g h t and a c o n s t a n t c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y

the apparent roughness reduces t o the e f f e c t i v e bed roughness
'^s.c
"6-0).
Sand waves w i t h or w i t h o u t r i p p l e s :
Sand waves have a l e n g t h (X) much l a r g e r than the o r b i t a l e x c u r s i o n a t the
bed
( A ^ ) . Thus, the wave-related f r i c t i o n f a c t o r i s n o t determined by the l a r g e
sand wave dimensions, but by the small s c a l e r i p p l e s generated on the back o f

the sand waves. When the o r b i t a l v e l o c i t i e s near the bed become r e l a t i v e l y
l a r g e ( i n storm p e r i o d s ) , the r i p p l e s w i l l be washed out r e s u l t i n g i n a plane
s l o p i n g bed w i t h sheet f l o w on the back o f the sand waves. I n t h i s l a t t e r case
the wave-related f r i c t i o n f a c t o r i s determined by g r a i n
roughness.
The c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d f r i c t i o n f a c t o r i s determined by a combination o f g r a i n

roughness,
approach
r i p p l e form roughness ( i f p r e s e n t ) and sand wave form roughness.
s i m i l a r t o Eq.
(7.2.18)
An
i s proposed. The r i p p l e o r the g r a i n roughness
should be r e p l a c e d by the apparent roughness (see s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 3 ) .
-7.14-
7.5
References
ACKERS, P. 1964
Experiments on Small Streams i n A l l u v i u m
J o u r n a l o f t h e H y d r a u l i c s D i v i s i o n , ASCE, V o l . 90, NO. HY4
BARTON J.R., and LIN, P.N., 1985

A Study o f t h e Sediment T r a n s p o r t i n A l l u v i a l Streams
Civ.
Eng. Dep., Colorado C o l l e g e , Rep. No. 55JRB2, F o r t C o l l i n s , USA
CARSTENS, M.R., MEILSON, F.M. and ALTINBILEK, H.D., 1969

Bed Forms Generated i n the L a b o r a t o r y under an O s c i l l a t o r y Flow
C.E.R.C., T e c h n i c a l Memo 28, USA
DAVIES, A.G., 1978

F i e l d Observations o f the Threshold o f Sediment Motion by Wave A c t i o n
Sedimentology, V o l . 32
ENGELUND, F. and HANSEN, E., 1967

A Monograph on Sediment T r a n s p o r t
Technisk F o r l a g , Copenhagen, Denmark
GLADKI, H., 1975

D i s c u s s i o n s o f D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f Sand Roughnes f o r Fixed Beds
J o u r n a l o f H y d r a u l i c Research, V o l . 13, No. 2

Movable Bed Roughness i n Unsteady O s c i l l a t o r y Flow
J o u r n a l o f Geophysical Research, v o l . 87, No. C l , p. 469-481
HORIKAWA, K. WATANABE, A. and KATORI, S., 1982

Sediment T r a n s p o r t under Sheet Flow C o n d i t i o n s
C o a s t a l Eng. Conf., V o l . 2, Cape Town, South A f r i c a
HEY, R.D., 1979

Flow Resistance i n Gravel-bed Rivers
J o u r n a l o f H y d r a u l i c D i v i s i o n , ASCE
-7.15-
HONJI, H., KANEKO, A. and MATSUNAGA, N., 1980

Flow Above O s c i l l a t o r y Ripples
Sedimentology, V o l . 2 7
KAMPHUIS, J.W., 1974

D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f Sand Roughness f o r Fixed Beds
KAMPHUIS, J.W., 1 9 7 5
F r i c t i o n Factor under O s c i l l a t o r y Waves
J o u r n a l o f t h e Waterway, P o r t , Coastal and Ocean D i v . ,
ASCE, V o l . 101, No. WW2, p. 135-144
LOFQUIST, K.E.B., 1980

Measurements o f O s c i l l a t o r y Drag on Sand Ripples
Proc. 17th Coastal Eng. Conf., V o l . I l l ,
p. 3 0 8 7 - 3 1 0 6 ,
Sydney, A u s t r a l i a
MAHMOOD, K., 1971

Flow i n Sand Bed Channels
Water Management T e c h n i c a l Report No. 11, Colorado S t a t e
U n i v e r s i t y , F o r t C o l l i n s , Colorado, USA
MAHMOOD, K., MEHRDAD, M.H. and HAQUE, M.I., 1984

Bed form Data i n ACOP-canals 1979-1980
George Washington Univ., C i v . Mech. and Environmental Eng. Dep., USA

Sediment T r a n s p o r t i n I r r e g u l a r Non-Breaking
Waves w i t h a C u r r e n t
C o a s t a l Eng. Dep., D e l f t Univ. o f Technology, d e l f t , The Netherlands

NIKURADSE, J., 1932
Gesetzmassigkeiten der T u r b u l e n t e Strmung i n G l a t t e n Rohren
Ver. Deut. I n g . Forschungsheft 356
OGINK, H., 1 9 8 8
H y d r a u l i c Roughness o f Bed Forms
D e l f t H y d r a u l i c s , Report M2017, D e l f t , The Netherlands
-7.16-
RAUDKIVI, A.J., 1988

The Roughness Height under Waves
SAYAO, O.D.S.F.J., 1982

Beach P r o f i l e s and L i t t o r a l Sand Transport
Queen's U n i v e r s i t y , Kingston, O n t a r i o , Canada
SWART, D.H., 1 9 7 6
P r e d i c t i v e Equations r e g a r d i n g Coastal T r a n s p o r t s
Coastal Engineering Congress, Honolulu, Hawaii
VANONI, V.A. and BROOKS, N.H., 1957

L a b o r a t o r y S t u d i e s o f t h e Roughness and Suspended Load o f A l l u v i a l
Streams
Sedimentation L a b o r a t o r y , C a l i f o r n i a I n s t , o f Techn., Report E - 6 8 , USA
VAN RIJN, L.C., 1982

E q u i v a l e n t Roughness o f A l l u v i a l Bed
J o u r n a l o f t h e H y d r a u l i c s D i v i s i o n , ASCE, V o l . 108, No. HY10

Sediment T r a n s p o r t , Part I I I :
A l l u v i a l Roughness
J o u r n a l o f H y d r a u l i c Engineering, V o l . 110, No. 12

WHITE, W., PARIS, E. and BETTESS, R., 1 9 7 9
A New General Method f o r P r e d i c t i n g the F r i c t i o n a l
Alluvial
Streams
H.R.S. W a l l i n g f o r d , Report No. I T 187, England
WILSON, K.C., 1 9 8 9
Friction
o f Wave-Induced Sheet Flow
C o a s t a l E n g i n e e r i n g , 12
Characteristics o f
10
USA - rivers
O d5o= 150-210 urn, h=
5-10
e d5o= 150-210 um,
h= 10-15 m
X d5o= 2 1 0 - 3 0 0 um,
h=
1- 2 m
a dso- 2 1 0 - 3 0 0 um, h=
5-10 m
10'
W 3 \
O O
ia
10'
3=S
tv
10^
8
6
4
10
Q25
050
0.75
>
1.00
1,25
A. k s - V A L U E S O F MISSISSIPPI
1.50
1.75
2.00
2,25
2.50
depth - averaged flow velocity (m/s)
RIVER
1J
?'
1i
A
T
f
11
dgo
A
"
1
e
(1
AA
a
a
e9
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
2.4
2.8
*. e-Gcr
B. GRAIN
EFFECTIVE
DELFT
ROUGHNESS
BED ROUGHNESS
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 7.1.1
A. RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN
Tb AND D
aA
>i
B. FORCES ON BED
CURRENT -
FORMS
RELATED BED ROUGHNESS
DELFT HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 7.2.1
6 7 8 910"'
A.
FORM
Barton-Lin, 1955 (180

Ackers, 1964 (180 (im)
Vanoni - Brooks, 1957 (140 |lnn)
Mahmood et al, 1984 ( 1 5 0 - 3 0 0 îm)
5 6 7 8 9io
ripple steepness,-Ap/Xr
ROUGHNESS OF RIPPLES
1.6
\< 1.4
u
tn
1.2
X
c
x: 1.0
O)
0.8
O
i_
I
0.6
k'i
/
-25 ^ \
^ = 1 . 1 (l-e
0.4
\,
\
3 -
0.2
CP a
8 10"
10"
bed-form steepness,
FORM
B.
>
8 10-1
^rA.
ROUGHNESS OF DUNES
FORM ROUGHNESS O F RIPPLES AND DUNES
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 7.2.2
FORM FACTOR O F DUNES
461
FIG. 7.2.3
-8.1-
8.
BED MATERIAL SUSPENSION AND TRANSPORT IN STEADY UNIFORM CURRENTS
8.1
The
Introduction
t r a n s p o r t o f bed m a t e r i a l p a r t i c l e s by a f l o w o f water can be in t h e form
o f bed-load and suspended l o a d , depending on the s i z e o f the bed m a t e r i a l

p a r t i c l e s and the f l o w c o n d i t i o n s . The suspended load may a l s o c o n t a i n some
wash l o a d , which i s g e n e r a l l y d e f i n e d as t h a t p o r t i o n o f the suspended load
which i s governed by the upstream supply r a t e and not by the c o m p o s i t i o n and
p r o p e r t i e s o f the bed m a t e r i a l . Although i n n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s t h e r e w i l l be
no sharp d i v i s i o n between the bed-load t r a n s p o r t and suspended load
transport,
i t i s necessasry t o d e f i n e a l a y e r w i t h bed-load t r a n s p o r t f o r m a t h e m a t i c a l
representation.
Usually,
t h r e e modes o f p a r t i c l e motion a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d : (1) r o l l i n g and
s l i d i n g motion o r b o t h ; (2) s a l t a t i o n motion; and (3) suspended p a r t i c l e

motion.
When t h e value o f the bed-shear v e l o c i t y j u s t exceeds the c r i t i c a l
value f o r
i n i t i a t i o n o f m o t i o n , the p a r t i c l e s w i l l be r o l l i n g and s l i d i n g or b o t h , i n
c o n t i n u o u s c o n t a c t w i t h the bed.
For i n c r e a s i n g values o f the bed-shear
v e l o c i t y , the p a r t i c l e s w i l l be moving along the bed by more o r l e s s
regular
Jumps, which are c a l l e d s a l t a t i o n s . When the value o f the bed-shear v e l o c i t y

exceeds the f a l l v e l o c i t y o f the p a r t i c l e s , the sediment p a r t i c l e s can be
l i f t e d t o a l e v e l a t which the upward t u r b u l e n t f o r c e s w i l be comparable w i t h
or o f h i g h e r
order than the submerged weight o f the p a r t i c l e s and as r e s u l t
the p a r t i c l e s may go i n suspension.
V a r i o u s formulae a r e a v a i l a b l e t o p r e d i c t the sediment t r a n s p o r t r a t e s ((i^).

The
formulae can be d i v i d e d i n f i v e main groups d e f i n e d by t h e r e l e v a n t
t r a n s p o r t parameter:
fluid
v e l o c i t y , q, ( -
U
CP
bed shear s t r e s s , q. ( T - x
p r o b a b i l i s t i c p a r t i c l e movement
bed form c e l e r i t y
energetics
The
(stream
power), q^ T
n - c o e f f i c i e n t i s o f the order o f 1.5. The m - c o e f f i c i e n t i s i n t h e range o f
3 t o 5.
8.2
Bed
8.2.1
load
transport
Introduction
Usually,
the t r a n s p o r t o f p a r t i c l e s by r o l l i n g , s l i d i n g and
saltating is
c a l l e d the bed-load t r a n s p o r t . For example, Bagnold (1956) d e f i n e s

load t r a n s p o r t as t h a t i n which the successive c o n t a c t s
the bed
the
bed-
o f the p a r t i c l e s w i t h
are s t r i c t l y l i m i t e d by the e f f e c t o f g r a v i t y , w h i l e the suspended
load t r a n s p o r t i s d e f i n e d as t h a t i n which the excess weight o f the p a r t i c l e s

i s supported w h o l l y by a random succession o f upward impulses imported
by
t u r b u l e n t eddies. E i n s t e i n (1950), however, has a somewhat d i f f e r e n t approach.

Einstein defines
the bed-load t r a n s p o r t as the t r a n s p o r t o f sediment p a r t i c l e s
i n a t h i n l a y e r o f 2 p a r t i c l e diameters t h i c k Just above the bed

r o l l i n g and
sometimes by making Jumps w i t h a l o n g i t u d i n a l d i s t a n c e
p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r s . The
due
t o the t u r b u l e n c e
c l e s , and
by
bed
sliding,
of a
few
l a y e r i s considered as a l a y e r i n which the m i x i n g
i s so small t h a t i t cannot i n f l u e n c e the sediment p a r t i -
t h e r e f o r e suspension o f p a r t i c l e s i s i m p o s s i b l e i n the bed-load
l a y e r . F u r t h e r , E i n s t e i n assumes t h a t the average d i s t a n c e

bed-load p a r t i c l e i s a c o n s t a n t d i s t a n c e
t r a v e l l e d by
any
o f 100 p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r s , Indepen-
dent o f the f l o w c o n d i t i o n s , t r a n s p o r t r a t e and
the bed
c o m p o s i t i o n . I n the
view o f E i n s t e i n , the s a l t a t i n g p a r t i c l e s belong t o the suspension mode o f

t r a n p o r t , because the Jump l e n g t h s o f s a l t a t i n g p a r t i c l e s are
considerably
l a r g e r than a few g r a i n diameters.
Many formulae t o p r e d i c t the bed-load t r a n s p o r t r a t e are d e s c r i b e d i n the

L i t e r a t u r e . The
e a r l i e s t f o r m u l a i s t h a t o f Du Boys i n 1879,
who
assumed t h a t
the sediment p a r t i c l e s are moving along the bottom i n l a y e r s o f
progressively
decreasing v e l o c i t i e s i n v e r t i c a l downward d i r e c t i o n .
The
f i r s t e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a was
presented by Meyer-Peter and
They performed flume experiments w i t h u n i f o r m

mixtures.
Based on data f i t t i n g ,
Mller ( 1 9 4 8 ) .
p a r t i c l e s and w i t h p a r t i c l e
a r e l a t i v e l y simple f o r m u l a has-been
obtained,
which i s s t i l l f r e q u e n t l y used.
K a l i n s k e (1947) and
E i n s t e i n (1950) introduced
s t a t i s t i c a l methods t o
repre-
sent t h e t u r b u l e n t behaviour o f the f l o w . Kalinske assumed a normal d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r the i n s t a n t a n e o u s f l u i d v e l o c i t y a t g r a i n l e v e l . E i n s t e i n gave a

d e t a i l e d but c o m p l i c a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f the p a r t i c l e motion i n
which the exchange p r o b a b i l i t y o f a p a r t i c l e i s r e l a t e d t o the hydrodynamic
l i f t f o r c e and p a r t i c l e w e i g h t . E i n s t e i n proposed t h e d^^ as t h e e f f e c t i v e

diameter f o r p a r t i c l e m i x t u r e s and t h e d^^ as t h e e f f e c t i v e g r a i n
roughness
diameter.
F r i j l i n k (1952) had a very p r a c t i c a l approach and made a s i m p l e f i t o f t h e
f o r m u l a o f Meyer-Peter-Miiller and t h a t o f E i n s t e i n .
Bagnold (1966) i n t r o d u c e d an energy concept and r e l a t e d t h e sediment t r a n s p o r t
r a t e t o t h e work done by t h e f l u i d .
Van R i j n (1984) solved t h e e q u a t i o n s o f motions o f an i n d i v i d u a l bed l o a d
p a r t i c l e and computed t h e s a l t a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and t h e p a r t i c l e
velocity
as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e f l o w c o n d i t i o n s and p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r .
H e r e i n , t h e approaches o f Meyer-Peter and Mller ( 1 9 4 8 ) , F r i j l i n k
(1952),
Bagnold (1966) and Van R i j n (1984) a r e presented.
8.2.2
P r e d i c t i o n method o f Meyer-Peter and Mller (1948)
E x t e n s i v e e x p e r i m e n t a l work has been c a r r i e d o u t by Meyer-Peter and Mller a t

the
"Eidgenssische Technische Hochschuie" (ETH) i n S w i t s e r l a n d . The e x p e r i -
ments were performed i n a l a b o r a t o r y flume w i t h a c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f 2 x 2 m^

and a l e n g t h o f 50 m. Uniform bed m a t e r i a l as w e l l as p a r t i c l e m i x t u r e s were
used i n t h e experiments.
The bed l o a d t r a n s p o r t r a t e i s expressed as (see F i g . 8.2.1):
q j ^ ^ ^ = 8 [(s-1)g]'^
d^Q^ (yO - 0.047)^'^
(8.2.1)
i n which:
%,o
0 =
^b,c
(P3-P)gd50
y = (C/C)^-^
^b, c
h
= P g h i
( i n m2/s)
bed load t r a n s p o r t by c u r r e n t
e f f e c t i v e p a r t i c l e m o b i l i t y parameter
(-)
bed form f a c t o r
(-)
c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed-shear
water depth
energy g r a d i e n t
(M/m2)
stress
>
i
C
= 18 log(12h/kg ^) - o v e r a l l Chzy-coefficient
g r a i n - r e l a t e d Chzy-coefficient
C' = 18 log(12h/dgQ)
^3,0
- e f f e c t i v e c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed roughness
"^50' ^^90
s =
(m)
(-)
0.5
(m
/s)
0 .5
(m
/s)
(m)
p a r t i c l e diameters
(m)
specific density
(-)
Equation (8.2.1) i s based on p a r t i c l e diameters i n the range o f 3.17

mm.
t o 28.6
The d^Q i s used as the e f f e c t i v e diameter f o r p a r t i c l e m i x t u r e s , w h i l e t h e
dgQ i s used as t h e e f f e c t i v e diameter f o r g r a i n roughness.
8.2.3
P r e d i c t i o n method o f F r i j l i n k
(1952)
The f o r m u l a o f F r i j l i n k e s s e n t i a l l y i s an a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f the f o r m u l a e o f
Meyer-Peter and Mller (1948) and t h a t o f E i n s t e i n (1950), as shown i n F i g .
8.2.1.
The f o r m u l a , which i s given here because o f i t s s i m p l i c i t y , reads as:
= 5 y
0,5
g-O.27/(y0)
u,
(8.2.2)
The parameters a r e i d e n t i c a l t o those g i v e n i n s e c t i o n 8.2.2.
8.2.4
Bagnold (1966) i n t r o d u c e d an energy balance concept and r e l a t e d t h e bed l o a d

t r a n s p o r t t o t h e work done by t h e f l u i d ( p r o d u c t o f bed-shear s t r e s s and
depth-averaged v e l o c i t y ) . He e x p l i c i t l y
his
i n c o r p o r a t e d the l o c a l bed s l o p e i n
bed l o a d f o r m u l a , which reads as:
(8.2.3)
in which:
= c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed l o a d t r a n s p o r t r a t e
= e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r (=* 0.1)
= bed-shear
u
stress
= depth-averaged
velocity
(m2/s)
(-)
(N/m2)
(m/s)
= angle o f repose o f bed m a t e r i a l (tancf) ^ 0.6)
(-)
= l o c a l bed s l o p e
(-)
The bed-load t r a n s p o r t r a t e i s r e l a t e d t o the o v e r a l l bed-shear s t r e s s and n o t

to the g r a i n - s h e a r s t r e s s . Thus, the e f f e c t o f t h e bed forms i s n o t t a k e n i n t o
account.
-8.5-
8.2.5
1.
P r e d i c t i o n method o f Van R i j n (1984)
Introduction
Van
R i j n f o l l o w e d t h e approach o f Bagnold (1954) assuming t h a t t h e m o t i o n
o f t h e bed l o a d p a r t i c l e s i s dominated by p a r t i c l e s a l t a t i o n s (jumps)

under t h e i n f l u e n c e o f hydrodynamic f l u i d f o r c e s and g r a v i t y f o r c e s . The
s a l t a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s have been determined by s o l v i n g t h e e q u a t i o n s o f
motions f o r an i n d i v i d u a l bed load p a r t i c l e . The bed load t r a n s p o r t r a t e
(q|^
i s d e f i n e d as t h e product o f t h e p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y ( u j ^ ) , t h e s a l t a -
tion height
and bed-load c o n c e n t r a t i o n
(cj^) r e s u l t i n g i n qj^ ^ =
"b ^b %
The method o f Van R i j n i s described
i n d e t a i l because i t r e p r e s e n t s
many
b a s i c phenomena o f bed load motion.

2.
Saltation characteristics
From d e t a i l e d experiments o f F r a n c i s
(1973) and Abbott and F r a n c i s
(1977),
the f o l l o w i n g general c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p a r t i c l e s a l t a t i o n s can be i n f e r red. The s a l t a t i o n mode o f t r a n s p o r t i s confined

thickness
t o a l a y e r w i t h a maximum
o f about 10 p a r t i c l e diameters, i n which t h e p a r t i c l e motion i s
dominated by g r a v i a t i o n a l f o r c e s , although
the p a r t i c l e motion may be
i n i t i a t e d by instantaneous t u r b u l e n t impulses d u r i n g upward b u r s t s o f

f l u i d or j u s t by t h e e f f e c t o f shear i n t h e sense t h a t a body i n sheared
f l o w experiences a l i f t f o r c e due t o t h e v e l o c i t y g r a d i e n t near t h e bed.
The
p a r t i c l e s r e c e i v e t h e i r momentum d i r e c t l y from t h e f l o w pressure and
v i s c o u s s k i n f r i c t i o n . On t h e r i s i n g p a r t o f t h e t r a j e c t o r y , both t h e
v e r t i c a l component o f the f l u i d drag f o r c e and t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r c e a r e
d i r e c t e d downwards. During t h e f a l l i n g
part of the t r a j e c t o r y , the v e r t i c a l
component o f t h e f l u i d drag f o r c e opposes t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r c e . The l i f t

f o r c e i s always d i r e c t e d upwards as long as t h e p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y l a g s
behind t h e f l u i d v e l o c i t y .
When a p a r t i c l e s t r i k e s t h e bed, i t may e i t h e r impact i n t o t h e s u r f a c e o r
rebound o f f t h e s u r f a c e p a r t i c l e s . During t h e impact o f a p a r t i c l e w i t h t h e
bed,
most o f i t s momentum i s d i s s i p a t e d by t h e p a r t i c l e s o f t h e bed i n a
sequence o f more o r l e s s h o r i z o n t a l impulses which may i n i t i a t e

mode o f t r a n s p o r t known as s u r f a c e
creep.
the r o l l i n g
Equations o f motion
The f o r c e s a c t i n g on a s a l t a t i n g p a r t i c l e a r e a downward f o r c e due t o i t s
submerged weight ( F q ) and hydrodynamic f l u i d f o r c e s , which can be r e s o l v e d
into a l i f t
f o r c e ( F ^ ) , a drag f o r c e ( F j ) ) , as shown i n F i g , 8.2,2A, The
d i r e c t i o n o f t h e drag f o r c e i s o p p o s i t e t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c l e
velocity
(v^,) r e l a t i v e t o t h e f l o w , w h i l e t h e l i f t
component i s i n t h e
normal d i r e c t i o n . I t i s assumed t h a t : (1) t h e p a r t i c l e s a r e s p h e r i c a l and

o f u n i f o r m d e n s i t y , and (2) t h e f o r c e s due t o f l u i d a c c e l e r a t i o n s a r e o f a
second o r d e r . With these assumptions,
t h e equations o f motion can be repe-
sented by:
(8.2.4)
r
in
which:
= p a r t i c l e mass and added f l u i d mass
v^= [ ( u - x ) ^ + ()^]*^'^ = p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y r e l a t i v e t o t h e f l o w
u
= local flow
velocity
= longitudinal
and v e r t i c a l p a r t i c l e
velocities
= longitudinal
velocities
X and z
= longitudinal
accelerations
The t o t a l mass o f t h e sphere can be represented by
m = ^ (pg+ a^p) 77 d^
(8.2.5)
/
in
which:
= added mass c o e f f i c i e n t
m
d
Assuming p o t e n t i a l f l o w , t h e added mass o f a p e r f e c t sphere i s e x a c t l y

equal t o h a l f t h e mass o f t h e f l u i d d i s p l a c e d
by t h e sphere. When t h e f l o w
i s separated from t h e s o l i d sphere, t h e added mass may be d i f f e r e n t . I n

the p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s , an added mass c o e f f i c i e n t equal t o 0,5 has been used.
The drag f o r c e , which i s caused by pressure and v i s c o u s s k i n
f o r c e s , can be expressed as:
friction
(8.2.6)
in
which:
Cq
= drag
coefficient
2
A = 1/4
IT d
= c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area o f the sphere
For the drag c o e f f i c i e n t the ( e m p i r i c a l ) expressions g i v e n by Morsi

Alexander
The l i f t
in
and
(1972) were used.

f o r c e i n a shear f l o w i s caused by the v e l o c i t y g r a d i e n t p r e s e n t
the f l o w (shear e f f e c t ) and by t h e s p i n n i n g motion o f the p a r t i c l e
(Magnus e f f e c t ) . For a sphere moving i n a v i s c o u s f l o w , Saffman
(1965)
d e r i v e d the f o l o w i n g e x p r e s s i o n :
F^(shear) = a^p v-^ d^ v^ i^f'^
in
ct^
(8.2.7)
which:
= lift
c o e f f i c i e n t (= 1.6 f o r v i s c o u s f l o w )
3u/3z = v e l o c i t y g r a d i e n t
Eq. 8.2.7
i s o n l y v a l i d f o r s m a l l Reynolds' numbers. The l i f t
f o r c e due t o
the s p i n n i n g motion i n a viscous f l o w was determined by Rubinow and
Keller
(1961):
Fj^(spin) = Oj^p d^ v^w
in
(8.2.8)
which:
= lift
c o e f f i c i e n t (= 0.4
f o r viscous f l o w )
) = a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y o f the p a r t i c l e
Saffman (1965) showed t h e o r e t i c a l l y t h a t f o r a viscous f l o w the l i f t f o r c e

due t o the p a r t i c l e r o t a t i o n i s l e s s by an order o f magnitude than
due t o the shear e f f e c t and may
that
t h e r e f o r e be n e g l e c t e d . Although t h e p r e -
v i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s are o n l y v a l i d f o r v i s c o u s f l o w , i t i s assumed
also i n t u r b u l e n t flow conditions the l i f t
f o r c e i s mainly caused by t h e
shear e f f e c t , which i s d e s c r i b e d by Eq. 8.2.7

as a c a l i b r a t i o n parameter.
in
that
u s i n g the l i f t
coefficient
T h i s l a t t e r approach has been used because
the p r e s e n t s t a t e o f research an exact expression f o r the l i f t
t u r b u l e n t f l o w c o n d i t i o n s i s not a v a i l a b l e .
force i n
-8.8-
The submerged p a r t i e l e weight can be described
by:
(8.2.9)
The
v e r t i c a l f l o w v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i s described
by:
u
u(z) =
in
(8.2.10)
which:
= bed-shear v e l o c i t y
= constant o f Von Karman.(=
Zo = 0.11(v/u^^) + 0.03
1<3^^ == z e r o - v e l o c i t y
0.4)
l e v e l above t h e bed
= e q u i v a l e n t roughness h e i g h t o f
4.
Nikuradse
Boundary c o n d i t i o n s and s o l u t i o n method

The bed l e v e l i s assumed a t a d i s t a n c e o f 0.25d below the t o p o f the part i c l e s , as shown i n F i g . 8.2.2B. I n i t s i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n a p a r t i c l e i s
supposed t o be r e s t i n g on a bed s u r f a c e o f close-packed
identical parti-
c l e s . The most s t a b l e p o s i t i o n w i l l be t h a t o f a p a r t i c l e r e s t i n g above

one o f the i n t e r s t i c e s formed by the top l a y e r o f the p a r t i c l e s o f the bed
s u r f a c e , which y i e l d s an i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n o f about 0.6d
above the bed
l e v e l . I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h i s s c h e m a t i z a t i o n can n o t r e p r e s e n t the movements o f a l l the bed-load p a r t i c l e s . The p a r t i c l e s i n the compacted bed

can o n l y be moved by the h i g h e s t f l u i d v e l o c i t i e s o f the spectrum
t i n g i n somewhat l a r g e r
s a l t a t i o n s . However, the m a j o r i t y
i s supposed t o be moving over the s u r f a c e o f close-packed

To s o l v e Eq.
resul-
o f the p a r t i c l e s
particles.
(8.2.4) the i n i t i a l v e r t i c a l and l o n g i t u d i n a l p a r t i c l e v e l o -
c i t i e s must be known. Measurements o f p a r t i c l e s i n a water stream by
Abbott
and F r a n c i s (1977) i n d i c a t e an average i n i t i a l l o n g i t u d i n a l and v e r t i c a l

v e l o c i t y o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2u^
White and S c h u l t z (1977) analyzed h i g h -
speed m o t i o n - p i c t u r e f i l m s o f s a l t a t i n g p a r t i c l e s i n a i r and observed a

l i f t - o f f v e l o c i t y v a r y i n g from u ^ t o 2.5u ^ and a l i f t - o f f angle v a r y i n g
from 30-70.
Equation (8.2,4) has been transformed t o a system o f o r d i n a r y
simultaneous
d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s o f the f i r s t o r d e r . T h i s system has been solved

n u m e r i c a l l y be means o f an automatic step-change d i f f e r e n t i a l
solver.
equation
Calibration
As experiments on s a l t a t i n g bed-load p a r t i c l e s are very scarce, the mathem a t i c a l model (Eq,
8,2.4) has
not been c a l i b r a t e d
experiments o f Fernandez Luque and

(1976). Fernandez Luque and
load t r a n s p o r t .
Van
Van
extensively; only
Beek were considered f o r
Beek c a r r i e d oud
temporal mean shear s t r e s s .
Fernandez Luque and
m a t e r i a l s : sand, g r a v e l , magnetite and
forms (plane bed).
Van
has
the
Beek used f o u r d i f f e -
walnut g r a i n s . The
transport
ym)
been used. The
and
experi-
stages
a bed-shear v e l o c i t y (u ) o f
r a t i o of the bed-shear v e l o c i t y and
p a r t i c l e f a l l v e l o c i t y f o r t h i s experimentis about 0.25.

t i o n s the sediment p a r t i c l e s can
For
only be t r a n s p o r t e d as bed
f o r e , the t r a j e c t o r i e s measured by Fernandez Luque and
Van
are somewhat wavy a t c e r t a i n l o c a t i o n s
the
these c o n d i l o a d . There-
Beek are
dered to be t r a j e c t o r i e s o f s a l t a t i n g p a r t i c l e s , a l t h o u g h the
Two
of
I n the present a n a l y s i s , only the experiment
w i t h g r a v e l p a r t i c l e s (d = 1800
m/s
the average number o f
time ( i n w a t e r ) as a f u n c t i o n
mental c o n d i t i o n s were r e s t r i c t e d to r e l a t i v e l y low
about 0.04
bed-
Advanced f i l m techniques were used t o measure the average
p a r t i c l e s d e p o s i t e d per u n i t area and
w i t h o u t bed
calibration
flume experiments on
p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y , the average s a l t a t i o n l e n g t h and
r e n t bed
the
consi-
trajectories
( F i g . 8.2.2C).
parameters were used t o c a l i b r a t e the model: the l i f t
coefficient
(uj^)
and
the e q u i v a l e n t roughness o f Nikuradse (K ) . As i n p u t data the f o l l o w i n g

s
e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s were used: d = p a r t i c l e diameter = I8OO ym (= 1.8
mm),
p s = d e n s i t y o f sediment = 2650 kg/m3, u ,c = bed-shear
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
=
0.04
_g
m/s,
V = k i n e m a t i c v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t = 1.10
d i n a l and
0.08
initial
longitu-
v e r t i c a l p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t i e s were assumed to be equal to 2u ^ =
m/s.
F i g . 8.2.2
C shows measured and
l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s and
As can
m2/s. The
computed p a r t i c l e t r a j e c t o r i e s f o r v a r i o u s
e q u i v a l e n t roughness h e i g h t s .
be observed, both c a l i b r a t i o n parameters have a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e
on
the computed t r a j e c t o r i e s . A reduced l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t r e s u l t s i n a reduct i o n o f the s a l t a t i o n l e n g t h .
I n c r e a s i n g the roughness h e i g h t a l s o reduces
the s a l t a t i o n l e n g t h c o n s i d e r a b l y , due
t o i t s d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e on
f l o w v e l o c i t y and
drag f o r c e s . As regards the
thus on
the l i f t and
the
average
p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y , the " b e s t " agreement between measured and
computed
values i s o b t a i n e d f o r
realistic
value f o r plane bed

wing t a b l e ) .
= 20 and
k^/d = 2 to 3, which i s a
c o n d i t i o n s w i t h a c t i v e sediment t r a n s p o r t
(see
local
follo-
-8.10-
Particle
characteristics
Computed ( a ^ = 20)
Measured
kg/d = 1
Particle
kg/d = 2
Ks/d = 3
velocity
5.4
V",c
Saltation
8.1
4.9
14.8
10.2
2.5
1.9
length
21-24
Saltation
6.1
23
height
6./d
b
2-3.5
3.5
The measured s a l t a t i o n h e i g h t and the measured p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y a r e " b e s t "

represented f o r
= 20 and k^/d = 2 t o 3. For these v a l u e s , however, a
r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e discrepancy between the measured and computed s a l t a t i o n

l e n g t h s can be observed ( T a b l e ) . I t i s supposed t h a t the measured p a r t i c l e
t r a j e c t o r i e s a r e i n f l u e n c e d somewhat by t u r b u l e n t
motions r e s u l t i n g i n a
l a r g e s a l t a t i o n l e n g t h . P a r t i c u l a r l y , t h e wavy p a t t e r n o f t h e measured
t r a j e c t o r i e s i n d i c a t e s the i n f l u e n c e o f the upward f l u i d f o r c e s by t u r b u lent
action.
F i n a l l y , some remarks must be made w i t h respect t o the l i f t

( a ^ ) . The v a l u e
coefficient
- 20, which i s needed t o r e p r e s e n t t h e p a r t i c l e
trajec-
t o r i e s measured by Fernandeze Luque, i s r a t h e r l a r g e compared w i t h t h e

value
= 1.6 f o r laminar f l o w (Eq, . 8.2.7). As the l i f t
coefficient
i s used as a c a l i b r a t i o n parameter, i t r e f l e c t s a l l i n f l u e n c e s ( f o r example, the f l u c t u a t i n g turbulent
motions, a d d i t i o n a l
p r o x i m i t y o f t h e w a l l and a d d i t i o n a l
pressure forces i n the
f o r c e s due t o l o c a l f l u i d
accelara-
t i o n s which a r e n o t taken i n t o account by the model.
Saltation
height
A p p l y i n g t h e mathematical model, the s a l t a t i o n h e i g h t s have been computed

f o r a range o f c o n d i t i o n s (ujf ^ = 0.04 - 0.14 m/s) and p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r s
(d = 100 - 2000 ym) assuming a f l a t bottom.
The f o l l o w i n g
parameters have been used (see F i g . 8.2.2):
kg = 2d,
*o =
=^0
= 2 u^^,
ZQ
= 0.6 d,
= 2650 kg/m3, v = I.IO'^mVs, a^^ = 0.5, K = 0.4 ,
-8.11-
= 1 .6 f or
= 20
R,} < 5,
f o r R^ > 70,
a, = 1.6 t o 20 ( l i n e a r ) f o r 5 < Rjf < 70.
The computed s a l t a t i o n h e i g h t s can be r e l a t e d t o a d i m e n s i o n l e s s bed-shear

parameter T (Eq. 3.3) and a dimensionless p a r t i c l e parameter D (Eq. 3 . 1 ) ,
as shown i n F i g . 8.2.3A. These curves can be approximated ( i n a c c u r a c y
10^) by the f o l l o w i n g e x p r e s s i o n s :
- 0.3
(8.2.11)
Experimental r e s u l t s have been presented by W i l l i a m s ( 1 9 7 0 ) .

W i l l i a m s c a r r i e d out flume experiments w i t h bed-load t r a n s p o r t (d^Q =
1350 ym) i n channels o f d i f f e r e n t w i d t h s and depths. According t o v i s u a l
e s t i m a t i o n , the bed-load p a r t i c l e s moved w i t h i n a zone o f no more than
about 8 p a r t i c l e diameters h i g h a t the l a r g e s t t r a n s p o r t stage ( p l a n e bd).
The h e i g h t o f the bed-load l a y e r was independent o f the f l o w d e p t h , b u t
Increased as the t r a n s p o r t stage decreased. Using the data o f W i l l i a m s
(u^g 0.09
m/s,
u j t ^ ^ j , = 0.03 m/s), Eq. (8.2.11) p r e d i c t s a s a l t a t i o n
h e i g h t o f about 10 p a r t i c l e diameters, which i s remarkably c l o s e t o t h e

observed v a l u e .
F i n a l l y , i t i s remarked t h a t Eq. (8.2.11) may p r e d i c t r e l a t i v e l y h i g h
values f o r the s a l t a t i o n h e i g h t , because i t i s based on computations f o r
i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s , n e g l e c t i n g the i n f l u e n c e o f a d j a c e n t p a r t i c l e s . I n
the
case o f c o l l e c t i v e motion o f the p a r t i c l e s , the a c t u a l
saltation
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as w e l l as the p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y , w i l l be reduced by p a r t i c l e c o l l i s i o n s i n the bed-load l a y e r .
7.
Saltation length
The computed s a l t a t i o n l e n g t h s are shown i n F i g . 8.2.3B. At the same Tparameter a s m a l l p a r t i c l e performs a s h o r t e r s a l t a t i o n than a l a r g e p a r t i c l e , because the bed-shear v e l o c i t y i n the s m a l l p a r t i c l e case i s much
smaller.
The curves can be approximated ( i n a c c u r a c y ^ 50%)
>
= 3 D.- T-'
by:
(8.2.12,
-8.12-
Experimental s u p p o r t f o r t h e computed s a l t a t i o n l e n g t h s can be o b t a i n e d

from experiments concerning the sampling e f f i c i e n c y o f bed-load
samplers
c a r r i e d o u t by Poreh e t a l (1970). They observed s a l t a t i o n l e n g t h s i n t h e

range Sd^Q-ÎOd^Q (d^Q = 1900 pm, u,^ ^ = 0.04-0.05 m/s). For these c o n d i t i o n s , t h e mathematical model p r e d i c t s a range from lOd^Q-SOdgQ ( F i g .
8.2.3).
Particle velocity
The p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y on a (downward) s l o p i n g bottom can be d e r i v e d from a
f o r c e balance c o n s i s t i n g o f the drag f o r c e F^^, t h e g r a v i t y f o r c e Fg and
the
f r i c t i o n f o r c e F^ exerted by t h e bottom on t h e p a r t i c l e d u r i n g c o n t a c t .
Thus,
- Fw
i n which:
FD
Cj^ A ( u ^ - u^^)
F^^ = (pg- p) g V tan(t) COS3

Fg = (pg- p) g V s i n e
1
A
= ij- IT d
1
= g 17 d
= p a r t i c l e area
3
= p a r t i c l e volume
4> = angle o f repose

g
= angle o f l o c a l bottom slope
U|^ = p a r t i c l e
velocity
Up = f l u i d v e l o c i t y
The f o r c e balance y i e l d s :
Assuming u.. = a. u . ^ and ^

I
1 *,c
^
^
Ic
._ _ a J ^ ^
1
2^ 0
^0
sinJi-6l,0.5
sin*
'
= a G
, i t follows that
2 cr,o
,q
'^^
-8.IS-
i n which:
u
= bed-shear
velocity
= c r i t i c a l m o b i l i t y parameter o f S h i e l d s on a h o r i z o n t a l bottom
= mobility
Oj,
= coefficients
parameter
The term sin((t)-B)/sincj) expresses the bottom slope e f f e c t on the p a r t i c l e

v e l o c i t y . F i g u r e 8.2.4A shows computed p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t i e s on a h o r i z o n t a l
bottom a c c o r d i n g t o the s a l t a t i o n model. The curves o f Van R i j n can be
approximated ( i n a c c u r a c y = ]Q%) by:
= 9 + 2.6 l o g
Ujf c
.
Fig.
- 8 l-^f-^
0
(8.2.14)
8.2.4A shows some data o f Fernandez Luque and F r a n c i s . As regards the
experiments o f Fernandez Luque, only the sand (d = 900 ym) and the g r a v e l
(d = 1800 ym) experiments f o r a f l a t bed-surface slope ( 3 = 0 ) were used.
From the experiments o f F r a n c i s only the g r a v e l data were used. As can be
observed, the ( s c a r c e ) data do not c o n f i r m the i n f l u e n c e o f the D^parameter as expressed by the mathematical model. More e x p e r i m e n t a l
research i s necessary t o i n v e s t i g a t e the D-influence. The c o m p u t a t i o n a l
r e s u l t s can a l s o be approximated (20^ i n a c c u r a c y ) by the f o l l o w i n g s i m p l e
expression:
1.5 T-^
(8.2.15)
[ ( s - 1 ) g d]-5
Equations (8.2.14) and (8.2.15) y i e l d values i n the range o f 3 t o 11 u
A reasonable average value i s about 7 u*
Using an e x p r e s s i o n s i m i l a r to Eq.(8.2.13) and data f i t t i n g , Engelund
and
Fredseie (1976) d e r i v e d :
^ = 1 0 - 7 [ V l - '
(8.2.16)
,c
Equation (8.2.16) i s shown i n F i g . 8.2.4A.
The i n f l u e n c e o f p a r t i c l e shape was i n v e s t i g a t e d by F r a n c i s ( 1 9 7 3 ) . His
experiments show t h a t angular p a r t i c l e s t r a v e l slower than s p h e r i c a l
-8.14-
p a r t i c l e s . The s p h e r i c a l p a r t i c l e s made v i o l e n t rebounds from t h e bed and

were l i f t e d t o h i g h e r l e v e l s where they experienced h i g h e r f l o w v e l o c i t i e s
than t h e angular p a r t i c l e s , r e s u l t i n g i n a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e average
particle velocity.
Bed-load c o n c e n t r a t i o n
The bed-load t r a n s p o r t r a t e i s d e f i n e d as:
^ = u^^ &^
p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y a c c o r d i n g t o Eq.(8.2.15),
d i n g t o Eq.(8.2.11) and
i n which Uj^ =
= s a l t a t i o n h e i g h t accor-
= bed-load c o n c e n t r a t i o n . T h i s l a t t e r paramter
(Cj^) can be determined a p p l y i n g measured bed-load t r a n s p o r t r a t e s (qj^ ^ ) .

When bed forms a r e p r e s e n t , the i n f l u e n c e o f t h e form drag (see s e c t i o n
7.2) which does n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e bed-load t r a n s p o r t , must be e l i m i nated. Van R i j n ( 1 9 8 4 )
expressed t h e g r a i n - s t r e s s as:
^b,c = ' \o
(8.2.17)
i n which:
2
y
= (C/C)
= bed form or e f f i c i e n c y
factor
= o v e r a l l Chzy c o e f f i c i e n t
C' = 18 log(12h/3 dgp) = Chzy-coefficient r e l a t e d t o g r a i n s

In a l l ,
ISO flume experiments w i t h p a r t i c l e diameters (d^g) r a n g i n g from
200 t o 2000 ym, water depths l a r g e r than 0.1 m and a Froude number s m a l l e r
than 0 . 9 have been s e l e c t e d from t h e L i t e r a t u r e . The i n f l u e n c e o f s i d e w a l l roughness was e l i m i n a t e d by u s i n g t h e method o f Vanoni and Brooks
(1957).
A n a l y s i s o f t h e r e s u l t s showed t h a t the bed-load c o n c e n t r a t i o n can be
represented by:
7^ = 0.18 |o
(8.2.18)
i n which: c^ = maximum volume c o n c e n t r a t i o n = 0.65
Equation ( 8 . 2 . 1 8 ) ,
as w e l l as t h e computed v a l u e s , a r e presented i n F i g .
8 . 2 . 4 B . About 8 0 ^ o f t h e computed values a r e w i t h i n t h e range o f h a l f and

double the average v a l u e a c c o r d i n g t o Eq. ( 8 . 2 . 1 8 ) ,
which i s r a t h e r good
f o r a sediment t r a n s p o r t t h e o r y . As o n l y a m i n o r i t y (25%) o f t h e d a t a cover
-8.15-
t h e experiments w i t h p a r t i c l e s s m a l l e r than about 300 pm, t h e r e i s a need

f o r f u r t h e r e x p e r i m e n t a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e bed-load t r a n s p o r t i n t h e
s m a l l p a r t i c l e range t o i n c r e a s e t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e proposed
Eq.(8.2.l8).
F i n a l l y , i t must be s t r e s s e d t h a t Eq.(8.2.l8) o n l y g i v e s an e s t i m a t e o f
t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e bed-load p a r t i c l e s i n t h e s a l t a t i o n l a y e r a t t h e
u p s l o p i n g p a r t o f t h e bed form.
10. Bed-load t r a n s p o r t f o r m u l a
A p p l y i n g Eqs.(8.2.11), (8.2,15) and (8.2.18) t h e bed l o a d t r a n s p o r t r a t e
( i n m2/s) f o r p a r t i c l e s i n t h e range o f 200-2000 ym can be computed as
(Van R i j n ,
%,c =
1984):
[(s-1)g]'5dg^-^ D ; - 3 T ^ - " "
(8.2,19)
i n which:
%
Q
2 1/3
[(s-1)g/v ]
0 =
= bed l o a d t r a n s p o r t
(m2/s)
= p a r t i c l e parameter
(-)
T = ( T ' - T.
)/T,
= bed-shear s t r e s s parameter
b,c
b,cr
b,cr
_
2
T'
= y T,
= pg[u/C'] = e f f e c t i v e bed-shear s t r e s s
Q,C
(-)
(N/m^)
D,O
0 , 5
C' = 18 l o g ( 1 2 h / 3 dg^)
= g r a i n - r e l a t e d Chzy-coefficient
= water depth
(m)
s = p /p
= s p e c i f i c density
(-)
= depth-averaged v e l o c i t y
% 0 ' ^^90
" P ^ f ' t i c l e diameters o f bed m a t e r i a l
= kinematic v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t
T,
= ( p - p ) g d(- 0
= c r i t i c a l bed-shear
(ra
/s)
(m/s)
(m)
(m^/s)
stress according
t o S h i e l d s (Eq. 5.1.2)
A p p l y i n g Eqs,(8,2. 11), (8,2.18) and u.
(-)
which i s an average v a l u e
r e p r e s e n t i n g Eq.(8.2.15), i t f o l l o w s t h a t :
% , c = 0-25 "4,0 ^^50
(8.2.20)
i n which:
0 5u^ ^ = g ' u/C = g r a i n - r e l a t e d bed-shear v e l o c i t y (m/s)
C'
= l 8 l o g ( 1 2 h / 3 d ^ J = g r a i n - r e l a t e d Chzy-coefficient (m"^/s).
-8.16-
Equation (8.2.19) can be approximated ( i n a c c u r a c y = 25%) by t h e f o l l o w i n g

simple f o r m u l a (Van R i j n , 1984):
- ^^
.
2.4
q, ^ = 0.005 a h (
dp^ 1.2
(_|0^
(8.2.21)
i n which:
= depth-averaged f l o w v e l o c i t y
(m/s)
= c r i t i c a l depth-averaged f l o w v e l o c i t y based on S h i e l d s
(m/s)
= water depth
(m)
^^ = 0.19 (d^Q)-''log(12h/3 dgp)
for
0.0001 < d^^ < 0.0005 (8.2.22)
^^ = 8.5 ( d g o ) ^ " ^ log(12h/3 dgg)
for
0.0005 < d^^ < 0.002
d^Q, dgQ = p a r t i c l e diameters o f bed m a t e r i a l ( i n m e t e r s ) .
8.2.6
T r a n s p o r t a t low shear s t r e s s
E x t e n s i v e measurements o f low bed load t r a n s p o r t r a t e s were performed and

analyzed by P a i n t a l (1971). Based on t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s ,
Paintal
proposed:
q,=a(s-1)-5 gO-5,1^5 ,3
(8,2,23)
a = 6.56 10^8
(
6 = 16
2
0 = U j j / ( s - 1 ) g ^Q] = bed-shear s t r e s s parameter
Equation (8.2.23) i s v a l i d f o r 0 < 0.06 and d^Q < 5000 ym,
8.2.7
T r a n s p o r t o f non-uniform bed m a t e r i a l
Approach
B a s i c a l l y , t h e bed m a t e r i a l i n n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s c o n s i s t s o f n o n - u n i f o r m
sediment p a r t i c l e s , R i b b e r i n k (1987) has shown t h a t t h e n o n - u n i f o r m i t y
effects
may become i m p o r t a n t when t h e g e o m e t r i c a l s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n ( a ^ =^ Q^/^Q) o f

the bed m a t e r i a l i s l a r g e r than about 3,
(
-8.17-
G e n e r a l l y , t h e approach
i s t o d i v i d e t h e bed m a t e r i a l i n a number o f s i z e
f r a c t i o n s and t o apply an e x i s t i n g t r a n s p o r t f o r m u l a f o r each s i z e
fraction
w i t h a c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r ( 5 ^ ) t o account f o r t h e n o n - u n i f o r m i t y e f f e c t s .
The c o r r e c t i o n i s necessary because t h e coarser p a r t i c l e s a r e more exposed t o
the f l o w than t h e f i n e r p a r t i c l e s which a r e somewhat s h e l t e r e d by t h e coarse
p a r t i c l e s . T h i s c o r r e c t i o n can be e f f e c t u a t e d by i n c r e a s i n g t h e c r i t i c a l
s h e a r s - s t r e s s o f the f i n e r p a r t i c l e s and decreasing t h e v a l u e o f t h e c o a r s e r
particles.
Taking t h e f o r m u l a o f Meyer-Peter and Mller ( 1 9 4 8 ) , t h e bed l o a d
transport
r a t e i n t e g r a t e d over the f r a c t i o n s reads as:
%,c =J^
in
'i^
^b - h
(8-2.24)
\,or^''^
which:
= bed l o a d t r a n s p o r t r a t e i n t e g r a t e d over N f r a c t i o n s
= percentage o f s i z e f r a c t i o n i o f t h e bed m a t e r i a l
= constant
= s p e c i f i c d e n s i t y (= 2 . 6 5 )
li
= bed form f a c t o r
= bed-shear s t r e s s
= correction factor
Tjj^j,^
"^m " ^ ^ i
N
= c r i t i c a l bed-shear s t r e s s based on t h e average diameter dj^

' ^ i " average diameter o f bed m a t e r i a l
= number o f s i z e f r a c t i o n s
G e n e r a l l y , t h e c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r 5^ i s assumed t o be equal t o u n i t y f o r d^ =
d^. Thus 5 i = 1 f o r d i = d.
Egiazaroff (1965)
î
'
proposed:
- l l o g ( 1 9 d./djjj)J
Equation ( 8 . 2 . 2 5 ) y i e l d s
(8.2.25)
5 f o r d^/d^ = 0 . 2 and
" 0 . 4 f o r dj^/d^ = 5 .
The p a r t i c l e diameter o f t h e t r a n s p o r t e d bed l o a d p a r t i c l e s can be expressed

as:
-8.18-
-I,
(8.2.26)
Ribberink
(1987) has
c a r r i e d out some s e n s i t i v i t y computations a p p l y i n g
f o r m u l a of Meyer-Peter and Mller f o r a bed m a t e r i a l w i t h 0

s
the
=2.5.
V a r a t i o n o f the number o f s i z e f r a c t i o n s showed t h a t a t l e a s t 5 f r a c t i o n s a r e

necessary t o o b t a i n constant r e s u l t s . The
average diameter (d^^^) was
bed load t r a n s p o r t r a t e based on
the
not more than ]0% l a r g e r than the t r a n s p o r t r a t e
base on the s i z e f r a c t i o n method. The

the t r a n s p o r t e d m a t e r i a l was
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e p a r t i c l e diameter (d^^) o f
about 30% s m a l l e r
than the average bed
material
diameter (dj^) a t the s m a l l e s t shear s t r e s s ( c l o s e t o the t h r e s h o l d shear

stress).
Vertical sorting
V e r t i c a l s o r t i n g takes place i n the upper l a y e r o f the bed which g e n e r a l l y
covered w i t h bed
forms. The
is
p a r t i c l e s t h a t are ( o c c a s i o n a l l y ) t a k i n g p a r t i n
the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n process are present i n a l a y e r w i t h a t h i c k n e s s equal t o

the l a r g e s t bed
Flume and
form h e i g h t .
f i e l d observations
show a v e r t i c a l s o r t i n g e f f e c t w i t h f i n e r
c l e s d o m i n a t i n g i n the upper l a y e r s and
coarser p a r t i c l e s dominating i n the
lower l a y e r s a t the trough l e v e l o f the bed

explained
the bed
parti-
forms. T h i s s o r t i n g e f f e c t can
be
by the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n process. A f t e r the moving p a r t i c l e s have passed
form c r e s t , they r o l l and
s l i d e down the l e e s i d e slope o f the bed
form.
As a r e s u l t o f g r a v i t y the coarser p a r t i c l e s have the l a r g e s t p r o b a b i l i t y t o

reach the deepest p a r t o f the bed form t r o u g h . Armoring o f the bed
an immobile f r a c t i o n i s present i n the top l a y e r o f the bed.
c l e s w i l l be c a r r i e d away by the f l o w and
The
occurs when
finer
the immobile p a r t i c l e s w i l l
partieventu-
a l l y form an armor l a y e r .
8.2.8
Comparison o f bed l o a d t r a n s p o r t forumulae
A l a r g e amount
1500 ym)
500)
o f bed load t r a n s p o r t r a t e s (d^Q i n the range 110
measured i n flume and
field
c o n d i t i o n s have been s e l e c t e d from
L i t e r a t u r e t o v e r i f y the formulae o f Van

Frijlink
(see Van
R i j n , 1986). The
the
R i j n , Meyer-Peter and Mller, and
r e s u l t s are presented i n terms o f a d i s c r e -
pancy r a t i o ( r ) d e f i n e d as the r a t i o o f the computed and measured bed
load
t r a n s p o r t r a t e . The
percentage o f r - v a l u e s o f a l l data f a l l i n g i n the ranges
0.75
< r < 2 and
< r < 1.5;
0.5
0.33
< r < 3 are given
i n the f o l l o w i n g t a b l e :
(
-8.19-
Formula
Percentage o f r-values i n a c e r t a i n range

0 . 7 5 < r < 1.5
Van
Rijn
0.5
< r < 2
0.33
< r < 3
3455
63%
85^
Meyer-Peter-Miiller
3155
60%
8155
Frijlink
3155
62%
8955
The
r e s u l t s o f t h e t h r e e methods a r e about t h e same. The t o t a l l o a d
formulas
o f Engelund-Hansen and Ackers-White ( s e c t i o n 7 . 3 ) produce s i m i l a r values f o r

l a r g e p a r t i c l e s i z e s (d^Q > 500 ym), assuming t h a t t h e bed l o a d t r a n s p o r t i s
about equal t o t h e t o t a l l o a d t r a n s p o r t (Van R i j n , 1 9 8 4 ) . F i n a l l y , t h e accuracy o f t h e measured t r a n s p o r t r a t e s i s reviewed. I t must be s t r e s s e d t h a t an
i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f flume experiments performed under s i m i l a r f l o w c o n d i t i o n s
( e q u a l depth, v e l o c i t y , p a r t i c l e s i z e , temperature) by v a r i o u s r e s e a r c h
workers
showed d e v i a t i o n s upto a f a c e r 2 , Thus, even under c o n t r o l l e d flume c o n d i t i o n s ,

the accuracy o f t h e measured values may be r a t h e r low, which may be caused by
the i n f l u e n c e o f t h e a p p l i e d width-depth
r a t i o , t h e a p p l i e d adjustment p e r i o d
t o e s t a b l i s h u n i f o r m f l o w c o n d i t i o n s and t h e a p p l i e d e x p e r i m e n t a l
method
(sand
feed o r r e c i r c u l a t i n g f l u m e ) .
C o n c l u d i n g , i t may be s t a t e d t h a t i t i s h a r d l y p o s s i b l e t o p r e d i c t t h e t r a n s p o r t r a t e w i t h an inaccuracy
8.3
8.3.1
The
l e s s than f a c t o r 2 .
Suspended l o a d t r a n s p o r t
Introduction
d e p t h - i n t e g r a t e d suspended l o a d t r a n s p o r t i s d e f i n e d as t h e d e p t h - i n t e g r a -
t i o n o f t h e p r o d u c t o f v e l o c i t y ( u ) and c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( c ) , as f o l l o w s (see
Fig.
8.3.1):
h
=
'
u c dz
(8.3.1)
A p p l i c a t i o n o f Eq. ( 8 . 3 . 1 ) r e q u i r e s i n f o r m a t i o n o f t h e v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e , t h e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e and a r e f e r e n c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n (c.,). This l a t t e r v a r i a b l e
a
g e n e r a l l y i s s p e c i f i e d a t a r e f e r e n c e l e v e l (z=a) c l o s e t o t h e bed. Three p r e d i c t i o n method based on t h i s approach a r e d e s c r i b e d : E i n s t e i n ( 1 9 5 0 ) , B i j k e r
( 1 9 7 1 ) and Van R i j n ( 1 9 8 4 ) , w h i l e a l s o t h e formula o f Bagnold ( 1 9 6 6 ) i s g i v e n .
-8.20-
8.3.2
Mass-balance e q u a t i o n f o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n
I n a steady u n i f o r m f l o w the v e r t i c a l e q u i l i b r i u m
related
and t h e downward g r a v i t y - r e l a t e d
c w
+ e
s,m
s,c
o f the upward
turbulence-
t r a n s p o r t can be expressed as:
(8.3.2)
P- = 0
dz
in which:
c
- sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t h e i g h t z above bed
Wg
= p a r t i c l e f a l l velocity i n a fluid-sediment
= sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t r e l a t e d
mixture
to current
S y0
8.3.3
Sediment m i x i n g
coefficient
Various d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f the f l u i d m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t ( e ^ ) can be found i n t h e

L i t e r a t u r e . Herein, the f o l l o w i n g
d i s t r i b u t i o n s are given
(see F i g . 8 . 3 . 2 A ) :
: e
= K u h
f,c
,c
constant
1
: e^^^ = -
linear
(8.3.3)
z
(8.3.4)
k: u.^^h ^
(8.3.5)
parabolic
: e^^^ = K u^^h f ( 1 - | )
p a r a b o l i c - c o n s t a n t : e
=
h ^ ( 1 - ^)
for
^ < 0.5
(8.3.6)
^ f , c = 0-25 K u
for
^ > 0.5
i n which
"*,c
h
= current-related
waterdepth
bed-shear v e l o c i t y
= vertical
= Van Karman c o n s t a n t (0.4)
coordinate
constant
The p a r a b o l i c d i s t r i b u t i o n i s most s a t i s f a c t o r y
i n a p h y s i c a l sense because i t
i s based on a l i n e a r shear s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n and a l o g a r i t h m i c v e l o c i t y

p r o f i l e . A disadvantage o f t h e p a r a b o l i c d i s t r i b u t i o n i s t h a t i t y i e l d s
-8.21-
z e r o - c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t t h e water s u r f a c e . Sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s based on

the
a n a l y s i s o f measured c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s (Coleman, 1970) i n d i c a t e a
p a r a b o l i c - c o n s t a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n r a t h e r than a p a r a b o l i c one, as shown i n

F i g u r e 8.3.2B.
U s u a l l y , the m i x i n g o r d i f f u s i o n o f the sediment p a r t i c l e s i s r e l a t e d t o t h e

f l u i d mixing c o e f f i c i e n t f o r a c l e a r f l u i d ( e ^ ) , as f o l l o w s :
^s,c = ' * ^ f , c
(8.3.7)
6-factor
The 3 - f a c t o r d e s c r i b e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n the d i f f u s i o n o f a f l u i d
"particle"
(or
s m a l l coherent f l u i d s t r u c t u r e ) and a d i s c r e t e sediment p a r t i c l e .
Herein,
the
3 - f a c t o r i s assumed t o be constant over t h e f l o w depth. I n f o r m a t i o n o f
the
8 - f a c t o r can be o b t a i n e d from a study c a r r i e d o u t by Coleman (1970). Based
on Equation (8.3.2), Coleman computed t h e sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s (see

F i g u r e 8.3.2B). The p r e s e n t w r i t e r used t h e r e s u l t s o f Coleman t o determine
the
3 - f a c t o r , d e f i n e d as 3 = e
/e
. The e
-value was computed from
s,max f,max
f,max
^
Equation(8.3.6) f o r z/h = 0.5. The e
-value was determined as t h e average
v a l u e o f t h e e -values i n the upper h a l f o f t h e f l o w ( a s g i v e n by Coleman,

Fig.
8.3.2B) where t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l . The 6 - f a c t o r s can
be represented by t h e f o l l o w i n g f u n c t i o n :
w
2
w
3 = 1 + 2
(-^)
"*,c
f o r 0.1 <
< 1
(8.3.8)
",c
Equation (8.3.8) s p e c i f i e s a value l a r g e r than u n i t y i n d i c a t i n g a dominant

i n f l u e n c e o f t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s which cause t h e p r a t i c l e s t o be thrown t o
the
o u t s i d e o f t h e eddies w i t h a consequent increase o f the e f f e c t i v e m i x i n g
l e n g t h . Given t h e l i m i t e d knowledge o f the p h y s i c a l procesess i n v o l v e d , i t i s

n o t a d v i s a b l e t o use a 3 - f a c t o r l a r g e r than 2.
(t)-factor
The 4i-factor expresses t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e sediment p a r t i c l e s on t h e t u r b u l e n c e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e f l u i d (damping e f f e c t s ) . U s u a l l y t h e damping e f f e c t i s
taken i n t o account by reducing t h e constant o f Von Karman ( K ) .
S e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s have observed
t h a t t h e c o n s t a n t o f Von Karman becomes
l e s s than t h e value o f 0.4 ( c l e a r f l o w ) i n t h e case o f a heavy
sediment-laden
-8.22-
f l o w over a r i g i d , f l a t bed. I t has a l s o been observed t h a t the f l o w
veloci-
t i e s i n a l a y e r c l o s e t o the bed a r e reduced, w h i l e i n the r e m a i n i n g p a r t o f

t h e f l o w t h e r e a r e l a r g e r f l o w v e l o c i t i e s . A p p a r e n t l y , the m i x i n g i s reduced
by the presence o f a l a r g e amount o f sediment
particles.
According t o E i n s t e i n and Chien [ 1 9 5 5 ] , who determined the amount o f energy

needed t o keep the p a r t i c l e s i n suspension, the constant o f Von Karman i s a
f u n c t i o n o f t h e depth-averaged
c o n c e n t r a t i o n , the p a r t i c l e f a l l v e l o c i t y
and
t h e bed-shear v e l o c i t y .
A l t h o u g h Ippen [1971] supposed t h a t the c o n s t a n t o f Von Karman i s p r i m a r i l y a
f u n c t i o n o f some c o n c e n t r a t i o n near the bed, an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f E i n s t e i n
Abdel-Aal [1972] showed o n l y a weak c o r r e l a t i o n between the near-bed
and
concen-
t r a t i o n and t h e c o n s t a n t o f Von Karman.

Coleman [1980] questioned the i n f l u e n c e o f the sediment p a r t i c l e s on the cons t a n t o f Von Karman. He re-analyzed the o r i g i n a l d a t a o f E i n s t e i n - C h i e n and
Vanoni-Brooks
and concluded t h a t they used an erroneous method t o d e t e r m i n e
t h e c o n s t a n t o f Von Karman.
I n view o f these c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i t may
be questioned whether the concept o f an
o v e r a l l c o n s t a n t o f Von Karman f o r the e n t i r e v e l o c i t y i s c o r r e c t f o r a heavy

sediment-laden
flow.
The p r e s e n t w r i t e r (Van R i j n , 1984) assumed a concentration-dependent

i})-factor and found by c a l i b r a t i o n u s i n g measured c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s , the
f o l l o w i n g expression ( F i g . 8.3.3A):
= W
[2-J-3 -2[-,'t
O
(8.3.9)
in which:
c
= l o c a l concentration
(volume)
c^ = maximum c o n c e n t r a t i o n
0.65
F i g u r e 8.3.3B shows one o f the c a l i b r a t i o n r e s u l t s (experiment o f E i n s t e i n

Ning-Chien,
1955). As can be observed, the (^-factor a c c o r d i n g t o Eq.
and
(8.3.9)
y i e l d s good agreement i n the near-bed r e g i o n , b u t l e s s good agreement i n t h e

upper l a y e r . A p p l y i n g ij> = 1, y i e l d s computed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s which are an o r d e r
o f magnitude
t o o l a r g e compared w i t h measured values (see F i g . 8 . 3 . 3 B ) .
F i n a l l y , i t i s noted t h a t the <j)-factor i s o n l y i m p o r t a n t f o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

l a r g e r than about 0.001
( 2.5 kg/m3), (Van R i j n ,
1984).
-8.23-
8.3.4
Concentration
Expressions
profiles
f o r t h e sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s can be o b t a i n e d by
i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e c o n v e c t i o n - d i f f u s i o n equation (Eq. 8 . 3 . 2 ) u s i n g r e l e v a n t
expressions
f o r the mixing c o e f f i c i e n t . As bed-boundary c o n d i t i o n a r e f e r e n c e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( c ) a t a s m a l l d i s t a n c e ( a ) above t h e mean bed i s a p p l i e d

3.
(integration constant).
low c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ( c < 0 . 0 0 1 )
Hindered
s e t t l i n g e f f e c t s and t u r b u l e n c e damping e f f e c t s can be n e g l e c t e d .
I n t e g r a t i o n o f Eq, ( 8 . 3 . 2 )
yields:
-a,(Z/h)(z-a)
c o n s t a n t e
I
: = e
c
a
(8,3.10)
linear
: ^ = ()
a
(8.3.11)
parabolic
parabolic-constant
(8.3.12)
--
^ =
a
c
Yi~a}
h ^
(8.3.13)
(a ^Zr^^-4Z(z/h-0.5)
^_^^.^^^-HM./n-u..,
f , , z , 0 . 5
0.
in
which:
= c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t h e i g h t z above the mean bed
c^ = r e f e r e n c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t h e i g h t z = a above bed
h
= water
depth
/(BKU^
) = suspension number
s
,c
Wg = f a l l v e l o c i t y i n c l e a r water
Z
= w
F i g u r e 8 . 3 . 3 C shows t h e above-given c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s f o r w /u^
= 0,2,
3 = 1, K = 0,4 giving Z = 0,5.
Equation
( 8 , 3 . 1 2 ) and ( 8 , 3 . 1 3 ) y i e l d t h e best agreement w i t h measured concen-
t r a t i o n s . F i g u r e 8 . 3 . 4 shows Eq, ( 8 , 3 . 1 2 ) f o r d i f f e r e n t values o f Z i n compar i s o n w i t h measured c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (Vanoni,
1 9 4 6 ) . Equation
(8.3.13) yields a
f i n i t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t the water s u r f a c e , w h i l e Eq. ( 8 . 3 . 1 2 ) g i v e s a zero

c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t the water s u r f a c e which i s l e s s r e a l i s t i c .
-8.24-
Chien
a p p l i e d Eq.
(1954)
(8.3.12)
t o determine
t h e Z-parameter from measured
c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s . The measured Z-values (Z = w / B K U ^

a g a i n s t computed Z-values (Z = w
/K\X^
),
as shown i n F i g .
) were p l o t t e d
8.3.5A.
The r e s u l t s
show s m a l l e r measured Z-values. This can be i n t e r p r e t e d as a ^ - f a c t o r
larger
than 1 ( 6 > 1 ) .
High c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ( c >
0.001)
I n case o f f l o w i n t h e upper regime t h e sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e
should
be d e s c r i b e d by t a k i n g i n t o account t h e hindered s e t t l i n g e f f e c t and t h e t u r bulence damping e f f e c t ( ( t ) - f a c t o r ) . M o d e l l i n g o f both e f f e c t s r e q u i r e s t h e

application
o f n u m e r i c a l s o l u t i o n methods t o s o l v e Eq. ( 8 . 3 . 2 ) .
The h i n d e r e d
s e t t l i n g e f f e c t s tends t o increase t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n because t h e f a l l
velocity
i s reduced, w h i l e t h e t u r b u l e n c e damping e f f e c t tends t o decrease t h e concent r a t i o n because t h e sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t i s reduced.

According
t o Winterwerp e t a l
(1989),
t u r b u l e n c e damping due t o the presence
o f l a r g e v e r t i c a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( d e n s i t y ) g r a d i e n t s occurs f o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
upto c = 0 . 2 . For i n c r e a s i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (c > 0 . 2 ) t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o file
tends t o become .uniform due t o dominating h i n d e r e d s e t t l i n g e f f e c t s and
t u r b u l e n c e damping disappears
(Fig,
8.3.5B),
Equation
because t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n g r a d i e n t s
i n combination w i t h
(8.3.12)
hindered s e t t l i n g e f f e c t s shows reasonable

(c^ dl
Eq.(4.2.24)
disappear
representing
agreement w i t h measured
values
0.35).
The p r e s e n t w r i t e r (Van R i j n , 1 9 8 4 ) has presented a s i m p l i f i e d method based on

t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f Eq.
t o d e s c r i b e the c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e i n com-
(8.3.13)
b i n a t i o n w i t h a m o d i f i e d suspension number Z' d e f i n e d a s :

Z'
= Z +
in
which:
.
(8.3.14)
Z = suspension number and

i|j = c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r r e p r e s e n t i n g hindered s e t t l i n g e f f e c t s and t u r b u l e n c e
damping e f f e c t s .
The ip-factor can be determined
as f o l l o w s . F i r s t , t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e i s
computed n u m e r i c a l l y s o l v i n g Eq.
the f a l l v e l o c i t y
and Eqs.
(8.3.2)
(8.3.6),
and a p p l y i n g Eq.
(4.2.24)
(8.3.7),
t o represent the
(8.3.9)
t o represent
sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t . Second, t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e i s computed f r o m

(
-8.25-
Eqs.
( 8 . 3 . 1 3 ) and (8.3.14), a p p l y i n g a i l j - f a c t o r t h a t y i e l d s a c o n c e n t r a t i o n
p r o f i l e s i m i l a r as t h a t obtained i n the f i r s t
( n u m e r i c a l ) method. This p r o c e -
dure has been repeated f o r a range o f c o n d i t i o n s . A n a l y s i s o f a l l r e s u l t s gave

the f o l l o w i n g
^ = 2.5
relationship:
hf-f-^
ih''-'^
O
*,C
f o r 0.01 <y-<
* ,c
(8.3.15)
i n which:
c^ = maximum volume c o n c e n t r a t i o n = 0.65
F i g u r e 8.3.3B shows computed (based on Eq. ( 8 . 3 . 1 3 ) and ( 8 . 3 . 1 4 ) ) and measured

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s f o r t h e h i g h - c o n c e n t r a t i o n experiment o f Ning Chien. Good
agreement can be observed.
8.3.5
Velocity profile
I n case o f low sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (c < 0.001) and h y d r a u l i c rough c o n d i t i o n s , t h e l o g a r i t h m i c v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e can be a p p l i e d , as f o l l o w s :
(8.3.16)
u = ^ l n ( 2 - )
i n which:
Ujj
= c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed-shear v e l o c i t y
z^
= 0.033 kg = z e r o - v e l o c i t y l e v e l
= Constant o f Von Karman (K = 0 . 4 ) .
V e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s i n h i g h (hyper) c o n c e n t r a t i o n f l o w have been s t u d i e d by many

researchers
( E i n s t e i n - N i n g Chien (1955), Coleman (1980) and Winterwerp e t a l
(1989).
Einstein-Wing
Chien found reduced v e l o c i t i e s i n the near-bed r e g i o n , which
was
r e p r e s e n t e d as a reduced K - v a l u e .
Coleman a l s o observed reduced v e l o c i t i e s near t h e bed. He i n t r o d u c e d an a d d i t i o n a l t u r b u l e n c e - r e l a t e d parameter t o r e p r e s e n t the e f f e c t o f t h e sediment
c o n c e n t r a t i o n on t h e v e l o c i t i e s , the K-parameter was kept
constant.
Winterwerp e t a l d i d experiments w i t h depth-averaged volume c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

r a n g i n g from c = 0 t o c = ' 0 . 4 .
They found a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e K-parameter f r o m
-8.26-
K = 0.4
to K
0.25
f o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n c r e a s i n g from c = 0 t o c = 0.1,
n e a r l y c o n s t a n t K-value o f about 0.25
f o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n the range o f
c = 0 . 1 t o c = = 0 . 2 and an increase o f the K value t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y

concentrations increasing to c 0.4.
for
0.4
(see F i g . 8.3.50). According
to
Winterwerp e t a l , t u r b u l e n c e damping due t o the presence o f l a r g e v e r t i c a l

c o n c e n t r a t i o n g r a d i e n t s occurs f o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s upto c = 0.2.
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ( c > 0.2)
For i n c r e a s i n g
the c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e tends t o become u n i f o r m
to d o m i n a t i n g hindered s e t t l i n g e f f e c t s and
t u r b u l e n c e damping
because the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s g r a d i e n t s disappear
due
disappears
( K approaches t o 0 . 4 ,
Fig.
8.3.5B,C).
8.3.6
Reference c o n c e n t r a t i o n and r e f e r e n c e l e v e l
Reference l e v e l i n case o f a f l a t
bed
The most l o g i c assumption f o r the l o c a t i o n o f the boundary ( o r r e f e r e n c e

l e v e l ) f o r sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i s the upper edge o f the bed-load l a y e r .
For a p e r f e c t l y f l a t bed a good e s t i m a t e o f the t h i c k n e s s o f the bed-load
l a y e r can be o b t a i n e d by t a k i n g the maximum s a l t a t i o n h e i g h t o f t h e bed-load
p a r t i c l e s (Van R i j n , 1984). This leads t o a value o f the o r d e r o f lOd^g ôr
f l a t bed f l o w i n the upper regime. The
concentrations t h a t close t o the
w i l l be r a t h e r l a r g e and hence the h i n d e r e d s e t t l i n g e f f e c t and
bed
the turbulence
damping e f f e c t must be taken i n t o account. However, a t p r e s e n t stage

r e s e a r c h t h e knowledge o f these processes i s r a t h e r l i m i t e d which may
of
easily
r e s u l t i n l a r g e e r r o r s o f the p r e d i c t e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s as w i l l be shown by a
computation
example f o r a f l a t mobile bed
( F i g . 8.3.6A). The
p r o f i l e has been computed n u m e r i c a l l y by a p p l y i n g Eqs.

combination
concentration
( 8 . 3 . 2 ) and
w i t h a p a r a b o l i c - c o n s t a n t m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t . The
(4.2.24) i n
suspension
number Z = w / ( 6 K u^ ) i s taken 0.625. Because o f e r r o r s i n w , g, K and

s
,c
s
u^
) t h e inaccuracy o f the suspension number w i l l be r a t h e r l a r g e ( s a y , a t
l e a s t 2555). F i g u r e 8.3.6A shows c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s f o r Z = 0.625
0.175
( 2555). As can be observed, an e r r o r o f about 2555 i n the Z-parameter l e a d s t o

a c o n c e n t r a t i o n e r r o r o f a f a c t o r 3 a t a l e v e l o f z = 0.5
h (mid d e p t h ) and
an
e r r o r o f a f a c t o r 2 a t a l e v e l o f z = 0.1 h.
Based on these r e s u l t s , i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t the a p p l i c a t i o n o f a r e f e r e n c e
at
level
t h e upper edge o f the bed-load l a y e r i s n o t very a t t r a c t i v e f o r reasons o f
accuracy.
-8.27-
Reference l e v e l i n case o f bed
forms
B a s i c a l l y , the f l o w over a boundary covered w i t h bed

u n i f o r m showing a c c e l e r a t i o n e f f e c t s a t the u p s l o p i n g
t i o n e f f e c t s a t the downsloping s e c t i o n s (see Figure
forms (dunes) i s nons e c t i o n s and
decelera-
8.3.6B).
The
bed-load p a r t i c l e s are t r a n s p o r t e d c l o s e t o the bed
and
s a l t a t i n g a t the u p s l o p i n g
by r o l l i n g ,
sliding
s e c t i o n s o f the dunes. A r r i v i n g a t the t o p o f
the dune, the m a j o r i t y o f the bed-load p a r t i c l e s Jumps over the edge and r o l l s
down the l e e s i d e slope o f the dune towards the dune t r o u g h where they
b u r i e d w a i t i n g f o r a new
The
(transport) cycle.
suspended load p a r t i c l e s are e n t r a i n e d from the bed-load l a y e r
a t the u p s l o p i n g
are
s e c t i o n . The
entrainment
developing
r a t e i s maximum a t the dune t o p
( l a r g e v e l o c i t i e s ) . Above the dune t r o u g h the suspended p a r t i c l e s are t r a n s p o r t e d f u r t h e r upwards by t u r b u l e n c e m i x i n g produced i n the shear l a y e r s o f
the v o r t e x generated i n the dune t r o u g h .
A d e t a i l e d mathematical r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the afore-mentioned processes r e q u i r e s the a p p l i c a t i o n o f a s o p h i s t i c a t e d model such as the K-E
model
(Rodi,
1980) i n combination w i t h a c o n v e c t i o n - d i f f u s i o n model f o r the suspended

sediment p a r t i c l e s . The
h o r i z o n t a l g r i d s i z e should be much s m a l l e r than
dune l e n g t h (Ax<<x), w h i l e the r e f e r e n c e
l e v e l should
the
be a p p l i e d a t t h e upper
edge o f the bed-load l a y e r (a<<A). To get a f i r s t u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f t h e pheno-
mena i n v o l v e d , a r e l a t i v e l y simple two-dimensional v e r t i c a l model o f t h e D e l f t

H y d r a u l i c s Laboratory
(Van
R i j n , 1985)
was
used t o compute the
p r o f i l e s f o r the f l o w over dunes (see Figure
The
h o r i z o n t a l g r i d s i z e was
Ax = 0 . 2
m; The
concentration
8.3.6B).
r e f e r e n c e l e v e l was
= 0 . 0 0 2 m (== lOd^g) s p e c i f y i n g an upward sediment f l u x (Van
applied at a
1985).
Rijn,
F i g u r e 8 . 3 . 6 B shows computed c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s a t the dune t o p and
a t the
dune t r o u g h r e p r e s e n t i n g two extreme p r o f i l e s ; a l l o t h e r p r o f i l e s are w i t h i n

the i n d i c a t e d v a r i a t i o n range. As can be observed, the near-bed
can
vary over a range o f n e a r l y a f a c t o r 10.
t r a t i o n v a r i a t i o n i s confined
concentrations
I n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n t h e concen-
t o a near-bed r e g i o n o f about 0 . 3 h .
The
concen-
t r a t i o n s i n the upper l a y e r s are n o t n o t i c e a b l y a f f e c t e d .

Generally,
the a p p l i c a t i o n o f mathematical models f o r e s t u a r i n e and
problems r e q u i r e s a s c h e m a t i z a t i o n
coastal
on a macro-scale ( l i m i t e d computer
facili-
t i e s ) a p p l y i n g a h o r i z o n t a l g r i d s i z e much l a r g e r than the bed-form l e n g t h .

Consequently, a d e t a i l e d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s and
t h e v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s i s n o t f e a s i b l e . The
e f f e c t o f the dunes on the f l o w
also
-8.28(
f i e l d , u s u a l l y , i s represented by i n t r o d u c i n g an e f f e c t i v e roughness parameters
(k ) as shown i n F i g . 8.3.6B.
s
,
To r e p r e s e n t the e f f e c t o f the dunes on the c o n c e n t r a t i o n f i e l d , i t i s proposed:
. t o r e p r e s e n t the c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s by a schematized c o n c e n t r a t i o n
p r o f i l e being an e s t i m a t e o f the s p a t i a l l y - a v e r a g e d (over the dune l e n g t h )
concentration p r o f i l e s ,
t o s p e c i f y an e f f e c t i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( c ) a t a l e v e l through the t o p o f t h e
Si
dunes (a = |A o r a = k^ when the dune dimensions are unknown, aînimum "
0.01
h f o r reasons o f a c c u r a c y ) .
t o r e p r e s e n t the t r a n s p o r t o f p a r t i c l e s below the r e f e r e n c e l e v e l as bed-load
t r a n s p o r t u s i n g a simple
formula.
Based on the bed-load t r a n s p o r t g i v e n i n Section 8 . 2 . 5 ,
the present
writer
(Van R i j n , 1984) has proposed a f u n c t i o n f o r the r e f e r e n c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n (see

F i g . 8 . 3 . 1 ) which reads as:
1.5
d
\
(8.3.17)
V s
i n which:
c = r e f e r e n c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n (volume)
d
a
= r e f e r e n c e l e v e l above the mean bed
Djf = dimensionless
p a r t i c l e parameter (Eq.
bed-shear s t r e s s parameter (Eq.
The
= dimensionless
c o n s t a n t i n Eq.
3.3)
( 8 . 3 . 1 7 ) i s based on c a l i b r a t i o n u s i n g flume and
data w i t h v e l o c i t i e s i n the range o f 0.4

0.1
3.1)
t o 1.6 m/s,
depths i n the range o f
t o 25 m and mean p a r t i c l e s i z e i n the range o f 180 t o 700 ym (Van
1 9 8 4 ) . Voogt e t a l ( 1 9 8 9 ) showed t h a t Eq.

upto 3 m/s.
The
field
Rijn,
(8.3.17) is valid for velocities
r e f e r e n c e l e v e l i s assumed t o be equal t o h a l f the bed
form
h e i g h t ( a = J A) o r equal t o the e f f e c t i v e bed roughness (a = kg) when t h e

form h e i g h t i s unknown. The
a = 0.01
h f o r reasons o f
r e f e r e n c e l e v e l should n o t be chosen s m a l l e r
bed
than
accuracy.
-8.29-
8.3.7
I n f l u e n c e o f non-uniform bed m a t e r i a l
I n n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s t h e bed m a t e r i a l i s non-uniform. Observations i n flume

and
f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s have shown t h a t t h e bed m a t e r i a l and t h e suspended
sediment m a t e r i a l have d i f f e r e n t p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n s . U s u a l l y , t h e
suspended sediment p a r t i c l e s a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y
p a r t i c l e s . B a s i c a l l y , i t i s possible
smaller
than t h e bed m a t e r i a l
t o compute t h e suspended l o a d f o r any
known type o f bed m a t e r i a l and f l o w c o n d i t i o n by d i v i d i n g t h e bed m a t e r i a l

i n t o a number o f s i z e f r a c t i o n s and assuming t h a t t h e s i z e f r a c t i o n s do n o t
i n f l u e n c e each o t h e r
The
(see s e c t i o n 8 . 2 . 6 ) .
p r e s e n t w r i t e r (Van R i j n , 1984) has a p p l i e d t h e s i z e f r a c t i o n method t o
determine a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e suspended sediment diameter (d) which accounts f o r

the n o n - u n i f o r m i t y
e f f e c t s . Using t h e s i z e f r a c t i o n method (as proposed by
E i n s t e i n ) , t h e t o t a l suspended l o a d has been computed f o r v a r i o u s

a f t e r which by t r i a l and e r r o r t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
conditions,
(suspended) p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r
(dg) was determined t h a t gave t h e same value f o r t h e suspended l o a d as a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s i z e - f r a c t i o n mehtod.

I n a l l , s i x computations have been done using two types o f bed m a t e r i a l w i t h a
geometric standard d e v i a t i o n :
The
= (dg^j/d^^ + d^jg/d^^) = 1.5 and 2.5.
dÔ f the bed m a t e r i a l was equal t o 250 ym. The mean f l o w v e l o c i t i e s were
0.5 and 1.5 m/s. The f l o w depth was assumed t o be 10 m. The

p r o f i l e was computed by a p p l y i n g Eq. (8.3.13) w i t h 6=1,
reference
concentration
concentration
41=1 and K = 0 . 4 . The
a c c o r d i n g Eq. (8.3.17) was a p p l i e d a t a l e v e l o f z =
0.05 h. The f l o w v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e was assumed t o be l o g a r i t h m i c , Eq. ( 8 . 3 . 1 6 ) .

The
computed d^-values-have been r e l a t e d t o o^-parameter and t o t h e dimension-
less shear-stress
parameter T (Eq. 3 . 3 ) , as f o l l o w s :
d
So
= 1 + 0.011 (o - 1) (T - 25)
^
(8.3.18)
Equation (8.3.18) and experimental d a t a o f Guy e t a l (1966) a r e shown i n F i g .

8.3.7A. The s c a t t e r o f t h e data i s t o o l a r g e t o d e t e c t a c l e a r i n f u e n c e o f t h e
a -parameter. I n an average sense t h e agreement between measured and computed
s
values ( a = 2.5) i s q u i t e good.
-8.30-
8.3.8
The
P r e d i c t i o n method o f E i n s t e i n
(1950)
method o f E i n s t e i n i s based on a p a r a b o l i c
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the f l u i d
mixing
c o e f f i c i e n t and a l o g a r i t h m i c d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r t h e v e l o c i t y .
The
suspended sediment t r a n s p o r t r a t e can be expresed as:
11.6
a [ I ^ + I,ln(30.2 e h/d^^)]
U'
*s,c
,Z-1
0.216
1
J
(8.3.19)
( ; )
dz'
(8.3.20)
(^ ) ^
I n ( z ' ) dz'
(8.3.21)
(1-A)^
1
J
A
I2 = 0.216
(1-A)^
in which:
%,0
c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d suspended load
transport
(m2/s)
= c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed-shear v e l o c i t y due t o the g r a i n s

reference concentration
(volume) = qjj/(11.6 u^
a)
(m/s)
(-)
a
a
= r e f e r e n c e l e v e l (= 2 d)
(m)
= water depth
(m)
(m)
= a/h
= dimensionless r e f e r e n c e l e v e l
(-)
z'
= z/h
= dimensionless v e r t i c a l c o o r d i n a t e
(-)
= Wg/(K:
= correction factor
) = suspension number
(-)
(-)
According t o E i n s t e i n , t h e suspended load t r a n s p o r t i s r e l a t e d t o t h e g r a i n shear v e l o c i t y ( u ^ ) and n o t t o t h e o v e r a l l shear v e l o c i t y ( u * ) .
The
reference concentration
i s determined from t h e bed l o a d t r a n s p o r t , assuming
a bed load l a y e r t h i c k n e s s equal t o 2 p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r s .

The
and l 2 - i n t e g r a l s can be determined g r a p h i c a l l y (see E i n s t e i n , 1950) o r
numerically.
The
method o f E i n s t e i n i s n o t g i v e n i n f u l l d e t a i l here, because o f i t s com-
p l e x i t y . Furthermore, an e x t e n s i v e v e r i f i c a t i o n study o f White e t a l (1973)

has
shown t h a t t h e p r e d i c t i n g a b i l i t y o f the E i n s t e i n method i s much l e s s
o t h e r (more s i m p l e ) methods.
than
-8.31-
8.3-9
P r e d i c t i o n method o f Bagnold
(1966)
Bagnold (1966)
i n t r o d u c e d an e n e r g y b a l a n c e c o n c e p t and r e l a t e d t h e
load transport
t o t h e w o r k done by t h e
The s u s p e n d e d l o a d t r a n s p o r t
e
q
fluid.
i s expressed a s :
(1-e.)
2
(P - P) g ( w v a - t a n g )
suspended
(8.3.22)
i n which:
= c u r r e n t r e l a t e d suspended
= e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r ( 0.02)
(-)
= e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r (= 0.1)
(-)
= bed-shear
load
transport
(m2/s)
^s
(N/m2)
stress
= depth averaged v e l o c i t y
(ra/s)
"s
e
= particle f a i l velocity
(m/s)
= angle o f l o c a l bottom slope
(-)
Kachel and S t e r n b e r g (1971) have shown t h a t t h e e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r s ( C g and e^^)

are n o t c o n s t a n t , b u t a r e s t r o n g l y r e l a t e d t o t h e bed-shear
s t r e s s and t h e
p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r . B a s i c a l l y , these r e s u l t s show t h a t t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e
Bagnold concept i s q u e s t i o n a b l e .
8.3.10
P r e d i c t i o n method o f B i j k e r (1971)
Based on t h e concept o f E i n s t e i n (1950), B i j k e r (1971) proposed:
%,c-
^83qb,c ^ ^ 2 - ^ 1
(8.3.23)
l"(33h/kg)]
i n which:
qg g = suspended
q|2 g = bed l o a d
sediment t r a n s p o r t r a t e
transport rate
(m2/s)
(m2/s)
= i n t e g r a l a c c o r d i n g t o Eq. ( 8 . 3 . 2 0 )
(-)
- i n t e g r a l a c c o r d i n g t o Eq. ( 8 , 3 . 2 1 )
(-)
(m)
" i^sference l e v e l
The bed load t r a n s p o r t r a t e (m2/s) i s expressed as:
(8,3.24)
-8.32-
in which:
Ujf^Q
= o v e r a l l bed shear v e l o c i t y
= mobility
parameter
v = ( C / C ) ^ ' ^ = bed form f a c t o r (see Eq.

C
= o v e r a l l Chzy c o e f f c i e n t
C'
= grain-related
= coefficient
(8.2,1))
Chzy c o e f f i c i e n t (see Eq.
(8,2,1))
5)
Because the r e f e r e n c e l e v e l i s assumed t o be equal t o the bed roughness

the r a t i o Qg^c/qb^c
(a=kg),
expressed as a f u n c t i o n o f the parameter Z and k^/h,
as shown i n F i g , 8 , 3 . 8 B .
8.3.11
P r e d i c t i o n method o f Van R i j n
A p p l y i n g Eq. ( 8 . 3 . 1 3 ) ,
sediment t r a n s p o r t
Z' 0.5h
fc^
and ( 8 . 3 . 1 6 ) ,
the depth-integrated
suspended
r a t e can be computed from Eq. ( 8 . 3 . 2 ) , y i e l d i n g :
u ^ c^
^S,C
(8.3.14)
(1984)
t ^
a
Z'
^
0
(8.3.25)
j'e-^^'(^/^-<^-5)in(Hdz]
0,5h
^0
Equation ( 8 . 3 . 2 5 ) cannot be solved a n a l y t i c a l l y . An approximate s o l u t i o n

a c c u r a t e t o about 25% f o r 0 . 3 < Z' < 3 and 0 . 0 1
%,o
< a/h < 0 . 1 i s g i v e n by:
(8.3.26)
= F h c^
F = (a/h)^'-
(a/h)^-^
(8.3.27)
(l-(a/h))^'(1.2-Z')
i n which:
= current-related
suspended
sediment
velocity
transport
(mVs)
= depth-averaged f l o w
= water depth
(m)
= d i m e n s i o n l e s s shape f a c t o r
(-)
c^
= reference concentration
(m/s)
(volume)
The F - f a c t o r f o r a/h = 0.01, 0.05 and 0.1 i s shown i n F i g u r e 8.3.7.

(
-8.33-
Sununarizing, the complete method t o compute the suspended load t r a n s p o r t per

u n i t w i d t h , i s as f o l l o w s :
%,c
= F " h c^
(8.3.28)
i n which:
1/3
Djj = d^Q [^^~2^ ^]
(-)
= bed-shear s t r e s s parameter
(-)
= reference
(-)
DC
= '
D cr*
'
^b,cr
= 0.015
d o ^1.5
pjj
a j.u.:5
concentration
shape f a c t o r
(-)
(1 - a j Z ' (,.2 . Z')

Z' = Z + Y
= suspension number
(-)
suspension number
(-)
w
B
su^
W
= 2.5
(j-)
*,c
lOv
[fl
w^ - ,
s o
S
'
( O g - I ) (T-25)]dcQ
w
p
(]
"*,c
don
T,
(-)
(m/s)
6 = 1+2
= i
= correction factor related

t o t u r b u l e n c e damping and
hindered s e t t i n g
0.01(s-1)gd^ 0.5
^5
-]
- l] = particle f a l l velocity
dg = [ l + 0.011
[-^f
o
= representative p a r t i c l e
s i z e o f suspended sediment,
dg = dgo f o r T > 25
(m)
= r a t i o o f sediment and f l u i d
m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t (6
=2)
(-)
= gradation c o e f f c i e n t o f
bed m a t e r i a l
(-)
den
{-^ + -f^]
50
^16
= (p - p)g dj-^ 0
^
= c r i t i c a l bed-shear s t r e s s
according to Shields
(N/m2)
-8.34-
e^^ = 0.24
cr
D;
*
-0.64
er = 0-1^
if
1 < D,j < 4
if
4 < D,f < 10
0.04 D~^''^
i f 10 < D < 20
0.013 D 2 ' ^ ^
i f 20 <
0.055
if
S h i e l d s curve
(-)
cr
cr
cr
b,c
pg
IctJ
< 150
D^, > 150
= c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d e f f e c t i v e bed-shear s t r e s s
(M/m^)
c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d o v e r a l l bed-shear v e l o c i t y
(m/s)
-0.5
0. 5
18 l o g ( f ^ )
18
g r a i n - r e l a t e d Chzy c o e f f i c i e n t
l o g [ ^ ) = o v e r a l l Chzy c o e f f i c i e n t
current-related
suspended l o a d t r a n s p o r t
velocity
(m
/s)
(m'Vs)
(m2/s)
depth-averaged
^50
median p a r t i c l e diameter o f bed m a t e r i a l
(m)
diameters o f bed m a t e r i a l
(m)
^^50' ^84' S o
h
water depth
^s
o v e r a l l bed roughness h e i g h t
acceleration
reference l e v e l
(m)
(m)
of gravity
(m)
(m/s2)
(m)
(a=iA, or a=k , a . .
=0.01h)
'
s' minimum
A
bed form h e i g h t
(m)
maximum c o n c e n t r a t i o n
= 0.65
s p e c i f i c density
kinematic v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t
<
c o n s t a n t o f Von Karman = 0 . 4
= 2.65
(-)
(-)
(m2/s)
(-)
When t h e bed l o a d t r a n s p o r t and t h e suspended load t r a n s o r t a r e known, t h e

t o t a l load t r a n s p o r t o f bed m a t e r i a l can be determined by a d d i t i o n ( q ^ =
-8.35-
The
r a t i o o f the suspended and
t o t a l l o a d t r a n s p o r t can be expressed
For reasons o f s i m p l i c i t y the bed load t r a n s p o r t i s here d e f i n e d
%--
^â
as:
as:
(8.3.30)
"a
i n which:
Cg = r e f e r e n c e
concentration
= e f f e c t i v e t r a n s p o r t v e l o c i t y o f bed-load p a r t i c l e s
= reference
Substitution
l e v e l (= bed-load l a y e r
( 8 . 3 . 2 8 ) and
o f Eq.
thickness)
(8.3.30)
i n Eq.
(8.3.29)
yields:
(8.3.31)
[(F''')(0 / a ) ( a / h ) ] + 1
3.
The
r a t i o / may
c i t y o f the bed
be i d e n t i f i e d as the r a t i o o f the average t r a n s p o r t v e l o
l o a d and
f o r l a r g e , steep bed
suspended l o a d p a r t i c l e s , which v a r i e s from about
forms i n the lower f l o w regime t o about 0 . 8
for f l a t
c o n d i t i o n s i n the upper f l o w regime. F i g u r e 8.3.8A shows the r a t i o o f

suspended load and
v e l o c i t y and
0.4
bed
the
the t o t a l l o a d as a f u n c t i o n o f the r a t i o o f the bed-shear
p a r t i c l e f a l l v e l o c i t y f o r d i f f e r e n t values o f / w i t h K =
3
6 = 1 and a / h = 0 . 0 5 . Also an e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p g i v e n by Laursen ( 1 9 5 8 )
0.4,
and
some d a t a o f Guy e t a l ( 1 9 6 6 ) are shown.

8.4
T o t a l load transport
8.4.1
The
P r e d i c t i o n methods o f E i n s t e i n , Bagnold, B i j k e r and Van
t o t a l t r a n s p o r t o f bed m a t e r i a l p a r t i c l e s a c c o r d i n g
E i n s t e i n ( 1 9 5 0 ) , Bagnold ( 1 9 6 6 ) , B i j k e r ( 1 9 7 1 ) and
obtained
^t
= '^b +
by a d d i t i o n o f the bed
load and
Van
Rijn
t o the methods o f
R i j n ( 1 9 8 4 ) can
be
suspended l o a d t r a n s p o r t , as f o l l o w s :
(8.4.1)
-8.36-
Two t y p i c a l t o t a l load formulae a r e those o f Engelund-Hansen (196?) and AckersWhite (1973). Both methods have a good p r e d i c t i n g a b i l i t y compared w i t h measured
d a t a , as shown by a v e r i f i c a t i o n study o f White e t a l (1973).
8.4.2
Prediction
method o f Engelund-Hansen (1967)
Based on energy c o n s i d e r a t i o n s and c a l i b r a t i o n u s i n g about 100 flume d a t a , t h e

f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a was proposed:
0.05 ()^
TTTc
- =
.
(.4.2)
in which:
%
= t o t a l bed m a t e r i a l
(m2/s)
transport
(m/s)
0 .5
= o v e r a l l Chzy-coefficient
dgO
= median p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r o f bed m a t e r i a l
s = Pg/^^= s p e c i f i c d e n s i t y (=2.65)
g
Prediction
/s)
(m)
(-)
(m/s2)
8.4.3
(m
method o f Ackers-White (1973)
Based on a n a l y s i s o f 925 s e t s o f flume and f i e l d d a t a , t h e f o l l o w i n g

f o r m u l a was proposed:
in which:
'^t,c
0
transport
= t o t a l bed m a t e r i a l
",c
Y
= current-related
bed-shear
particle mobility
parameter
^cr
= c r i t i c a l particle mobility
n,m,K = c o e f f i c i e n t s
kinematic v i s c o s i t y
= specific density
velocity
(m/s)
(m/s)
(-)
parameter
coefficient
(=2.65)
(m2/s)
(-)
(-)
(m2/s)
(-)
empirical
-8.37-
= exp[2.86 I n ( D ^ ) - 0.434 ( l n D,j)^ - 8.13]
for
< 60
= 1 - 0.56 l o g ( D j j )
for
< 60
ra
for
= % 3 ^ 0 - 1 ^
+1.34
D < 60
K = 0.025, n = O, m = 1.5, Y^^= 0.17
^ =
05)
( ( s - 1 ) g d^g)
- ^35 l
8.4.4
^2
D,. < 60 '
for
i
5.66
D^^ > 60
)^-"
logdOh/d^^)
Comparison o f p r e d i c t i o n methods
Van R i j n (1984) used 486 s e t s o f r i v e r data t o v e r i f y t h e methods o f EngelundHansen ( I 9 6 7 ) , Ackers-White (1973) and Van r i j n (1984).
Bed m a t e r i a l
sizes
were i n t h e range o f 100 t o 400 ym. Flow v e l o c i t i e s were i n the range o f 0.4
t o 2.4 m/s. The r e s u l t s have been expressed i n terms o f a discrepancy r a t i o
( r ) d e f i n e d as t h e r a t i o o f p r e d i c t e d and measured t r a n s p o r t r a t e . The t a b l e
below shows the percentage o f r-values o f a l l data f a l l i n g i n t h e range o f
0.5 < r < 2. The method o f Van R i j n y i e l d s the best r e s u l t s w i t h 76% o f t h e
p r e d i c t e d t r a n s p o r t r a t e s w i t h i n a f a c t o r 2 o f the measured
values.
Voogt e t a l (1989) c a r r i e d o u t l a r g e - s c a l e flume experiments w i t h bed m a t e r i a l

o f 200 ym and v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e range o f 1 t o 3m/s. Comparison o f p r e d i c t e d
and measured t r a n s p o r t r a t e s showed good r e s u l t s f o r a l l t h r e e methods. Voogt
e t a l a l s o compared p r e d i c t e d r a t e s w i t h 120 s e t s o f e s t u a r y
data. Bed m a t e r i a l
s i z e s were i n the range o f 200 t o 300 ym. Flow v e l o c i t i e s were i n t h e range o f

1 t o 2 m/s. The r e s u l t s a r e given i n the t a b l e below. The method o f Van R i j n
y i e l d s t h e best r e s u l t s w i t h about 90% o f the p r e d i c t e d t r a n s p o r t r a t e s w i t h i n
a f a c t o r 2 o f measured values. The r e s u l t s o f the o t h e r two methods a r e l e s s
good. Both methods gave a considerable
o f Ackers-White.
o v e r p r e d i c t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e method
-8.38-
River data ( 4 8 6 )
Method
Estuary data ( 1 2 0 )
Engelund-Hansen
(1967)
64^
33%
Ackers-White
(1973)
63^
26%
Van R i j n
(1984)
76%
89%
White e t a l ( 1 9 7 3 ) examined v a r i o u s t r a n s p o r t formulae u s i n g about 1000 flume

data and 260 f i e l d
data.
Froude numbers g r e a t e r than 0 . 8 were excluded. The r e s u l t s o f t h e formulae o f

Ackers-White ( 1 9 7 3 ) , Engelund-Hansen
(1967), Einstein
( 1 9 5 0 ) and Bagnold
(1966) are given i n the f o l l o w i n g t a b l e .
Flume and f i e l d data ( 1 2 6 0 )
Formula
Ackers-White
(.1973)
6855
Engelund-Hansen
(1967)
6355
Einstein
(1950)
46^
Bagnold
(1966)
2255
The method o f Ackers-White y i e l d s t h e best r e s u l t s w i t h 6855 o f t h e p r e d i c t e d

t r a n s p o r t rages w i t h i n a f a c t o r 2 o f measured values. The method o f Bagnold
y i e l d s poor r e s u l t s w i t h a score o f 2255.
-8.39-
8.5
References
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-8.40-
(
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E i n s t e i n Bed Load F u n c t i o n a t High Sediment Rate
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A Monograph on Sediment T r a n s p o r t i n A l l u v i a l Streams
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J o u r n a l o f H y d r a u l i c Research, V o l . 1 4 , No. 2
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Experiments on t h e Motion o f S o l i t a r y Grains a l o n g t h e Bed o f a Water-Stream
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D i s c u s s i o n o f Bed Load Movement Formulas
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Summary o f A l l u v i a l Channel Data from Flume Experiments, 1956-1961
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1971
A New Look a t Sedimentation i n T u r b u l e n t Streams

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-8.41-
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Movement o f S e d i m e n t a s Bed Load i n

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Transport
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An I n v e s t i g a t i o n
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of Particle Trajectories
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1971
Concept o f C r i t i c a l
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1968
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Fluid
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-8.i}2-
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-8.43-
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Hyperconcentrated
Submitted
Sand-Water M i x t u r e Flows, Part I : Flow over a F l a t Bed
t o Journal o f Hydraulic
Engineering
FORMULAE O F M E Y E R - P E T E R
EINSTEIN
AND
DELFT
MULLER.
FRIJLINK
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG.
8.2.1
F|_= l i f t f o r c e
Vr
relative velocity
Fp,= d r a g f o r c e
ô
initial
velocities
A.
B.
Fq= w e i g h t
I ^/
DEFINITION
INITIAL
6b
SKETCH
POSITION
O F
O F
PARTICLE
SALTATION
PARTICLE
4
e-'
0" -
/
J
^.^^
15
10
10
20
30
>
C.
M E A S U R E D
FOR
A N D
E X P E R I M E N T
CHARACTERISTICS
DELFT
d i s t a n c e , x K 10
C O M P U T E D
O F
20
1
HYDRAULICS
30
50
(m)
PARTICLE
F E R N A N D E Z
O F PARTICLE
V_25
40
TRAJECTORIES
L U Q U E
SALTATION
461
FIG. 8.2.2
> transport stage pananneter.T

B.
SALTATION
COMPUTED
FOR
LENGTH
SALTATION
VARIOUS
HEIGHT
AND
LENGTH
CONDITIONS
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG.
8.2.3
m e a s u r e d (sand)
a Fernandez Luque 0^= 19,5
e Fernandez Luque Dk=39
a Francis
D=49
computed
\,nn Rijn
EngelundFreds0e
Dx =
5C
37 .6
-25 3
2.6.
2.5
S
q u a t on
(15))><
s
\ \\l
^ \\\
\ \\i
Ql
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
*
A.
B.
PARTICLE
B E D
PARTICLE
L O A D
mobility
parameter,
VELOCITY
C O N C E N T R A T I O N
V E L O C I T Y AND B E D L O A D
CONCENTRATION
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 8.2.4
reference
concentration
SCHEMATIZATION
VELOCITY
CONCENTRATION
PROFILE
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
AND
H 461
1
1
FIG. 8.3.1
1.0
1
1
D
0.8
K=0.4
w
1
0.6
A
0.4
1
O
J
yy
02
1
1
O
A.
0.02
0.04
constant
linear
FLUID
MIXING
0.06
0.08
0.12
0.14
e, (a^r)
0.16
parabolic
(2=3)
0.18
020
Ef
parabolic-constant e
COEFFICIENTS
>
B.
0.10
SEDIMENT
MIXING
C O L E M A N
(1970)
FLUID AND SEDIMENT
DELFT
height,
COEFFICIENT
DISTRIBUTION
ACCORDING
TO
MIXING C O E F F I C I E N T S
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 8.3.2
1.0
Co=
0.8
0.65
O Yalin - F i n l o y s o n
O
n
C0
0.6
r 0
S
>
0.4
0.2
|)-fac tor
k
1
\
>
10^
10--
10-
10-'
dimensionless
10
concentration,
Co
A.
0 -
FACTOR
6.10'^
nneasurcd
computed
\
@
N\JZ
>
nunnerically
c o m p u t e d using Eq.
(8.3.13) a n d ( 8 . 3 . 1 4 )
c o m p u t e d using Eq.
( 8 3 . 1 3 ) w i t h 4) =1
\
\
-V
I io^
x:
Ca= 6 2 5 0 0 0 p p m
idî
104
io5
>
B.
io6
c o n c e n t r a t i o n , c (ppm)
C O N C E N T R A T I O N
E I N S T E I N - N I N G
C.
PROFILE
CHIEN,
RUN
FOR
EXPERIMENT
S-15,
O F
1955
using
constante,
(a, = 6)
using
parabolic
using
linear
(0.2 - 3 )
using
parabolic - c o n s t a n t
CONCENTRATION
PROFILES
FOR
UNIFORM
0 - F A C T O R AND CONCENTRATION
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
Ef
F L O W
PROFILES
461
FIG.
8.3.3
CONCENTRATION
PROFILES
(VANONI, 1 9 4 6 )
461
FIG. 8.3.4
A. MEASURED
AND COMPUTED Z - V A L U E S
1,0-, d5o=120 |lm, q=0.l m^/s
1 k/ko
ACCORDING TO CHIEN
0 (MU)
120
0,3-^
22S
(1954)
(ra2/s)
0,05
0,10
0,15
0,05
0,10
0,15
A
G
Q
tp
<?
5
5B
10
20
40
30
CONCENTRATION
so
()
experiments
computed, including hindered setting
B. MEASURED
PROFILES,
CONCENTRATION
C. VON KARMAN COEFFICIENT AS A FUNCTION OF

CONCENTRATION, WINTERWERP ET AL, 1 9 8 9
WINTERWERP
ET A L , 1 9 8 9
INFLUENCE
OF SEDIMENT
DELFT
ON
CONCENTRATION
HYDRAULICS
PROFILE
461
FIG.
8.3.5
10^
5 6 76910^
5 5 7 8910"'
5 6
78910^
> conc(2ntration ( m g / 1 )
B.
CONCENTRATION
SCHEMATIZATION
DELFT
PROFILES
FOR
OF REFERENCE
HYDRAULICS
THE
F L O W
OVER
DUNES
LEVEL
461
FIG. 8.3.6
1.0,
0.8
-zr
0.6k
0.2
*n
(3 3
O
10
transport
12
14
parameter, T
computed
16
18
20
22
24
26
data
,= 1 9 0 ^ r
1.4
od5o = 2 7 0 | j m
o's= 1.8
Ad5o:2BOJm
i = 2 . 0
a dso^ 3 2 0 ^ m
cTs = 1-8
:2.5
A.
REPRESENTATIVE
D I A M E T E R
SUSPENDED SEDIMENT
DELFT
O F
SUSPENDED
SEDIMENT
TRANSPORT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 8.3.7
A.
RATIO
O F SUSPENDED
AND TOTAL
>
B. R A T I O
ratio
of
LOAD
rougfiness
O F SUSPENDED A N D
(Van Rijn, 1984)
tiejgfit and d e p t h , k ^ / h
BED
RATIOS O F B E D LOAD. S U S P E N D E D
AND
TRANSPORT
LOAD TRANSPORT
(Bijker, 1 9 7 8 )
LOAD
TOTAL L O A D T R A N S P O R T
H 461
FIG.
8.3.8
-9.1-
9.
BED MATERIAL SUSPENSION AND TRANSPORT IN UNIFORM WAVES
9.1
Introduction
Wave motion over a movable f i n e sand bed (50 t o 500 ym) can generate a sediment
suspension w i t h r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n the near-bed
region
as shown by Nakato e t a l (1977) and by Bosman (1982) f o r t h e r i p p l e regime and

by Horikawa e t a l (1982) and by Staub e t a l (198^1) f o r the plane bed ( s h e e t
f l o w ) regime.
The v a r i a t i o n o f the instantaneous sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n space and time

which i s r e l e v a n t f o r the cross-shore t r a n s p o r t processes i n non-breaking
waves, appears t o be a complicated p h y s i c a l process p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e r i p p l e
regime. T h i s process seems h a r d l y p r e d i c t a b l e due t o the random c h a r a c t e r o f
the phenomena i n v o l v e d (Bosman, 1982).
Cross-shore t r a n s p o r t processes i n non-breaking waves are caused by v a r i o u s
mechanisms:
t h e asymmetry o f the wave motion y i e l d i n g l a r g e r onshore peak v e l o c i t i e s

under the wave c r e s t s than o f f s h o r e peak v e l o c i t i e s under the wave t r o u g h s
which may r e s u l t i n a n e t o f f s h o r e - d i r e c t e d t r a n s p o r t i n case o f a r i p p l e covered bed o r i n a net onshore d i r e c t e d t r a n s p o r t i n case o f a plane bed
(sheet f l o w ) ,
the g e n e r a t i o n o f n e t mean ( E u l e r i a n ) o n s h o r e - d i r e c t e d v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e
near-bed r e g i o n ( F i g . 9 . L I B ) which may r e s u l t i n a n e t o n s h o r e - d i r e c t e d
transport,
the g e n e r a t i o n o f f o r c e d long waves due t o a mean water s u r f a c e decrease

("trough") under l a r g e - a m p l i t u d e wave groups ( S h i , 1983) r e s u l t i n g i n
secondary o f f s h o r e - d i r e c t e d o r b i t a l v e l o c i t i e s under the " t r o u g h " ( F i g .
9.1.1C) and a n e t o f f s h o r e - d i r e c t e d t r a n s p o r t because t h e sediment concent r a t i o n s are l a r g e s t under l a r g e - a m p l i t u d e waves.
Time-averaged
sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s which are r e l e v a n t f o r cross-shore and
longshore t r a n s p o r t processes due t o b r e a k i n g waves are l e s s c o m p l i c a t e d t o

d e s c r i b e and have been s t u d i e d by many r e s e a r c h e r s .
T r a n s p o r t processes i n breaking waves are caused by the f o l l o w i n g
mechanisms:
the g e n e r a t i o n o f n e t mean o f f s h o r e - d i r e c t e d v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e lower l a y e r s

(undertow. F i g . 9.1.1 A),
-9.2-
the generation
o f l a r g e - s c a l e h o r i z o n t a l c i r c u l a t i o n c e l l s w i t h longshore
c u r r e n t s and w i t h o f f s h o r e - d i r e c t e d r i p c u r r e n t s ( F i g . 9.1.1D).
The t o t a l sediment t r a n s p o r t r a t e (q^.) can be computed from t h e v e r t i c a l

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f l u i d v e l o c i t i e s and sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ,
as f o l l o w s :
h+n
= UC dz
o
(9.1.1)
i n which:
U = l o c a l instantaneous f l u i d v e l o c i t y a t h e i g h t z above bed
C = l o c a l instantaneous sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t h e i g h t z above bed
h = water depth t o mean s u r f a c e
Tl = water surface
level
elevation
(9.1.2)
D e f i n i n g : U = u + u' and C = c + c
i n which:
u = time and space-averaged f l u i d v e l o c i t y a t h e i g h t z
c = time and space-averaged c o n c e n t r a t i o n
a t height z
u = o s c i l l a t i n g f l u i d component ( i n c l u d i n g t u r b u l e n t component)
0 = o s c i l l a t i n g concentration
component ( i n c l u d i n g t u r b u l e n t component)
S u b s t i t u t i n g Eq. (9.1.2) i n Eq. (9.1.1) and averaging over t i m e and space,

yields:
h
q^ =
0
h
uc dz +
o
uc dz
(9.1.3)
i n which:
h
=
o
h
- ^
0
uc dz
= c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d sediment t r a n s p o r t r a t e
uc dz = wave-related sediment t r a n s p o r t r a t e
C u r r e n t - r e l a t e d sediment t r a n s p o r t i s d e f i n e d as t h e t r a n s p o r t o f sediment
p a r t i c l e s by t h e time-averaged (mean) c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s ( l o n g s h o r e
currents,
r i p c u r r e n t s , undertow c u r r e n t s ) . Both the c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s and t h e sediment

concentrations
are a f f e c t e d by t h e wave motion. I t i s known t h a t t h e wave
motion reduces the c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s near the bed
(see S e c t i o n 2.4.3), but
s t r o n g l y i n c r e a s e the near-bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s due t o i t s s t i r r i n g
action.
Wave-related sediment t r a n s p o r t i s d e f i n e d as the t r a n s p o r t o f sediment

p a r t i c l e s by the o s c i l l a t i n g f l u i d components (cross-shore o r b i t a l m o t i o n ) .
The o s c i l l a t i n g components ( u and c) may
a l s o be a f f e c t e d by t h e c u r r e n t
velocities,
I n t h i s Chapter the a t t e n t i o n i s focussed
on the wave-related
sediment
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and t r a n s p o r t processes, p r e s e n t i n g the f o l l o w i n g s u b j e c t s :

e
a n a l y s i s o f measured c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and t r a n s p o r t processes,
computation
o f time-averaged
computation
of transport rates.
9.2
9.2.1
concentration p r o f i l e s ,
A n a l y s i s o f measured c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s and t r a n s p o r t r a t e s
Instantaneous
I n S e c t i o n 9.1
concentrations
i t has been shown t h a t instantaneous c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are
e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t w i t h respect t o the wave-related

Instantaneous
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s generated
by non-breaking
t r a n s p o r t processes.
waves i n the r i p p l e
regime have been measured by Nakato e t a l (1977) and by Bosman (1982).

Instantaneous
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n the plane bed
(sheet f l o w ) regime have been
measured by Horikawa e t a l (1982) and by Staub e t a l (1984).
r i p p l e regime
F i g u r e 9.2.1
shows ensemble mean c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w i t h i n a wave p e r i o d i n a wave
t u n n e l measured by Bosman (1982). A s i n u s o i d a l o s c i l l a t o r y motion w i t h a

p e r i o d o f T = 1 sec and a v e l o c i t y amplitude o f
over sand bed
= 0.3
( d ^ ^ = 200 ym, d^^ = 240 ym). The bed was
m/s
was
covered
generated
w i t h almost
p e r f e c t l y two-dimensional r i p p l e s ( l e n g t h = 0.055 m, h e i g h t = 0.01

o p t i c a l i n s t r u m e n t was
m).
An
used t o measure the c o n c e n t r a t i o n values above the
r i p p l e c r e s t and t r o u g h . The exact measuring l o c a t i o n s are shown i n F i g .

9.2.1. The r i p p l e c r e s t measurements show ensemble mean c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and
standard d e v i a t i o n s based on 100 p e r i o d s . About 10% o f a l l measurements are
w i t h i n the standard d e v i a t i o n l i n e s . As regards the t r o u g h measurements, o n l y
ensemble mean values are shown. The f o l l o w i n g phenomena can be observed above
the c r e s t :
t h e (random) s c a t t e r i s q u i t e l a r g e ( r o u g h l y 50%),
two l a r g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n peaks Just a f t e r f l o w r e v e r s a l and
probably
generated by l e e s i d e e d d y - v e l o c i t i e s ,
two s m a l l e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n peaks a t the moment o f maximum f l o w ,

generated by s t o s s - s i d e
probably
velocities,
a s y m m e t r i c a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n (water motion i s s y m m e t r i c a l ) .
The phenomena above the trough a r e :
the (random) s c a t t e r i s a l s o q u i t e l a r g e ( n o t shown),
two l a r g e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n peaks a f t e r f l o w r e v e r s a l and probably
generated
by l e e s i d e e d d y - v e l o c i t i e s ( t i m e l a g i s l a r g e r compared w i t h c o n c e n t r a t i o n
measurements a t the c r e s t ) ,
two s m a l l e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n peaks a f t e r maximum f l o w and probably

by s t o s s - s i d e
generated
velocities,
asymmetrical concentration d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
the peaks above the trough a r e smaller than those above the c r e s t due t o
d i s p e r s i o n and s e t t l i n g o f sediment p a r t i c l e s .
According t o Bosman, the s c a t t e r i s mainly caused by ( s l i g h t ) l o c a l
ripple
changes r e s u l t i n g i n small d i f f e r e n c e s i n the l o c a l v e l o c i t i e s and hence

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . Based on t h i s , i t seems very d i f f i c u l t t o r e l a t e the l o c a l
instantaneous
sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n t o a l o c a l instantaneous
fluid
velocity.
The measurements o f Makato e t a l (1977), w i t h p e r i o d s i n the range o f 1 t o 3 s

show s i m i l a r r e s u l t s as those o f Bosman.
Mathematical models t o compute the instantaneous
sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n
the r i p p l e regime a r e not y e t a v a i l a b l e .
Sheet f l o w regime
Instantaneous
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s generated by non-breaking waves i n the sheet f l o w
regime have been measured by Horikawa e t a l (1982) i n o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w over a

sand bed ( d ^ ^ = 200 ym) i n a wave t u n n e l u s i n g an e l e c t r o - r e s i s t a n c e concent r a t i o n meter.
Results are shown i n Figure 9.2.2. Large c o n c e n t r a t i o n g r a d i e n t s can be observed i n a l a y e r o f 0.003 t o 0.005 m above and below the i n i t i a l bed s u r f a c e
l e v e l . The l a t t e r r e f e r s t o the bed l e v e l before the experiment. The maximum
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e generated a t the moment o f maximum v e l o c i t i e s (e = 90).
The c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s minimum a t the moment o f minimum v e l o c i t i e s (o = 0).
-9.5-
The
t h i c k n e s s o f the c o n c e n t r a t i o n l a y e r i s about 0.02
the time-averaged c o n c e n t r a t i o n was about 0.5

determined
m. At t h i s l a t t e r
kg/m3. The v e l o c i t i e s have been
by a p p l y i n g a camera technique focussing on the i n t e r i o r
t o e l i m i n a t e the w a l l e f f e c t . A n a l y s i s o f the instantaneous
9.2.2
60,
particles
sand t r a n s p o r t
r a t e s show t h a t most o f the t r a n s p o r t occurs below the i n i t i a l bed

(0 = 30,
level
level
90).
Time-averaged c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (averaged
over many waves) are r e l e v a n t f o r the
c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d sediment t r a n s p o r t . Time-averaging i s necessary t o e l i m i n a t e

the l a r g e random s c a t t e r o f the instantaneous
concentrations.
Time-averaged c o n c e n t r a t i o n s have been measured by v a r i o u s r e s e a r c h e r s . Some

o f the e x p e r i m e n t a l
r e s u l t s are analyzed
here f o c u s s i n g on the f o l l o w i n g cases:
1.
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s by non-breaking waves over a r i p p l e d
2.
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s by breaking waves,
3.
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n the sheet f l o w l a y e r .
1.
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s by non-breaking waves over a r i p p l e d
bed,
bed
I n case o f o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w over a r i p p l e d bed the instantaneous
sediment
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are v a r y i n g i n time and space, as shown i n F i g . 9.2.1. To

e l i m i n a t e these v a r i a t i o n s , i t i s necessary t o average the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
over time (many waves) and over space (many bed f o r m s ) . I n l a b o r a t o r y cond i t i o n s t h i s can be done q u i t e simply by moving the measuring
instruments
forwards and backwards over a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e d u r i n g the sampling p e r i o d .

This method has been used by Bosman (1982), NieuwJaar-Van der K a a i j (1987)
and Nap-Van Kampen (1988) f o r experiments i n a wave flume.
F i g u r e 9.2.3A shows time-averaged and bed-averaged c o n c e n t r a t i o n s measured
by Nieuwjaar-Van der K a a i j (1987) using a pump sampler i n a wave flume w i t h
a water depth of 0.5
generated
m and a sand bed of d^^
200 pm.
I r r e g u l a r waves were
= s i g n i f i c a n t wave h e i g h t ) . The sand bed was

s
r i p p l e s i n a l l experiments (A^ = r i p p l e h e i g h t ) .
The
(H
f o l l o w i n g phenomena can be observed:
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s increase f o r i n c r e a s i n g wave h e i g h t Hg
n e g l i g i b l e small c o n c e n t r a t i o n s f o r z/h
>
0.3
covered w i t h
c o n s t a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n g r a d i e n t a t each wave h e i g h t H
s
steeper c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s f o r i n c r e a s i n g wave h e i g h t s
r i p p l e h e i g h t increases s l i g h t l y f o r i n c r e a s i n g wave h e i g h t
F i g u r e 9.2.3B shows time-averaged c o n c e n t r a t i o n s measured by Van R i j n

(1987) using a pump sampler i n a l a r g e - s c a l e wave flume w i t h a water
o f 2 m and a sand bed w i t h d^^ = 210 ym. I r r e g u l a r waves were
depth
generated.
The bed was covered w i t h pronounced r i p p l e s w i t h a h e i g h t o f about 0.02 m

for H
< 0.69 m; smooth r i p p l e s w i t h a h e i g h t o f 0.001 m were observed
a f t e r the t e s t w i t h H
> 1.1 m. Bed averaging o f t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s was
not applied.
The f o l l o w i n g phenomena can be observed:
i n c r e a s i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n s f o r i n c r e a s i n g wave h e i g h t upto H = 0.69 m

s
and decreasing
concentrations f o r
= 1.1 m i n t h e near-bed l a y e r ,
two l a y e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s w i t h l a r g e g r a d i e n t s i n the near-bed

l a y e r o f z/h < 0.05 (3 r i p p l e h e i g h t s ) and s m a l l g r a d i e n t s f o r z/h >
0.05,
decrease o f r i p p l e h e i g h t from
i n c r e a s i n g from H
= 0.02 m t o 0.001 m f o r wave h e i g h t
= 0.69 m t o H
s
= 1.1 m.
s
The e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e a simultaneous
decrease o f t h e near-bed
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and t h e r i p p l e h e i g h t when the wave h e i g h t increases

= 0.69 m t o
from
= 1.1 m. T h i s can be observed more c l e a r l y i n F i g , 9 . 2 . 4 ,
showing t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a t t h r e e e l e v a t i o n s (z = 0.025 h, 0.05 h and

A
0.1
h) as a f u n c t i o n o f the m o b i l i t y parameter i|) = Ug/[(s-1)gd^Q) i n which

= amplitude o f near-bed o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y . The r i p p l e h e i g h t i s a l s o
p l o t t e d as a f u n c t i o n o f 41. Figure 9.2.4 c l e a r l y shows t h a t the concentrat i o n s a r e l a r g e s t f o r 4) 150 i n the presence o f r i p p l e s w i t h a h e i g h t o f

0.02 m. For i|j > 150 t h e r e i s a gradual t r a n s i t i o n from the r i p p l e regime
( h e i g h t ^ 0.02 m) w i t h r e l a t i v e l a r g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s t o the smooth bed
regime (smooth f l a t r i p p l e s o f 0.001 m) w i t h r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l
concentra-
t i o n s . I t i s most l i k e l y t h a t the r i p p l e - g e n e r a t e d eddies, which a r e most

e f f e c t i v e i n the entrainment
o f p a r t i c l e s from t h e bed, a r e g r a d u a l l y
d i s a p p e a r i n g f o r i|) = 150 r e s u l t i n g i n a gradual decrease o f the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , as shown i n F i g . 9.2.4.
-9.7-
F i g u r e 9.2.5A shows time and bed-averaged c o n c e n t r a t i o n s measured by Bosman

(1982) and by Nap-Van Kampen (1988) using a pump sampler i n a wave flume
w i t h a water depth o f 0.5 m and a sand bed o f d^^ ^ 100 ym. I r r e g u l a r waves
were generated.
Occasional ( s p i l l i n g ) breaking waves were observed d u r i n g
the t e s t s o f Bosman. The bed was covered w i t h r i p p l e s f o r wave h e i g h t s

H < 0.18 m.
s
Bosman d i d n o t r e p o r t the r i p p l e h e i g h t s .

e
i n c r e a s i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n s f o r i n c r e a s i n g wave h e i g h t s ,
s l i g h t l y f l a t t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s f o r i n c r e a s i n g wave h e i g h t s ,
c o n s t a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n g r a d i e n t s a t each wave h e i g h t ( f o r H < 0.18 m),

s
two l a y e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s f o r H = 0.2 m and 0.23 m w i t h c o n s t a n t
s
c o n c e n t r a t i o n g r a d i e n t i n near-bed r e g i o n z/h < 0.15 and i n c r e a s i n g conc e n t r a t i o n g r a d i e n t s f o r z/h > 0.15,
decreasing
r i p p l e h e i g h t f o r i n c r e a s i n g wave h e i g h t (upto H = 0.18 m).

s
These r e s u l t s show s l i g h t l y f l a t t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s f o r a d e c r e a s i n g
r i p p l e h e i g h t s , which i s r e l a t e d t o a somewhat l e s s i n t e n s i v e m i x i n g i n t h e
near-bed l a y e r . The c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n the r e g i o n z/h > 0.15 a r e r e l a t i v e l y
l a r g e f o r wave h e i g h t s o f H = 0.2 and 0.23 m i n t h e experiments o f Bosman.
s
This may be caused by t h e e f f e c t o f o c c a s i o n a l b r e a k i n g o f t h e waves.
2.
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s by breaking waves over a f l a t bed

The e f f e c t o f breaking waves can be c l e a r l y observed i n F i g . 9.2.5B, p r e s e n t i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s o f Bosman (1982), (1986) measured (pump
samplers) i n a wave flume a t a water depth o f 0.3 m and a sand bed o f
dgQ = 100 ym. I r r e g u l a r waves were generated.
According
t o Bosman
(1982),
the bed was f l a t a t l o c a t i o n s near b r e a k i n g waves.
Two phenomena can be observed:
t h e near-bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e approximately
c o n s t a n t (== 10
kg/m3) f
or
i n c r e a s i n g wave h e i g h t s ,
t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a t h i g h e r l e v e l s show a l a r g e increase f o r wave

h e i g h t s i n c r e a s i n g from H
s
( p l u n g i n g b r e a k i n g waves).
= 0.12 m (non-breaking
waves) t o H
= 0.19 m
s
F i g u r e 9.2,6A shows time-averaged
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s measured by Kana (1979)
i n surfzones near USA-coasts. S p i l l i n g and p l u n g i n g b r e a k i n g waves were

p r e s e n t . The bed m a t e r i a l was d^^
200 ym. The types o f bed forms a r e n o t
reported.

e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s have a s i m i l a r shape i n s p i l l i n g and p l u n g i n g

b r e a k i n g waves,
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are a f a c t o r 5 l a r g e r i n case o f p l u n g i n g b r e a k i n g waves.
F i g u r e 9.2.6B shows c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s i n s p i l l i n g and p l u n g i n g
brea-
k i n g waves measured by S t e e t z e l (1987) using a pump sampler i n a l a r g e

flume w i t h a water depth o f 0.9 m and a sand bed o f 210 ym. I r r e g u l a r
waves were generated.
The bed was f l a t . The c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s a r e
s i m i l a r t o those o f Kana (1979), both i n shape and magnitude.
F i g u r e 9.2.6c shows c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s measured by Kroon and Van R i j n

(1988) u s i n g a pump sampler i n the s u r f zone near the Dutch Coast (Groote
Keeten). The bed (d^,,
260 ym) was covered w i t h smooth s m a l l - s c a l e
0.03 m) u n d u l a t i o n s . S p i l l i n g b r e a k i n g waves were p r e s e n t .
t h e near-bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e o f the same order o f magnitude ( f a c t o r

2 ) as those o f Kana (1979), S t e e t z e l (1987) and van R i j n (1987) f o r
s p i l l i n g breaking waves,
t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a t mid depth and near the s u r f a c e a r e s m a l l e r than

those o f Kana (1979) b u t comparable ( f a c t o r 2) t o those measured by Van
R i j n (1987) i n the l a r g e wave flume a t s i m i l a r wave h e i g h t s (see F i g .
9.2.3B).
The l a r g e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ever measured i n the surfzone near Groote Keeten

d u r i n g storm p e r i o d s a r e about 2 t o 3 kg/m3 a t a h e i g h t o f 0.03 t o 0.05 m
above t h e bed and about 0.5 t o 1.5 kg/m3 a t a h e i g h t o f 0.05 t o 0. 1 m i n
s p i l l i n g b r e a k i n g waves.
Based on t h e a v a i l a b l e measurements, the f o l l o w i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n ranges
can be g i v e n f o r the surfzone w i t h bed m a t e r i a l i n t h e range o f 200 t o
300 ym and water depths o f 1 t o 2 m:
-9.9-
breakers
spilling
near-bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
0.5
- 1.5 kg/m3
1 - 5 kg/m3
near s u r f a c e
0.05
- 0.2 kg/m3
0 . 5 - 1 . 5 kg/m3
concentrations
The data i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e breaker
breakers
plunging
sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
type i s a dominating
f a c t o r i n wave-
r e l a t e d sediment suspensions. S p i l l i n g breakers a r e l e s s e f f e c t i v e
than
p l u n g i n g breakers, which i s probably caused by t h e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l s c a l e

of t h e eddies generated
by s p i l l i n g breakers. Furthermore, these
eddies are c o n f i n e d t o t h e near-water surface r e g i o n and donot
small
extend
below t h e trough l e v e l ( M i l l e r , 1976). Plunging breakers show s t r o n g J e t s

p e n e t r a t i n g t o t h e seabed r e s u l t i n g i n the g e n e r a t i o n o f l a r g e sediment
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (see a l s o s e c t i o n 2 ) .
3.
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n sheet f l o w l a y e r
Observations
have shown t h a t bed forms a r e washed o u t when t h e m o b i l i t y
parameter i|) i s l a r g e r than about 200 t o 250. I n t h a t case a t h i n (<= 0.03 m)

l a y e r o f moving sediment p a r t i c l e s w i t h h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s c l o s e t o t h e
bed i s generated.
This i s c a l l e d t h e sheet f l o w l a y e r . Time-averaged
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e sheet f l o w l a y e r have o n l y been measured i n wave

t u n n e l experiments (Horikawa e t a l , 1982; Staub e t a l , 1984 and R i b b e r i n k ,
1989). F i e l d data a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e . Horikawa e t a l (1982) used an e l e c t r o r e s i s t a n c e probe t o measure t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s over a sand bed o f 200 ym
(see F i g . 9.2.7A). Staub e t a l (1984) and R i b b e r i n k (1989) used a pump
sampling i n s t r u m e n t . A r e g u l a r s i n u s o i d a l o s c i l l a t o r y motion was generated
by Horikawa e t a l and by Staub e t a l , w h i l e i r r e g u l a r o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w
(Jonswap spectrum) was generated
by Ribberink. C o n c e n t r a t i o n
p r o f i l e s and
h y d r a u l i c c o n d i t i o n s a r e shown i n F i g s . 9.2.7A,B and C.

Based on these f i g u r e s , t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c o n c e n t r a t i o n ranges
a t 0.01 m and a t 0.02 m above t h e i n i t i a l bed l e v e l (measured before t h e
t e s t ) are given:
-9.10-
Height
above
the
bed
Sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
Horikawa
e t a l , 1982
200 ym
Ribberink,
1989
Staub e t a l , 1984
190 ym
190 ym
380 ym-
u=1.08 m/s
u=1.3 m/s
u=1.68 m/s
u=1.9 m/s
(m)
T = 4 s
T = 9.1 s
T = 6.8 s
T = 6.8 s
0.01
3 kg/m3
10-25 kg/m3
50 kg/m3
10-30
kg/m3
0.02
1 kg/m3
20 kg/m3
3-15
kg/m3
3-10
kg/m3
220 ym
u,3=1.13m/s
Tp = 8 s
15-20
4-
kg/m3
8 kg/m3
The r e s u l t s o f Staub e t a l and R i b b e r i n k a r e i n good agreement f o r peak

v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e range o f 1.1 t o 1.3 m/s and sediment m a t e r i a l o f about
200 ym. The c o n c e n t r a t i o n s measured by Horikawa e t a l are a f a c t o r 5 s m a l l e r
a t a peak v e l o c i t y o f 1.08 m/s.
Summary
Summarizing a l l a v a i l a b l e c o n c e n t r a t i o n data f o r non-breaking
and b r e a k i n g
waves i n water depths o f 0.5 t o 2 m and bed m a t e r i a l s i z e s from 100 t o 300 ym,
t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can be observed:
two-layer concentration p r o f i l e w i t h rather large concentration gradients

i n t h e near-bed l a y e r
3 r i p p l e h e i g h t s ) and s m a l l e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n g r a -
d i e n t s i n t h e upper l a y e r , i n case o f non-breaking
waves over a r i p p l e d
bed,
e
strong i n f l u e n c e o f the r i p p l e s g i v i n g r e l a t i v e l y large concentrations i n

the near-bed l a y e r due t o eddy-generated
motions,
i n c r e a s i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n the upper l a y e r s by s p i l l i n g b r e a k i n g waves,
s t r o n g l y i n c r e a s i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e near-bed l a y e r and i n t h e upper

l a y e r by p l u n g i n g breaking waves ( f a c t o r 5 l a r g e r than i n s p i l l i n g
breaking
waves).
9.2.3
Sediment t r a n s p o r t r a t e s under wave a c t i o n have been i n v e s t i g a t e d by AbouSeida (1965), K a l k a n i s (1964), Vincent (1957), Manohar (1955), S l e a t h (1978)
Sato-Horikawa (1986) and Sawamoto-Yamashita (1987). Most o f t h e experiments o f
Abou-Seida, K a l k a n i s , Vincent and S l e a t h were c a r r i e d o u t w i t h f l a t
t i n g ) beds. T r a n s p o r t r a t e s were g e n e r a l l y s m a l l .
(oscilla-
-9.11-
Manohar and
Sato c l e a r l y d e s c r i b e the t r a n s p o r t regimes. Manohar performed h i s
experiments i n a s t i l l water tank by o s c i l l a t i n g the bed.

were trapped by t r a y s i n s t a l l e d i n the bed.
over f l a t and
sand p a r t i c l e s
Manohar measured t r a n s p o r t
r i p p l e d beds using sand m a t e r i a l o f 280
m e t r i c a l type o f motion was
The
ym and
1000
rates
ym.
An asym-
generated. Although r i p p l e s were p r e s e n t i n some
experiments, the t r a n s p o r t mode was
dominantly bed load w i t h r o l l i n g
as d e s c r i b e d by Manohar: " p a r t i c l e s r o l l e d t o the c r e s t and
over the
grains,
crest
from the a d j a c e n t trough". Suspension i s o n l y reported a f t e r the disappearance

o f t h e r i p p l e s . I n a l l cases Manohar observed a net t r a n s p o r t r a t e i n the
d i r e c t i o n o f the l a r g e s t peak v e l o c i t y ,
Sato and
Horikawa performed experiments i n a wave t u n n e l w i t h sand m a t e r i a l
180 ym i n the r i p p l e regime. Asymmetrical r e g u l a r and
of
irregular oscillatory
f l o w s were generated. Sand t r a p s were i n s t a l l e d a t b o t h ends o f the t e s t

s e c t i o n . The
recordings
net sand t r a n s p o r t r a t e s were mainly determined from bed
i n (many) l o n g i t u d i n a l s e c t i o n s . Measurements were c a r r i e d
a f t e r steady s t a t e asymmetrical r i p p l e s had

Sato and
profile
out
been developed along the sand
bed.
Horikawa r e p o r t t h a t suspended sand clouds are formed above the
s t e e p e r f l a n k o f a r i p p l e when the f l o w d i r e c t i o n i s onshore. The
cloud
is
then thrown up over the r i p p l e c r e s t when the f l o w d i r e c t i o n i s changed
and
the sand i s t r a n s p o r t e d
rate
was
o f f s h o r e . I n n e a r l y a l l t e s t s the net t r a n s p o r t
i n the o f f s h o r e d i r e c t i o n , w h i l e the l a r g e s t peak v e l o c i t y was
onshore d i r e c t i o n . S i m i l a r r e s u l t s were obtained by Nap
and
Van
i n the
Kampen (1988)
w i t h sediment o f 100 ym i n a wave flume i n which i r r e g u l a r waves were gener a t e d . I n a l l cases the wave-related net t r a n s p o r t was
t i o n . Suspended load t r a n s p o r t was
against
the wave d i r e c -
the dominant t r a n s p o r t mode.
Sheet f l o w experiments i n s i n u s o i d a l o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w have been c a r r i e d o u t

Horikawa e t a l (1982) i n a wave t u n n e l w i t h sand o f 200
ym. The
time-averaged ( h a l f wave p e r i o d v a l u e s ) t r a n s p o r t r a t e s are
U. = 1.27 m/s
3.6
U. = 1.08 m/s
2.6
- = 1.08 m/s
3.4
Ug = 0,87
m/s
5.4 s
U. = 0.76 m/s
o
6.0
%,half
%, h a l f
% ,half
% ,half
%,half
0.000416
mVs
0.000261
mVs
0.000208
mVs
0.000182
mVs
0.000104
mVs
following
reported:
by
-9.12-
Based on these r e s u l t s , t h e t r a n s p o r t r a t e i n the sheet f l o w regime seems t o

^ 3
be dependent on a p p r o x i m a t e l y the t h i r d power o f t h e v e l o c i t y :
(U) .
Sawamoto and Yamashita ( 1 9 8 7 ) d i d s i m i l a r experiments i n a wave t u n n e l i n t h e

sheet f l o w regime. Sand m a t e r i a l w i t h p a r t i c l e s i z e s o f 200 ym, 700 ym and
1800
ym was used. Coal and p l a s t i c m a t e r i a l was a l s o used. Based on t h e i r
r e s u l t s , these i n v e s t i g a t o r s have found t h a t the t r a n s p o r t r a t e i n t h e sheet

'^15
^ 3
f l o w regime i s r e l a t e d t o ( T ) ' o r (U.) .
0
Summarizing, i t can be concluded t h a t the n e t t r a n s p o r t r a t e under wave a c t i o n
s t r o n g l y depends on t h e t r a n s p o r t mode and on the type o f bed forms:
1.
bed load o r suspended load over f l a t bed
: n e t t r a n s p o r t r a t e i s always
i n the d i r e c t i o n o f t h e l a r g e s t
peak v e l o c i t y
2.
dominantly bed l o a d over r i p p l e d bed
: net transport rate i s i n the

d i r e c t i o n o f t h e l a r g e s t peak
velocity
3.
dominantly suspended l o a d over r i p p l e d bed: n e t t r a n s p o r t r a t e i s a g a i n s t

the d i r e c t i o n o f the l a r g e s t
peak v e l o c i t y .
9.3
9.3.1
profiles
Introduction
I n t h e L i t e r a t u r e v a r i o u s models are proposed t o compute t h e sediment conc e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s . Most models are based on the time-averaged
convection-
d i f f u s i o n equation ( N i e l s e n , 1979, Bosman-Steetzel, 1986, D a l l y , 1980, S k a f e l Krishnappan, 1 9 8 4 ) , as f o l l o w s :

^
= 0
c + e
w
s.w dz
s,m
(9.3.1)
i n which:
c
= sediment
concentration
= p a r t i c l e f a l l v e l o c i t y i n fluid-sediment mixture
w.
s ,m
= sediment d i f f u s i o n or mixing c o e f f i c i e n t r e l a t d t o t h e wave motion
e
s,w
= v e r t i c a l coordinate
z
-9.13-
Some models are based on the time-dependent c o n v e c t i o n - d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n ,
as
follows:
Ig _
3t
s,m
IC
3z
9z
|Cj
s,w
^ Q
(9.3.2)
3z'
These l a t t e r models are o n l y v a l i d f o r plane ( s h e e t f l o w ) bed c o n d i t i o n s and

are developed t o compute the v a r i a t i o n o f the instantaneous c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n
the t h i n (= 0,01
m) wave boundary l a y e r above the bed.
Numerical s o l u t i o n r e q u i r e s s p e c i f i c a t i o n of the f a l l v e l o c i t y
sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t (e
the
(Wg^^),
) and boundary c o n d i t i o n s a t the bed and a t

s^w
t h e upper boundary. U s u a l l y , a separate o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w model i s a p p l i e d t o

compute the m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s and the bed-shear s t r e s s e s . This l a t t e r
meter i s then a p p l i e d t o generate
condition).
function
para-
the instantaneous bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n (boundary
Based on t h i s , the c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s can be computed as a
o f time and a l s o time-averaged
values by averaging over t h e wave
p e r i o d . Bakker ( 1 9 7 4 ) a p p l i e d a mixing l e n g t h concept t o determine
the s e d i -
ment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t . The expressions o f E i n s t e i n have been a p p l i e d t o

s p e c i f y the bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n . Recently, the t h e o r i e s o f Bagnold ( 1 9 5 4 )
related
t o p a r t i c l e i n t e r a c t i o n i n case o f h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s have been i n c o r p o r a t e d

in
t h e model o f Bakker. The
i n f l u e n c e o f the sediment p a r t i c l e s on t h e
fall
v e l o c i t y and t u r b u l e n c e i s taken i n t o account (Bakker and Van Kesteren,
1986).
Fredseie e t a l ( 1 9 8 5 ) a p p l y a numerical model based on the eddy v i s c o s i t y

concept.
The eddy v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s are r e l a t e d
t o the i n s t a n t a n e o u s
bed
shear s t r e s s e s and the boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s . The bed boundary c o n d i t i o n

for
t h e sediment i s a c o n c e n t r a t i o n f u n c t i o n , which s p e c i f i e s the bed
concen-
t r a t i o n a t a h e i g h t o f two p a r t i c l e diameters above the bed as a f u n c t i o n
of
t h e instantaneous bed shear s t r e s s . At the water s u r f a c e the v e r t i c a l sediment

f l u x i s s e t t o z e r o . The
i n f l u e n c e o f t h e sediment p a r t i c l e s on the f a l l v e l o -
c i t y and eddy v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t i s not taken i n t o
account,
Hagatum and E i d s v i k ( 1 9 8 6 ) presented a numerical model based on a
two-equation
t u r b u l e n c e model t o r e p r e s e n t the eddy v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s . I t i s q u e s t i o nable whether such a s o p h i s t i c a t e d improvement i s necessary c o n s i d e r i n g the

e x p e r i m e n t a l problems r e l a t e d
t o v e r i f i c a t i o n o f the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n the
sheet f l o w l a y e r . A n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n s o f the c o n v e c t i o n - d i f f u s i o n
equation
a r e g i v e n by N i e l s e n ( 1 9 7 9 ) assuming t h a t the eddy v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t i s

c o n s t a n t i n space and
time.
-9.14-
Glven the complexity o f a l l phenomena (eddy v i s c o s i t y , hindered

bulence damping) w i t h i n t h i s t h i n (= 0.01
settling,
tur-
m) h i g h - c o n c e n t r a t i o n sheet f l o w
l a y e r , the p r e d i c t i n g a b i l i t y o f these time-dependent models i s r a t h e r quest i o n a b l e . V e r i f i c a t i o n i s h a r d l y p o s s i b l e due

near-bed r e g i o n w i t h extremely
t h i n l a y e r (=< 0.01
to measuring problems i n the
large v e r t i c a l concentration gradients i n a
m).
Since r e l i a b l e models t o p r e d i c t time-averaged c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n waves a l o n e

are s t i l l l a c k i n g , the present w r i t e r proposes a new
model f o r time-averaged
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , which i s based on the time-averaged c o n v e c t i o n - d i f f u s i o n

e q u a t i o n and which describes
the v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the sediment
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s above the top o f the bed form ( r i p p l e s ) or above the edge o f

the wave boundary l a y e r i n case o f a plane bed w i t h sheet f l o w .
The
f o l l o w i n g s u b j e c t s are
described:
c o n v e c t i o n - d i f f u s i o n equation
p a r t i c l e s i z e and
sediment mixing
reference
computation o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n
comparison o f measured and computed c o n c e n t r a t i o n
9.3.2
fall
velocity
coefficient
concentration
profile
profiles
Time-averaged c o n v e c t i o n - d i f f u s i o n equation
U s u a l l y , the t r a d i t i o n a l c o n v e c t i o n - d i f f u s i o n equation
i s a p p l i e d t o compute
the e q u i l i b r i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e i n steady f l o w . This e q u a t i o n

dc
(9.3.3)
Ky.j.Dj
w s,m c + es -7dz = 0
in
reads as:
which:
Wgûj = p a r t i c l e f a l l v e l o c i t y o f suspended sediment i n a f l u i d - s e d i m e n t m i x t u r e

e
= sediment mixing
coefficient
= time-averaged c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t h e i g h t z above the
Here, i t i s assumed t h a t Eq.

To v e r i f y t h i s , Eq.
(in c)
= - ^
bed
( 9 . 3 . 3 ) i s a l s o v a l i d f o r wave-related
mixing.
( 9 . 3 . 3 ) i s expressed as:
(9.3.4)
-9.15-
The
d i f f u s i o n concept i s v a l i d when the slope o f measured c o n c e n t r a t i o n
files
pro-
represented i n a p l o t o f l o g c versus z are i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o
the f a l l v e l o c i t y i n case o f c o n s t a n t wave c o n d i t i o n s . To
investigate this,
some e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t presented by Roelvink ( 1 9 8 5 ) are a n a l y z e d . R o e l v i n k

measured c o n c e n t r a t i o n
p r o f i l e s o f d i f f e r e n t s i z e f r a c t i o n s above a r i g i d
bot-
tom
c o n s i s t i n g o f a r t i f i c i a l r i p p l e s , A l i m i t e d amount o f sediment p a r t i c l e s
was
f e d t o the ( o s c i l l a t o r y ) f l o w . Figure 9 . 3 . 1
shows measured
concentration
p r o f i l e s f o r v a r i o u s s i z e f r a c t i o n s i n case o f a c o n s t a n t wave h e i g h t . Since

the wave h e i g h t i s c o n s t a n t ,
the l o c a l mixing
c o e f f i c i e n t w i l l be
approximately
c o n s t a n t asssuming t h a t t h i s parameter i s not or o n l y weakly c o r r e l a t e d t o the

sediment p a r t i c l e s i z e . As can be observed, t h e r e i s a tendency f o r t h e slopes
of the concentration
p r o f i l e s t o be i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o the p a r t i c l e
fall
v e l o c i t y , which supports the a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f the d i f f u s i o n concept f o r waveinduced m i x i n g .

Nielsen
A s i m i l a r conclusion
i s given by Van
der G r a a f f ( 1 9 8 8 ) .
( 1 9 8 4 ) questiones the a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f the d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n f o r
wave-induced m i x i n g .
He presents some data showing t h a t the eddy t r a p p i n g
mechanism i s the dominant suspension mechanism r a t h e r than the
diffusion
process. A l l sand p a r t i c l e s i z e s , t h a t are small enough t o be trapped

eddy w i l l t r a v e l w i t h the eddy u n t i l
concentrations
i t d i s s o l v e s and
i n an
t h e i r time-averaged
w i l l become d i s t r i b u t e d i n very much the same way,
irrespective
of s e t t l i n g velocity.
9.3.3
P a r t i c l e s i z e and f a l l v e l o c i t y o f suspended sediment
p a r t i c l e s i z e o f suspended sediment
O b s e r v a t i o n s i n flume and
field
c o n d i t i o n s have shown t h a t the suspended s e d i -
ment p a r t i c l e s are not u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d over the depth i n case o f a nonuniform
bed m a t e r i a l c o m p o s i t i o n . The
coarser p a r t i c l e s are suspended i n the
near-bed r e g i o n , w h i l e the f i n e r p a r t i c l e s are suspended i n the upper l a y e r s .

Some i n f o r m a t i o n can be obtained
from the measurements o f Van
l a r g e - s c a l e wave flume. Sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n
p r o f i l e s were d e t e r m i n e d by
u s i n g a pump sampler t o o b t a i n water-sediment samples. The

samples o f each p r o f i l e were put t o g e t h e r
for
Rijn (1987) in a
suspended sediment
to get a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e sample
a n a l y s i s . F a l l v e l o c i t i e s o f these samples were measured i n a s e t t l i n g
tube w i t h a l e n g t h o f 2 m. The
a p p l y i n g F i g . 4 . 2 . 3 . The
f a l l v e l o c i t i e s were converted t o p a r t i c l e
size
r a t i o o f the median suspended sediment s i z e (dg) and
t h e median bed m a t e r i a l s i z e (d^g) i s shown i n F i g . 9 . 3 . 2
as a f u n c t i o n o f a
-9.16-
dimensionless
bed-shear s t r e s s parameter T (see s e c t i o n 3 . 2 ) .
Figure
shows s i m i l a r data o b t a i n e d i n the s u r f zone near the coast o f the

( s t a t i o n Groote Keetn, Kroon and Van R i j n ,
9.3.2
Netherlands
1988).
Since the bed m a t e r i a l i s q u i t e u n i f o r m ( o ^ = 0.did^^/d.^^ + dg^^/d^^) < 2 )
in
b o t h cases, t h e median suspended sediment s i z e ( d g ) i s f a i r l y c l o s e t o t h e

median bed m a t e r i a l s i z e (d^Q j j g ^ j ) . The data can be reasonably
the f o l l o w i n g
represented
by
equation:
d
= 1 + 0.011
(a - 1)
50,bed
in
(T - 25)
(9.3.5)
which:
dg
= r e p r e s e n t a t i v e p a r t i c l e s i z e o f suspended sediment
d^Q i^gj = median p a r t i c l e s i z e o f bed m a t e r i a l

= 0.5(dgQ/d.]g + dg||/d^Q) = g e o m e t r i c a l standard d e v i a t i o n o f bed
material
T
= bed-shear s t r e s s parameter, see S e c t i o n
9.3.7
( 9 . 3 . 5 ) has been proposed by the p r e s e n t w r i t e r (Van R i j n , 1984)
Equation
to
r e p r e s e n t the suspended sediment s i z e i n steady u n i f o r m f l o w (see a l s o s e c t i o n

9.3.3).
Based on the present r e s u l t s
(Fig. 9 . 3 . 2 ) ,
t h i s equation i s a l s o
a p p l i c a b l e f o r o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w over a movable f i n e sediment
Particle f a l l
bed.
velocity
Experiments o f h i g h sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s have shown a c o n s i d e r a b l e r e d u c t i o n

o f the p a r t i c l e f a l l v e l o c i t y due t o the presence o f the s u r r o u n d i n g
particles.
T h i s e f f e c t i s known as the hindered s e t t l i n g e f f e c t . For f l o w c o n d i t i o n s w i t h

p a r t i c l e s i n t h e range o f 50 t o 500 ym the reduced p a r t i c l e f a l l v e l o c i t y
be d e s c r i b e d by a Richardson-Zaki
"s,m - ( 1 -
in
( 1 9 5 4 ) type o f e q u a t i o n :
(9.3.6)
"s
which:
"s,m ' e f f e c t i v e f a l l
Wg
can
= fall
velocity
velocity i n a fluid-sediment mixture

i n a clear f l u i d
Since wave-generated sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s may
be r a t h e r l a r g e i n the n e a r -
bed r e g i o n , the i n f l u e n c e o f the hindered s e t t l i n g e f f e c t has been i n v e s t i g a t e d

by e x e c u t i n g a few s e n s i t i v i t y computations.
A p p l y i n g Eqs.
(9.3.3),
(9.3.6)
and
-9.17-
( 9 . 3 . 3 3 ) , the sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e has been computed ( n u m e r i c a l l y )

f o r a r e f e r e n c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 2500, 5000 and
10000 mg/1. The r e s u l t s are
shown i n F i g . 9.3.3, showing an increase o f the sediment
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s due
to
t h e h i n d e r e d s e t t l i n g e f f e c t . Considering a l l u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n v o l v e d , the
h i n d e r e d s e t t l i n g e f f e c t seems t o be o f minor importance f o r concntrations
s m a l l e r than 10000 mg/1.
Measurements show t h a t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f t h i s o r d e r
o f magnitude do n o t occur o u t s i d e the wave boundary l a y e r .
9.3.4
Sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t f o r non-breaking waves
9.3.4.1
Existing relationships
Measurements i n wave flumes show the presence o f suspended sediment
particles
from the bed u p t o the water depth (Bosman, 1984, Van R i j n , 1987). The
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are found c l o s e t o the bed where the d i f f u s i v i t y
largest
is rather
l a r g e due t o r i p p l e - g e n e r a t e d eddies. F u r t h e r away from the bed the
sediment
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s decrease r a p i d l y because the eddies d i s s o l v e r a t h e r r a p i d l y

t r a v e l l i n g upwards.
V a r i o u s r e s e a r c h e r s have t r i e d t o model the suspension process by
introducing
an e f f e c t i v e wave-related sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t . Most e x p r e s s i o n s are

e m p i r i c a l or s e m i - e m p i r i c a l . Only, the method g i v e n by B i j k e r does n o t depend
on c a l i b r a t i o n
coefficients.
Homma and Horikawa
^ ^ A s ^ i k z )
T
in
(1962)
sinh-^(kh)
which:
H = wave h e i g h t
T = wave p e r i o d
L = wave l e n g t h
h = water
depth
z = v e r t i c a l c o o r d i n a t e r e l a t i v e t o the bed
2
01 = c o n s t a n t (^^ 10 )
k = wave number (2IT/L)
(g_3_^)
-9.18-
2iJ^_il967,_1971)
^s,w = ^
w^
(9.3.8)
-V
i n which:
K
= Von Karman c o n s t a n t
^* w " (^b w*^*^^^'^ "
averaged bed-shear v e l o c i t y r e l a t e d t o waves

(Eq. 2.3.13).
O r i g i n a l l y , t h e B i j k e r method was proposed f o r combined c u r r e n t and wave

condions. Herein, t h i s method has a l s o been a p p l i e d f o r waves alone.
Lundgren (1972)
0.4 u^
^s,w =
1 + 1.34
in
~25
z
'
(9.3.9)
(0.5f^^)"-^''(z/6^^) exp(z/6^)
which:
"*,w " (^b w^*^^*^'^ " ^^^^ value o f wave-related bed-shear v e l o c i t y

f
= f r i c t i o n factor
<S
= maximum t h i c k n e s s o f wave boundary l a y e r
The 6^- parameter f o l l o w s from:

2.74 6
2.74 6
A
["k
J log[-k
- ] = 0-0282 [ j - ^ ]
s,w
s,w
s,w
in
(9.3.10)
which:
^s,vi ~ wave-related bed roughness

Ag
= peak-value
o f o r b i t a l e x c u r s i o n a t bed
A minimum value equal t o t h e bed form h e i g h t (A^) has been used i n t h e p r e s e n t

study (6
. =A)
w,min
Bhattacharya
(1971)
^s,w = â
^8 ^
(9.3.11)
' h^
-9.19-
i n which:
e
= sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t a t s m a l l h e i g h t ( a ) above bed
Swart ( 1 9 7 6 )
(9.3.12)
s,w
b.j
0.96
bi-1.05Z
0.013Z
[g]
w
Z =
i n which:
Wg = p a r t i c l e f a l l
K
velocity
= Von Karman c o n s t a n t (=0.384)
Nielsen
(1979)
e
s,w
A. (Jl) -0.32
= 0.00146 (A + 0.4 6)g T f -(5 ^ l 1
r
"s
e
s,w
A (D 0.68
= 0.00035 (A + 0.4 6)g T [ - ^ ]
r
"s
A. )
o...
for o
> 25
s
(9.3.13a)
A (
for
< 25
(9.3.13b)
i n which:
6
= maximum boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s
= wave p e r i o d
(ij
= 2TI/T
Equation ( 9 . 3 . 1 3 )
Dally
s,w
i s v a l i d f o r non-breaking waves.
(1980)
= TTT h Uo
15
*,w
(9.3.14)
-9.20-
Skafel-Krishnappan
(1984)
^s,w = ^ ^6 ",w
(9.3.15)
g = 8-7 [
(9.3.16)
Kos'yan (1985)
^s,w = ^s,o ^ %,t
(9.3.17)
IT
^s,o-- 272-T
(9.3.18)
slnh^(k2)
7277:
sinh (kh)
b (Gg- W3) ( Z / 6 J
1+0.06 (z/6 ) exp(z/6 )

w
w
b = 116 [ ^ ]
in
(9.3.19)
2 1/3
[^]
which:
^s o " '"t)ital-related m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t
Eg ^ = turbulence-related mixing c o e f f i c i e n t
6^
= maximum t h i c k n e s s o f wave-boundary l a y e r (Eq. ( 2 . 3 . 7 ) )
Ug
= peak value o f o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y near bed
The above g i v e n expressions have been used t o compute t h e w a v e - r e l a t e d

sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r an experiment o f Bosman (1984).
The b a s i c data a r e :
Hg
= s i g n i f i c a n t wave h e i g h t
= 0.12 m
Tp
= peak p e r i o d o f wave spectrum
= 1.9 s
= water depth
= 0.3 m
= wave l e n g t h
= 3.08 m
d^Q
= median p a r t i c l e s i z e o f bed m a t e r i a l
= 0.000105 m
dgo
= p a r t i c l e s i z e l a r g e r than 90%
= 0.000130 m
dg
= r e p r e s e n t a t i v e p a r t i c l e s i z e o f suspended sediment
= 0.00008 m
Wg
= p a r t i c l e f a l l v e l o c i t y o f suspended sediment
= 0.005 m/s
-9.21-
= r i p p l e height
^ = wave-related
Te
bed roughness h e i g h t
= water temperature
= 0.02
= 0.06
= 20 C
L i n e a r wave theory has been used t o compute the wave parameters rsulting i n :
= peak value o f o r b i t a l e x c u r s i o n Just o u t s i d e boundary l a y e r = 0.092 m
Ug
= peak value o f o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y Just o u t s i d e boundary l a y e r
= 0.305
f
w
= f r i c t i o n factor
j,
= time-averaged
= 0.078
ua=
The
bed-shear v e l o c i t y ( h a l f c y c l e )
peak value o f bed-shear v e l o c i t y
m/s
0.3
= 0.11
m/s
m/s
r e s u l t s are shown i n F i g u r e 9.3.4A. The "measured" values r e p r e s e n t the
sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s d e r i v e d from the measured sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n

p r o f i l e , which i s shown i n F i g u r e 9.3.4B (see a l s o s e c t i o n 9.3.4.2).
The
measured values i n d i c a t e a c o n s t a n t sediment mixing c o e f f i c i e n t i n t h e nearbed r e g i o n . Above t h i s r e g i o n . t h e sediment mixing c o e f f i c i e n t i n c r e a s e s r a t h e r

s t r o n g l y upto the mid-depth l e v e l . I n the upper h a l f o f the water depth
the
measured sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t shows a ( r e l a t i v e l y ) weak i n c r e a s e . None

o f t h e proposed r e l a t i o n s h i p s has a d i s t r i b u t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e
measured v a l u e s . Most expressions y i e l d values which are much too l a r g e . The
e x p r e s s i o n proposed by N i e l s e n produces a m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t o f the r i g h t
o r d e r o f magnitude i n the near-bed r e g i o n . The expression o f Lundgren, which
o n l y r e p r e s e n t s the t u r b u l e n c e - r e l a t e d mixing process i n the boundary l a y e r ,
y i e l d s values o f the r i g h t order o f magnitude i n the near-bed r e g i o n .
t h e boundary l a y e r ( 6 ^ ^ 0.015
Outside
m) the sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t o f Lundgren
decreases r a p i d l y .
F i g u r e 9.3.4B shows measured and computed c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s f o r t h e same
experiment.
The computed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are based on a n u m e r i c a l s o l u t i o n o f
t h e d i f f u s i o n equation (Eqs. 9.3.3

expressions
f o r the sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t . The c o n c e n t r a t i o n measured i n
t h e lowest sampling
9500 mg/1
and 9.3.6) a p p l y i n g the proposed
p o i n t has been used as bed boundary c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( c ^ =
a t z = 0.02
m) f o r the numerical computation
o f the c o n c e n t r a t i o n
p r o f i l e . The c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e based on the sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t o f

Lundgren shows reasonable
r e s u l t s i n the near-bed r e g i o n (z < 0.2
h ) . Outside
t h e boundary l a y e r the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s decrease much too r a p i d l y . Comparing the

o t h e r methods, the N i e l s e n method y i e l d s the most reasonable
results.
methods o f Homma-Horikawa, B i j k e r , Swart, D a l l y , Skafel-Krishnappan

Kos'yan produce i n c o r r e c t r e s u l t s .
The
and
-9.22-
9.3.4.2
New r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r wave-related m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t
Since t h e e x i s t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r the wave-related sediment m i x i n g

c o e f f i c i e n t do n o t y i e l d acceptable r e s u l t s ( F i g u r e 9 . 3 . 4 ) , a new approach i s
i n t r o d u c e d by Van R i j n :
T h i s approach i s as f o l l o w s :
o
compute sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t (e
) from measured c o n c e n t r a t i o n
S yw
profiles,
r e p r e s e n t t h e v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e computed sediment m i x i n g
c o e f f i c i e n t by a simple r e l a t i o n s h i p ,
r e l a t e t h e e m p i r i c a l c o e f f i c i e n t s o f t h i s l a t t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o b a s i c wave
parameters
by c a l i b r a t i o n w i t h experimental data.
A p p l y i n g Eqs. ( 9 . 3 3 ) and ( 9 . 3 . 6 ) , t h e sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t can be

determined as:
(1-c)^ c w
^s,w =
dc/dz
(9.3.20)
'
which i s r e p r e s e n t e d n u m e r i c a l l y a s :
( 1 - c . ) ^ c. w
i
2
in
(9.3.21)
i_sj^
^ V
^1-1
which:
Cj^
= sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n p o i n t i
z^
= h e i g h t o f p o i n t i above bed
Wg
= f a l l velocity i n point i
The e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a o f Bosman (1982, 1986) have been a p p l i e d i n t h e p r e s e n t

a n a l y s i s . Bosman measured c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s above a sand bed ( d ^ ^
i n a wave flume. A s p e c i a l measuring technique was used t o o b t a i n
100 ym)
time-averaged
and space-averaged sand c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . The i n t a k e tubes o f the pump samples

were moved f o r w a r d s and backwards ( h o r i z o n t a l l y ) over a few r i p p l e l e n g t h s t o
e l i m i n a t e t h e l o c a l i n f l u e n c e o f t h e r i p p l e s . The lowest sampling p o i n t was
l o c a t e d j u s t above t h e t o p o f the r i p p l e s . The t o t a l sampling p e r i o d was about
10 minutes.
-9.23-
( 9 . 3 . 2 1 ) , the measured c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s have been
Before a p p l y i n g Eq.
"smoothed". The
v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the f a l l v e l o c i t y (Wg ^) o f t h e
sus-
pended m a t e r i a l ( g r a d a t i o n e f f e c t s ) has been taken i n t o account by a p p l y i n g

the a n a l y s i s r e s u l t s o f the suspended sediment samples. For z > 0.1 m t h e suspended sediment s i z e i s about 80 ym y i e l d i n g a f a l l v e l o c i t y o f 0.0055 m/s.
For z < 0,1 m t h e r e i s a gradual t r a n s i t i o n from a s i z e o f 80 ym t o t h e median
bed m a t e r i a l s i z e o f 105 ym ( f a l l v e l o c i t y = 0,0085 m/s).
F i g u r e 9.3.5
shows the v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the computed m i x i n g
c i e n t s f o r non-breaking
The
o
following
characteristics
can be
= 0,4
and
0,5.
observed:
a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o n s t a n t m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t ( e ^ ^ ^^^) i n a l a y e r ( 6 ^ ) near
the
waves w i t h Hg/h
coeffi-
bed,
a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o n s t a n t m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t (e
) i n the upper h a l f
S y W y luaX
(z > 0.5
h) o f the water
depth.
a p p r o x i m a t e l y l i n e a r v a r i a t i o n f o r 6 < z < 0.5

s
h.
S i m i l a r v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s have been observed by Van der G r a a f f ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

Based on the p r e s e n t r e s u l t s , the f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p
z < 6
s
^s <
I, ,
s,w,bed
(9.3.22a)
e
= e_.
s, w
s,w,max
(9.3.22b)
z > 0.5
<
Equation
i s proposed:
s,w
= e
z-6
^s,w = ^s,w,bed ^ ^s,w,maK-^s,w,bedHT5h?^l
( 9 . 3 . 2 2 ) i s a l s o shown i n F i g u r e 9.3.5. Equation
d e f i n e d when t h e f o l l o w i n g
(9.3.22c)
(9.3.22) i s f u l l y
t h r e e parameters are known:
1.
t h i c k n e s s o f near-bed sediment m i x i n g l a y e r
2.
3.
m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t near the bed ( e ^ ^ bed^'

m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t i n the upper h a l f o f the depth (e
The
f o l l o w i n g s t e p i n the a n a l y s i s i s t o r e l a t e these t h r e e parameters t o b a s i c
wave
parameters.
(6),
s
.
-9.24-
Thickness o f near-bed sediment mixing l a y e r (6 )

3
A n a l y s i s o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s measured by Bosman shows t h e presence o f
a near-bed l a y e r w i t h an almost constant mixing c o e f f i c i e n t ( F i g . 9 . 3 . 5 ) .
The t h i c k n e s s o f t h i s l a y e r i s about 0 . 0 3 t o 0 . 0 5 m, which i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y
3 t o 6 times t h e r i p p l e h e i g h t .
In case o f a f l a t bed (sheet f l o w ) t h e e f f e c t i v e sediment m i x i n g l a y e r 6
s
w i l l be p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e wave boundary l a y e r 6^. Here, i t i s assumed

that:
6
= 3 A
6g = 3 6^
(9.3.23)
( r i p p l e regime)
(sheet f l o w regime)
i n which:
6^ = wave boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s (Equation
(2.3.8))
6 = t h i c k n e s s o f near-bed sediment mixing l a y e r

s
M i x i n g _ c o e f f i c i e n t i n near-bed l a y e r (e

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
, ,)
SJWJDGQ
B a s i c a l l y , the m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t i s d e f i n e d as the p r o d u c t o f a l e n g t h
s c a l e and a v e l o c i t y s c a l e , as f o l l o w s :
eg^ L U
(9.3.24)
In case o f o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w near t h e bed i t seems l o g i c t o assume:

es,w,bed = %
(9.3.25)
5 6s
i n which:
= empirical coefficient
Ug = peak value o f near-bed o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y (Eq. ( 2 . 3 . 2 ) )
6 = t h i c k n e s s o f near-bed sediment mixing l a y e r (Eq. ( 9 . 3 . 2 3 ) )
s
Sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n measurements i n waves alone o f Nieuwjaar
Van R i j n ( 1 9 8 7 ) ,
Bosman ( 1 9 8 2 ) and Van der Velden ( 1 9 8 6 )
(1987),
have been used t o
determine t h e a , - c o e f f i c i e n t .
b
The data s e t s o f Nieuwjaar ( 1 9 8 7 ) ,
been d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 9 . 2 . 2 .
Bosman (1984) and Van R i j n ( I 9 8 8 ) have
The measurements o f Van der Velden
(I986)
were performed i n a wave-tunnel w i t h a sand bed o f d^^ ^ 36O ym. A l l mea-
-9.25-
sured e
, .-values have been d e r i v e d from t h e measured c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
s,w,bed
i n t h e near-bed r e g i o n a p p l y i n g an e x p o n e n t i a l f i t ,
which i m p l i e s a con-
stant mixing c o e f f i c i e n t .
The
t o be dependent on t h e D p a r t i c l e parameter
The OO jj ^^ -- cc oo ee ff ff ii cc ii ee nn tt was
was ffound
(
(Eq. ( 3 . 1 ) ) , as f o l l o w s :
= 0.004 Djj
(9.3.26)
F i g u r e 9.3.6 shows measured and computed m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r t h e c a l i bration
data. A l l 29 computed values a r e w i t h i n a f a c t o r 2 o f the measured
v a l u e s . The Oj^-coeff i c i e n t depends on the Dj*-parameter. e x p r e s s i n g an

increased m i x i n g e f f e c t i n t h e near-bed r e g i o n f o r l a r g e r
This can be e x p l a i n e d by t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e eddy-induced
forces acting
centrifugal
on t h e p a r t i c l e s . The m i x i n g process i n t h e near-bed l a y e r
i s dominated by r i p p l e - r e l a t e d
out"
particle sizes.
eddy motions r e s u l t i n g i n a " s p i r a l l i n g
process and hence i n an increased m i x i n g e f f e c t . T h i s l a t t e r
effect
has been s t u d i e d i n d e t a i l by N i e l s e n (1979). N i e l s e n shows t h a t t h e

r a d i u s o f a sand p a r t i c l e o r b i t can be increased by a f a c t o r 2 a f t e r one
eddy
revolution.
M i x i n g2 c o e f f i c i e n t i n upper l ai _y _e r (e
s,w,max )
For t h e upper l a y e r i t i s assumed t h a t :
es,w,max " Wo.5h ^
(9.3.27)
i n which:
Wo.5h = peak v a l u e o f v e r t i c a l o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y a t mid-depth l e v e l
h
= water depth
From l i n e a r wave t h e o r y i t f o l l o w s
that:
W
"0.5h T
(9.3.28)
vf.o.i"/
Combining Equations (9.3.27) and (9.3.28) i t f o l l o w s
u ,v = m
s,w,max
> 0.5
that:
(9.3.29)
-9.26-
i n which:
The
c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s measured by Bosman ( 1 9 8 4 ) and Van
have been used t o determine

( 9 . 3 . 2 2 ) and
the a ^ - c o e f f i c i e n t . Equations
(198?)
Rijn
(9.3.3),
(9.3.6),
( 9 . 3 . 2 5 ) have been a p p l i e d t o compute n u m e r i c a l l y t h e concen-
t r a t i o n p r o f i l e w i t h the c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n the lowest measuring p o i n t as

boundary c o n d i t i o n . The a ^ - c o e f f i c i e n t was
bed
v a r i e d u n t i l good agreement
between measured and computed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s was o b t a i n e d . Some r e s u l t s

shown i n F i g . 9 . 3 . 7 . Based on t h i s c a l i b r a t i o n method, i t was
found
= 0.035
are
that:
(9.3.30)
S e n s i t i v i t y analysis
The b a s i c parameters o f the v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the sediment m i x i n g
c o e f f i c i e n t are the a , - c o e f f i c i e n t , the a - c o e f f i c i e n t and
b
m
the near-bed
sediment m i x i n g l a y e r t h i c k n e s s , 6 . To get a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f the
i n f l u e n c e o f these t h r e e parameters on t h e computed sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n

p r o f i l e , a s e n s i t i v i t y a n a l y s i s have been c a r r i e d o u t . Each parameter
been v a r i e d over an u n c e r t a i n t y range o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50%,
keeping
o t h e r parameters constant. The r e s u l t s are shown i n F i g u r e 9 . 3 . 8 .
has
the
As
can
be observed i n F i g u r e 9 . 3 . 8 A , the i n f l u e n c e o f the c t ^ - c o e f f i c i e n t i s r a t h e r

l a r g e , because i t d i r e c t l y a f f e c t s the m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t i n the near-bed
r e g i o n . E s p e c i a l l y , a r e d u c t i o n o f the a j _ ^ - c o e f f i c i e n t
w i t h 5 0 ^ has a l a r g e
e f f e c t y i e l d i n g a decrease o f the mid-depth c o n c e n t r a t i o n by a f a c t o r

The
i n f l u e n c e o f the a ^ ^ - c o e f f i c i e n t , which a f f e c t s the m i x i n g
i n the upper l a y e r s , i s l e s s pronounced ( F i g , 9 . 3 . 8 C ) . The
5!
coefficient
6 - v a l u e has
s
r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l e f f e c t on the c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e ( F i g , 9 , 3 , 8 B ) ,
Based on these r e s u l t s , i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h should
be
focussed on the m i x i n g process i n near-bed l a y e r .

9.3.5
Sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t i n b r e a k i n g waves
Figure 9 . 3 . 9
shows t h e v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the sediment m i x i n g
c i e n t s d e r i v e d from c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s measured i n s p i l l i n g and
coeffiplunging
b r e a k i n g waves (Bosman, 1 9 8 2 ) . As can be observed, the m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r

b r e a k i n g waves are c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r than those f o r non-breaking
waves.
-9.27-
which i s not s u r p r i s i n g
(see S e c t i o n 9 . 2 . 2 ) . However, the v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u -
t i o n o f the m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r b r e a k i n g waves i s q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h a t
f o r non-breaking
waves, which i s a remarkable
feature.
Based on t h i s s i m i l a r i t y o f the v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the m i x i n g c o e f f i cients,
a simple approach i s proposed by i n t r o d u c i n g
a breaking
(a^^^) which a c t s as a m u l t i p l i e r on the m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t f o r

waves, as
non-breaking
follows:
^s,w,br = V
in
coefficient
S,w
(9.3.31;
which:
^c. .. wv, = sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t i n case o f b r e a k i n g waves

S J W J D"
= sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t i n case o f non-breaking

= breaking
The
waves
coefficient
a j ^ ^ - c o e f f i c i e n t i s assumed t o be c o n s t a n t over the depth and
dependent on t h e breaker t y p e . I n S e c t i o n 2 . 3 . 6
breaker
i t has been shown t h a t
the
type ( s p i l l i n g o r p l u n g i n g ) depends on the r a t i o o f the wave h e i g h t
and water depth
(H^/h), as
s p i l l i n g b r e a k e r s : H /h <
s
p l u n g i n g b r e a k e r s : H /h >
s
follows:
0.6
0.6
Since s p i l l i n g b r e a k i n g waves are l e s s e f f e c t i v e i n e n t r a i n i n g
and
t h e sediment p a r t i c l e s than p l u n g i n g waves (see S e c t i o n 9 . 2 . 2 ) ,

t h a t oi|^^ = 1 f o r s p i l l i n g b r e a k i n g waves (H^/h < 0 . 6 )
waves (H /h >
s
i t i s assumed
0.6).
(9.3.3),
centration
suspending
and a^^ > 1 f o r p l u n g i n g
F i g u r e 9 . 3 . 1 0 shows measured and computed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . The

on Eqs.
t o be
(9.3.6),
(9.3.22),
(9.3.25),
( 9 . 3 . 2 9 ) and
l a t t e r a r e based
( 9 . 3 . 3 1 ) . The
con-
measured i n the l o w e s t measuring p o i n t has been used as r e f e r e n c e
concentration. Application
and a|^^ = 2 f o r Hg/h = 0 . 9 5
o f a,
=1
br
f o r H/h = 0 . 6 ,
s
'
= 1.2
br
f o r H/h
s
=0.7
y i e l d s s a t i s f a c t o r y agreement between measured and
computed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s .
As a f i r s t approach, the f o l l o w i n g
r"s,
"s
relationship
i s proposed:
(9.3.32)
-9.28-
( 9 . 3 . 3 2 ) y i e l d s values i n the range o f
Equation
= 1 t o 2 . 2 f o r Hg/h = 0 . 6
to 1.
D e t a i l e d e x p e r i m e n t a l research i n a wave flume i s necessary t o study t h e e f f e c t
o f b r e a k i n g waves on t h e sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s and t o v e r i f y t h e
v a l i d i t y o f t h e proposed approach (oj^^-coeff i c i e n t ) .
9.3.6
Sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t f o r non-breaking
and b r e a k i n g waves
Summarizing, i t i s proposed by Van R i j n t o apply t h e f o l l o w i n g
expressions f o r
the wave-related sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t (e

).
^
s,w'
(9.3.33a)
z < 6
->-0.5h
e^^^^^^^
(9.3.33b)
6^ < z < 0 . 5 h
e^^^ = e^^^^^^^ . [^s,w,max-s,w,bedHyrrl

s
(9.3.33c)
s,w
= e ^ ^
s,w,bed
es,w,bed = O.OOH Djj ab^, fig Ug
(9-3.34)
^s,w,max = 0 . 0 3 5 a^^^
(9.3.35)
P
H
% r
in
6g
h
H
s
Tp
= 3 [{^]
H
- 0.8
for
> 0.6
(9.3.36)
which:
= t h i c k n e s s o f near-bed sediment m i x i n g l a y e r (= 3
= water depth
= s i g n i f i c a n t wave h e i g h t
or = 3 6^)
= peak p e r i o d
Ug
= peak value o f o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y near bed (based on H and T)

.
p
D^
a^^ = b r e a k i n g c o e f f i c i e n t
The
6 - v a l u e i s p r 9 p o s e d t o be:
5g = 3 A^
f o r a r i p p l e d bed (A^ = r i p p l e h e i g h t )
(9.3.37a)
g = 3 6^
f o r a f l a t bed (sheet f l o w , 6^ = wave boundary l a y e r )
(9.3.37b)
-9.29-
9.3.7
Reference c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n near-bed r e g i o n
Approach
For u n i d i r e c t i o n a l steady f l o w the w r i t e r has proposed a simple d e t e r m i n i s t i c
e x p r e s s i o n (Eq. 8 . 3 . 1 7 ) t o compute the r e f e r e n c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n , which reads
as:
d^ 1 . 5
"a
in
which:
Djj
= [(s-1)g/v J
= fx'
^ b,c
b,c
b,cr
d^Q
= dimensionless p a r t i c l e diameter
(-)
l/x,
= dimensionless bed-shear parameter
h,cv' b,cr
= u
= c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d e f f e c t i v e bed-shear s t e s s
^c
b,c
= c r i t i c a l bed-shear s t r e s s according t o S h i e l d s
(-)
(N/m2)
(N/m2)
(kg/m3)
a
Equation ( 9 . 3 . 3 8 )
i s assumed t o be v a l i d f o r o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w as w e l l , a p p l y i n g
an e f f e c t i v e w a v e - r e l a t e d bed shear s t r e s s , as f o l l o w s :
T'
= U
in
which:
b,w
(9.3.39)
b,w
T'
= w a v e - r e l a t e d e f f e c t i v e bed-shear s t r e s s (N/m^)
b ,w
y
= w a v e - r e l a t e d e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r (-)
w
= w a v e - r e l a t e d bed-shear s t r e s s (N/m^) a c c o r d i n g t o Eq.
b ,w
(2.3.14)
The e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r y i s unknown but can be determined by c a l i b r a t i o n u s i n g

w
e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s (see next s e c t i o n ) .
F i r s t , the r e f e r e n c e l e v e l i s discussed. I n case o f a bed form regime i t i s
proposed t o a p p l y t h e r e f e r e n c e l e v e l a t the c r e s t l e v e l o f the bed forms
(see
F i g . 8 . 3 . 1 ) , which means t h a t the r e f e r e n c e l e v e l a i s equal t o h a l f t h e bed

form h e i g h t . Thus a = 0.5
A .
I n case o f sheet f l o w c o n d i t i o n s w i t h a f l a t bed i t i s proposed t o a p p l y the

r e f e r e n c e l e v e l a t t h e o u t e r edge o f the sheet f l o w l a y e r , which means t h a t
t h e r e f e r e n c e l e v e l i s equal t o the t h i c k n e s s o f the wave boundary l a y e r .
-9.30-
Thus, a = 6^. Summarizing:
bed forms : a = 0.5
(9.3.40a)
sheet f l o w :
(9.3.40b)
in
a = 6^
which:
" ("
1-0 25
6^ = 0.072 AU/SdgoJ
"
= t h i c k n e s s o f wave boundary l a y e r , see Eq. ( 2 . 3 . 8 )
The sediment p a r t i c l e s below t h e r e f e r e n c e l e v e l a r e assumed t o be t r a n s p o r t e d
as bed l o a d both i n t h e bed form and t h e sheet f l o w regime. Bed l o a d
a r e presented
formulae
i n Section 9.6.
C a l i b r a t i o n o f wave-related
e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r y
The e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r (y ) r e p r e s e n t s t h a t p a r t o f the bed-shear s t r e s s t h a t

w
i s a p p l i e d t o e n t r a i n the sediment p a r t i c l e s from t h e bed i n t o t h e f l o w . When

bed forms a r e p r e s e n t , t h e e f f i c i e n c y - f a c t o r should be s m a l l e r then u n i t y
( y ^ < 1) because a p a r t o f t h e bed-shear s t r e s s i s e x e r t e d by pressure
forces
( f o r m d r a g ) g e n e r a t i n g eddies i n t h e l e e s i d e r e g i o n o f t h e bed forms. These

l a t t e r f o r c e s a r e l e s s i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e sediment entrainment process i n t h e
case o f u n i d i r e c t i o n a l f l o w (over dunes).
I n t h a t case t h e e n t r a i n m e n t
process
i s governed by s k i n - f r i c t i o n f o r c e s a t the u p s l o p i n g p a r t o f t h e bed forms. I n

t h e case o f o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w over bed forms ( r i p p l e s ) i t i s n o t r e a l i s t i c t o
r e l a t e t h e sediment entrainment process t o s k i n - f r i c t i o n f o r c e s a l o n e , as
proposed by N i e l s e n (1979) and Grant and Madsen ( 1 9 8 2 ) . V i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n
c l e a r l y shows the a c t i v e r o l e o f t h e r i p p l e - r e l a t e d eddies ( f r o m d r a g ) t h a t
a r e moving forwards and backwards over t h e r i p p l e s . Kennedy and Locher (1972)
a l s o emphasize the s t r o n g e f f e c t o f t h e r i p p l e s on the flow-bed
According
interaction.
t o t h e i r o b s e r v a t i o n s , t h e entrainment process i s l a r g e l y governed
by t h e r i p p l e spacing and the s t r e n g t h o f t h e l e e eddies near t h e r i p p l e

crests.
Time-averaged c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e near-bed r e g i o n as measured by N i e u w j a a r
Van der K a a i j ( 1 9 8 7 ) , Nap-Van Kampen ( 1 9 8 8 ) , S t e e t z e l ( 1 9 8 7 ) , R o e l v i n k
(1988),
Bosman (1982, 1986), Van der Velden ( 1 9 8 6 ) , Van R i j n ( 1 9 8 7 ) , Kroon-Van R i j n

( 1 9 8 8 ) . The measurements o f Van der Velden were c a r r i e d o u t i n a wave t u n n e l
w i t h s i n u s o i d a l o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w . The o t h e r measurements were c a r r i e d o u t i n
-9.si-
s m a l l - s c a l e and l a r g e - s c a l e wave flumes w i t h i r r e g u l a r o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w . The

data s e t o f Kroon-Van R i j n (1988) r e f e r s t o f i e l d measurements i n t h e s u r f
zone o f t h e Dutch coast near Groote Keeten. The b a s i c data a r e g i v e n i n Table
9 . 1 . 1 . The r e f e r e n c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s s p e c i f i e d i n t h i s Table a r e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
at
t h e t o p o f t h e bed forms or a t the t o p o f t h e wave boundary l a y e r . These
"measured" r e f e r e n c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s were o b t a i n e d by p l o t t i n g t h e measured

near-bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s on s e m i l o g a r i t h m i c s c a l e and a p p l y i n g a s t r a i g h t
f i t which was e x t r a p o l a t e d t o t h e r e q u i r e d r e f e r e n c e l e v e l ( a = 0.5
line
or
a = 6 a c c o r d i n g t o Eq. ( 9 . 3 . 4 0 ) . I n a l l , 61 data have been used,

w
The c a l i b r a t i o n procedure was, as f o l l o w s :
1.
compute p a r t i c l e parameter D by Eq. ( 3 . 1 )
2.
compute e f f e c t i v e bed roughness,
^ by Eq. ( 7 . 3 . 7 ) f o r r i p p l e regime and
by Eq. ( 7 . 3 . 5 ) f o r sheet f l o w regime

3.
compute wave-related
f r i c t i o n f a c t o r , f^^ by Eq. ( 2 . 3 . 2 0 )
4.
compute wave-related
bed-shear s t r e s s , x.
5.
compute c r i t i c a l bed-shear s t r e s s , x.
6.
compute t h e wave-related
by Eq. ( 2 . 3 . 1 4 )
by Eq. ( 5 . 1 . 2 )
by Eq. ( 9 . 3 . 3 8 ) u s i n g t h e
efficiency factor y
W
measured r e f e r e n c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s from Table 9 . 1 . 1 .

Based on t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e c a l i b r a t i o n r e s u l t s , t h e y ^ - f a c t o r was found t o
be dependent on t h e D j f - p a r t i c l e parameter, as f o l l o w s :
F i g u r e 9 . 3 . 1 1 shows t h e r a t i o o f t h e measured and computed r e f e r e n c e concent r a t i o n s as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e o v e r a l l wave-related
bed-shear s t r e s s x, .
b ,w
About 75^ o f a l l computed values a r e w i t h i n a f a c t o r 2 o f t h e measured concent r a t i o n s . A l l computed v a l u e s a r e w i t h i n a f a c t o r 3 o f t h e measured v a l u e s .

Systematic
e f f e c t s r e l a t e d t o t h e bed-shear s t r e s s cannot be observed.
-9.32-
9.3.8
Computation methods
The f o l l o w i n g methods a r e d e s c r i b e d :
1.
Van R i j n
(1988)
2.
Bijker
3.
S k a f e l - K r i s h n a p p a n (1984)
4.
Nielsen
5.
Fredseie e t a l (1985)
(1967, 1971)
(1984)
!;?!t}2_2Ly2_5iJ" (1988)
A p p l y i n g Eqs. (9.3.33) and n e g l e c t i n g t h e h i n d e r e d s e t t l i n g e f f e c t , t h e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e can be o b t a i n e d by i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e time-averaged
c o n v e c t i o n - d i f f u s i o n (Eq. (9.3.3) y i e l d i n g :
a < z < 6g
^
a
w (a-z)/e
, ,
= [e] ^
^'"''^^^
(9.3.42a)
6s ^ z < 0.5 h
o_ _ r , i " s ( ^ - ^ s ) / ^ s , w , b e d r _ _ J ^ _ ^ ^ / ^ ^ ^s,w,bed)
c. "
Ih- + YY(z
(Z )^
- 663)
,
^
(9.3.4^bJ
0^5h < z < h
c_ _ r ^ i
c^
a
s^"
,, y,^^^
V,
,w^h/(Y
s^' s.w.bedr
h
"s"'^'
ih+Y(0.5h-6 )
s
., J .
s,w,bed'r
,wj0.5h-z)/
"s^"*-^"
s,w,ma
(9.3.42c)
in which:
r
h
1 f s,w,max" ^s.w.bedi
. . ,
Y = irTE
T'
= coefficient
u. on - 0
e
, ,
'
s
s,w,bed
c
= r e f e r e n c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o Eq. (9.3.38)
= r e f e r e n c e l e v e l a c c o r d i n g t o Eq. (9.3.40)
r water depth t o s t i l l water l e v e l
6^
= t h i c k n e s s o f near-bed m i x i n g l a y e r a c c o r d i n g t o Eq, (9.3.37)
s
E g w bed ' '^^î^"^ m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t i n near-bed r e g i o n , Eq. (9.3.34)
> mov = sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t i n upper l a y e r , Eq. (9.3.35)
w
= p a r t i c l e f a l l v e l o c i t y i n c l e a r water
s
z
= v e r t i c a l c o o r d i n a t e above bed
-9.33-
The computation procedure i s , as f o l l o w s :

1
1.
compute wave parameters L, Ag and Ug
2.
compute p a r t i c l e parameter
3.
compute r i p p l e h e i g h t and l e n g t h ,
Eq.
(3.1)
qs. ( 6 . 3 . 7 )
and
and
(6.3.8)
4.
compute wave-related bed roughness, kg ^,
Eq,
(7.3.1)
5.
compute w a v e - f r i c t i o n f a c t o r , f ^ .
Eq.
(2.3.20)
6.
compute e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r , y^.
Eq.
(9.3.41)
7.
compute wave-related bed-shear s t r e s s ,
Eq.
(2.3.14)
8.
compute wave-related e f f e c t i v e bed-shear s t r e s s ,
Eq.
(9.3.39)
9.
compute c r i t i c a l bed-shear s t r e s s ,
Eq.
(5.1.2)
10.
compute bed-shear s t r e s s parameter, T,
Eq.
(9.3.38)
11.
compute r e f e r e n c e l e v e l , a
Eq.
(9.3.40)
12.
compute r e f e r e n c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n , c^
Eq.
(9.3.38)
13.
compute sediment m i x i n g
Eqs. ( 9 . 3 . 3 4 )
14.
15.
e
, , and e
,
s,w,bed
s,w,max'
compute near-bed m i x i n g l a y e r , 6 ,
s
compute p a r t i c l e .size suspended sediment, dg
16.
17.
^,
coefficients.
^,
and
(9.3.35)
Eq.
(9.3.37)
Eq.
(9.3.5)
compute p a r t i c l e f a l l v e l o c i t y , Wg
Eq.
(4.2.22)
compute c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e , c.
Eqs. ( 9 . 3 . 4 2 )
The f o l l o w i n g i n p u t data a r e r e q u i r e d :
= s i g n i f i c a n t wave h e i g h t (m)
Tp
= peak wave p e r i o d ( s )
= water depth (m)
d^Q = median p a r t i c l e s i z e o f bed m a t e r i a l (m)

dgQ = 90% p a r t i c l e s i z e o f bed m a t e r i a l (m)
p
= f l u i d d e n s i t y (kg/m^)
= sediment d e n s i t y
(kg/m3)
= k i n e m a t i c v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t (m^/s)
B i j k e r (1967,
1971)
O r i g i n a l l y , t h i s method has been developed by B i j k e r t o compute t h e conc e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e i n case o f combined c u r r e n t s and waves. I n case o f
waves alone t h e method can be s i m p l i f i e d t o :
-9.347
c_
r a
c = Ih-a
a
h-zi
(9.3
~ J
c =
"a " 6 . 3 4 a
...
"-S
exp[-
-^50
(9.3
^ ]
i n which:
c^
(kg/m3)
= '^^s = t h i c k n e s s o f bed load l a y e r
(m)
k^
= e f f e c t i v e roughness o f bed
(m)
= water depth
(,)
'^b w " time-averaged o v e r a l l bed-shear s t r e s s (based on

'
rms-wave h e i g h t i n case o f i r r e g u l a r waves)
d^Q
= median p a r t i c l e diameter o f bed m a t e r i a l
w
s
=
= suspension parameter
^
w
s
K
(m/s)
= c o n s t a n t o f Von Karman ( 0 . 4 )
velocity
= (C/C)^'^
= 1 8 log(12h/kg)
C'
= 18 log(12h/dgQ) = Chzy-coefficient r e l a t e d t o
grains
= efficiency factor
= O v e r a l l Chzy-coefficient
t55?5i_:_!î5h!2PPan ( 1984)
T h i s method reads, as f o l l o w s :
r
'â
(m)
(~ 5)
"*,w " ('^b,w^'^^'^ ' time-averaged bed-shear
ei
(N/m2)
Wo
z-ai
.u,w d50 -2.2

= 8.7 [ - ^ ]
a Ug
% = ^^-5 Ps "s ^50 t i ^ r
(m/s)
(_)
(mo.Vs)
(m0.5/s)
-9.35-
0.5
= a . p [ - 6 . 5 . M ^ r - " l
i n which:
q,
= time-averaged bed-load t r a n s p o r t r a t e d u r i n g
h a l f period
maximum value o f bed-shear s t r e s s r e l a t e d t o
skin-friction
b,w
f'
w
8^
= f r i c t i o n factor related t o grains

= coefficient
a = 3d^Q = t h i c k n e s s o f moving bed l a y e r

dgQ, dgQ = p a r t i c l e s i z e s o f bed m a t e r i a l
Nielsen
(1984)
c - = exp r-z/L
/T 1
c = 0.005 p 0^
a
^s r
0.075 Av.u L
L
=
S
Wg
< 15
Wg
= 1.4 A
s
0) L
for
for
r
> 15
Wg
0'
(l-TT A /X
)^
0.15 f ^ () Ag)2
( s - 1 ) g d5o
f ^ = exp [ 5 . 2 (2.5 d5Q/Aj0.19 _ 6 ]
-9.36-
i n which:
c = reference concentration a t z = 0
a
= m o b i l i t y parameter
(kg/m3)
A
r i p p l e height
r
X
r i p p l e length
r
L = l e n g t h scale
s
(m)
(m)
(m)
2IT/T = angular frequency
U)
w = particle f a l l velocity
s
= peak value o f near-bed o r b i t a l excursion
f
w = grain-related f r i c t i o n
z = v e r t i c a l coordinate
y^[}2_LEE:5^!_?L5i
An instantaneous
(-)
coefficient
(-)
(m/s)
(m)
(-)
(m)
(1985)
approach i s f o l l o w e d t o o b t a i n the v e l o c i t i e s and sediment
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w i t h i n the wave p e r i o d . The method i s v a l i d f o r non-breaking

and
breaking waves over a plane bed.
Flow
P o t e n t i a l f l o w o u t s i d e the wave^ boundary l a y e r :
U = Ug s i n ( w t )
The o r b i t a l v e l o c i t i e s i n s i d e the wave boundary l a y e r are d e r i v e d from t h e
instantaneous
momentum e q u a t i o n a p p l y i n g a l o g a r i t h m i c v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u -
t i o n f o r a rough bed:
3U
ap
1 3T
i t % i l F - p ^
ap .
ax "
" P
= 0
(9.3.47)
at
^*
U = ln(30z/k
K
)
S
V e r t i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n over the wave boundary l a y e r y i e l d s :

S+z
= r
J" I t
(9.3.48)
-9.37-
The eddy v i s c o s i t y o r mixing c o e f f i c i e n t i s represented as:

2
^f =
'
^ ^t
= K |ujj I z( l - z / 6 ) = bottom-induced mixing c o e f f i c i e n t
e. = a k^'^
in
= wave-breaking induced m i x i n g c o e f f i c e n t
which:
S, = m i x i n g l e n g t h s c a l e (Deigaard e t a l , 1986)
k
(
= t u r b u l e n t k i n e t i c energy d e r i v e d from t r a n s p o r t e q u a t i o n f o r t h e
k i n e t i c energy ( k - e q u a t i o n )
= instantaneous wave boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s
Ujj = instantaneous bed-shear v e l o c i t y

U
= instantaneous
velocity
Ug = peak value o f o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y Just o u t s i d e boundary l a y e r

P
= instantaneous f l u i d
pressure
= instantaneous f l u i d shear s t r e s s
= f l u i d density
= Von Karman constant (= 0.4)
k^ = bed roughness (= 2.5 d^g)

z
Sediment
The sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ( C ) are d e r i v e d from t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s
convec-
t i o n - d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n a p p l y i n g a p r e s c r i b e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t t h e bed:
9C _
3t
3C _ a_ c
s 3z
3z
3CN
(9.3.49)
s 3Z-'
boundary c o n d i t i o n s : C, = f[-,
T:1 a t z = 2 d
^
b
^(pg-p)gd^Q^
50
: w C + H e
= 0 at z = h
s
3Z*- s 3Z''
in
which:
= instantaneous sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n
Wg = p a r t i c l e f a l l
e
velocity
= sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t (e
Pg = sediment d e n s i t y
= e)
S
-9.38-
Hindered
s e t t l i n g e f f e c t s and turbulence damping e f f e c t s due t o t h e l a r g e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and g r a d i e n t s close t o the bed a r e n o t taken i n t o
account.
Numerical methods are a p p l i e d t o solve t h e momentum and c o n v e c t i o n - d i f f u sion equation.
9.3.9
Comparison o f measured and computed c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s
Nieuwjaar
and Van der K a a i j (1987) compared c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s computed
a c c o r d i n g t o the method o f Nielsen (1984) w i t h measured c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . The

measurements were performed
i n a wave flume w i t h bed m a t e r i a l o f about 200 ym.
The r e s u l t s a r e shown i n F i g . 9 . 3 . 1 2 . As can be observed, t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

based on the N i e l s e n method a r e reasonably
good near the bed b u t c o n s i d e r a b l y
too s m a l l f u r t h e r away from the bed.

Sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s measured by Bosman (1984) and by Van R i j n
(1987) have been used by the present w r i t e r t o v e r i f y h i s computation
(see S e c t i o n 9 . 3 . 8 ) . The experiments
o f Bosman were performed
i n a small-scale
wave flume w i t h water depths i n t h e range o f 0.1 t o 0.6 m. The bed was
with ripples (height
performed
method
covered
^ 0.01 m). The measurements o f Van R i j n (1987) were
i n a l a r g e - s c a l e wave flume ( l e n g t h ^ 150 m, w i d t h =^ 5 m, depth =^ 7 m
Water depths were i n the range o f 2 t o 3 m. The bed m a t e r i a l s i z e was about

220 ym.
The bed was almost f l a t i n case o f l a r g e waves (H /h > 0 . 4 ) , w h i l e r i p p l e s
s
w i t h a h e i g h t o f about A
= 0.02 m were present i n case o f small waves (H^/h <
0 . 4 ) . The bed roughness h e i g h t i n a l l experiments
i s estimated as (see S e c t i o n
7.3):
^s,w = 3 dgo + 3
(9.3.50)
Measured and computed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e presented
i n Figures 9.3.13 t o 9 . 3 . 1 7 ,
showing reasonable agreement.

F i n a l l y , i t i s noted t h a t the computed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are most s e n s i t i v e t o
the kg^^^-value. More research i n wave t u n n e l s i s necessary t o g e t a b e t t e r
understanding
o f the e f f e c t i v e wave-related
t h e plane bed regime.
bed roughness i n the r i p p l e and i n
-9.39-
9.4
Computation o f sediment t r a n s p o r t r a t e s
9.4.1
Introduction
Measured t r a n s p o r t r a t e s have been analyzed i n s e c t i o n
9.2.3.
H e r e i n , t h e a t t e n t i o n i s focussed on t h e computation methods.

B a s i c a l l y , two types o f approaches a r e a p p l i e d :
1.
sediment t r a n s p o r t formulae s i m i l a r t o the c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed l o a d

formulae and
2.
sediment t r a n s p o r t models r e p r e s e n t i n g
v e l o c i t y and c o n c e n t r a t i o n
9.4.2
both the instantaneous f l u i d
profiles.
Sediment t r a n s p o r t formulae
Since t h e major p a r t o f the sediment suspension i n wave c o n d i t i o n s i s c o n f i n e d

t o a r e g i o n c l o s e t o the bed ( w i t h i n 3 t o 5 times t h e r i p p l e h e i g h t o r t h e
sheet f l o w l a y e r t h i c k n e s s ) , i t seems l o g i c t o compute the w a v e - r e l a t e d
sediment t r a n s p o r t by a simple formula i n analogy w i t h the bed l o a d
transport
formulae a p p l i e d i n steady c u r r e n t s . A d i v i s i o n between bed load and suspended

l o a d o n l y i s o f academic i n t e r e s t .
The
e x i s t i n g formulae a r e g e n e r a l l y based on e m p i r i c a l concepts (as used i n
steady u n i f o r m f l o w ) i n combination w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l data f o r o s c i l l a t i n g

f l o w (wave t a n k s , wave t u n n e l s , o s c i l l a t i n g p l a t e s i n s t i l l
water).
I n some formulae t h e mean t o t a l sediment t r a n s p o r t i n a h a l f p e r i o d o f t h e

o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w (\îf) ^ t h e n e t t o t a l t r a n s p o r t r a t e per c y c l e (q^^g^) i s
expressed as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l peak v e l o c i t y Just o u t s i d e
t h e boun-
dary l a y e r , t h e g r a i n - r e l a t e d f r i c t i o n f a c t o r and t h e sediment parameters. I n

o t h e r formulae (Madsen and Grant 1976, B a l l a r d 1981) t h e sediment t r a n s p o r t i s
r e l a t e d t o t h e instantaneous f l u i d v e l o c i t y and i n t e g r a t e d over t h e complete
wave c y c l e t o o b t a i n t h e n e t t r a n s p o r t r a t e . I n t h i s l a t t e r approach t h e f o l l o w i n g assumptions a r e i m p l i c i t l y made:
-
t h e r e a r e no phase d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e instantaneous bed shear s t r e s s

and
t h e v e l o c i t y o u t s i d e t h e boundary l a y e r .
t h e r e a r e no phase d i f f e r e n c e s between instantaneous bed shear s t r e s s e s and

instantaneous t r a n s p o r t r a t e s .
-9.40-
These type o f formulae seem t o be best a p p l i c a b l e i n t h e f l a t bed regime where

the n e t t r a n s p o r t i s i n the d i r e c t i o n o f the l a r g e s t peak v e l o c i t y
(onshore).
When r i p p l e s are p r e s e n t ,
l a r g e phase d i f f e r e n c e s between instantaneous v e l o -
c i t i e s and c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
do occur which a r e caused by eddy motions a t t h e
l e e - s i d e o f the r i p p l e s . T h i s may lead t o a net t r a n s p o r t r a t e a g a i n s t the

wave d i r e c t i o n . I n a l l formulae the e f f e c t o f a n e t d r i f t v e l o c i t y i s n e g l e c H e r e i n , the f o l l o w i n g formulae a r e summarized: Madsen and Grant ( 1 9 7 6 ) ,
ted.
B a g n o l d - B a i l a r d ( 1 9 8 1 ) , Mielsen (1988), Hallermaler
( 1 9 8 2 ) , Sato-HorIkawa
( 1 9 8 6 ) , Sawamoto-Yamashita (1987) and Van R i j n .
1.
Madsen and Grant, 1976

^ w , h a l f - ^2-5
(9.4.1)
Wg d 5 Q ( 0 - ) 3
in
which:
h a l f ~ wave-induced sediment t r a n s p o r t averaged over a h a l f

'
cycle
(m^/s)
= p a r t i c l e f a l l v e l o c i t y o f bed m a t e r i a l
d^Q
- median p a r t i c l e s i z e o f bed m a t e r i a l
0.5 fw(6)2
= 7T-\
~, = m o b i l i t y parameter
(s-1) g d5o
^
(m)
, ^
(-)
f^
= exp[-6+5.2(Ag/d^Q)~'^'- grain-related f r i c t i o n factor
(-)
Ug
= peak value o f near-bed o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y
(m/s)
= peak value o f near-bed o r b i t a l excursion

= f l u i d density
(m)
(kg/m3)
(kg/m3)
(m/s)
Ag
p
p
s
g
(m/s^)
The e m p i r i c a l c o e f f i c i e n t i s based on t h e c a l i b r a t i o n o f about 110 e x p e r i ments ( F i g . 9 . 4 . I A ) w i t h d^Q i n the range o f 300 t o 2800 ym; wave
periods
i n t h e range o f 1 t o 6 s; i n most t e s t s the bed was f l a t .

Equation ( 9 . 4 . 1 ) y i e l d s a n e t t r a n s p o r t r a t e i n the d i r e c t i o n o f the l a r gest peak v e l o c i t y ( u s u a l l y onshore).
Figure
9 . 4 . 1 A shows measured and p r e d i c t e d t r a n s p o r t r a t e s . According t o
Horikawa e t a l ( 1 9 8 2 ) , Eq. ( 9 . 4 . 1 )
i s a l s o v a l i d f o r sheet f l o w
conditions
based on a comparison w i t h measured t r a n s p o r t r a t e s i n the sheet f l o w

regime.
-9.41-
Bagnold-Bailard^_198l
The i n s t a n t a n e o u s bed load and suspended l o a d t r a n s p o r t r a t e s are
expressed
as:
p f
e
w b
fyS _ ^ | u | 3 i
( p - p ) g tany
~ tany
%,
q
=
^s,w
(Pg-p)g
(9.4.2)
(9.4.3)
[|U^|U - tan6|U|5]
Î
"
Wg
J
i n which:
i n s t a n t a n e o u s wave-induced bed load
%,w
q
^s,w
U
(mVs)
transport
i n s t a n t a n e o u s wave-induced suspended load
(m2/s)
transport
(m/s)
i n s t a n t a n e o u s near-bed o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y
(= 0.11 -
e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r f o r bed load t r a n s p o r t
%
%
e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r f o r suspended load t r a n s p o r t
overall f r i c t i o n
^w
6
0.15)
(= 0. 016 - 0.024)
factor
(-)
C)
bottom s l o p e
dynamic f r i c t i o n
angle
f a l l v e l o c i t y o f bed m a t e r i a l
()
(m/s)
O r i g i n a l l y , the formulae o f Bagnold were developed f o r steady u n i d i r e c t i o n a l f l o w . B a l l a r d a p p l i e d these formulae t o o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w over a

plane s l o p i n g bottom. Experimental v e r i f i c a t i o n has not been performed.
Equations ( 9 . 4 . 2 ) and ( 9 . 4 . 3 ) y i e l d a n e t t r a n s p o r t r a t e i n the d i r e c t i o n
o f t h e l a r g e s t peak v e l o c i t y ( u s u a l l y onshore).
Nielsen^_1988
^ = w c ( a ^ - a)A,
^w,net
s 0^ b
(9.4.4)
i n which:
q
L
^w,net
T
c = 0.005 e
o
r
0'
0 =
^
( 1 - TTA/X)
= net t r a n s p o r t r a t e over a wave c y c l e

^
= bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n
2
(m2/s)
(-)
= m o b i l i t y parameter a c c o u n t i n g f o r
r i p p l e shape
(-)
(m)
= r i p p l e length
(m)
-9.42,
0.5 f ^ ( U 5 ) 2
(s-1)g
" m o b i l i t y parameter
- grain-related
(-)
f r i c t i o n factor
( k ^ = 2.5 d^^)
a^ = 0.5 [g Qj^/g)^ = entrainment c o e f f i c i e n t r e l a t e d t o

'
onshore motion
(-)
SL^ - 0.5 [Ug Qff/UgJ = entrainment c o e f f i c i e n t r e l a t e d t o

'
o f f s h o r e motion
(-)
Ugôn
= shoreward
extreme v e l o c i t y
(m/s)
Ugôff
= seaward extreme v e l o c i t y
(m/s)
Ug
= peak value o f near-bed o r b i t a l

based on l i n e a r theory
velocity
(m/s)
Ag
= peak value o f near-bed o r b i t a l e x c u r s i o n

based on l i n e a r t h e o r y
Equation (9.4.4) p r e d i c t s
a net transport
(m/s)
rate against the d i r e c t i o n o f
the l a r g e s t peak v e l o c i t y and i s o n l y v a l i d i n the r i p p l e
regime.
Hallermeier,_1982
^w,half = ^ 4
^^-^
(9.4.5)
i n which:
= (s-i)g d
) - 2IT/T
" mobility
parameter
= angular frequency
Equation (9.4.5) i s based on about 700 experiments w i t h d^Q i n t h e range

o f 150 t o 4200 ym and wave p e r i o d s i n t h e range o f 1 t o 9 s. The f o r m u l a
agrees w i t h measured t r a n s p o r t
r a t e s f o r 30 < I|J < 200. The p r e d i c t e d
rates
are t o o l a r g e f o r 0.05 < I|J < 30 (see F i g . 9.4. I B ) .

Equation (9.4.5) p r e d i c t s
a net transport
rate i n the d i r e c t i o n o f the
l a r g e s t peak v e l o c i t y .
55t2_:_t!2E:il5?!^5i_196
%
.nPh =
_^ d
. ^ ( 0 ' - 0 )0-5
^w,net
= 7
7 w
Wg
dgÔ'-G^.
(9.4.6)
-9.43-
i n which:
q
= n e t t r a n s p o r t r a t e over a wave c y c l e
0' = ,1
( s - 1 ) g d^Q
0
= m o b i l i t y parameter
(-)
= c r i t i c a l m o b i l i t y parameters a c c o r d i n g t o
Shields
(-)
= f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t a c c o r d i n g t o Eq. (2.3.20)
w i t h kg = d^Q as g r a i n roughness
(-)
"
w
(m^/s)
= particle f a l l velocity
(m/s)
= peak value o f near-bed o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y i n

wave p r o p a g a t i o n d i r e c t i o n
(m/s)
aS
Equation (9.4.6), which i s based on 36 e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a , p r e d i c t s a n e t

t r a n s p o r t r a t e a g a i n s t the d i r e c t i o n o f t h e l a r g e s t peak v e l o c i t y and i s
o n l y v a l i d f o r t h e r i p p l e regime (see F i g . 9.4.IC).
Sawamoto-Yamashita, 1987
Based on experiments performed i n a wave t u n n e l w i t h sand ( d ^ ^ = 200, 700
and
1800 ym), coal and p l a s t i c m a t e r i a l , the f o l l o w i n g e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a
for
t h e sheet f l o w regime i s proposed:
s
i n which:
^
r
0 5^
Uj, = [0.5 f ' J
U = peak bed-shear v e l o c i t y
(m/s)
w
oA
n 1Q
= e x p [ - 6 + 5.2[Ag/dgQ)' ^ ] = g r a i n - r e l a t e d f r i c t i o n f a c t o r
(-)
dgQ = median p a r t i c l e diameter o f bed m a t e r i a l
w
U
A
(m)
= median f a l l v e l o c i t y o f bed m a t e r i a l
(m/s)
= peak value o f near-bed o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y
(m/s)
Ag
= peak value o f near-bed o r b i t a l e x c u r s i o n
(m)
yan_Rijn^_1988
Van R i j n proposes: t o determine the time-averaged t r a n s p o r t r a t e ( i n m 2 / s )
_
over h a l f t h e wave p e r i o d as q
coefficient.
u
= i^ c U. w i t h a. - c a l i b r a t i o n
w,half
1
a 6
1
-9.44-
A p p l y i n g Eq.
(9.3.38),
2 ^ 5 0 "6 T ' " '
\,half
in
T
the f o l l o w i n g expression can be d e r i v e d :
(9.4.8)
which:
= dimensionless bed-shear s t r e s s parameter, see Eq.
= dimensionless
Ug
p a r t i c l e parameter, see Eq.
= peak value o f near-bed o r b i t a l
(9-3.38)
(9.3.38)
velocity
d^Q = median p a r t i c l e diameter o f bed m a t e r i a l

a
- "reference l e v e l {- wave boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s )
= c a l i b r a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t (- 0 . 3 )
The c a l i b r a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t has been determined

measurements o f Horikawa e t a l
9.4.3
(1982),
from the sheet f l o w
as given i n s e c t i o n
9.2,3.
Sediment t r a n s p o r t models
A c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f l i t e r a t u r e deals w i t h t h e m o d e l l i n g o f t h e sediment

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w i t h i n the wave p e r i o d as an i n t e r m e d i a t e s t e p t o compute t h e
wave-induced t r a n s p o r t r a t e . This approach may be u s e f u l when t h e phase d i f f e rence between t h e instantaneous v e l o c i t i e s and sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a t t h e
v a r i o u s e l e v a t i o n s above the bed cannot be n e g l e c t e d .
D i v i d i n g t h e instantaneous v e l o c i t y (U) and c o n c e n t r a t i o n (C) i n a t i m e averaged p a r t ( u , c) and a time-dependent p a r t ( u , c ) , as f o l l o w s :
= u
= c
+ u
+ c
(9.4.9)
(9.4.10)
the n e t t o t a l time-averaged
h
\
"
t o t a l t r a n s p o r t r a t e can be expressed as:
h
'^z'^z
dz
(9.4.11)
The f i r s t term on t h e r i g h t hand s i d e r e p r e s e n t s the c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d p a r t ( q ^ )

o f t h e sediment t r a n s p o r t and the second p a r t r e p r e s e n t the wave-related
(5 ) . Thus:
w
part
-9.45-
h
=
(9.4.12)
u^c^ dz
o
q^ =
5^ dz
(9.4.13)
'
o
To compute the sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w i t h i n the wave p e r i o d , the u s u a l
approach i s t o s o l v e the ( s i m p l i f i e d ) c o n v e c t i o n - d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n . Neglect i n g the h o r i z o n t a l convection, the h o r i z o n t a l d i f f u s i o n and the v e r t i c a l
c o n v e c t i o n , t h e s i m p l i f i e d equation reads as:
3t
and
s,m
3C _ 3_ .
9z
9z
s,w
9Ci
3z^
(9.4.14)
vy.t.it;
i s o n l y v a l i d f o r plane bed regime (sheet f l o w ) . A n a l y t i c a l or n u m e r i c a l
s o l u t i o n r e q u i r e s s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f the f a l l v e l o c i t y ( W g ) , the sediment d i f f u s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t (e ) and boundary c o n d i t i o n s a t the bed and a t the water
sur
f a c e . U s u a l l y , a separate o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w model i s a p p l i e d t o compute t h e

sediment d i f f u s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t and the instantaneous bed-shear s t r e s s . T h i s
l a t t e r parameter i s then used to compute the instantaneous bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n .
Based on t h i s ,
the c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s can be computed as a f u n c t i o n o f
time.
A p p l y i n g Equation
ted.
( 9 . 4 . 1 3 ) , the net wave-induced t r a n s p o r t r a t e can be compu-
Various models are proposed i n the l i t e r a t u r e . Bakker (1974) a p p l i e d a
n u m e r i c a l model and used a mixing l e n g t h concept t o determine
the sediment
d i f f u s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t . The expressions o f E i n s t e i n have been a p p l i e d t o s p e c i f y

t h e bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n . Recently, the t h e o r i e s o f Bagnold (1954) r e l a t e d t o
p a r t i c l e i n t e r a c t i o n i n case o f h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s have been i n c o r p o r a t e d i n
t h e model o f Bakker. The
c i t y and
i n f l u e n c e o f the sediment p a r t i c l e s on the f a l l
t u r b u l e n c e i s taken i n t o account (Bakker and Van
Kesteren,
velo-
1986).
Fredsgie e t a l (1985) a p p l i e d a numerical model based on the eddy v i s c o s i t y

concept.
The eddy v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s were r e l a t e d t o the i n s t a n t a n e o u s
bed
shear s t r e s s e s and the boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s . The bed boundary c o n d i t i o n

for
t h e sediment i s a c o n c e n t r a t i o n f u n c t i o n , which s p e c i f i e s the bed
concen-
t r a t i o n a t a h e i g h t o f two p a r t i c l e diameters above the bed as a f u n c t i o n o f

t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s bed shear s t r e s s . At the water s u r f a c e the v e r t i c a l sediment
f l u x i s s e t t o zero. The
i n f l u e n c e o f the sediment p a r t i c l e s on the f a l l
velo-
c i t y and eddy v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t i s not taken i n t o account. The method o f

Fredseie e t a l (1985) i s described i n d e t a i l i n S e c t i o n
(9.3.8).
-9.46-
Hagatum and E i d s v i k (1986) presented a numerical model based on a two-equation

t u r b u l e n c e model t o represent t h e eddy v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t . I t i s q u e s t i o nable whether such a s o p h i s t i c a t e d improvement i s necessary c o n s i d e r i n g t h e
e x p e r i m e n t a l problems r e l a t e d t o v e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e
sheet f l o w l a y e r . A n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n s o f the convection d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n
are g i v e n by Mielsen (1979) assuming t h a t the eddy v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t i s
c o n s t a n t i n space and time.
F i n a l l y , i t i s noted t h a t a l l t r a n s p o r t models a r e o n l y v a l i d f o r f l a t bed
regime (sheet f l o w ) . The t r a n s p o r t process over bed forms can n o t be r e p r e sented because Eq. ( 9 . 4 , 1 4 ) i s n o t v a l i d f o r the bed form
regime.
-9.47-
9.5
References
ABOU SEIDA, M.M., 1965

Bed Load F u n c t i o n due t o Wave A c t i o n
Report HEL-2-11, I n s t . Eng. Research, Univ. o f C a l i f o r n i a , Berkeley, USA
BAGNOLD, R.A., 1954

Experiments on a G r a v i t y - f r e e
D i s p e r s i o n o f Large S o l i d Spheres i n a Newtonian
F l u i d under Shear
Proc. Royal S o c , V o l . 225A, England
BAILARD, J.A. and INMAN, D.L., 1981
An E n e r g e t i c s Bed Load Model f o r Plane S l o p i n g Beach
J o u r n a l o f Geophysical Research, V o l . 8 6 , No. C 3 , p. 2035-2043
BAILARD, J.A., 1981

An E n e r g e t i c s T o t a l Load Sediment T r a n s p o r t Model For Plane S l o p i n g Beach
J o u r n a l o f Geophysical Research, V o l . 8 6 , No. C11
BAKKER, W.T., 1974

Sand C o n c e n t r a t i o n i n an O s c i l l a t o r y
Flow
C o a s t a l E n g i n e e r i n g Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark, pp. 1129-1148
BAKKER W.T. and VAN KESTEREN, W.G.M., 1986

The Dynamics o f O s c i l l a t i n g Sheet Flow
C o a s t a l Eng. Conference, Taiwan
BHATTACHARYA, P.K., 1971

Sediment Suspension i n S h o a l i n g Waves
Ph. D. T h e s i s , Univ. o f Iowa, Iowa C i t y , USA
BOSMAN, J., 1982a

C o n c e n t r a t i o n Measurements under O c i l l a t o r y Motion
DELFT HYDRAULICS, Report M1695-II, D e l f t , The N e t h e r l a n d s
-9.48-
BOSMAN, J., 1982b

The I n f l u e n c e o f Bottom Slope, Water Depth, Breaking Waves, O r b i t a l
and C u r r e n t V e l o c i t y
Velocity
on the C o n c e n t r a t i o n D i s t r i b u t i o n under Waves and
Currents ( i n Dutch)
DELFT HYDRAULICS, Report M1875, D e l f t , The Netherlands
BOSMAN, J. and STEETZEL, H.J., 1986

Time and Bed-averaged Concentrations under Waves
C o a s t a l Eng.
Conference,
Taiwan
BIJKER, E.W., 1967

Some C o n s i d e r a t i o n s about Scales f o r Coastal Models w i t h Movable Bed
Dissertation,
D e l f t Univ. o f Tech., D e l f t , The Netherlands
BIJKER, E.W., 1971

J o u r n a l o f Waterways, Harbour and Coastal Eng.,
V o l . 9 9 , WW4
BIJKER, E.W., 1978

L e c t u r e s Notes Coastal E n g i n e e r i n g , V o l . I and I I
D e l f t Univ. o f Technology, Coastal Eng. Dep., D e l f t , The Netherlands
DEIGAARD, R., FREDS0E, J . and HEDEGAARD, I.B., 1986
Suspended Sediment i n S u r f Zone
J o u r n a l o f Waterway, P o r t , Coastal and Ocean E n g i n e e r i n g , V o l . 112, No.
FREDS0E, J., ANDERSEN, O.H. and SILBERG, S.,
1985
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Suspended Sediment i n Large Waves

J o u r n a l o f Waterway, P o r t , Coastal and Ocean E n g i n e e r i n g , V o l . I l l ,

Movable Bed Roughness i n Unsteady O s c i l l a t o r y
J o u r n a l Geophysical
Flow
Research, Vol. 87, p. 469-481
HAGATUM, K. and EIDSVIK, K.J., 1986

O s c i l l a t i n g T u r b u l e n t Boundary Layers w i t h Suspended Sediment
J o u r n a l Geophysical
Research, V o l . 91, No. C11
No. 6
-9.49-
HALLERMEIER, R.J.,
1982
O s c i l l a t o r y Bed Load T r a n s p o r t : Data Review and Simple F o r m u l a t i o n

C o n t i n e n t a l S h e l f Research, V o l . 1 , No. 3
HOMMA, M. and HORIKAWA, K.,
1962
Suspended Sediment due t o Wave A c t i o n

Proc. 8 t h Coastal Eng. Conf., Mexico
HORIKAWA, K., WATANABE, A. and KATORI, S.,
1982
Sediment T r a n s p o r t Under Sheet Flow C o n d i t i o n

Coastal Eng. Conference, Cape Town, South A f r i c a , pp.
1335-1352
1964
KALKANIS, G.,
T r a n s p o r t o f Bed M a t e r i a l due t o Wave A c t i o n

U.S.
Army Coastal Eng. Res. Center, Tech. Memo, No. 2 ,
KANA, T.W.,
USA
1979
Suspended Sediment i n Breaking Waves

Techn. Report No. 18-CRD, Coastal Res. D i v . , Dep. o f Geology,
Univ. o f South C a r o l i n a , Colombia, USA
KENNEDY, J.F. and LOCHER, F.A.,
1972
Sediment Suspension by Waves

In:
Waves on Beaches by R.E.
KOS'YAN, R.D.,
Meyer, Academic Press.
1985
V e r t i c a l D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Suspended Sediment C o n c e n t r a t i o n s Seawards o f t h e

Breaking Zone
C o a s t a l E n g i n e e r i n g , 9 , p. 171-187
KROON, A. and VAN RIJN, L.C,
1989
Space-Averaging Aspects o f Sediment C o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n the S u r f Zone

Dep. o f Phys. Geography, S t a t e Univ. o f U t r e c h t , U t r e c h t , The N e t h e r l a n d s
LUNDGREN, H.,
1972
T u r b u l e n t C u r r e n t s i n the Presence o f Waves

C o a s t a l Eng. Conf., Vancouver, Canada, pp. 623-634
-9.50-
MADSEN, O.S. and GRANT, W.D., 1976

Sediment T r a n s p o r t i n the Coastal Environment
Report No. 2 0 9 , R.M. Parsons Lab., Dep. o f Civ. Eng., M.I.T.
Cambridge, Massachuseths, USA
MANOHAR, M., 1955

Techn. Memo, No. 7 5 , Beach Erosion Board, Corps o f Eng., USA
MILLER, R.L., 1976

Role o f V o r t i c e s i n S u r f Zone P r e d i c t i o n : Sedimentation and Wave Forces
Symp. Beach and Nearshore Sedimentation, D a l l a s , USA
NAKATO, T., LOCHER, F.A., GLOVER, J.R. and KENNEDY, J.F., 1977
Wave Entrainment o f Sediment From Ripples
J o u r n a l o f Waterways, P o r t , Coastal and Ocean D i v . , ASCE, No. WW1

NIELSEN, P., 1979

Some Basic Concepts o f Wave Sediment Transport
S e r i e s Papers 2 0 , I n s t , o f Hydrodyn. and Hydr. Eng., Techn. Univ. o f Denmark,
Lyngby, Denmark
NIELSEN, P.,
1984
On t h e M o t i o n o f Suspended Sand P a r t i c l e s
J o u r n a l o f Geophysical Research, V o l . 8 9 , No. Cl
NIELSEN, P.,
1985
A S h o r t Manual o f Coastal Bottom Boundary Layers and Sediment T r a n s p o r t

P u b l i c Works Dep., Report TM 8 5 / 1 , NSW, A u s t r a l i a
NIELSEN, P.,
1988
Three Simple Models o f Wave Sediment Transport

C o a s t a l E n g i n e e r i n g , V o l . 12
-9.51-
NIEUWJAAR, M. and VAN DER KAAIJ, Th., 198?

Coastal Eng. Dep., D e l f t Univ. o f Technology, D e l f t , The Netherlands
RIBBERINK, J.S., 1989

Sediment C o n c e n t r a t i o n and Bed Regime Measurements i n Large Wave Tunnel
Report H8i10.22, DELFT HYDRAULICS, D e l f t , The Netherlands
RICHARDSON, Y.F. and ZAKI, W.N., 1954

S e d i m e n t a t i o n and F l u i d i z a t i o n , Part I
Trans. I n s t . Chem. Eng., V o l . 3 2 , p. 3 5 - 5 3
ROELVINK, J.A., 1985

Sand C o n c e n t r a t i o n s under Progressive Waves ( i n Dutch)
D e l f t U n i v e r s i t y o f Technology, Coastal Eng. Dep., D e l f t , The Netherlands
ROELVINK, D., 1988

Large Scale Cross-Shore T r a n s p o r t Tests
Report H596, DELFT HYDRAULICS, D e l f t , The Netherlands
SAWAMOTO, M. and YAMASHITA, T., 1987
Sediment T r a n s p o r t i n Sheet Flow Regime
C o a s t a l Sediments, New Orleans, USA
SATO, S. and HORIKAWA, K., 1986

L a b o r a t o r y S t u d i e s on Sand T r a n s p o r t over Ripples due t o Asymmetric
O s c i l l a t o r y Flows
C o a s t a l Eng. Conference, Taipeh, Taiwan
SHI, N.C., 1983

Reverse Sediment T r a n s p o r t induced by Amplitude-modulated Waves
Univ. o f Washington, Washington, USA
SKAFEL, M.G. and KRISHNAPPAN, B.C., 1984
Suspended Sediment D i s t r i b u t i o n i n Wave F i e l d
J o u r n a l o f Waterway, P o r t , Coastal and Ocean E n g i n e e r i n g , V o l . 1 1 0 , No. 2
-9.52-
SLEATH, J.F.A,, 1978

Measurements o f Bed Load i n O s c i l l a t o r y
Flow
J o u r n a l o f W a t e r w a y P o r t , Coastal and Ocean D i v i s i o n ,
V o l . 104, Wo.
STAUB, C , JONSSON, I.G. and SVENDSEN, I.A., 1984

V a r i a t i o n o f Sediment Suspension i n O s c i l l a t o r y Flow
C o a s t a l E n g i n e e r i n g , Houston, USA
STEETZEL, H., 1987

Model I n v e s t i g a t i o n
Dune Revetments ( i n Dutch)
Report H298 p a r t I , DELFT HYDRAULICS, D e l f t , The Netherlands
SWART, H., 1976

P r e d i c t i v e Equations Regarding
Coastal Transports
C o a s t a l Eng. Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii
SWART, H., 1976

Computation o f Longshore T r a n s p o r t
DELFT HYDRAULICS, Report R968-I, D e l f t , The Netherlands
VAN DE GRAAFF, J.,
1988
Sediment C o n c e n t r a t i o n due t o Wave A c t i o n

T h e s i s , D e l f t Univ. o f Technology, D e l f t , The Netherlands
VAN DER VELDEN, E., 1986

Sediment Suspension i n an O s c i l l a t i n g Flow near t h e Bed
D e l f t Univ. o f Technology, Coastal Eng. Dep., D e l f t , The Netherlands

Sediment T r a n s p o r t , Part I I : Suspended Load T r a n s p o r t
J o u r n a l o f H y d r a u l i c E n g i n e e r i n g , ASCE, No. HY11

Data Base Sand C o n c e n t r a t i o n P r o f i l e s f o r Currents and/or Waves
Report M1695-04-1, DELFT HYDRAULICS, D e l f t , The Netherlands
-9.53-
VINCENT, G.E.,
1957
C o n t r i b u t i o n t o the Study o f Sediment Transport on a H o r i z o n t a l Bed due t o

Wave A c t i o n
C o a s t a l Eng. Conference, Miami, USA,
p.
326-355
Source
^50
(m)
^^90
(m)
â ,meas
(kg/m3)
(m)
(m)
(m)
(s)
r
(m)
.077
2.5
.015
21
A
(C)
Nieuwjaar
.0002
.00028
.08
.0075
.51
(Flume)
.0002
.00027
.3
.0075
.5
. 101 2.5
.015
21
.00021
.00032
.6
.009
.5
. 122 2.4
.018
23
.000205
.00031
1 .6
.009
.5
.153
2.4
.018
24
Van R i j n
.00019
.00024
.0164
2.15
1.27
5.5
.001
(Flume)
.00019
.00024
.8
.016
1 .85
.83
.001
.00019
.00024
1.5
.0171
1.17
6.3
.001
.00019
.00024
2.5
.0161
1.1
5.9
.001
.00022
.00028
0.01
2. 1
.5
5.1
.02
.00022
.00028
0.01
2. 1
.4
5.1
.02
.00022
.00028
.8
.015
2. 1
.3
5.1
.03
.00022
.00028
.2
.015
2. 1
.21
5.1
.03
Steetzel
.000208
.000265
1.1
.0122
1.41
1.1
5.4
.01
(Flume)
.000208
.000265
.0139
1.13
1.1
5.4
.01
.000208
.000265
1.3
.01066
1.4
.86
5.4
.01
.000208
.000265
.0113
.78
.65
5.4
.01
.000208
.000265
5.5
.0122
.82
.76
5.4
.01
Roelvink
.000215
.00027
1.7
.01
2.72
.67
5.1
.02
(Flume)
.00022
.000285
.0137
.93
.65
5.1
.01
Van R i j n
.00024
.0004
.65
.025
1.89
.7
.02
17
(Surfzone)
.00024
.0004
.5
.025
1.72
.65
.02
17
.00024
.0004
.3
.025
1.09
.4
.02
17
.00021
.00035
.7
.025
1.98
.75
.02
17
.00021
.00035
1.3
.025
1.7
.75
.02
17
.00021
.00035
.025
1.12
.5
.02
17
.00023
.0004
1.4
.025
1.28
.5
.02
17
.00025
.0004
.6
.025
1.55
.6
.02
17
.00023
.0004
2.5
.025
.5
.02
17
.00023
.0004
1.5
.025
.9
.35
.02
17
.00023
.0004
. 15
.025
1.2
.3
.02
17
Table 9.1.1
Measured r e f e r e n c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
Source
^^50
(m)
^^90
(m)
a,maes
(kg/m3)
(m)
(m)
"s
(m)
A
(s)
r
(m)
Te
(C)
Bosman
.000105
.00015
20
.0075
.4
.27
2.2
.015
20
(Flume)
.000105
.00015
12
.0075
.6
.234
.015
20
.000105
.00015
.0075
.6
. 154 1.8
.015
20
.000105
.00015
20
.0075
.5
.241
.015
20
.000105
.00015
.0075
.4
.114
1.8
.015
20
.000105
.00015
10
.0075
.4
.135
.015
20
.000105
.00015
17
.0075
.4
. 191
.015
20
.000105
.00015
35
.0075
.5
.223
.015
20
.000105
.00015
.0075
.5
.136
1.8
.015
20
.000105
.00015
22
.0075
.6
.256
.015
20
.000105
.00015
.0075
.6
.153
1.9
.015
20
.000105
.00015
25
.0075
.5
.248
2.1
.015
20
.000105
.00015
14
.0075
.4
.15
1.9
.015
20
Source
^50
(m)
^90
(m)
a,maes
(kg/m3)
a
(m)
b,w
(m/s)
T
P
(s)
A
r
(m)
Te
(C)
Van der
.00036
.000725
.01
0.3
,02
16
Velden
.00036
.000725
.014
0.4
,028
16
(wave
.00036
.000725
11
.0175
0.5
.035
16
tunnel)
.00036
.000725
.025
0.3
.05
16
.00036
.000725
1.5
.03
0.4
.06
16
.00036
.000725
2.6
.03
0.45
,06
16
.00036
.000725
.2
.04
0.3
,08
16
.00022
.00024
.0075
0.3
,015
16
,00022
.00024
10
.008
0.4
,016
16
.00022
.00024
15
.0115
0.5
,023
16
,00022
,00024
1.3
.0115
0.2
,023
16
.00022
.00024
1.5
.014
0.3
,028
16
.00022
,00024
4,5
.015
0,4
.03
16
.00022
,00024
1,1
.0175
0,3
.035
16
Table 9.1.1
Measured r e f e r e n c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
wave propagation
<-
bed form height

A. UNDERTOW CURRENT DUE TO BREAKING WAVES
wove propagation
<-
B. DRIFT VELOCITIES DUE TO NON-LINEAR EFFECTS
wove propagation
individual
waves
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM Of SURFACE

Flow IN COASTAL ANO NEARSHORE
CURRENT SYSTEMS
wove packet
envelope
.^COASTAL
L C N r r H OC R R O O I N O I O t T C S N E U T I V I
MUNITUOl (FTHC
CUMIINT
CURRENT
i flip HEAD-*;
mean sea level

r - H
Uw
<
i 'S
Uw
MASS TRANSPORT BY WAVES*'
fc
p , . , ^ ^ y . j . i u i . i . i . L . . .
C. ORBITAL VELOCITIES DUE TO FORCED
LONGSHORE AND RIP CURRENTS
LONG WAVE EFFECTS
WAVE - INDUCED V E L O C I T I E S AND C U R R E N T S
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 9.1.1
-0.3
0.05
x(t)
(m)
y^^'^'^^^^^
0.055 m
0.00
0.05
60
crest
0.01 m J
trough
*
standard
deviation
(crest)
C(0)
(kg.m-3)
0.
0.0
0.1
02
03
0.4
0.5
06
0.7
OB
09
L.
1D = T
0(s)
ENSEMBLE
OF
MEAN AND TOTAL STANDARD DEVIATION
CONCENTRATION IN SINGLE PERIOD T

DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG.
9.2.1
CONCENTRATION
VELOCITY
SAND TRANSPORT
INSTANTANEOUS CONCENTRATIONS, V E L O C I T I E S
AND SAND T R A N S P O R T R A T E S IN S H E E T
F L O W R E G I M E (HORIKAWA E T A L . 1 9 8 2 )
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 9.2 2
Hs (m)
Ar (m)
0.075
0.015
0.1
0.015
0.12
0.018
0.15
0.018
h
= 0.5 m
Tp
2.2 s
dso =^200 \im
10-
6 810"^
4
>
6 810"^ 2
4 6 8io
concentration (kg/m^)
SiQi
A. CONCENTRATIONS IN NON-BREAKING WAVE IN A FLUME WITH A RIPPLED BED

(NIEUWJAAR-VAN PER KAAY, 1987)
10
3 4 5 6 78 1 0 '
>
3 4 5 678io
3 4 5 67810'
tinne-averaged concentration (kg/m^)
B. CONCENTRATIONS IN NON-BREAKING WAVES IN LARGE-SCALE FLUME

WITH A RIPPLED BED AND A FLAT BED (VAN RIJN, 1987)
TIME-AVERAGED
SEDIMENT
CONCENTRATIONS
IN N O N - B R E A K I N G WAVES
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 9.2.3
E
+->
iZ
CT)
sz
0.05
h
2 m
Tp
5 s
0.04
0,03
dso = 210 j l m
0.02
Q.
L 0.01
0
O
JL
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
450
500
10
cn
ripple bed flat sheet flow bed

(non-breaking waves) (spilling breaking waves)
c
O
-t-J
O
t_
c
u
c
O
+-'
10^
TJ
O
cn
O
CS
>
O
t_
10'
10"'
50
100
150
>
200
250
300
350
400
mobility parameter 6^/(s-1) g dso
T I M E - A V E R A G E D SEDIMENT CONCENTRATIONS
IN
N O N - B R E A K I N G AND
DELFT
BREAKING W A V E S
HYDRAULICS
H 461
1 FIG.
9.2.4
1.0
Hs (m) Ar (m)
0.075 0.0104 1
O
0.10
0.009
/ h
V
0.15
0.0075 / (
m
0.18
0.007 3
o
0.20
Bosnnon
0.23
(1982)
w a t e r depth, h = 0.5 m
bed material, dso =100 |lm
peak period, Tp =2.0s
@
0.9
D.8
N
rf
n 0.7
O
JD
O
( o c c .
s p i l l i n g )
( o c c .
s p i l l i n g )
0.6
x:
I/)
(/)
c
O
'(/)
c
2
5
10-^ 2
5
10 2
5
10' 2
5
IQ^
A. CONCENTRATIONS IN NON-BREAKING WAVES IN A FLUME WITH A RIPPLED BED
1.0
10-2
BREAKING AND NON-BREAKING WAVES

N
= 0.3 m
Tp
=2 s
0.8
Hs=C).152 nn
(
!)\
.Q
5 p i l l i n c
>
O 0.6
n
0.4
H s = 0.173 m
(plun(3ing)
dso = 100 (im

\ H S =0.19 m
h Is =0.12 m V
(non - break ng)
\ V''
unginc
(Bosman,
1982)
0.2
0
10-
l l l l
l l l l
l l l l
1 I I
10-
10^
10^
10'
-> concentration (kg/m^)
IB. CONCENTRATIONS IN NON-BREAKING AND BREAKING WAVES IN A FLUME WITH A RIPPLED BED
T I M E - A V E R A G E D SEDIMENT
CONCENTRATIONS
IN NON - B R E A K I N G AND B R E A K I N G
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
WAVES
H
461
FIG. 9.2.5
1.0
<H
r-
-O
H
\
\ p l i jnginc 1 w a v e j
spillir ig w c ves /
JD
C9
JD
05
1
l
0,2
IQ
-<)
10-'
1
1
[Lm
O\
1
0,4
= 0.6-1.8 m
dso = 2 0 0
\
\
\
\
\
2
>
l l l l
5
10 2
concentration
l l l l
5
10'
(kg/m^)
l l l l
10=
A. CONCENTRATIONS IN SPILLING AND PLUNGING BREAKING WAVES IN THE

SURF-ZONE, USA-COAST
(KANA, 1979)
1.0
x:
= 0.9 m
TJ 0.8 Tp
= 5.2 s
JD
Q65 m
V P ungin
-ls = 0,7^3 nn
plungin g)
0.6
D
5
H 5
d s o = 2 1 0 [lm
Hs = OE)6 m \
(spilling/plun ging)
0.4
r 175 nn
Tp
z6 s
d s o = 2 6 0 |lnn
X h s =0.-7 m
(spilli ng)
(spilli n g ) \
Hs = Q 6
02
l l l l
10
-2
10-'
l l l l
2
5
10"
concentration (kg/m^)
B. CONCENTRATIONS IN SPILLING AND PLUNGING

BREAKING WAVES IN LARGE-SCALE
FLUME
l l l l
loMO-'
l l l l
5
10
10concentration (kg/m^)
C. CONCENTRATIONS IN SPILLING
BREAKING WAVES IN SURF
(WATER DEPTH - 0 . 9 m ) WITH A FLAT BED
ZONE, DUTCH COAST
(STEETZEL, 1987)
(KROON - VAN RIJN, 1988)
TIME - AVERAGED
IN
BREAKING
SEDIMENT
CONCENTRATIONS
WAVES
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG.
9.2.6
=190|J,m
=1.08 m/s
(mm)
25
f)
<J
<,T
= 2.6s
7 T
= 2.0s
0.167
c
a
c
7 0 "
'
' I " " I
'
10
- >
WITH
OSCILLATORY
BED
'I
'
100
IN
J_LJ_
->
WAVE
B.
OVER
(HORIKAWA
ET
CONCENTRATIONS
SINUSOIDAL
FLAT
BED
26
' ' I ' I
15^
' M l
SINUSOIDAL
FLOW
C(kg/m3)
26.5
2.65
(-)
CN
CONCENTRATIONS
TUNNEL
->
i . C(kg/m3)
16.7
1.67
'
=1.68 m/s
T=6.8s
= I.J m/s
T=9.1 s
d5o= 2 0 0 \im
FLAT
= 3.4 s
70
A.
= 4.2s
o T
O
9
7
- H
C (m^/m^)
IN
WAVE
OSCILLATORY
(STAUB
ET
TUNNEL
FLOW
AL.
WITH
OVER
1984)
AL,
1982)
0.10
D
CS
n
%
o
n
a08
0.06
^'0.04
JZ
0,02
-10-2
10-'
2
>
C.
CONCENTRATIONS
(JONSWAP
IN
SPECTRUM
WAVE
5
10
2
concentration
TUNNEL
OVER
FLAT
WITH
BED,
5
10'
(kg/m^)
IRREGULAR
RIBBERINK,
OSCILLATORY
l o ^
FLOW
1989)
T I M E - A V E R A G E D SEDIMENT CONCENTRATIONS
IN T H E S H E E T F L O W R E G I M E
461
FIG. 9.2.7
1.0
h =0.3
0.9
T =2.5
10'
4 5 6
7 8
10-^

10
5 6 7 8
10"'
VERTICAL
H = 0.136 m
4 5
6 7 8
sand
6 7 8
10"
c/ca
6 7 8 i o - i
concentration,
4 5
io"'
sand c o n c e n t r a t i o n ,
A 5 6 7 8 10
c Ica
DISTRIBUTION O F CONCENTRATION
P R O F I L E S ACCORDING TO ROELVINK (1985)

461
FIG. 9.3.1
1.0
0.9
X
<
>g<
'
/dso.bed
1+0.011(^3-1)(T-25)
0.8
XJ 0.7
O)
Xl
0.6
(0
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
O
0
10
bed-shear
computed
measured
surfzone
measured
Deltoflume
SIZE
OF
20
T
Groote
Keeten
dso
( V a n R i j n , 1 9 8 7 ) dô^
SUSPENDED
2 5 0 / . i m , CTg
2 1 0 yum,
HYDRAULICS
c 1.6
SEDIMENT
DELFT
25
1.8
PARTICLE
15
stress parameter,
461
FIG.
9,3.2
1.0
N
Ca = 2 5 0 0 5 0 0 0
u
\\
\\
\\
\\
\V
\\
\i
\\
\\
\\
\\
\ V
V
\\
\\
\\
\ \
\ \
\ \
\ \
\\
\\
\\
v\\
\\
\\
0.2
.\
\ \
\ ^
1
t i l t
->
INFLUENCE
=1.0
=0.7
T
=5
dso, bod =100
prn
Ws
= 0.01
m/s
5s
= 0.06
m
s
0,4
l
\
\
\
\
O 0.6
n
O
t
10.000 mg/-?
\ \
\ \
\ \
\ \
l i l t
- - l ~ T - -
concentration
computed
using
Ws,m=Ws
computed
using
Ws,m=(1-c)^Ws
O F HINDERED S E T T L I N G
1 1
l l l l
Ub,W
1,02
m/s
v5
(mg/'i)
EFFECT
ON C O N C E N T R A T I O N P R O F I L E
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 9.3.3
measured
= 0.3
H o m m a and H o r i k a w a , 1962
Hs
= 0.12
Bijker,
Tp
= 1,9
1967
Lundgren,
1972
d s o = 105
|im
Swart,
1976
Ws
= 0.005
m/s
Nielsen,
1979
Ca
= 9500
mg/1
Dally,
1980
Skafel
Kos'yan,
and Krishnoppon,
1984
1985
V E R T I C A L DISTRIBUTION O F S E D I M E N T MIXING
COEFFICIENT
AND
DELFT
CONCENTRATION
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 9.3.4
1.0
smoothed
Hs/h
Hs
h
Tz
profile
\\
>
o
n
o
\
\
= 0.12
E q u o t ion. (9.3.
= 0.30
= 1.6
22)|
measured
computed
E s, w
0 6
1
^
0.4
m
0 2
^
1
0
10'
->
IO'' O
10'
c o n c e n t r a t i o n (mg/-)
1\^
10'
0 8
21
= 0.4
>^
>
5s
>
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
t-s.W
(mm^/s)
1.0
1.0
smoothed
profile Hs/h = Q 5
Hs
h
Tz
=0.21
=1.65
0 8
Eq u o t i o n (9 ,3.22)
= 0.106 m
n
0,8
computed
measured
E s, w
0.6
0 6
O 0.4
0 4
x:
i
O2
Q2
0
10'
10"
-> concentration (mg/f)
10
WAVE - R E L A T E D
FOR
SEDIMENT
1
1
5s
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.(
> Es.w (mm^/s)
2O
MIXING
NON-BREAKING WAVES
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 9.3.5
4
>
computed,
es,w,bed
5 6
8 10-2
(m^/s)
M E A S U R E D AND C O M P U T E D MIXING C O E F F I C I E N T S
OF
THE N E A R - B E D
DELFT
MIXING
LAYER
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 9.3.6
0.27
4 5
measured
5 6 7 8 9 1 0 ^
p- c o n c e n t r a t i o n
2
(mg/1)
- > concentration
(mg/i)
678
MEASURED
AND
CALIBRATION
OF
COMPUTED
CONCENTRATIONS,
m-COEFFICIENT
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
(Bosman,1 982)
4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 ^ ^
c*
>
o
JD
a
Ts = 2
CQ = 1 5 0 0 0 m g / 1
Ws = 0 . 0 0 5
m/s
\
\
\
'\
= 05
Hs = 0 . 2 2 5
\
\
CD
c o m p u t e d 1/2 ttb
c o m p u t e d ttb
computed 2 a t
\
\
\
\
\
r>
\
\
\
^^^^
A.
10'
I ' l l
'
10'
I l l l l
'
'
10^
1.0
0 8
d"
'
io"
computed
computed
computed
\\ 1
\\ \
\\ \
\
\\ \
l l l l
'
INFLUENCE
OF
ab
I I 1
10"
s = 0.03 m
s = 0.06 m
s = 0 . 0 9 m
06
JD
cn
Sa 0 4
JZ
\'
V ^\
02
=
'
l l l l
10'
'
l l l l
10'
'
computed
computed
computed
\
\
\
\
OF
l l l l
INFLUENCE
5s
10am= 0 . 0 5 0
am=0.035
am=0.020
1
1
\
\
\
\
JD
l l l l
10^
\
\
\
\
1 1
B.
10'
1,0
O
n
o
0.6
\
\
0.4
\
\
\
v\
02
I t l l
10'
10'
2
>
l l l l
5
10^ 2
concentration
C.
1
l l l l
5
10"
(kg/m^)
INFLUENCE
OF
l l l l
am
10=
I N F L U E N C E O F S E D I M E N T MIXING AND
F A L L V E L O C I T Y ON C O N C E N T R A T I O N
P R O F I L E (NON-BREAKING WAVES)
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 9.3.8
BREAKING WAVES
1.0
1.0
N
08
smoothed
profile
@ \
\
= 0.30
Tz
= 1.7
>
o
O
OB
measured C
computed
i
E s,w
tt
06
\@
0.4
0.4
@
i\
0.2
0 2
f
0 1
10^ 0
0
10"^
->
10^
BREAKING
10'
c o n c e n t r a t i o n (mg/-*)
OB
n
4
3
Hs/h = 0 . 6 3
Hs
= Ol 9
= 0.30
Tz
= 1.8
>
O
n 0.6
o
08
computed
E s.w
0.6
04
0.2
\
0
0
10^
1.6
1
E quation (9.3.22)
measured
02
OB
1.2
Es.w ( m m ^ / s )
0.4
>
1.0
IT
N
0.4
WAVES
1.0
<-'
x:
gi
1
1
E q j o t i o n (55.3.22)
Hs/h = 0 . 5 7 m
Hs
= 0.171 m
10"
10'
concentration (mg/f)
W A V E - R E L A T E D S E D I M E N T MIXING
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
10 8
A
5s
V
1.6
2.4
3.2
> Es,w (mm^/s)
4.0
COEFFICIENT
461
FIG. 9.3.9
MEASURED
BREAKING
AND
COMPUTED
WAVES,
CONCENTRATIONS
IN
CALIBRATION abr-COEFFICIENT
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG.9.3.10
10
9
8
7
6
-O
<u
A Nieuwjaar
(1987)
dso
200 / i m ,
wave
flume
(1988)
dso
100 / i m , wave
flume
(1982)
dso
105
flume
dso
190-220
/ i m , l a r g e wave
dso
210-250
/ i m , surf zone Groote

flume
tunnel
Nap
Bosman
O Van Rijn
A Kroon-Van
(1987)
Rijn ( 1 9 8 8 )
/ i m , wave
V Steetzel
(1987)
dso
210 / i m , l a r g e wave
(1986)
dso
2 2 0 - 3 6 0 / i m , wave
Van der Velden
flume
Keeten
0)
L.
D
in
Q.
0)
O
O
d o"
O O
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
2.5
7.5
5.0
bed-shear
MEASURED
AND
COMPUTED
stress,
15.0
12.5
10.0
r^^^
17.5
(N/m'
REFERENCE
CONCENTRATIONS
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 9 . 3 . 1 1
0.8
0.7
Hg = 0.075 m
Hg = 0.090 m
Tp = 2.3
= 0.5
Z.5
1p =
= 0.5
m
s
0,6
.0.5
0,4
0.3
0.2
0,1
O '
,-3
10
,,-1
,-2
10'
10
^
,-2
10
10^0 ^
10
(kg/m^)
10"'
->
10^
10'
C (kg/m^)
0.8
0.7
Hg
= 0.120 m
Hg
= 0.150
= 0.5
= 0.5
Tp = 2.4
Tp = 2,4
m
m
s
0.6
0.5
N
A 0.4
0.3
0.2
#
0.1
O
10
10
10 '
C
m e a s u r e d N i e u w j a a r V a n der K a a i j
MEASURED
AND
DELFT
10"'
10"
>
461
10'
(kg/m^)
(1987)
(1985)
COMPUTED
METHOD
10"^
(kg/m^)
c o m p u t e d Nielsen
PROFILES,
10^10-^
10"
CONCENTRATION
OF NIELSEN
HYDRAULICS
(1985)
FIG. 9 . 3 . 1 2
0.40
0.32
.0.24
0.16
0.08
>
concentration
(mg/1)
0.40
measured, (Bosman,
1982)
computed
1988)
(Van Rijn,
0.32
Hg
=0.192 m
Wg =0.007 m / s
ks.w=0.03 m
-0.24
CT)
0.16
0.08
>
MEASURED
PROFILES,
AND
COMPUTED
METHOD
DELFT
VAN
concentration
(mg/l)
CONCENTRATION
RIJN,
1988
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 9 . 3 . 1 3
0.50(
measured (Bosman, 1982)
computed
( V o n Rijn, 1 9 8 8 )
0.40
.0.30
Hg
= 0.278m
Tp
=2.1
Wg
ks^^=0.03
g' = 0 . 0 3
=0.01
Ar
=0.007m/s
0.20
0.10
2
3
- > concentration
8-]o2
4
5
(mg/l)
7 8 8 1 o'^
6 7 8 8io"
0.75
6 7 8 8-10^
2
> c o n c e n t r a t i o n
MEASURED
PROFILES,
AND
COMPUTED
METHOD
DELFT
VAN
3
(mg/l)
CONCENTRATION
RIJN,
1988
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG.
9.3.14
0.75
4 5 6 78io'
4 5 6
78
concentration
(mg/l)
0.40
measured
(Bosman,
computed
(Van
Rijn,
1982)
1988)
0.32
0.235m
.0.24
s:
Wg
k3^^=0.03
_CT1
'm
JZ
A
0.16
0.08
10
MEASURED
PROFILES,
=0.007 m/s
AND
7 8 9IQ3
2
p- c o n c e n t r a t i o n
3
(mg/l)
COMPUTED CONCENTRATION
METHOD VAN
RIJN,
1988
DELFT HYDRAULICS
461
2.00
1.60
,1.20
Ol
SI
0.80
0.40
0
2
3
4 5 6 7 8
concentration ( m g / l )
2.00
1.60
.1.20
0.80
0.40
10"
MEASURED
PROFILES,
4 5 678io^
AND
COMPUTED
METHOD
DELFT
VAN
j2
2
3 4 5 678-] Q3
4 5 678-10^ concentration ( m g / l )
4 5 67
CONCENTRATION
RIJN,
1988
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 9 , 3 . 1 6
2.00
1.60
.1.20
sz
0.80
0.40
7-10-2 2 3 45 7 i o - i 2 3 45 7 i o
2 3 45 710^ 2 3 45 7^0^
> concentration ( m g / l )
2 3 45 7^0^
2 3 45 7^0^
2.75
2.20
.1.65
'(I)
x:
1.10
0.55
> concentration
MEASURED
PROFILES,
AND
COMPUTED
METHOD
DELFT
VAN
(mg/l)
CONCENTRATION
RIJN,
1988
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 9 . 3 . 1 7
10'
/o
/O
10
*
4 4
/' ,
(PjB^ O
LEGEND
Kalkanis
(1964)
d = L 6 8 mm
Sand
' d =2.18 mm
3 = 2.6 3
. d = 2 . 8 2 mm
<M in
A b o u - S e i d o (19651
d =2.61 m m '
. d ' 1.21 mm
Sand
i> d = 0 . 3 0 m m
S=265
d-O.I45mmJ
^ d =0. 7 0 m m
Gloss
I
8 = 2.23
I I I Iniil
I I
III,
/
/ +
xX
0
+ /
10-^
8
6
9'
A. M A D S E N - G R A N T
x
xX
I- '
10' )
:
^
(1976)
X
0
10"' 8:
6
10"
10
I I I f I
"
SI
a a
S2
C2
S3
C3
+
0
-
6 8io^
4 6 8io^
71
I'
B. H A L L E R M E I E R (1982)
Asynmetrlc o s c i l l a t i o n s
indicates 3-D ripples
O
in
10^
TD
K P | = 7 ( i f / - f / c ) i f /
+1
u
c
icr
10"
10-2
I I I
I/I I
10-1
10
I I I
^ ,
,0
C. S A T O - H O R I K A W A ( 1 9 8 6 )
SEDIMENT
FOR
TRANSPORT F O R M U L A E
WAVES A L O N E
H 461
FIG. 9.4.1
-10.1-
10.
BED
10.1
MATERIAL SUSPENSIE AND
TRANSPORT IN COMBINED WAVES AND
CURRENTS
Introduction
I n Chapter 9 i t has been shown t h a t wave motion can generate sediment suspensions w i t h large concentrations
i n the near-bed r e g i o n . When t i d e - i n d u c e d ,
wind-induced or wave-induced c u r r e n t s are present,

turbulence
the v e r t i c a l m i x i n g
w i l l be i n t e n s i f i e d y i e l d i n g l a r g e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
l a y e r s . The
to
i n the upper
basic mechanism i s the entrainment o f p a r t i c l e s by the
wave a c t i o n and
due
stirring
the t r a n s p o r t o f the p a r t i c l e s by the c u r r e n t m o t i o n .
The
t r a n s p o r t o f p a r t i c l e s by the mean c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s ( i n the presence o f

waves) i s h e r e i n d e f i n e d as the c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d t r a n s p o r t r a t e (see
section
9.1).
B i j k e r (1967, 1971)
was
one o f the f i r s t , who
presented a d e t a i l e d method
(based on time-averaged v a r i a b l e s ) t o compute the l o c a l t r a n s p o r t r a t e f o r

combined c u r r e n t and
E i n s t e i n (1950).
( b r e a k i n g ) wave c o n d i t i o n s f o l l o w i n g the approach o f
Another formula-type
approach was
proposed by Grant
and
Madsen (1976). L a t e r more complicated mathematical models based on i n s t a n t a neous v a r i a b l e s have been developed by Freds5e e t a l ( 1985)
waves and
by Deigaard et a l (1986) f o r b r e a k i n g
f o r non-breaking
waves i n the s u r f zone.
I n t e g r a l p r e d i c t i o n methods have been proposed t o compute the w i d t h - i n t e g r a t e d

longshore sediment t r a n s p o r t (CERC, Kamphuis e t a l , 1986). These i n t e g r a l
methods are based on the longshore component o f the wave energy f l u x a t
breaker l i n e .
The
f o l l o w i n g s u b j e c t s are presented i n t h i s chapter:
a n a l y s i s o f measured c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
computation o f
computation o f t r a n s p o r t r a t e s i n non-breaking waves
computation o f t r a n s p o r t r a t e s i n b r e a k i n g
10.2
10.2.1
and
transport rates,
concentrations,
A n a l y s i s o f measured c o n c e n t r a t i o n
Time-averaged c o n c e n t r a t i o n
waves.
p r o f i l e s and
transport rates
profiles
(averaged over many waves) are r e l e v a n t f o r
c u r r e n t - d o m i n a t e d t r a n s p o r t processes (see s e c t i o n
9.1).
the
-10.2-
Experimental
research i n flumes has been performed
by v a r i o u s i n v e s t i g a t o r s
(Bosman, 1982, Mieuwjaar-Van der K a a i j , 198? and Map-Van Kampen, 1988).

data i n non-breaking
Field
waves w i t h a c u r r e n t over an i n t e r t i d a l f l a t have been
c o l l e c t e d by Van Vessem (see Van R i j n , 1987). F i e l d data i n the s u r f zone w i t h

b r e a k i n g waves and longshore c u r r e n t s have been c o l l e c t e d by J a f f e e t a l (1984)
and by Van R i j n
1.
(1987).
Concentrations
i n non-breaking
waves w i t h a c u r r e n t over a r i p p l e d bed
F i g u r e s 10.2.1 t o 10.2.4 show time-averaged
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s measured by
Nieuwjaar-Van der K a a i j , 1987 f o r a water depth o f 0.5 m and 200 ymsediment and by Map-Van Kampen, 1988 f o r a s i m i l a r water depth and 100
ym-sediment.
I r r e g u l a r waves were generated.
I n a l l t e s t s t h e bed was covered
with
ripples.
e
r a p i d decrease o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n lower l a y e r s i n case o f waves alone

( = 0 m/s),
t r a n s p o r t o f sediment t o upper l a y e r s by mixing e f f e c t s i n case o f

combined waves and c u r r e n t s ,
m i x i n g e f f e c t s a r e s m a l l i n case o f a weak c u r r e n t ( = 0.1 m/s), and

l a r g e i n case o f a s t r o n g c u r r e n t ( = 0.4 m/s),
i n f l u e n c e o f c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n ( f o l l o w i n g o r opposing) on c o n c e n t r a t i o n
p r o f i l e i s r e l a t i v e l y small,
i n f l u e n c e o f c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y on the near-bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , which a r e

in
the range o f 0.1 t o 10 kg/m3, i s o n l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n case o f s m a l l
waves.
F i g u r e 10.2.5 shows c o n c e n t r a t i o n s measured by Van Vessem (see Van R i j n ,
1987) a t an i n t e r t i d a l f l a t i n the Eastern Scheldt e s t u a r y . The Netherl a n d s . The bed m a t e r i a l had a median p a r t i c l e s i z e o f about 150 ym. The
bed was covered
w i t h s m a l l - s c a l e r i p p l e s (A^ ^ 0.03 m). For a r e l a t i v e
wave h e i g h t o f H^/h ^ 0.17 the sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e extremely
small,
p r o b a b l y because t h e bed-shear s t r e s s e s a r e j u s t beyond t h e c r i t i c a l
values
for
i n i t i a t i o n o f suspension.
The sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s show an i n c r e a s e
of more than a f a c t o r 10 when the wave h e i g h t i s increased by a f a c t o r 2

( H / h from 0.17 t o 0.29). The g e n e r a t i o n o f wave and c u r r e n t - i n d u c e d
s
e f f e c t s can a l s o be c l e a r l y observed.
mixing
-10.3-
C o n c e n t r a t i o n s _ i n _ s u r f _ z o n e _ w i t h b r e a k i n g waves and l o n g s h o r e _ c u r r e n t s
Time-averaged c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e s u r f zone (USA) w i t h b r e a k i n g
waves
have been measured by J a f f e e t a l (1984) u s i n g an o p t i c a l sampler and by

Van R i j n (1987) u s i n g a pump sampler. The r e s u l t s o f J a f f e e t a l (1984)
are presented
i n F i g . 1 0 . 2 . 5 , showing c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e range o f about
0 . 5 t o 2 kg/m3 i n t h e lowest measuring p o i n t
0 . 1 3 m) above t h e bed. The
l a r g e s t near-bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s have been measured i n s t a t i o n s 3 and 7 ,

where t h e wave h e i g h t i s l a r g e s t . The lowest c o n c e n t r a t i o n s occur i n s t a t i o n s 1 and 2 (longshore t r o u g h area) where t h e wave h e i g h t i s r e l a t i v e l y
s m a l l . The l a r g e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s over the depth can be observed i n s t a t i o n 3 which i s c l o s e t o t h e c r e s t o f t h e longshore
bar where s t r o n g wave
b r e a k i n g occurs (H /h ^ 0 . 7 ) . The v e r t i c a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n g r a d i e n t s a r e
s
l a r g e s t i n s t a t i o n 7 J u s t seaward o f t h e longshore
bar, where wave b r e a -
k i n g i s l e s s i n t e n s i v e . The c o n c e n t r a t i o n g r a d i e n t s a r e s m a l l e s t
(which
means a r a t h e r u n i f o r m p r o f i l e ) i n s t a t i o n s 1 and 2 where t h e c u r r e n t r e l a t e d m i x i n g probably
i s i m p o r t a n t ( l o n g s h o r e trough area) and a l s o i n
s t a t i o n 3 where s t r o n g wave-related
m i x i n g i s i m p o r t a n t ( l o n g s h o r e bar
c r e s t ) . I n f o r m a t i o n o f t h e bed form has n o t been r e p o r t e d by J a f f e e t a l

(1984).
F i g u r e 10.2.6 shows time-averaged c o n c e n t r a t i o n s measured by Van R i j n
( 1 9 8 7 ) i n t h e s u r f zone o f Groote Keeten, The Motherlands.
The measure-
ments were o b t a i n e d from a shore-connected r i g which was l o c a t e d between

two g r o i n s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e longshore
small a t that l o c a t i o n (u
c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s were r e l a t i v e l y
0 . 1 t o 0 . 3 m/s). The bed m a t e r i a l s i z e was
about 250 ym. The near-bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s were i n t h e range o f 0 . 1 t o 1

kg/m3 f o r r e l a t i v e wave h e i g h t s o f H^/h i n t h e range o f 0 . 3 t o 0.4. Waver e l a t e d and c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d m i x i n g e f f e c t a r e s i g n i f i c a n t y i e l d i n g concent r a t i o n s a t mid-depth o f t h e order o f 0.01 t o 0 . 1 kg/m^. The suspended
sediment samples have been analysed
i n a l a b o r a t o r y s e t t l i n g tube
yielding
p a r t i c l e s i z e s from 260 ym (near t h e bed) t o about I 8 0 ym (near t h e water

s u r f a c e ) . Averaging
over a l l v a l u e s , t h e depth-averaged suspended sediment
s i z e was about d^ = 0 . 8 d^Q
(see a l s o s e c t i o n 9 . 3 . 3 ) .
I n f o r m a t i o n o f t h e l o c a l sea bottom l e v e l was o b t a i n e d by a system o f

mechanical f e e l e r s . A n a l y s i s o f these measurements shows t h e presence o f a
smooth wavy bottom i n cross-shore
d i r e c t i o n w i t h o n d u l a t i o n s o f 0.01 t o
0.02 m h i g h . T y p i c a l wave r i p p l e s as present i n non-breaking waves have

n o t been observed. The e f f e c t i v e roughness o f t h i s type o f wavy bottom
-10.4-
with a high concentration

the order o f 0.01
boundary l a y e r i n the s u r f zone p r o b a b l y i s o f
m (see s e c t i o n
7.3).
Summarizing, the f o l l o w i n g phenomena have been observed i n the s u r f zone:

e
near-bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
i n the range o f 0.1
h e i g h t s i n the range of H^/h = 0.3
r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e v e r t i c a l mixing due
mixing
to
0.7,
to wave-related and
current-related
i n the longshore trough area and a t the longshore bar
presence o f smooth bottom o n d u l a t i o n s

t o 0.02
(Hg/h
t o 2 kg/m3 f o r r e l a t i v e wave
area,
w i t h a h e i g h t i n the o r d e r of
m i n cross-shore d i r e c t i o n i n case o f s p i l l i n g breaking

- 0.3
to
0.01
waves
0.4).
The main cause f o r the r e l a t i v e l y small near-bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
(0.1 t o 2
kg/m3) i n the s u r f zone i s the absence o f the t y p i c a l wave-induced
bed
r i p p l e s and
stirring
the associated
eddies. Wave-induced r i p p l e s are s t r o n g
mechanisms y i e l d i n g l a r g e near-bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
(1 t o 10 kg/m3) a t r e l a -
t i v e l y small wave,heights, as shown by l a b o r a t o r y experiments ( F i g s . 10.2.1

t o 10.2.4).
10.2.2
I n Section
waves and
9.1
i t has
been shown t h a t the t o t a l sediment t r a n s p o r t i n combined
c u r r e n t s can be d i v i d e d i n t o
a:
c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d sediment t r a n s p o r t r a t e (q^. ^ ) ,
wave-related sediment t r a n s p o r t r a t e (q^. ^ ) .
The
c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d sediment t r a n s p o r t i s d e f i n e d as the t r a n s p o r t o f p a r t i c l e s
by the time-averaged c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s , the l a t t e r being m o d i f i e d

m o t i o n . The
by the wave
wave-related sediment t r a n s p o r t i s d e f i n e d as the t r a n s p o r t o f p a r -
t i c l e s by the o s c i l l a t i n g f l u i d motions ( o r b i t a l
velocities).
Q u a n t i t a t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n o f measured c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d and
wave-related t r a n s p o r t
r a t e s i s presented by MieuwJaar-Van der K a a i j (1987) and
by Nap-Van Kampen
(1988) f o r non-breaking waves combined w i t h f o l l o w i n g and
Current-related
Figure
opposing c u r r e n t s .
transport rates
10.2.7A shows c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d t r a n s p o r t r a t e s f o r the 100 ym and
200
ym-experiments i n a l a b o r a t o r y flume. The measured v a l u e s have been analyzed

to determine the i n f l u e n c e o f the wave h e i g h t (Hg) and
the depth-averaged
-10.5-
v e l o c i t y () on the t r a n s p o r t r a t e . This a n a l y s i s provide
information o f the
r e q u i r e d accuracy o f wave h e i g h t and c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y p r e d i c t i o n s . For example,

when t h e t r a n s p o r t r a t e depends on u^, the accuracy o f t h e p r e d i c t e d v e l o c i t y
_2
must be much l a r g e r than when t h e t r a n s p o r t r a t e depends on u .
Analysis
o f the measured t r a n s p o r t r a t e s shows t h e f o l l o w i n g phenomena:
no s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e o f the c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n ( f o l l o w i n g or opposing)
on t h e t r a n s p o r t r a t e ,
r e l a t i v e l y large
c
(q,
K H ) at a
u
c
s
r e l a t i v e l y small
2
(q,
H ) at a
increase
o f the t r a n s p o r t r a t e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g wave h e i g h t
weak c u r r e n t ( u
0.1 m/s),
increase
s t r o n g c u r r e n t ( = 0.4 m/s),
r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e increase
o f the t r a n s p o r t r a t e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g
-4 5
u
) a t low waves (H /h ^ 0.15),
averaged v e l o c i t y (q
u
o f the t r a n s p o r t r a t e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g wave h e i g h t
r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l increase
averaged v e l o c i t y (q
o f the t r a n s p o r t r a t e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g
increase
depth-
u ) a t high waves (H /h ^ 0.35),

UJ c
depth-
o f t h e sediment s i z e by a f a c t o r 2 ( f r o m 100 ym t o 200 ym) causes
a decrease o f the t r a n s p o r t r a t e by a f a c t o r 3 t o 6.'

The r e s u l t s show a r e l a t i v e l y small increase
o f the t r a n s p o r t r a t e s i n case o f
a s t r o n g c u r r e n t and/or h i g h waves. There seems t o be a maximum c a p a c i t y e f f e c t

( s a t u r a t i o n e f f e c t ) . Mear the bed a h i g h - c o n c e n t r a t i o n
l a y e r ( c > 5 kg/m3) i s
generated which has a s h i e l d i n g e f f e c t on the entrainment process reducing t h e

e n t r a i n m e n t r a t e o f new p a r t i c l e s a t h i g h e r shear s t r e s s e s .
Wave-related t r a n s p o r t r a t e
V a r i o u s r e s e a r c h e r s have observed t h a t the wave-related t r a n s p o r t can be
directed against
the wave-current d i r e c t i o n i n case o f a f o l l o w i n g c u r r e n t i n
s p e c i f i c c o n d i t i o n s . The r e s u l t s o f Map-Van Kampen (1988) p r o v i d e q u a n t i t a t i v e

i n f o r m a t i o n o f these phenomena based on s p e c i a l sand balance experiments. The
experiments c o n s i s t e d
o f measuring t h e sediment mass eroded from t h e bed by
the c u r r e n t w i t h waves between t h e flume entrance and t h e measuring l o c a t i o n

(= 15 meter downstream from the e n t r a n c e ) . Since, t h e r e was no sediment feed
a t t h e flume e n t r a n c e , the t o t a l time-averaged t r a n s p o r t r a t e ( q ^ ) passing t h e
measuring l o c a t i o n i s equal t o t h e eroded mass d i v i d e d by t h e elapsed
time.
-10.6-
S i m u l t a n e o u s l y , time-averaged c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y and sand c o n c e n t r a t i o n
profiles
were measured a t t h e measuring l o c a t i o n , y i e l d i n g t h e time-averaged
current-
r e l a t e d t r a n s p o r t r a t e (q, = u c d z ) . Since, these experiments a r e r a t h e r

c,c
time-consuming o n l y t h r e e experiments have been executed: two experiments w i t h
a f o l l o w i n g c u r r e n t (T15,10 and T15,20) and one experiment w i t h an opposing
current
(T15,-10). The e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s a r e presented i n F i g . 10.2.7B
showing t h e r a t i o q^-Zq^. ^ as a f u n c t i o n o f U^/. The most i m p o r t a n t
results
are:
t h e t o t a l t r a n s p o r t (q^.) i s smaller
(qj.
transport
i n case o f a f o l l o w i n g c u r r e n t which means t h a t t h e w a v e - r e l a t e d
t r a n s p o r t (q^. ^ ) i s d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t
than the c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d
the wave and c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n ,
t h e w a v e - r e l a t e d t r a n s p o r t r a t e ( a g a i n s t the c u r r e n t and wave d i r e c t i o n ) i s

A
l a r g e s t i n case o f a weak f o l l o w i n g c u r r e n t , q, /q,

t ,w t , c
and q, ,/q, ^ ^ 0,25 f o r U./ =^ 1.5,
t ,
, C
0.4 f o r U ^ ^ 2.5
t h e w a v e - r e l a t e d t r a n s p o r t seems t o be n e g l i g i b l e small
i n case o f an
opposing c u r r e n t .
The
underlying
mechanism o f wave-related t r a n s p o r t a g a i n s t
i s s t r o n g l y r e l a t e d t o the near-bed eddy motions (see F i g .
t h e wave d i r e c t i o n
10.2.8).
When t h e wave c r e s t superimposed on a f o l l o w i n g c u r r e n t passes a r i p p l e , t h e

near-bed v e l o c i t i e s w i l l be r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e and a s t r o n g eddy w i t h h i g h
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i s generated a t t h e r i p p l e back. When the wave trough
the r i p p l e , t h e eddy i s l i f t e d and c a r r i e d a g a i n s t
sand
passes
t h e wave p r o p a g a t i o n d i r e c -
t i o n , whereas t h e eddy a l s o d e s i n t e g r a t e s a t h i g h e r l e v e l s . Some p a r t o f t h e

sediment p a r t i c l e s w i l l f a l l back on t h e bed d u r i n g
ously,
t h i s process. S i m u l t a n e -
another eddy i s generated a t t h e r i p p l e f r o n t when t h e wave
trough
passes. During t h i s phase o f t h e wave c y c l e the near-bed v e l o c i t i e s a r e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l and thus t h e eddy v e l o c i t i e s and t h e corresponding sand concent r a t i o n i n t h e eddy a r e a l s o r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l . Thus, near t h e bed t h e r e i s a
process o f r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
v e l o c i t i e s against
centrations
transported
by r e l a t i v e l y
t h e wave d i r e c t i o n and a process o f r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l
transported
1988).
con-
i n t h e wave d i r e c t i o n by r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e v e l o c i t i e s .
Q u a n t i t a t i v e e s t i m a t e s o f both processes i n d i c a t e a n e t w a v e - r e l a t e d
against
small
transport
t h e wave d i r e c t i o n i n case o f a f o l l o w i n g c u r r e n t (Nap-Van Kampen,
-10.7-
Assuming t h a t a systematic
e r r o r o f t h e order o f 30% i s h a r d l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n
sediment t r a n s p o r t p r e d i c t i o n s , i t i s h e r e i n proposed t o n e g l e c t
r e l a t e d t r a n s p o r t r a t e (which
t h e wave-
i s d i f f i c u l t t o p r e d i c t because r e l i a b l e f o r m u l a e
are n o t a v a i l a b l e ) f o r U / < 2 i n case o f a f o l l o w i n g o r opposing c u r r e n t

0
(4) = 0 , i}) ^ 1 8 0 ) . Outside t h i s l a t t e r range U^/ > 2 , i t becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y

important
t o take t h e wave-related t r a n s p o r t i n t o account.
When the wave p r o p a g a t i o n d i r e c t i o n i s more or l e s s p e r p e n d i c u l a r
t o the cur-
r e n t d i r e c t i o n , t h e wave-related t r a n s p o r t process i s the dominating t r a n s p o r t

process i n t h e wave d i r e c t i o n and must, t h e r e f o r e , be taken i n t o account,
e s p e c i a l l y i n c o n d i t i o n s w i t h asymmetrical wave motion (near and i n s i d e s u r f
zone). F a r t h e r o f f s h o r e , the wave motion i s l a r g e l y s i n u s o i d a l y i e l d i n g n e t
w a v e - r e l a t e d t r a n s p o r t r a t e s which a r e probably n e g l i g i b l e s m a l l .
10.3
10.3.1
profiles
Introduction
V a r i o u s models t o compute the time-averaged c o n c e n t r a t i o n

l a b l e i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e . The B i j k e r model ( 1 9 6 7 ,
averaged c o n v e c t i o n - d i f f u s i o n equation,
p r o f i l e s are a v a i -
1971) i s based on t h e t i m e -
Eq. ( 9 . 3 . 1 ) . Other models such as t h a t
o f Fredseie e t a l ( 1985) and t h a t o f Deigaard e t a l ( 1986) a r e based on t h e

instantaneous c o n v e c t i o n - d i f f u s i o n equation,
Eq. ( 9 . 3 . 2 ) . These l a t t e r models
are o n l y v a l i d f o r plane bed c o n d i t i o n s w i t h sheet f l o w .

Since r e l i a b l e
models t o p r e d i c t the time-averaged c o n c e n t r a t i o n
profiles for
a r i p p l e d bed or a plane sheet f l o w bed a r e s t i l l l a c k i n g , t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r

proposes h e r e a f t e r a new method based on t h e time-averaged
e q u a t i o n and t h e c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d and t h e wave-related m i x i n g
i n Section
1.
c o e f f i c i e n t s given
8 . 3 . 3 and 9 . 3 . 6 . The method i s v a l i d f o r non-breaking and
wave over r i p p l e d or a plane bed.
10.3.2
convection-diffusion
Computation methods
M e t h o d _ o f _ B i j k e r ( 1 9 6 7 , 1971)
The c o n c e n t r a t i o n
p r o f i l e i s described as:
breaking
-10.8-
^ 'b,cw
i n which:
c
= time-averaged c o n c e n t r a t i o n
(kg/m^)
c^
= time-averaged reference
= k g = reference
kg
= e f f e c t i v e bed roughness h e i g h t
(m)
= water depth
(m)
concentration
a t z=a
(kg/m^)
l e v e l o r t h i c k n e s s o f bed load l a y e r
(m)
T,
= T,
+ T,
= bed-shear s t r e s s
b,cw
b,cw
b,c
1
"^2
(M/m^)
"^b w
~ 1^ ^ "^w^^-^
- 1
T,
b, c
- 2
= P f V = c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed-shear s t r e s s
o
c r
= [C/C]^'^ = efficiency factor
= 18 l o g ( 1 2 h / k g ) = O v e r a l l Chzy-coefficient
(uP'^/s)
C'
= 18 log(12h/dgQ) = Chzy-coefficient r e l a t e d t o g r a i n s
(m*^"^/s)
fg
= (8g)/C^ = c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d f r i c t i o n f a c t o r
(-)
f^^
= exp[-6 + 5 . 2 ( A g / k ^ ) ~ * ^ ' = wave-related f r i c t i o n f a c t o r
(-)
= w / ( k u
S
Wg
K
" wave-related bed-shear s t r e s s
(N/m2)
(N/m^)
(-)
) - suspension parameter
* , C W
(-)
= Von Karman constant (= 0.4)
rlO '5
- ['^^ cw^*^' ' ~ t i ^ ' ^ " ^ ^ ^ ^ ' " v e l o c i t y
Ujj
p
p
's
= f l u i d density
= empirical c o e f f i c i e n t
d^Q
- median p a r t i c l e s i z e o f bed m a t e r i a l
= peak o r b i t a l excursion
(m/s)
(m/s)
(kg/m^)
(kg/m3)
5)
near the bed (based on
(m)
Hj^^^g)
(m)
U.
= peak o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y near t h e bed (based on H-,)
(m/s)
Vpj
= depth-averaged value o f c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y v e c t o r
(m/s)
Method_of_Freds(Zie e t a l (1985)
The
computation o f the c o n c e n t r a t i o n
given
i n Section
p r o f i l e i n case o f waves alone i s
9.3.8. I n case o f a combination o f waves and c u r r e n t
(under an angle if)) the instantaneous v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e i s assumed t o cons i s t o f two p a r t s : 1. a steady component U due t o t h e mean c u r r e n t and 2.
an unsteady component U^^ due t o the wave motion. The unsteady component i s
r e p r e s e n t e d by p o t e n t i a l f l o w theory o u t s i d e the wave boundary l a y e r and
by a l o g a r i t h m i c v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e i n s i d e the wave boundary l a y e r . The
-10.9-
i n f l u e n c e o f the wave boundary l a y e r on the mean c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y
i s taken
i n t o account by an apparent roughness.

The
c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e i s computed by numerical
integration
applying
the c o n v e c t i o n - d i f f u s i o n equation.
Method_of Van
The
Rijn
c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e can be o b t a i n e d from numerical
integration
of
the time-averaged c o n v e c t i o n - d i f f u s i o n Equation (9.3.1) a p p l y i n g Equation

(9.3.38) as r e f e r e n c e
dc
dz ~
concentration:
(10.3.3)
e
s,cw
d
a - 0-0^5 P 3 ^
in
1.5
V 3
(10.3.4)
which:
= time-averaged c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t h e i g h t z above the bed
"s m
(kg/m3)
in fluid-sediment mixture
(m/s)
= p a r t i c l e f a l l v e l o c i t y o f suspended sediment i n c l e a r water (m/s)
2
2
lO 5
E
= e
+ e
* = sediment mixing c o e f f i c i e n t i n combined
s,cw^s,c
s,w^
c u r r e n t s and waves
(m^/s)
p
sediment d e n s i t y
(== 2650 kg/m3)
s
w
= reference
dgQ
= median p a r t i c l e diameter o f bed m a t e r i a l
(m)
- bed-shear s t r e s s parameter
(-)
D^f
(-)
The
level
sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t i n combined c u r r e n t s and waves i s assumed
t o be given by the sum

related
tic
o f the squares o f the c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d and t h e wave2

2
2
0 5
v a l u e s . Thus: e
= e
+ e
. Since e , k
with k = kines,cw
s,c
s,w
energy and
I = l e n g t h s c a l e , t h i s approach corresponds t o the summa-
t i o n o f the k i n e t i c energy o f both types o f motions, which seems t o be

more r e a l i s t i c than assuming e
= e
+ e
.
s, C W
s, c
s, w
The r e f e r e n c e l e v e l i s assumed t o be equal t o a = 0.5
i n case o f a r i p p l e d bed (A = r i p p l e h e i g h t ) or a = 6 i n case o f a plane sheet f l o w bed
V
w
( 6 ^ = wave boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s , see Eq. ( 2 . 3 . 8 ) ) .
The
v a r i a b l e s are s p e c i f i e d i n d e t a i l i n S e c t i o n
10.4.2.
-10.10-
10.3.3
Comparison o f measured and computed c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s
Non-breaking waves
NieuwJaar-Van der K a a i j (1987) and Nap-Van Kampen (1988) have compared comput e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s according
t o the B i j k e r model w i t h c o n c e n t r a t i o n
measured i n a l a b o r a t o r y flume (non-breaking
waves). The water depth was about
0.5 m. The s i g n i f i c a n t wave h e i g h t s were i n the range o f 0.075 t o 0.2 m.

c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s were i n the range o f 0.1 t o 0.1 m/s
The
( f o l l o w i n g and opposing
c u r r e n t s ) . The bed m a t e r i a l s i z e was 100 and 200 ym. F i g u r e
10.3.1 shows mea-
sured and computed c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s from the 100 ym-experiments. The

B i j k e r - m o d e l shows t h e " b e s t " agreement w i t h measured values
i n case o f a
r e l a t i v e l y s t r o n g c u r r e n t (0.4 m/s) and r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l waves (0.075 m). T h i s

seems l o g i c because t h e B i j k e r - m o d e l i s based on a p a r a b o l i c m i x i n g
coeffi-
c i e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n as v a l i d f o r a c u r r e n t alone. I n case o f a weak c u r r e n t

(- 0.1 m/s) the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f the B i j k e r model are much t o o s m a l l i n t h e
near-bed r e g i o n and much t o o l a r g e i n the upper l a y e r s . S i m i l a r r e s u l t s were
found i n case o f the 200 ym-experiments. The main cause f o r t h e d e v i a t i o n s o f
the B i j k e r model i s the a p p l i c a t i o n o f a p a r a b o l i c m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t which i s
n o t v a l i d i n case o f a weak c u r r e n t i n combination
w i t h r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e waves
(say Ug/ > 1 ) . Futhermore, the p r e d i c t i o n o f the r e f e r e n c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s

also not c o r r e c t .
The measured c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f Nieuwjaar-Van der K a a i j (1987) and Nap-Van
Kampen (1988) have a l s o been used by the present w r i t e r t o v e r i f y h i s method.
Measured and computed c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s are shown i n F i g s . 10.3.2 t o
10.3.7. G e n e r a l l y ,
the agreement between measured and computed
concentration
p r o f i l e s i s q u i t e good except i n case o f a r e l a t i v e l y s t r o n g f o l l o w i n g c u r r e n t

( ^ 0.4 m/s) over a f i n e sediment bed ( d ^ ^ ^ 100 ym), see F i g . 10.3.7. I n
t h a t case t h e computed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are much t o o l a r g e i n the upper l a y e r s .
The reason f o r t h i s may l i e i n the experimental
c o n d i t i o n s , which c o n s i s t e d o f
a s e l f - e r o d i n g c u r r e n t superimposed by waves (no sediment f e e d ) . The

between t h e beginning
distance
o f t h e sediment bed and the measuring s e c t i o n was about
20 times t h e water depth which probably
i s n o t l a r g e enough t o generate
e q u i l i b r i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s . Thus, the measured c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

upper l a y e r are probably
fully
i n the
too s m a l l . These phenomena d i d n o t occur i n t h e 200
ym-experiments because t h e adjustment l e n g t h i s much s m a l l e r f o r coarser

p a r t i c l e s (see F i g . 10.3.4).
-10.11-
Figure
1 0 . 3 . 8 shows computed and measured c o n c e n t r a t i o n
profiles for a field
l o c a t i o n on an i n t e r t i d a l f l a t (Oosterschelde, The N e t h e r l a n d s ) .
concentrations
The sand
have only been measured i n the near-bed l a y e r ( z < 0 . 3 m).
F a i r l y good agreement o f measured and computed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
can be observed.
Break:ing_waves
Figure
1 0 . 3 . 9 shows measured and computed (Van R i j n method)
The measured sand c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
have been obtained
concentrations.
by an o p t i c a l
instrument
mounted on a sledge i n the s u r f zone (USA, J a f f e e t a l , 1 9 8 4 ) .

The computed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ,
based on an assumed . f a l l v e l o c i t y o f 0 . 0 1 1
and an assumed bed roughness o f
m/s
= 0 . 0 1 m, are ( i n most cases) a
f a c t o r 2 to 3 too large.
10.4
10.4.1
Computation o f sediment t r a n s p o r t i n non-breaking waves
Introduction
The most f r e q u e n t l y - a p p l i e d methods f o r computation o f the t r a n s p o r t r a t e i n

combined c u r r e n t and non-breaking wave c o n d i t i o n s are those o f B i j k e r ( 1 9 6 7 ,
1 9 7 1 ) , Grant-Madsen
( 1 9 7 6 ) and Bagnold-Bailard ( 1 9 8 1 ) . The method o f Fredseie
e t a l ( 1 9 8 5 ) and the new method o f Van R i j n are a l s o described
i n this section.
A l l these formulae y i e l d a n e t t r a n s p o r t r a t e i n the c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n , which

may be u n r e a l i s t i c i n case o f a weak c u r r e n t combined w i t h r e l a t i v e l y
large
waves (Ug > ) over a r i p p l e d bed. I n t h a t case the wave-related t r a n s p o r t may

dominate the c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d t r a n s p o r t y i e l d i n g a n e t t r a n s p o r t r a t e
against
the c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n , as observed by Nap-Van Kampen ( 1 9 8 8 ) .
10.4.2
1.
Computation methods
Method_of_Bijker (1967,
1971)
The method o f B i j k e r y i e l d s the c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed-load and suspendedload t r a n s p o r t r a t e s ; the wave-related t r a n s p o r t r a t e i s n o t taken
into
account. T h e r e f o r e , the method o f B i j k e r i s o n l y v a l i d when the wave

propagation d i r e c t i o n i s approximately perpendicular
tion .
t o the c u r r e n t d i r e c -
-10.12-
Based on t h e concept o f E i n s t e i n
(1950), Bijker
proposed:
- 1-83 q b , c t l 2 ^ ^1 ^ " ( 3 3 h / k ^ ) ]
%,c
(10.4.1)
- 0 . 2 7 ( p -p)g d
. = b u ^ d^^ exp[
22]
5b,c = b ",c % 0
b,cw
(10.4.2)
i n which:
q
= time-averaged suspended load t r a n s p o r t
(m^/s)
q,
= time-averaged bed-load t r a n s p o r t
(m^/s)
= i n t e g r a l of Einstein
a c c o r d i n g t o Eq. ( 8 . 3 . 2 0 )
I2
= i n t e g r a l of Einstein
a c c o r d i n g t o Eq. ( 8 . 3 . 2 1 )
= coefficient
(= 5 )
The o t h e r v a r i a b l e s are s p e c i f i e d
i n S e c t i o n 1 0 . 3 . 2 (see Eqs. 1 0 . 3 . 1 and
10.3.2).
(1976)
Grant and Madsen consider t h a t t h e wave and c u r r e n t motions near t h e bed
cannot be t r e a t e d
separately.
The i n s t a n t a n e o u s t o t a l t r a n s p o r t
= ^ 0 "s % 0
% , t
r a t e (m^/s) i s represented as:
# [
(^'^^3)
i n which:
Wg
= particle f a l l
velocity
dcQ = median p a r t i c l e diameter o f bed m a t e r i a l

r 2
2
iO 5
U
= [U^ + u^ + 2
u^ cos<|>J = instantaneous v e l o c i t y v e c t o r near t h e
bed
U^^
s i n ( a ) t ) = near-bed o r b i t a l
velocity
= near-bed c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y
0
f,,
w
()>
0.5
= ^g
f u2
^
= friction
= particle mobility
parameter
factor
= angle between c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n and wave p r o p a g a t i o n d i r e c t i o n .
-10.13-
Averaging over the wave p e r i o d y i e l d s the mean t r a n s p o r t r a t e and

t i o n . The
t r a n s p o r t r a t e comprises b o t h the c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d and
direc-
the wave-
related contributions.
Bagnold-Bailard (1981)
The
instantaneous bed
load and
suspended load t r a n s p o r t r a t e s are expressed
as:
q, . /
^b
[U^ -
(p^-p)g bany ^
q
.
^s
(P3-p)g
(10.4.11)
tany ' ' ^
[|u3|u - ^
^
Wg
tang
(10.4.5)
|U|5]
I J
i n which:
%
^s
% 6 Y "s fw
i n s t a n t a n e o u s bed-load t r a n s p o r t r a t e
(m2/s)
i n s t a n t a n e o u s suspended-load t r a n s p o r t r a t e
(m2/s)
f r i c t i o n factor
e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r f o r bed
l o a d t r a n s p o r t (= 0 . 1 1 - 0 . 1 5 )
e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r f o r suspended load
t r a n s p o r t (= 0 . 0 1 6 - 0 . 0 2 4 )
l o c a l bottom "slope
()
dynamic f r i c t i o n
()
angle
particle f a l l velocity
f u + u + 2U u cos<J)l
= instantaneous near-bed v e l o c i t y v e c t o r
i w
c
w c
sin()t) = near-bed o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y
"w = 0
near-bed c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y
^c
angle between c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n and wave propajg a t i o n d i r e c t i o n .
4U
O r i g i n a l l y , the formulae o f Bagnold were developed f o r steady u n i d i r e c t i onal f l o w . B a l l a r d a p p l i e d these formulae t o o s c i l l a t o r y f l o w i n combinat i o n w i t h a steady c u r r e n t over a plane s l o p i n g bottom.
Averaging over the wave p e r i o d , the t o t a l t r a n s p o r t r a t e and
obtained
( b o t h the wave-related and
d i r e c t i o n are
the c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d c o n t r i b u t i o n s ) .
Kachel and S t e r n b e r g ( 1 9 7 1 ) have shown t h a t the e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r s (ej^
and
e,^) are not c o n s t a n t ,

s
and
but are s t r o n g l y r e l a t e d t o the bed-shear s t r e s s
the p a r t i c l e diameter. These r e s u l t s suggest t h a t the v a l i d i t y o f

Bagnold concept i s r a t h e r
questionable.
the
-10.14-
Method o f Fredseie e t a l (1985)

The computation o f c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s , o r b i t a l v e l o c i t i e s , bed-shear s t r e s ses and sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
i s given i n Sections 9.3.8 and 10.3.2.
The i n s t a n t a n e o u s t r a n s p o r t r a t e i s computed as the sum o f t h e i n s t a n t a n e ous bed load t r a n s p o r t (qj^) and the instantaneous suspended load
transport
(Qg), as f o l l o w s :
h
a
i n which:
= i n s t a n t a n e o u s bed load t r a n s p o r t by a formula
qg = i n s t a n t a n e o u s suspended load
transport
Vpj = i n s t a n t a n e o u s r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y a t h e i g h t z above bed

C
= instantaneous concentration
= reference
= water depth
a t h e i g h t z above bed
l e v e l (= 2 d^,,)
Method o f Van R i j n
The c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed-load t r a n s p o r t (q,
) and the c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d
b, c
suspended-load t r a n s p o r t ( q
) are described. The t o t a l t r a n s p o r t i s
Sfc
d e f i n e d as the sum o f the c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d and the wave-related t r a n s p o r t .
The l a t t e r i s d e s c r i b e d i n Section 9.4.2.
C u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed-load t r a n s p o r t :
Equation (8.2.20) i s a p p l i e d t o compute the c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed-load
t r a n s p o r t r a t e (see a l s o next s e c t i o n ) :
Thus,
%,c
";,c S o T^-^/D'^
(10.4.7)
i n which:
q,
=
'
,c=
d^Q =
T
time-averaged bed-load t r a n s p o r t
ri0 5
I'^ypJ
' = c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d g r a i n bed-shear v e l o c i t y
c
median p a r t i c l e diameter o f bed m a t e r i a l
= dimensionless bed-shear s t r e s s parameter due t o c u r r e n t

and waves
= dimensionless p a r t i c l e parameter
(m^/s)
(m/s)
(m)
-10.15-
The T - p a r a m e t e r
bed m a t e r i a l
is
a stirring
particles
parameter.
Equation
100 t o
ym, y i e l d s
500
parameter
whereas
(10.4.7)
the
governing
-parameter
which
is
valid
a zero-transport
rate
for
the
entrainment
acts
as
particles
when
the
of
the
transport
in
current
the
range
velocity
of
is
zero.
Current-related
suspended
The
time-averaged
the
depth
h
=
the
vc
s,c
in
of
transport:
suspended-load
product
of
transport
velocity
and
is
computed
concentration,
by
integration
as
follows:
dz
over
(10.4.8)
which:
= time-averaged
S
load
Vpj
= resultant
(in
the
= sediment
= reference
= water
Total
load
transport
'
(m^/s)
imposed
in
which:
c
q.
at
height
velocity
at
height
z above
the
bed
vector),
z above
(m/s)
bed
(-)
level
(m)
(m)
transport:
by waves
-- \Cqf
the
concentration
time-averaged
velocity
of
depth
sediment
total
current
direction
The
suspended
sediment
can be o b t a i n e d
(q^)^
+ 2
| q j
transport
rate
(q^.)
in
a current
by
addition,
as
follows:
|q^|
vector
oos^f
super-
(10.4.9)
= q,
+ q
- total current-related transport
c
s J c
= current-related bed-load transport
rate
rate
ID J
O ^c
= current-related
suspended
load
transport
rate
S c
q
"
= J u c d z = q
-q
o
"'"^^
. =
net wave-related sediment

transport
rate i n the d i r e c t i o n of the l a r g e s t
bed-shear s t r e s s (see Eq. 9 . 4 . 8 )
q
^w,max
q
.
^w,min
= a
^6,max
= a
.
6,min
w,max
6
.
w,min
- c 1
a,max
a-"
fc
- c
.1
a
a,mm-'
fc
-10.16-
= time-averaged bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n according
t o Eq.
(9.3.38)
a.
applying
= T;
c
= maximum bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n according t o Eq. (9.3.38) a p p l y i n g
a,max
r
o
^ o
^
,n K
^<;w,max = [ ( ^ ; ) ^ ( ^ w ) ^ 2 | x ; | | x ' | c o s ^ ] 0 - 5
o m-ir, = minimum bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n according t o Eq. (9.3.38) a p p l y i n g
a,mm
,
o
^ o
"
,a c
^cw,min = [ ( ^ ; ) ^
I x J cos^]-5
A
6, max'
'
'^w max'
'
U.
6
,min
'
= maximum and minimum peak o r b i t a l v e l o c i t i e s near the bed

,.
,
,
a c c o r d i n g t o higher order Stokes t h e o r y ( t o account f o r
wave asymmetry)
'^w min " "^^^ boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s based on maximum and minimum

'
peak o r b i t a l excursions ( h i g h e r o r d e r Stokes t h e o r y )
a = c o e f f i c i e n t (
0.3)
4) = angle between c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n and wave p r o p a g a t i o n

The
above-given method y i e l d s a net wave-related
combined c u r r e n t and
A
direction
t r a n s p o r t r a t e i n case o f
waves, even i f the waves are assumed t o be s i n u s o i d a l

A
( s y m m e t r i c a l , U.
= U.
= U.) due
0,max
0,min
o
t o wave-current i n t e r a c t i o n .
The
computation procedure f o r the method o f Van
1.
S p e c i f y the i n p u t data
R i j n i s as f o l l o w s :
water depth
(m)
"s
s i g n i f i c a n t wave h e i g h t
(m)
peak wave p e r i o d
(s)
depth-averaged value o f the v e l o c i t y
angle between wave d i r e c t i o n and
%0
median diameter o f bed m a t e r i a l
(m)
^90
90% diameter o f bed
(m)
"s
f a l l v e l o c i t y o f suspended sediment
'^s,c
c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed
'^s,w
a
wave-related
reference
t h i c k n e s s o f near-bed wave-related
acceleration of g r a v i t y
fluid
"^s
sediment d e n s i t y
kinematic
^R
t-
bed
vector
current d i r e c t i o n
material
()
(m/s)
roughness
(m)
roughness
l e v e l bed
(m/s)
(m)
concentration
(m)
mixing
layer
(m)
s
density
viscosity coefficient
(m/s2)
(kg/m3)
(kg/m3)
(m2/s)
-10.17-
- Constant Von Karman (= 0.4)
= r a t i o o f sediment and f l u i d mixing c o e f f i c i e n t
1)
Fall velocity, Wg
The r e p r e s e n t a t i v e p a r t i c l e s i z e o f the suspended sediment can be
o b t a i n e d from Eq. ( 9 . 3 . 5 ) . A reasonable
Bed roughness, k g j , ,
e s t i m a t e i s d^
0.8 d^^
The bed roughness can be o b t a i n e d from Eqs. (7.2.14) and (7.3.7) which
r e l a t e t h e k g - v a l u e t o t h e r i p p l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . A reasonable
mate f o r c u r r e n t s and non-breaking
waves i s k ^ = k ,,
esti-
3 A , with
values i n the range o f 0.03 t o 0.1 m. I n case o f b r e a k i n g waves w i t h

sheet f l o w c o n d i t i o n s the bed roughness w i l l be o f t h e order o f t h e
wave boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s g i v i n g k ,, =^ 6
b , W
w i t h values i n t h e range
of 0.01 t o 0.02 m.
Reference l e v e l , a
The r e f e r e n c e l e v e l i s proposed t o be equal t o h a l f t h e r i p p l e h e i g h t
(a = 2 Aj.) i n case o f non-breaking
waves and equal t o t h e wave boun-
dary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s ( a = 6^) i n case o f s h e e t f l o w c o n d i t i o n s .

Near-bed m i x i n g l a y e r t h i c k n e s s , 6
s
This parameter can be obtained from Eq, ( 9 . 3 . 2 3 ) , g i v i n g 6
3 A in
the r i p p l e regime and '^3 = 3 6^ i n the sheet f l o w regime. Both
expres-
s i o n s y i e l d values i n the range 0,03 t o 0,1 m. I n case o f b r e a k i n g

waves t h e 6 value may be somewhat l a r g e r (6 0.2 m) due t o t h e
s
s
b r e a k i n g e f f e c t . More f i e l d data from t h e s u r f zone a r e necessary t o
b e t t e r d e f i n e the 6 -parameter f o r b r e a k i n g wave c o n d i t i o n s .
s
Compute sediment c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , D^^ and T
r e l a t i v e density
: s
p a r t i c l e parameter
= p /p
s r
2i1/3
= d^^ [ ( s - 1 ) g / v J
50
-1
1
= 0.24
0.64
= 0 . 1 4 D^'
0 1
= 0.04 D^^"
*
= 0,013 0'^^
S h i e l d s parameter
1 < D < < 4

4 < D < 10
10 < Djf <
20
20 < D < 150
: 6
: 0
: 0
cr
: 0
Cl?
D > 150
critical
: 0
: T
cr
= 0,055
= (p - p ) g d^^ 0
o
Ov-* c r
-10.18-
Compute wave l e n g h t L'
A^, U^, 6
Compute wave parameters
H
near-bed o r b i t a l e x c u r s i o n
: A,
'6 "
near-bed o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y
^
2 sinh(2Trh/L')
TT H
=
0
sinh(2TTh/L')
A
wave boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s : 6 = 0.072 A, (A/k

)~0-25
w
6 s,w
in
which:
= r e l a t i v e wave p e r i o d ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o peak o f spectrum)
Compute apparent bed roughness, k^

A
: k^ = k^ ^ exp
a,max
[y U^/Vj^]
= 10 k
s,c
Y = 0.75
f o r <t) =
Y = 0.75
f o r ()) =
90
Y = 1.1
f o r ((> = 180
( l i n e a r i n t e r p o l a t i o n f o r intermediate values)
Compute f r i c t i o n f a c t o r s , f . , f,, and f ^
c u r r e n t : C' = 18 log(12h/3 dgp)

C
= 18 l o g ( 1 2 h / k 3 ^ j , )
f ' = 0.24 log"^(12h/3 dgg)

f g = 0.24 log"^(12h/kg ^)
f ^ = 0.24 l o g " ^ ( 1 2 h / k ^ )
waves
exp[-6,5.2(A^/k^_r''5|
f w, max = 0.3
10.19-
7.
Compute e f f e c t i v e time-averaged bed-shear s t r e s s e s , x' and x'

O
e f f i c i e n c y factor current
: y
c
e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r waves
: y^
=f ' / f
c c
= O.S/U^
l n ^ ( 9 0 6 /k )
wave-current i n t e r a c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t : a
"
^"'(90 6^/kg^^)
("cw = 1
< '^s,c/30)
bed-shear s t r e s s c u r r e n t
- 1
- 2
: x ' = Qpo(
y f(v)
c
o
cw c a K
bed-shear s t r e s s waves
: x'
w
1
= 77 p y
4
' 2
(U.)
current-waves
c
CW
8.
if
Compute bed-shear s t r e s s parameter, T

'cw
'cr
^cr
(T = 0
9.
i f T < 0)
Compute v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n over the depth:
o u t s i d e wave-boundary
Vp l n ( 3 0 z / k ^ )
l a y e r , z > 3 6^: v^^^ = -1 . l n ( 3 0 h / k )
cL
v^ l n ( 3 0 z / k ^ ^)
i n s i d e wave-boundary
layer,
z < 3 6^: v^^^^ =
ln(90S^/k/5
\
ln(906yk^)
" -1 + l n ( 3 0 h / k )
10.20-
10. Compute sediment mixing c o e f f i c i e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e depth
current
, ' z < 0.5 h
: e
S
z > 0.5 h
= K 6 u^, ^ z ( 1 - z / h )
4
- (8-'
".,0
waves
= 0.25 k 6 u,,
h
*,c
s,c
z < 6^
s
: e ,, = e . . = 0.004 D a, 6
s,w
s,bed
* br s
z > 0.5 h
: e ,
s,w
6 < z < 0 . 5 h : e
s
s,w
= e
= 0.0,35 a, h H /T'
s,max
br
s p
=
^ ^ +
-e ^ ^ ^ ^, ,
s,bed
^ s,max s,bedJ^0.5h-6^
= 3(Hg/h) - 0.8
a.
br
= 1 f o r H /h < 0.6
s
:e
(e
s,cw
11. Compute c o n c e n t r a t i o n
l + f e
s,c^
) ^-^
SjW-*
'
d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e depth by n u m e r i c a l i n t e -
gration
.
concentration
g r a d i e n t ( z > a)
(1-0)^0 w
= s, cw
bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n
(z < a)
: c = 0.015
a
d 0
a
1.5
0.3
"a
12. Compute c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d t r a n s p o r t r a t e s
suspended load t r a n s p o r t (numerical
integration)
: q
'
bed load t r a n s p o r t
:q
h
=
a
u c dz
= 0.25 u^
D,C
d
,C
0.5
t o t a l load t r a n s p o r t
: q.
CjC
+ q
DjC
SjC
T,1.5
^
t)U qU . J
-10.21-
A reasonable e s t i m a t e o f the suspended load t r a n s p o r t can a l s o be obt a i n e d by the f o l l o w i n g formula which i s an approximate s o l u t i o n
h
an inaccuracy o f a f a c t o r 3) o f the d e p t h - i n t e g r a t i o n
The
:q
S
wave-related c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r
= (P
J C
+ F )vp h c
C
[a/hf^
current-related correction factor : F
:F
"
c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d suspension number : ZC
3.
- [a/h]1-^
[1.2-ZC] [ 1 - ( a / h ) ] ^ 0
[ a / h ] ^ " - [a/h]''-^
[1.2-ZW] [ 1 - ( a / h ) ] ^ "
w
s
e K u^
w
V T'
; ZW = a [ ] 0 ' 9 [ ^ pj 1.05
Vr
wave-related suspension number
= 7
f o r h > 100 6
s
= 0.7(h/6 )"5
s
f o r h < 100 6
s
ZW-number i s based on computer f i t t i n g u s i n g the r e s u l t s o f 500
computations w i t h 150 < d^Q

m/s,
uc dz.
approximate s o l u t i o n (see a l s o Eq. (8.3.26) reads as:
suspended load t r a n s p o r t
The
(with
400 ym, 1 < h < 20 m, 0.1 < Vj^ < 1 .5
0.1 < Hg/h < 0.5 and a = 0.01
h.
A PC-computer programme TRANSP t o compute the c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d

port rates
( i n Fortran)
i s given i n Appendix 10.1.
trans-
A floppy disc i s
enclosed t o run the TRANSP programme.
10.4.3
Comparison o f measured and computed t r a n s p o r t
Nieuwjaar-Van der K a a i j
rates
(1987) and Nap-Van Kampen (1988) have compared compu-
t e d t r a n s p o r t r a t e s a c c o r d i n g t o the methods o f N i e l s e n (1985), B i j k e r (1967,

1971)
and B a g n o l d - B a i l a r d (1981) w i t h measured t r a n s p o r t r a t e s . The measured
-10.22-
t r a n s p o r t r a t e s are based on v e l o c i t y and c o n c e n t r a t i o n measurements i n a

flume w i t h a c u r r e n t superimposed by i r r e g u l a r non-breaking waves ( f o l l o w i n g
and apposing) over a bed o f 100 ym and 200 ym. The water depth was about 0.5 m
i n a l l t e s t s . The c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s were i n the range o f 0.1 t o 0.4 m/s.
The
s i g n i f i c a n t wave h e i g h t was v a r i e d i n the range o f 0.07 t o 0.18 m. The peak

wave p e r i o d was about 2.5 s. The bed was covered w i t h s m a l l - s c a l e
ripples in
a l l tests.
Figure
10,4.1 and 10.4.2 show the measured and computed t r a n s p o r t r a t e s accor-
d i n g t o t h e three methods. The computed values are based on the rms-wave h e i g h t .

The bed roughness has been taken equal t o 3 times the measured r i p p l e h e i g h t .
The B i j k e r method shows t h e l e a s t s c a t t e r . The computed values a r e much t o o
l a r g e ( f a c t o r 3 t o 10) a t small t r a n s p o r t r a t e s and much t o o s m a l l
(factor 3
t o 5) a t l a r g e t r a n s p o r t r a t e s i n both cases (100 and 200 ym). The
deviations
are l a r g e s t f o r the 200 ym-experiments.
The B a g n o l d - B a i l a r d method i s based on instantaneous v e l o c i t i e s w i t h i n t h e

wave p e r i o d . The o r b i t a l v e l o c i t i e s have been computed by a p p l y i n g
t h e second
o r d e r Stokes t h e o r y . The computed time-averaged t r a n s p o r t r a t e s show l a r g e

s c a t t e r because the computed r e s u l t s a r e s t r o n g l y a f f e c t e d by t h e c u r r e n t
d i r e c t i o n , whereas t h e measured values are only weakly a f f e c t e d by t h e c u r r e n t
d i r e c t i o n ( f o l l o w i n g o r opposing).
The N i e l s e n method y i e l d s r e s u l t s t h a t are s y s t e m a t i c a l l y t o o l a r g e ( f a c t o r 5)

i n case o f the 200 ym t e s t s . I n case o f the 100 ym t e s t s t h e computed v a l u e s
are a f a c t o r 3 too s m a l l a t small t r a n s p o r t r a t e s and a f a c t o r 5 t o 10 t o o
large at large transport rates.
Figure
10.4.3 shows measured and computed bed-load t r a n s p o r t r a t e s a c c o r d i n g
t o t h e method o f Van R i j n . The measured (flume) values have been d e r i v e d
from
measured r i p p l e h e i g h t s and measured r i p p l e m i g r a t i o n v e l o c i t i e s ( N i e u w j a a r

Van der K a a i j , 1987 and Nap-Van Kampen, 1988). The f i e l d d a t a r e f e r t o some
r i v e r s i n the Netherlands. As can be observed, the computed t r a n s p o r t r a t e s
show reasonable agreement w i t h the measured values a t l a r g e t r a n s p o r t r a t e s ,
but t h e computed r e s u l t s are much too l a r g e ( f a c t o r 5 t o 10) a t s m a l l
trans-
p o r t r a t e s . I t i s noted t h a t the measured t r a n s p o r t r a t e s i n the flume a r e

u n r e l i a b l e because t h e number o f r i p p l e s considered t o d e r i v e t h e bed load
t r a n s p o r t r a t e was extremely small
(about 10). Furthermore, the bed load
-10.23-
t r a n s p o r t r a t e s were much smaller

Figure
10.4.4 shows measured and
a c c o r d i n g to the method o f Van

v e l o c i t y and
concentration
than the suspended l o a d t r a n s p o r t r a t e s .

computed suspended load t r a n s p o r t
R i j n . The
measured values were d e r i v e d
measurements i n a flume w i t h 100 ym
sediment (NieuwJaar-Van der k a a i j , 1987
rates
and
from
200
ym
and Nap-Van Kampen, 1988). Based on
a n a l y s i s o f measured v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s , the e f f e c t i v e bed
roughness was
t o be
computed r e s u l t s o f
i n the range o f 3 t o 7 times the r i p p l e h e i g h t . The
F i g . 10.4.4 are based on a value o f 3 times the r i p p l e h e i g h t (k
= k
s, c
As can be observed, the measured and
found
s ,w
computed t r a n s p o r t r a t e s show reasonably
good agreement. Most (80^) o f the computed values are w i t h i n a f a c t o r 2 o f

measured values. On
10.5
The
the average the computed values are somewhat too l a r g e .
Computation o f sediment t r a n s p o r t i n b r e a k i n g
10.5.1
the
waves
(surfzone)
Introduction
longshore sediment t r a n s p o r t i n s i d e the surfzone ( b r e a k i n g waves) m a i n l y
c o n s i s t s o f suspended load t r a n s p o r t as a r e s u l t o f the m i x i n g

the breaking
waves and
the generated longshore c u r r e n t s . The
properties of
t r a n s p o r t process
i n s i d e the s u r f z o n e t y p i c a l l y has a sawtooth motion because the wave d i r e c t i o n

i s almost p e r p e n d i c u l a r
10.5.2
to the c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y d i r e c t i o n .
Computation methods
B a s i c a l l y , two methods are a v a i l a b l e t o compute the longshore t r a n s p o r t r a t e

i n the s u r f z o n e :
1. l o c a l method and 2. i n t e g r a l method. The
attempts t o represent
the physics o f the sediment t r a n s p o r t process, t a k i n g
a l l r e l e v a n t parameters i n t o account and
1.
f i r s t method
i s t h e r e f o r e more u n i v e r s a l ,
Local_method
The
l o c a l method i s based on the a p p l i c a t i o n o f a sediment t r a n s p o r t f o r -
mula r e l a t e d t o l o c a l parameters (, H , T e t c . ) and i n t e g r a t i o n o f the

s
p
l o c a l t r a n s p o r t r a t e (q^^) over the w i d t h o f the s u r f zone, y i e l d i n g :
b
Qj. = Qt
" i ^ ^
'^t = ^ ( " ' " s ' "^D' '50' Wg...)
(10.5.1)
-10.24(
D e t a i l e d p r e d i c t i o n o f the wave h e i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n and the c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n across t h e s u r f z o n e i s r e q u i r e d . T i d a l c u r r e n t s can a l s o
be taken i n t o account.
The methods o f B i j k e r (1967, 1971), Fredseie and Deigaard e t a l ( 1 9 8 5 ,
1986)
and Van R i j n can be a p p l i e d i n b r e a k i n g wave c o n d i t i o n s (see S e c t i o n
10.4.2).
2.
I n t e g r a l methods
The i n t e g r a l method r e l a t e s t h e t o t a l longshore sediment t r a n s p o r t t o t h e
longshore component o f the wave energy f l u x a t t h e breaker l i n e , as f o l lows :
'^t = ^ ( " b r '
V'
Two i n t e g r a l methods a r e d e s c r i b e d h e r e i n :
CERC
The CERC-formula developed by t h e U.S, Corps o f Engineers reads as (see

Shore P r o t e c t i o n Manual, 1 9 8 4 ) :
- 0 - 0 2 5 H^^ n^^^ c^^^ s i n ( 2 0 ^ ^ )
(10,5.3)
i n which:
= longshore sediment t r a n s p o r t by volume ( m 3 / s , i n c l u d i n g p o r e s ) ; t h e
sediment t r a n s p o r t by w e i g h t i s Q^^^^^^^^
= i^-p)p^
^t,volume
= s i g n i f i c a n t wave h e i g h t a t t h e breaker l i n e (m)

05
Cjjj, = phase v e l o c i t y o f t h e waves a t t h e breaker l i n e ^ ( g h^^^)

"br =
( 2 k h ) / s i n h ( 2 k h ) ] = c o e f f i c i e n t a t breaker l i n e =^ 1
Q^^ = wave angle a t the breaker l i n e ()

h^^ = water depth a t t h e breaker l i n e (m)
p
p
= p o r o s i t y f a c t o r (= 0.4)
= sediment d e n s i t y {- 2650 k g / m 3 )
A p p l y i n g n^^ - 1, c^^ -
(g h ^ ^ r ^ ^ " ^ ' ^"'^
= V ^ V '
^^"^^^0"
(10.5.3)
can be rearranged t o ;
-10.25-
= 0.078
H 2 ; 5 3in(20^^)
(10.5.4)
Equation (10.5.4) i s a r a t h e r crude formula showing no i n f l u e n c e o f t h e

p a r t i c l e diameter and the beach slope i n s i d e the s u r f z o n e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e
CERC-formula i s o n l y v a l i d f o r a narrow range o f c o n d i t i o n s as r e p r e sented by t h e c a l i b r a t i o n
data. According t o Kamphuis e t a l (1986), t h e
CERC-formula shows reasonable r e s u l t s f o r p a r t i c l e s i z e s i n t h e range o f

200 t o 600 ym and beach slopes i n the range tang = 0.015 t o 0.15, ( s e e
Fig.
10.5.1). The CERC-formula cannot be a p p l i e d when t i d a l c u r r e n t v e l o -
c i t i e s are s i g n i f i c a n t .
Kamphuis e t a l (1986)
Based on the a n a l y s i s o f l a b o r a t o r y and f i e l d d a t a , t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a

is
proposed:
Q. z 1.28
fc
So
in
tanB sin(20,
(10.5.5)
which:
= longshore sediment t r a n s p o r t by weight
(kg/s)
= s i g n i f i c a n t wave h e i g h t a t breaker l i n e
(m)
0j^^
- wave angle a t breaker l i n e
()
d^Q
= median p a r t i c l e s i z e i n surfzone
(m)
tan6 = beach slope d e f i n e d as the r a t i o o f the water depth a t the breaker

l i n e and the d i s t a n c e from the s t i l l water l i n e t o the breaker
line
the beach slope may be represented by tang = 1.8 ('^|-)p/'^5o^~^'^'
see F i g . 10.5.1.
The value 1.28 i s a dimensional c o e f f i c i e n t
r e l a t e d t o the S I system.
Equation (10.5.5) takes i n t o account the beach slope and the p a r t i c l e

s i z e which i s an improvement t o the CERC-formula. The c a l i b r a t i o n
data
c o n s i s t o f data w i t h p a r t i c l e s i z e s i n t h e range o f 200 t o 600 ym and

beach slopes i n the range o f 0.015 t o 0.15.
-10.26-
10.5.3
Comparison o f measured and computed t r a n s p o r t
rates
F i g u r e 10.5.1 shows measured longshore t r a n s p o r t r a t e s and computed values

based on t h e CERC-raethod. As can be observed,
the g e n e r a l t r e n d i s f a i r l y good
represented, but the s c a t t e r i s r e l a t i v e l y large.
-10,27-
10,6
References
BAGNOLD, R.A., 1966

An Approach t o t h e Sediment Transport Problem from General Physics
G e o l o g i c a l Survey P r o f . Paper 422-1, Washington, USA
BAILARD, J.A., 1981
An E n e r g e t i c s T o t a l Load Sediment T r a n s p o r t Model f o r Plane S l o p i n g Beach
J o u r n a l o f Geophysical Research, V o l . 86, No. O i l
BOSMAN, J . , 1982
The I n f l u e n c e o f Bottom Slope, Water Depth, Breaking Waves, O r b i t a l V e l o c i t y
and C u r r e n t V e l o c i t y on t h e C o n c e n t r a t i o n D i s t r i b u t i o n under Waves and
C u r r e n t s ( i n Dutch)
DELFT HYDRAULICS, Report M1875, D e l f t , The Netherlands
BOSMAN, J. and STEETZEL, H.J., 1986

Time and Bed-averaged Concentrations under Waves
C o a s t a l Eng. Conference, Taiwan
BIJKER, E.W., 1967

Some C o n s i d e r a t i o n s about Scales f o r Coastal Models w i t h Movable Bed
D i s s e r t a t i o n , D e l f t Univ. o f Tech., D e l f t , The Netherlands
BIJKER, E.W., 1971

J o u r n a l o f Waterways,
Harbour and Coastal Eng., V o l . 99, WW4
DEIGAARD, R., FREDS0E, J . and BR0KER HEDEGAARD, I . , 1986

Suspended Sediment T r a n s p o r t i n the S u r f Zone
J o u r n a l o f Waterway, P o r t , Coastal and Ocean E n g i n e e r i n g , V o l . 112, No,
EINSTEIN, H,A,, 1950

The Bed-Load F u n c t i o n f o r Sediment T r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n Open Channel Flow
T e c h n i c a l B u l l e t i n No, 1026, U,S. Dep, o f A g r i c u l t u r e , Washington, USA
-10.28-
FREDS0E, J., ANDERSEN, O.H. and SILBERG, S., 1985

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Suspended Sediment i n Large Waves
J o u r n a l o f Waterway,'Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, V o l , I I I , No.
GRANT, W.D. and MADSEN, O.S., 1 9 7 6

Q u a n t i t a t i v e D e s c r i p t i o n o f Sediment T r a n s p o r t by Waves
Proc. 15th Coastal Eng. Conf., page 1093-1112
JAFFE, B.E., STERNBERG, R.W. and SALLENGER, A.H., 1984
The Role o f Suspended Sediment i n Shore-Normal Beach P r o f i l e Changes
C o a s t a l Engineering Conference, Houston, USA
KACHEL, N.B. and STERNBERG, R.W., 1971

T r a n s p o r t o f Bed Load as Ripples d u r i n g an Ebb Current
Marine Geology, 19, p. 229-244
KAMPHUIS, J.W., DAVIES, M.H., NAIRN, R.B. and SAYAO, O.J., 1 9 8 6

C a l c u l a t i o n o f L i t t o r a l Sand T r a n s p o r t Rate
C o a s t a l E n g i n e e r i n g , V o l . 1 0 , page 1-21
NAP,
E. and VAN KAMPEN," A., 1 9 8 8

NIELSEN, P., 1 9 8 5
A S h o r t Manual o f Coastal Bottom Boundary Layers and Sediment T r a n s p o r t
P u b l i c Works Dep.,
Report TM 85/1, NSW,
Australia
NIEUWJAAR, M. and VAN DER KAAIJ, Th., 1987

SHORE PROTECTION MANUAL, 1 9 8 4

CERC, Waterways Experiment S t a t i o n ,
VAN
Vicksbury, M i s s i s s i p p i ,
USA
RIJN, L.C, 1 9 8 7
Data Base Sand C o n c e n t r a t i o n P r o f i l e s f o r Currents and/or Waves

Report
M1695-04-1,
DELFT HYDRAULICS, D e l f t , The Netherlands
10'3
10"2
IO"""
C [kg/m3]
10
10"3
10-2
1Q-1
C [kg/m3]
10
.Hg - -075 (m) ( f o l l o w i n g )
EiHg - -150 (m) ( f o l l o w i n g )
+ Hg - .100 (m) ( f o l l o w i n g )
aHg - .150 (m) (opposing)
/Hg - .100 (m) (opposing)
bed material,
^ H , - .120 (m) ( f o l l o w i n g )
w a t e r depth,
^^Hg - .120 (m) (opposing)
peak period,
0.5 m
Tp = 2.5 s
dso s 2 0 0 [Lm (Nieuwjaar - Van der Kaaij, 1987)
TIME - AVERAGED CONCENTRATIONS IN COMBINED

CURRENTS AND NON-BREAKING WAVES (FLUME)
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 10.2.1
- 0.10 (m)
10-3
10'2
10-1
C [kg/m3]
10
10-2
IO-''
C [kg/m3] -H
10"
C [kg/m3)
- .
- -I-
- . 1 (m/s)
-X
-AO
- .2 (m/s)
-.1
[kg/m3)
= 0
(m/s)
10
= .4 (m/s)
^ -.4 ( m / s )
+ following c u r r e n t
_ opposing
current
~-.2 (m/s)
bed nriaterial, d^Q s 2 0 0 [im (Nieuwjaar - Van der Kaaij, 1987)

w a t e r depth, h
= 0.5
peak period, Tp =2.5 s
TIME- AVERAGED CONCENTRATIONS IN COMBINED

DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 10.2.2
Hs =
.075
(ra) f o l l o w i n g ^
opposing 0
Hs =
.10
(ra) f o l l o w i n g H
opposing
Hs -
.15
(ra) f o l l o w i n g ^
Hs -
.18
(ra) f o l l o w i n g e
bed
opposingA
opposing
material, dso 1 0 0 |im
w a t e r depth,
0.5 m
peak period,
Tp
= 2.5 s
( N a p - Van Kannpen, 1 9 8 8 )
TIME-AVERAGED CONCENTRATIONS IN COMBINED

DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 10.2.3
bed
material,
water
depth,
peak period,
d s o 1 0 0 \lm
h
a 0.5
Tp
= 2.5 s
(Nop - Van Kampen, 1 9 8 8 )
TIME-AVERAGED CONCENTRATIONS IN COMBINED

DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 10.2.4
3 4 5 67810-^
>
A.
NON-BREAKING
h=1m,
WAVES,
u= 0.1m/s,
3 4 5 678 io
concentration
INTERTIDAL
d5o=150/xm,
3 4 5 678 io^
(kg/m-^)
FLAT,
OOSTERSCHELDE
Tp~5s
DUCK 82
OCT. 13
O.5
7a
I
1
1.0
1.5
TIME-AVERAGED SUSPENDED-SEDIMENT CONCENTRATION (gm/kg)
h = 2.3 m
h = 2.3 m
-B-
h = 2.5
h = 2.2
h = 3.5
h = 3.5
h = 4-.0 m
B.
BREAKING
TIME-AVERAGED
WAVES
H rms =
H rms =
0.75m
0.4 m / s
station
0.75m
m/s
m/s
m/s
m/s
station
station
H rms = 1 . 4 0
H rms = 1 . 0 0
H rms = 1 . 2 0
H rms = 1.10
H rms = 1 . 4 0
IN
SURF
2.0
u =
0.4
u =
0.3
station
station
0.2 m / s
station
u =
0.1 m / s
station
USA
(JAFFE
0.2
0.2
ZONE,
ET
AL,
1984)
CONCENTRATIONS IN COMBINED
CURRENT AND WAVES (FIELD)

DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG.10.2.5
=1.8
H3 =0.6
Tp = 1 0
u
=0.2
=210
Wg =0.019
kg =0.01
Sl
N
'<
m
m
s
m/s
pm
m/s
m
Groote Keeten
The Netherlands
10-2
3 4 5 6 7 8 10-1
5 4 5 678 io
=
Hs =
=
u
=
=
Ws =
=
h
3 4 5 678 iol
2.3
m
0.9
m
6
s
0.15 m/'.
260 yum
0.023 m / i
0.01 m
10-2
4 5 6 7 8 10-1
3 4 5 678 io
3 4 5 678 ioi
10-2
3 4 5 67810-1
3 4 5 678 10
3 4 5 678iol
N
x:
JZ
>
TIME-AVERAGED
concentration
(kg/m-^)
CONCENTRATIONS IN
CURRENTS AND WAVES (SURF ZONE)

DELFT HYDRAULICS
461
FIG.10.2.6
qt,c
IKG/HS)
0.10
0.15
0.20
025
H3
CURRENT-RELATED
AND
Cm)
r
040
aso
(m/s)
pm
pm
200
100
A.
1
0.30
0.30
VELOCITY,
TRANSPORT
h~0.5m,
(NIEUWJAAR-VAN
PER
Tp ~
KAAIJ,
RATE
AS
FUNCTION
OF W A V E
HEIGHT
2.5s
1987;
NAP-VAN
KAMPEN,
1988)
1.50-
'1.25H
1.00-
ri5,-10
0.75
T15,20
T 15,10
0.50
0.25
0-
B.
RATIO
OF
T15,1Q
(NAP-VAN
TOTAL
TEST
AND
WITH
KAMPEN,
CURRENT-RELATED
Hs=0.15m
AND
TRANSPORT
RATE
D= 0.1m/5
1988)
INFLUENCE OF WAVE HEIGHT AND
CURRENT
VELOCITY ON SEDIMENT TRANSPORT

DELFT HYDRAULICS
461
FIG.10.2.7
w a v e s <#
c u r r e n t <
velocity
>
WAVE C R E S T
time
PASSES ( u > 0 )
WAVE-RELATED EDDY MOTIONS

OVER A RIPPLED BED
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 10.2.8
concentration
(kg/m^)
>
concentration
(kg/m^)
measured
computed
MEASURED
Bijker
AND COMPUTED
CONCENTRATIONS
METHOD OF BIJKER
DELFT HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 10.3.1
0.50
measured
Van
der
(Nieuwjaar
Kaaij,
computed
Van
1987)
Rijn,
(flume)
1988
T 7.5,10
= 0.51
= 0.076 m
IP
= 2.6
= 0.11
s
m/s
= 0.022
= 200
"50
'<s.c = k 3 , ^ = 0 . 0 5
10^
678
4 5 678io2
-> concentration
m/s
yum
m
= 0.05
= 0.016
678^0^
(mg/l)
0.471
measured
Van
der
(NieuwjaarKaaij,
computed
Van
1987)
Rijn,
(flume)
1988
0.38
T 7.5,40
Ws
= 0.5
m
= 0.076m
= 2.4
s
= 0.45
m/s
= 0,022m/s
^50
h
N
Hs
.0.28
IP
u
Sl
0.18
' ^ s , c ~ '^s.
200
fj,m
0.05
= 0.05 m
= 0.014 m
^s
\
0.10
678
5 678
MEASURED AND COMPUTED
2
3 4 5 678
> c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( m g / l )
678
CONCENTRATION
PROFILES, METHOD OF VAN RIJN

DELFT HYDRAULICS
461
FIG.10.3.2
0.45,
measured
Van
der
computed
(NieuwjaarKaaij,
Van
1987)
(flume)
Rijn
0.36
T 15,10
h
N
Hs
,0.27
JZ
CTl
0.5
0.15
2.4
= 0.11
m/s
= 0.022
= 220
0.18
=k
s,w
m/s
yu.m
= 0.05
= 0.05
= 0.018
0.09
10
4 5 67810^
10^
concentration
4 5 67
4 5
(mg/l)
0.45
0.36
.0.27
CTl
'o)
0.18
0.09
4 5 6 7 8 10^
2
P- c o n c e n t r a t i o n (r
67
CONCENTRATION

H
461
FIG.10.3.3
0.50
measured
Van
(Nieuwjaar-
der Kaaij, 1 9 8 7 ) (flume)
computed
Van
Rijn
0.40
T 15,-40
.0.30
s:
0.51
Hs
0.15
2.1
Tp
'm
= -0.44m/s
0.022 m / s
Ws
Sl
200
0.20
=k
/xm
= 0.05
0.05
0.024m
^
0.10
4 5 6 7 8 10
in2
2
3 4 5 6 78
concentration (mg/l)
measured
Van
4 5 6 7 8 10
(Nieuwjaar-
der Kaaij, 1 9 8 7 ) ( f l u m e )
c o m p u t e d Van
Rijn
0.60
T 18.5,- 4 0
,0.45
s:
Dl
= 0.52
Hs
= 0.185 m
Tp
U
= -0.43m/s
dso
= 210
/zm
= 0.05
= 2.4
<u
m
s
= 0.022 m / s
JC
0.30
= 0.029m
Ar
0.15
8io^
4567810^
2
>
45678to^
4567810^*
concentration (mg/l)
CONCENTRATION

DELFT HYDRAULICS
461
FIG.10.3.4
0.75
measured
(NapVan
Kampen,
1988)
computed
Van
(flume)
Rijn,
1988
0.60
T 10,10
-0.45
JZ
j r
= 0.5
Hs
= 0.10
Tp
u
= 2.3
= 0.1
m/s
= 0.01
m/s
= 110
pm
Ws
0.30
0.045m
0.045m
= 0.01
0.15
10^
4 5
6 7 8
2
4 5 6 7 8 ^ 02
concentration ( m g / l )
4 5
6 7 8 10^
0.47
measured
Kampen,
computed
(NapVan
1988)
(flume)
Von
Rijn,
1988
0.38
T 1 0 , -- 2 0
.0.28
JC
'a)
0.18
= 0.49
Hs
= 0.11
Tn
_P
u
= 2.3
= -0.2
m/s
Ws
= 0.01
m/s
dso
= 110
/xm
kg_^=
0.045m
= 0.045 m
= 0.01
4 5
6 78
0.10
4 5
6 7 8 10'
2
3
4 5 6 7 8 10^
concentration
(mg/l)
CONCENTRATION
PROFILES, METHOD VAN RIJN

DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG.10.5.5
0.45
measured
Kampen,
(NapVan
1988)
computed
(flume)
Van
Rijn
0.36
T 10,40
.0.27
JZ
'(U
JZ
0.18
= 0.5
Hs
= 0.1
Tp
u
= 2.3
= 0.35
Ws
= 0.01
m/s
^50
= 110
/xm
<5s
m/s
^=
0.045m
0.045m
= 0.015
0.09
concentration
10'
(mg/)
0.47
0.38
.0.28
JI
gi
j;
A
0.18
0.10
10
3 4 5 678ioi
3 4 5 67810^
3 4 5 678io'
4 5
67
(mg/l)
CONCENTRATION

DELFT HYDRAULICS
461
FIG.10.5.6
0.50
0.40
.0.30
sz
0.20
0.10
7 8 9-10^
(mg/l)
0.50
0.40
.0.30
'a>
0.20
0.10
CONCENTRATION

DELFT HYDRAULICS
461
FIG.10.3.7
1.75
1.40
s:
at
sz
0.70
0.35
6 7 8
io""
6 7 8
2
3
^ concentration
(mg/l)
6 7 8
0.75.
measured
Eastern
Galgeplaat,
Scheldt
computed
estuary
Van
Rijn
0,60
= 0.65
h
N
.0.45
CT)
'o)
= 0.15
= 3
= 0.13
m/s
= 0,012
m/s
= 170
0.30
/xm
,= 0.045 m
=
0.045m
0.15
4 5 6 7 8 TQ2
5 6 7 8 10'
->
concentration
4 5 6 78
(mg/l)
CONCENTRATION

DELFT HYDRAULICS
461
1 FIG.10.3.8
1.0
1
h
=2.3
H3 = 1 . 0 5
Tp = 1 2
050 = 1 5 0
W3
= 0.011
kg = 0 . 0 1
O
^
O,
^- O,
m
m
s
yUm
m/s
m
0.8
<
0.7
Wg
^~ 0.6
JZ
kg
=2.5
=1.9
=12
= 150
= 0.011
=0.01
m
m
s
Aim
m/s
m
0.
x:
0)
JZ
0.
0.4
A 0.
0.3
0.
0.2
0.1
O
10-2 2
3 4 5 7 1 0 - 1 2 3 4 5 7 1 0 2 3 4 5 7 10'
c o n c e n t r a t i o n (kg/m-')
10-2
3 45 7
2 3 4 5 7 10 2 3 4 5 7 iQl
concentration ( k g / m > ' )
10-1
1.0
1.0
h
H3
Tp
d5o
Wg
kg
. 0.8
^
0.7
0.6
O'S
tl
Hg
Tp
d5o
0.9
=3.5
=1.55
=12
= 150
= 0.011
=0.01
m
m
s
0.9
0.8
fj,m
0.7
m/s
m
0.6
h
Hg
Tp
dso
Wg
= 4
=2
=12
= 150
=0.011
kg
=u,ui
m
m
s
fJ.m
m/s
m
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
>
0.1
0.1
O
10-2 2 3 4 5 7 1 0 - 1 2 3 4 5 7 1 0 2 3 4 5 7
>
concentration ( k g / m ^ )
measured
in
surf
computed
Van
zone,
O
10-2
1 0 '
Jaffe
et
al
2 3 45 7 1 0 - 1 2 3 45 7 1 0 2 3 45 7
concentration
(kg/m^)
1 0 '
(1984)
Rijn
CONCENTRATIONS
METHOD OF VAN RIJN

DELFT HYDRAULICS
461
FIG.10.5.9
The NIELSEN m o d e l
c o m p a r i s o n of m e a s u r e d a n d c o m p u e t e d
r e s u l t s , n = H r m s , K s = 3*r, D 5 0 - 1 0 0 m u
.)
lOfn^
-4
-3
- 2 - 1 0
Qs ( N i e l s e n ) i n k g / m . s
The BIJKER model

c o m p a r i s o n of m e a s u r e d a n d c o m p u t e d
r e s u l t s , l I = H r m s , K s = 3*r, D 5 0 = 1 0 0 m u
IO'T^S
-4
-3
-2
-1
Qs ( B i j k e r ) i n k g / m . s
Y
0
T h e BAILARD m o d e l
r e s u l t s , H = H r m s , K s = 3r, D 5 0 = 1 0 0 m u
flume d a t a : 1 0 0 |im s e d i m e n t , c u r r e n t s and
F O L L O W I N G
P R O S I N G
non-breaking w a v e s
MEASURED AND COMPUTED TRANSPORT

METHODS OF NIELSEN. BIJKER AND BAILARD
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 10.4.1
(
The NIELSEN model
r e s u l t s , H=Hprob, Ks(Nielsen), D 5 0 ^ 2 0 0 m u
qs
The BIJKER model

r e s u l t s , H = H r m s , K s = 3r, D 5 0 = 2 0 0 m u
(Nielsen) in k g / m . s
qg ( B i j k e r ) i n
kg/m.s
The BAILARD m o d e l
c o m p a i i s o n of m e a s u r e d a n d c o m p u t e d
r e s u l t s , H - f l r m s , Ks = 3 r
, n50-200mu
qs ( B a i l a r d ) i n
f l u m e d a t a : 2 0 0 [Lm
kg/m.s
sediment, current and non-breaking w a v e s
MEASURED AND COMPUTED TRANSPORT
METHODS OF NIELSEN, BIJKER AND BAILARD

DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
1 FIG. 10.4.2
E
to
\
cn
X)
(U
V-
(O
D
(U
10
cr
4 5 6 7 8 i n - ^
2
->
200
100
fxm,
fxm,
^s-0-05ml^^^^^^
kg=0.04m)
950
luim
Waal
690
fxm
IJssel
400
jLm
Dommel
qs,
4 5 6 7 8 i n - 2
computed
alone
4 5 6 7 8 ^ Q - I
(kg/sm)
non-breakinq
current
waves
(flume)
(field)
MEASURED AND COMPUTED BED LOAD
TRANSPORT
METHOD OF VAN RIJN

DELFT HYDRAULICS
4-61
FIG.10.4.3
2
qs,
200 /xm,
Ws=0.022m/s,
ks = 0 . 0 5 m
100 /xm,
Ws=0.01
ks=0.04m
computed
current
h
~ 0.5
Tp^2.5
~ 0.1-0.4
QO
(kg/sm)
and
non breaking
waves
(flume)
Hg ~ 0 . 0 7 5 - 0 . 1 8
m/s,
3 4 5 678-1
m/s
MEASURED AND COMPUTED SUSPENDED
LOAD
TRANSPORT, METHOD OF VAN RIJN

H
461
FIG.10.4.4
103
D
O
A
A
X
0
7
LEGEND
E L MORENO BEACH
SILVER STRAND BEACH
LEADBETTER BEACH
TORREV PINES BEACH
DUCK
AJIGUARA
SOUTH LAKE WORTH INLET
CHANNEL ISLANDS HARBOUR
PRICE INLET
0> Meatured k g / t
A.
LONGSHORE
(KAMPHUIS
SEDIMENT
ET AL,
TRANSPORT
ACCORDING
TO
CERC-FORMULA
1986)
10^
o
O
,
A
K
0
LEGEND
E L MORENO BEACH
SILVER STRAND BEACH
LEADBETTER BEACH
TORREY PINES BEACH
DUCK
AJIGUARA
SOUTH LAKE WORTH INLET

CHANNEL ISLANDS HARBOUR
PRICE INLET
MODEL R E S U L T S
a
a,
^
10"
-J
1II
10
V V
L-
Relative Grain Size
B.
BEACH
_l
10"
SLOPE
LONGSHORE SEDIMENT
VERSUS
I I
10"
^^r/'^so
GRAINSIZE
(KAMPHUIS
ET
AL,
1986)
TRANSPORT
DELFT HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 10.5.1
APPENDIX 1 0 . 1
PROGRAM TRANSP
c
c
c
c
COMPUTATION OF CONCENTRATION VERTICALS AND SUSPENDED LOAD TRANSPORT

THROUGH NUMERICAL INTEGRATION AND FORMULAE APPROXIMATION
LOGICAL BO
DIMENSION RMAT(25,4)
CHARACTER KAR*1
c
c
c
READING INPUT FROM SCREEN AND WRITING TO F I L E TRANSPOR.OUT

OPEN(2,FILE='TRANSPOR.OUT',STATUS='UNKNOWN')
WRITE(2,'(A)')CHAR(12)
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( " INPUT ; " , / ) ' )
WRITE(*, ' ( " HD
]=
WATER DEPTH
V7RITE(2, ' (' 'HD
WATER DEPTH [ M ]
READ (*,*)HD
WRITE(2,*)HD
M/S ] =
MEAN CURRENT VELOCITY
W R I T E ( * , ' ( ' ' UG
M/S
MEAN CURRENT VELOCITY
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( ' ' UG
READ (*,*)UG
WRITE(2,*)UG
SIGNIFICANT WAVE HEIGHT [ M ] =
W R I T E ( * , ' ( ' ' HS
SIGNIFICANT WAVE HEIGHT [ M 1 =
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( ' ' HS
READ (*,*)HS
WRITE(2,*)HS
[ S ] =
PEAK WAVE PERIOD
W R I T E ( * , ' ( ' ' TP
[ S ] =
PEAK WAVE PERIOD
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( ' ' TP
READ (*,*)TP
WRITE(2,*)TP
ANGLE CURRENT AND WAVES 0-180 [ DEG
W R I T E ( * , ' ( " PHI
ANGLE CURRENT AND WAVES 0-180 [ DEG
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( ' ' PHI
READ (*,*)PHI
WRITE(2,*)PHI
MEDIAN PARTICLE S I Z E OF BED [ M ] =
W R I T E ( * , ' ( ' ' D50
MEDIAN PARTICLE S I Z E OF BED [ M ] =
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( " D50
READ (*,*)D50
WRITE(2,*)D50
90 0/0 PARTICLE S I Z E [ M ]
W R I T E ( * , ' ( ' ' D90
90 0/0 PARTICLE S I Z E [ M
WRITE(2, ' ( " D90
READ (*,*)D90
WRITE(2,*)D90
M/S ]
WRITE(*, ' ( " WS
F A L L V E L O C I T Y SUSP. SEDIMENT
M/S
]
F
A
L
L
V
E
L
O
C
I
T
Y
SUSP.
SEDIMENT
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( ' ' WS
READ (*,*)WS
WRITE(2,*)WS
CURRENT-RELATED ROUGHNESS [ M ] =
WRITE(*, ' ( " RC
CURRENT-RELATED
ROUGHNESS [ M ] =
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( " RC
READ (*,*)RC
TOITE(2,*)RC
WRITE(*, ' ( " RW
WAVE-RELATED ROUGHNESS [ M ] =
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( ' ' RW
WAVE-RELATED ROUGHNESS [ M ] =
READ (*,*)RW
WRITE(2,*)RW
WRITE(*, ' ( " DS
MIXING LAYER THICKNESS NEAR BED [ M ] =
WRITE(2, ' ( " DS
MIXING LAYER THICKNESS NEAR BED [ M ] =
READ (*,*)DS
WRITE(2,*)DS
WRITE(*, ' ( " A
= REFERENCE L E V E L [ M ]
")')
\JRITE(2
READ (*
WRITE(2
WRITE(*
WRITE(2
READ (*
WRITE(2
WRITE(*
WRITE(2
READ (*
WRITE(2
WRITE(*
WRITE(2
READ (*
WRITE(2
WRITE(*
WRITE(2
READ (*
WRITE(2
' ( "
=
*)A
*)A
' ( " RNU
' ( " RNU
*)RNU
*)RNU
' ( " RHOW
' ( ' ' RHOW
*)RHOW
*)RHOW
' ( " RHOS
' ( " RHOS
*)RHOS
*)RHOS
' ( " BETA
' ( " BETA
*)BETA
*)BETA
REFERENCE L E V E L [ M ] =
")')
KINEMATIC V I S C O S I T Y C O E F F I C I E N T [ M ]
KINEMATIC V I S C O S I T Y C O E F F I C I E N T [ M ]
FLUID DENSITY [ KG/M3

FLUID DENSITY [ KG/M3
SEDIMENT DENSITY [ KG/M3 ] =

SEDIMENT DENSITY [ KG/M3 ] =
RATIO SEDIMENT AND F L U I D MIXING

RATIO SEDIMENT AND FLUID MIXING
[ -]
[ -]
I N I T I A L I Z I N G SOME NUMERICAL AND PHYSICAL PARAMETERS

NN
= 12
G
= 9.81
PI
= 4.*ATAN(1.)
DEL=(RHOS-RHOW)/RHOW
RKAP=.4
DSTER=D50*(DEL*G/RNU**2)**(1,/3.)
COMPUTATION OF WAVE LENGTH AND WAVE NUMBER
I F ( H D . L E . O . ) S T O P 'WATER DEPTH .LE. 0'
I F (TP.GT.O.
) THEN
Y=4.02*HD/TP/TP
P0L=1.+Y*(.666+Y*(.355+Y*(.161+Y*(.0632+Y*(.0218+.00654*Y)))))
WAVENR=SQRT(Y**2+Y/P0L)/HD
RLS=2.*PI/WAVENR
ARG=WAVENR*HD
I F (ARG.GT.50.) THEN
ABW=0.
FW=0.
UBW=0.
ELSE
ABW=HS/(2.*SINH(ARC))
FW=EXP(-6.+5.2*(ABW/RW)**(-0.19))
IF(FW.GT.0.3 )FW=0.3
UBW = 2.*PI/TP*ABW
ENDIF
ELSE
ABW=0.
ABR=0.
RLS=0.
FW=0.
UBW=0.
ENDIF
C R I T I C A L SHEAR STRESS
SHIELDS
IF(DSTER.LE.4.)THETCR=.24/DSTER
I F ( 4 . .LT.DSTER.AND.DSTER.LE.10.)THETCR=.14*DSTER**(-.64)
3
IF(10..LT.DSTER.AND.DSTER.LE.20.)THETCR=.04*DSTER**(-.1 )
IF(20..LT.DSTER.AND.DSTER.LE.150.)THETCR=.013*DSTER**(.29 )
IF(DSTER.GT.150.)THETCR=.055
TAUCR=(RHOS-RHOW)*G*D50*THETCR
C
C
C
COMPUTATION OF REFERENCE
CONCENTRATION CA
CC=18.*ALOG10(12.*HD/RC)
FC=0.24*ALOG10(12.*HD/RC)**(-2)
FC1=0.24*ALOG10(12.*HD/3./D90)**(-2)
RMUC=FC1/FC
RMUW=0.6/DSTER
UST=G**0.5*ABS(UG)/CC
DELS=0.
IF(ABW.GT.0.)THEN
DELS=0.216*ABW*(ABW/RW)**(-0.2 5)
ENDIF
HULP10=UBW/UG
GAMMA=0.
IF(HULP10.GE.2.5)HULP10=2.5
IF(0.LE.PHI.AND.PHI.LE.180.)THEN
GAMMA=.75
IF(PHI.GT.90.)GAMMA=GAMMA+(PHI-90.)/90.*.35
ENDIF
RA=EXP(GAMMA*HULP10)*RC
FCA=0.24*ALOG10(12.*HD/RA)**(- 2)
IF(DELS.LE.RC/10.)THEN
ALFAW=1.
ELSE
ALFAW= (ALOG(30.*DELS/RA)/ALOG(30.*DELS/RC))**2
ENDIF
TAUC=0.125*RHOW*FCA*UG*UG
TAUW=0.25*RHOW*FW*UBW*UBW
TAUCEF=RMUC*ALFAW*TAUG
TAUWEF=RMUW*TAUW
TAUCWE=TAUCEF+TAUWEF
THET1=TAUCWE/(RHOS-RHOW)/G/D5 0
T=(THET1-THETCR)/THETCR
T=MAX(.0001,T)
CA=0.015*D50/A*DSTER**(-.3)*T**1.5
C
C NUMERICAL INTEGRATION OF U*C OVER VERTICAL, TO STARTING POINT X=A
C
JTAL= 8
NN = JTAL*NN
DYM = CA/NN
DXM = HD/NN
DYX = DYM/DXM
BO = .FALSE.
HULP30=-1.+ALOG(30.*HD/RA)
IF(DELS.GT.O.)THEN
UDEL=UG*ALOG(30.*DELS/RA)/HULP30
ENDIF
C
C COMPUTATION OF DERIVATIVE DC/DY OR DC/DX
C
ABR=MAX(3.*(HS/HD)-.8,1.)
EBW=.004*DSTER*ABR*DS*UBW
I F ( T P . G T . l . E - 4 ) THEN
EMAXW=0.035*ABR*HD*HS/TP
4
ELSE
EMAXW=0.
ENDIF
IF(EMAXW.LE.EBW)EMAXW=EBW
EMAXC=0.25*RKAP*UST*HD*BETA
C=CA
Z=A
IF(Z.LE.DS)ESW=EBW
IF(Z.GT.DS.AND.Z.LE.0.5*HD)ESW=EBW+(EMAXW-EBW)*((Z-DS)/
*(0.5*HD-DS))
IF(Z.GE.0.5*HD)ESW=EMAXW
IF(Z.GE.0.5*HD)ESC=EMAXC
I F ( Z . L T . 0 . 5 * H D ) E S C=EMAXC-EMAXC*(1.-2.*Z/HD)**2
ES=(ESW**2.+ESC**2.)**0.5
fcc=0.
I F ( C . G T . l . E - 8 ) THEN
IF(Z.GE.A)fcc=-WS/ES*C*(l.-G)**5.
ENDIF
YPRIME=fcc
F F = 1./CA*YPRIME
IF(DELS.GT.O.)THEN
UC=UDEL*ALOG(30.*A/RC)/ALOG(30.*DELS/RC)
ENDIF
IF(A.GE.DELS)UC=UG*ALOG(30.*A/RA)/HULP30
C
C
C
STORAGE OF RESULTS I N MATRIX RMAT

RMAT(1,1)=Z
RMAT(1,2)=CA*RH0S
RMAT(1,3)=UG
RMAT(1,4)=CA*UG*RHOS
C
C
C
FURTHER INTEGRATION
Y = CA ^
TERM1=UC*Y
XEND=A
SS=0.
NTEL = 0
IT
=2
C
100
CONTINUE
NTEL = NTEL+1
XOLD = XEND
YOLD = Y
I F (-YPRIME .GT. DYX) THEN
Y = YOLD-DYM
I F ( Y .LT. 2./3.*YOLD) Y = 2./3.*YOLD
XEND = XOLD+ALOG(Y/YOLD)/FF
ELSE
XEND = XOLD+DXM
I F (XEND .GE. HD) THEN
XEND = HD
BO = .TRUE.
ENDIF
Y = EXP(ALOG(YOLD)+(XEND-XOLD)*FF)
ENDIF
C=Y
Z=XEND
IF(Z.LE.DS)ESW=EBW
5
IF(Z.GT.DS.AND.Z.LE.O.5*HD)ESW=EBW+(EMAXW-EBW)*((Z-DS)/
*(0.5*HD-DS))
IF(Z.GE.O.5*HD)ESW=EMAXW
IF(Z.GE.0.5*HD)ESC=EMAXC
IF(Z.LT.O.5*HD)ESC=EMAXC-EMAXC*(1.- 2.*Z/HD)**2
ES=(ESW**2.+ESC**2.)**0.5
fcc=0.
I F ( C . G T . l . E - 8 ) THEN
I F ( Z . G E . A ) f c c = - W S / E S * C * ( l . -C)-**5.
ENDIF
YPRIME=fcc
F F = 1./Y*YPRIME
IF(DELS.GT.O.)THEN
UC=UDEL*ALOG(30.*XEND/RC)/ALOG(30.*DELS/RC)
ENDIF
I F (XEND.GE.DELS)UC=UG*ALOG(30.*XEND/RA)/HULP30
TERM2=UC*Y
SS=SS+(XEND-XOLD)*(TERMl+TERM2)/2 .
TERM1=TERM2
C
C
C
STORAGE OF RESULTS I N MATRIX RMAT

IF
(NTEL .EQ. NN/JTAL.OR.BO) THEN

RMAT(IT,1)=Z
RMAT(IT,2)=Y*RH0S
RMAT(IT,3)=UC
RMAT(IT,4)=TERM2*RH0S
I T = IT+1
NTEL
= O
ENDIF
I F (.NOT. BO) GOTO 100
C
C
C
TRANSPORT ACCORDING TO FORMULA

AA=7.
IF(HD/DS.LE.100.)AA=.7*SQRT(HD/DS)
ZW=0.
FAKTW=0.
IF(TP.GT.O..AND.HS.GT.O.)THEN
ZW=AA*(WS/VG)**.9*(UG*TP/HS)**1.05
ZW=MIN(ZW,25.)
RES3=(A/HD)**ZW-(A/HD)**1.2
RES4=(1.-A/HD)**ZW*(1.2-ZW)
FAKTW=RES3/RES4
ENDIF
ZC=WS/RKAP/BETA/UST
ZC=MIN(ZC,25.)
RES1=(A/HD)**ZC-(A/HD)**1.2
RES2=(1.-A/HD)**ZC*(1.2-ZC)
FAKTC=RES1/RES2
USTER1=SQRT(TAUCEF/RHOW)
S S F=(FAKTC+FAKTW)*UG*HD*CA*RHOS
SBF=0.25*D50*USTER1*T**1.5/DSTER**0.3*RH0S
SSR
= SS*RH0S
C
C
C
RESULTS OUTPUT TO F I L E TRANSPOR.OUT

WRITE(2 , ' ( " PHYSICAL PARAMETERS : " , / ) ' )
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( " DSTER = P A R T I C L E PARAMETER
] ",
6
*E10.4)')DSTER
M
]
WAVE LENGTH
WRITE(2,'(" L
*E10.4)')RLS
M/S ]
PEAK ORBITAL VELOCITY
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( " UBW
*E10.4)')UBW
M
]
PEAK ORBITAL EXCURSION AT BED
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( " ABW
*E10.4)')ABW
N/M2 ]
WAVE-RELATED BED-SHEAR STRESS
WRITE(2, ' ( " TAUW
*E10.4)')TAUW
CURRENT-RELATED BED-SHEAR STRESS
N/M2 ]
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( " TAUC
*E10.4)')TAUC
WAVE-RELATED FRICTION C O E F F I C I E N T
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( " FW
]
*E10.4)')FW
CURR-RELATED FRICTION C O E F F I C I E N T
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( " FC
]
*E10.4)')FC
M0.5/S]
GHEZY COEFFICIENT
WRITE(2,'(" C
*E10,4)')CC
APPARENT ROUGHNESS
M
1
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( " RA
*E10.4)')RA
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( " ALFAW = WAVE-CURRENT COEFFICIENT
*E10.4)')ALFAW
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( " TAUCR = C R I T I C A L BED-SHEAR STRESS
[ N/M2 ]
*E10.4)')TAUCR
CURR-RELATED E F F I C I E N C Y FACTOR
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( " UC
= CURR-RELATED
[ ]
*E10.4)')RMUC
WAVE-RELATED E F F I C I E N C Y FACTOR
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( " UW
*E10.4)')RMUW
BED-SHEAR STRESS PARAMETER
WRITE(2, ' ( " T
]
*E10.4)')T
WRITE(2,'(///)')
KG/SM]'
SS=SUSPENDED LOAD TRANSPORT
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( " NUMERICAL
*E10.4)')SSR
SS=SUSPENDED LOAD TRANSPORT
KG/SM]'
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( " FORMULA
*E10.4)')SSF
SB=BED LOAD TRANSPORT
KG/SM]'
WRITE(2,'( "
*E10.4)')SBF
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( " PROFILES
:",//)')
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( " HEIGHT Z
CONCENTRATION
VELOCITY
TRAN
*SPORT'')')
WRITE(2,'("
[M ]
[KG/M3]
[M/S]
[K
*G/SM2] " ) ')
DO 200 I = 1 , I T - 1
W R I T E ( 2 , ' ( 4 ( 1 X , E 1 0 . 4 , 5 X ) ) ' ) R M A T ( I ,1),RMAT(I ,2),RMAT(I , 3 ) ,
* RMAT(I ,4)
200 CONTINUE
C
C
RESULTS OUTPUT TO SCREEN

WRITE(*,'(////////////)')
WRITE(*, ' ( " PHYSICAL PARAMETERS : " , / ) ' )
W R I T E ( * , ' ( ' ' DSTER = PARTICLE PARAMETER
*E10.4)')DSTER
WAVE LENGTH
WRITE(*, ' ( " L
*E10.4)')RLS
W R I T E ( * , ' ( ' ' UBW
*E10.4)')UBW
W R I T E ( * , ' ( ' ' ABW
*E10.4)')ABW
W R I T E ( * , ' ( ' ' TAUW
[
[
]
]
[ M/S
[ N/M2 ]
7
*E10.4)')TAUW
CURRENT-RELATED BED-SHEAR STRESS [ N/M2 ]
W R I T E ( * , ' ( ' ' TAUC
*E10.4)')TAUC
WAVE-RELATED FRICTION C O E F F I C I E N T [
]
W R I T E ( * , ' ( ' ' FW
*E10.4)')FW
CURR-RELATED FRICTION C O E F F I C I E N T [
]
WRITE(*, ' (' 'FC
*E10.4)')FC
CHEZY COEFFICIENT
[M0.5/S]
WRITE(*,'(' ' C
*E10.4)')CC
APPARENT ROUGHNESS
[ M
]
W R I T E ( * , ' ( ' ' RA
*E10.4)')RA
WAVE-CURRENT COEFFICIENT
[ ]
W R I T E ( * , ' ( ' ' ALFAW
*E10.4)' )ALFAW
C R I T I C A L BED-SHEAR STRESS
[ N/M2 ]
WRITE(*, ' ( " TAUCR
*E10.4)')TAUCR
CURR-RELATED E F F I C I E N C Y FACTOR
[ ]
W R I T E ( * , ' ( ' ' UG
*E10.4)')RMUC
WAVE-RELATED E F F I C I E N C Y FACTOR
[ ]
WRITE(*, ' ( " UW
*E10.4)')RMUW
BED-SHEAR STRESS PARAMETER
[ ]
WRITE(*,'('' T '
*E10.4)')T
WRITE(*,'(///)')
SS=SUSPENDED LOAD TRANSPORT [ KG/SM]'
W R I T E ( * , ' ( " NUMERICAL
*E10.4)')SSR
SS=SUSPENDED LOAD TRANSPORT [ KG/SM]'
W R I T E ' ( ' ' FORMULA
*E10.4)')SSF
SB=BED LOAD TRANSPORT
[ KG/SM]'
WRITE(*, ' ( "
*E10.4)')SBF
W R I T E ( * , ' ( A ) ' ) ' TYPE C TO CONTINUE :'
READ(*,'(A)')KAR
WRITE(*,'(////////////)')
W R I T E ( * , ' ( " PROFILES
:",//)')
TRAN
VELOCITY
W R I T E ( * , ' ( " HEIGHT Z
CONCENTRATION
* S P O R T " ) ')
[M/S]
WRITE(*, ' ( "
[ M ]
[KG/M3]
[K
*G/SM2]")')
DO 300 1 = 1 , I T - 1
W R I T E ( * , ' ( 4 ( 1 X , E 1 0 . 4 , 5 X ) ) ' ) R M A T ( I ,1),RMAT(I ,2),RMAT(I , 3 ) ,
*
RMATCI ,4)
300 CONTINUE
STOP 'NORMAL END TRANSPOR'
END
INPUT :
HD
= WfiTER DEPTH C M 3 =
1.000000
UB
= MEAN CURRENT VELOCITY C M/B 3 =
1.000000
HS
= S I G N I F I C A N T WAVE HEIGHT C M 3 =
1.000000
TP
= PEAK WAVE PERIOD
C S 3 =
5.000000
PHI
= ANGLE CURRENT AND WAVES 0-180 [ DES 3
90.000000
D50
= MEDIAN PARTICLE S I Z E OF BED C M 3 =
3.000000E-04
D90 = 90 0/0 PARTICLE S I Z E C M 3 =
5.000000E-04
WS
= FALL VELOCITY SUSP. SEDIMENT C M/S 3
e.OOOOOOE-OS
RC
= CURRENT-RELATED ROUGHNESS C M 3 =
5.O0O0O0E-0
RW
= WAVE-RELATED ROUSHNESS C M 3 =
5.OO00O0E-02
DS
= MIXING LAYER THICKNESS NEAR BED C M 3
5.OO0000E-02
A
= REFERENCE L E V E L [ M 3 =
1.OOOOOOE-Oe
RNU
= KINEMATIC V I S C O S I T Y C O E F F I C I E N T E M 3
1.O0O000E-06
RHOW = FLUID DENSITY C K6/M3 3 =
1000.000000
RHOS = SEDIMENT DENSITY C KG/M3 3 =
2650.000000
BETA = RATIO SEDIMENT AND FLUID MIXING C - 3
1.000000
PHYBICAL PARAMETERS ;
i:
PARTICLE PARAMETER
- 1
DSTER
1
C M
L
WflV LENGTH
[ M/S 1
UBW
1
C M
ABW
C N/M 1
TAUW
CURRENT-RELATED BED-SHEAR STRESS C N/M 1
TAUC
:i
WAVE-RELATED FRICTION COEFFICIENTC FW
CURR-RELATED FRICTION COEFFICIENT i; FC
CMO. 5/s:i
CHEZY COEFFICIENT
C
= APPARENT ROUGHNESS
1
c M
RA
c WAVE-CURRENT COEFFICIENT
ALFAW
i: N/M
TAUCR = CRITICAL BED-SHEAR STRESS
[ CURR-RELATED EFFICIENCY FACTOR
UC
i; WAVE-RELATED EFFICIENCY FACTOR
UW
1
c ...
T
= BED-SHEAR STRESS PARAMETER
NUMERICAL
FORMULA
. 759E+01
, .t5'5E+0
.148E+01
. naOE+01
. e359E+0
. 8333E+0.t
.4e94E-01
. 436E-0.l
. 484E+0
. .l50E+00
.5443E+00
.185aE+00
.3719E+00
.7g06E-01
. i81E+0e
: SS=SUSPENDED LOAD TRANSPORT C K G / S M J .1976E+0

; SS^-^SUSPENDED LOAD TRANSPORT [ KG/5M:I . iOG&E+O
: SB-BED LOAD TRANSPORT
C KG/SM3 .347E+00
PROFILES
HEIGHT Z
C M 3
. lOOOE-01
. 4663E-01
. 9383E-0i
. 1661E+00
. 2799E+00
. 4049E+00
. 5299E+00
. 6549E+00
. 7799E+00
. 9049E+00
, lOOOE+01
CONCENTRATION
CKG/M33
.5006E+0
.43aOE+02
.3755E+02
.3ie9E+oe
.e55E+0
.10aE+0
.iai6E+0
.1576E+0
.1366E+0
.1184E+0
. 106E+0
VELOCITY
CM/S3
3085E+00
5736E+00
6939E+00
8144E+00
936E+00
I0E+01
1085E+01
1135E+01
1175E+01
1210E+01
133E+01
TRANSPORT
CKG/SM3
.1544E+0
.51E+0
. 605E+0
.54aE+0
.364E+0
.155E+0
. 1971E+0
. 178aE+0
.1606E+02
.1433E+02
.1309E+02
-11.1-
11 ,
BED MATERIAL TRANSPORT IN NC84-STEADY AND NON-UNIFORM FLOW
11.1
Bed
Introduction
load t r a n s p o r t i n non-steady and non-uniform f l o w can be modelled by a
f o r m u l a type o f approach because the adjustment o f the t r a n s p o r t o f sediment

p a r t i c l e s close t o the bed can be assumed t o proceed r a p i d l y t o the new
h y d r a u l i c c o n d i t i o n s . Suspended sediment t r a n s p o r t , however, does not have
such a behaviour because i t takes time t o t r a n s p o r t the p a r t i c l e s upward and
downward over the depth and t h e r e f o r e i t i s necessary t o model the v e r t i c a l
c o n v e c t i o n - d i f f u s i o n process.
T h i s chapter p r e s e n t s the basic f e a t u r e s and equations o f sediment t r a n s p o r t
i n non-steady and non-uniform f l o w .
11.2
Non-steady suspended sediment t r a n s p o r t
11.2.1
River flow
In g e n e r a l , a r i v e r f l o o d wave i s a r e l a t i v e l y slow process w i t h a t i m e
scale
o f a few days. Consequently, the sediment t r a n s p o r t process i n r i v e r f l o w can

be r e p r e s e n t e d as a quasi-steady process. T h e r e f o r e , the bed l o a d
transport
formulae and the suspended load t r a n s p o r t formulae as presented i n Chapter 8

can be a p p l i e d f o r t r a n s p o r t r a t e p r e d i c t i o n s . An exception
t o t h i s may be t h e
sediment t r a n s p o r t process i n a f l a s h f l o o d wave ( b a n d j i r ) and i n the

i n f l u e n c e d lower reach o f the
11 .2.2
tide-
river.
Tidal flow
T i d a l flow i s characterized
by a d a i l y ebb and f l o o d c y c l e w i t h a time
scale
o f 6 t o 12 hours ( s e m i d i u r n a l or d i u r n a l t i d e ) and by a neap-spring c y c l e w i t h

a time s c a l e o f about 14 days.
Sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n
300
measurements i n t i d a l f l o w over a f i n e sand bed (50 t o
ym) show a continuous adjustment o f the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
t o the f l o w v e l o c i -
t i e s w i t h a l a g p e r i o d i n the range o f 0 t o 60 minutes, as shown i n F i g . 11.2.1

f o r a s t a t i o n i n the entrance o f the Eastern S c h e l d t ,
to the bed the time l a g between the c o n c e n t r a t i o n
The Netherlands. Close
and the depth-averaged v e l o -
c i t y i s n e g l i g i b l e s m a l l , but i t increases t o about 45 minutes near the water

surface.
-11.2-
The
b a s i c t r a n s p o r t process i n t i d a l f l o w i s shown i n F i g . 11.2.2. Sediment
p a r t i c l e s are suspended when the c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y exceeds a c r i t i c a l v a l u e .
In
a c c e l e r a t i n g f l o w t h e r e i s always a net v e r t i c a l upward t r a n s p o r t o f sediment

p a r t i c l e s due
t o t u r b u l e n c e - r e l a t e d d i f f u s i v e processes, which c o n t i n u e s as
l o n g as the sediment t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y exceeds the a c t u a l t r a n s p o r t r a t e .
The
time l a g p e r i o d AT.j i s the time p e r i o d between the moment o f maximum f l o w
and
the moment o f equal t r a n s p o r t capacity and a c t u a l t r a n s p o r t r a t e . A f t e r t h i s

l a t t e r moment t h e r e i s a net downward sediment t r a n s p o r t because s e t t l i n g
dominates y i e l d i n g s m a l l e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
and
t r a n s p o r t r a t e s . I n case o f
f i n e sediments ( s i l t ) or a l a r g e depth the s e t t l i n g process can
continue
the s l a c k water p e r i o d g i v i n g a l a r g e time l a g AT^ which i s d e f i n e d as

p e r i o d between a zero t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y and
Figure
the s t a r t o f a new
during
the
erosion
cycle.
11.2.2 c l e a r l y shows t h a t the suspended sediment t r a n s p o r t d u r i n g dece-
l e r a t i n g f l o w i s always l a r g e r than d u r i n g a c c e l e r a t i n g
11.3
very
flow.
Non-uniform suspended sediment t r a n s p o r t , adjustment l e n g t h
A fundamental phenomenon o f non-uniform sediment t r a n s p o r t i s the c o n t i n u o u s

adjustment o f the sediment t r a n s p o r t t o the sediment t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y .
t y p i c a l example o f t h i s i s the v a r i a t i o n o f the suspended sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and
the t r a n s p o r t across a t r e n c h or channel i n the bed.
Figure
11.3,1
shows the e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s o f a t r e n c h w i t h side slopes o f 1:3 i n a flume

(Van
R i j n , 1985,
160 pm. The

u^ = 0.51
0.01
h^ = 0.39
m. The
current velocity
S m a l l - s c a l e r i p p l e s w i t h a h e i g h t o f about 0.025 m and

m were p r e s e n t on the bed
r a t e a t the i n l e t was
t r a n s p o r t was
bed m a t e r i a l c o n s i s t e d o f f i n e sand w i t h a d^Q o f
upstream water depth was
m/s.
o f about 0.2
1986). The
q^ = 0.03
i n the upstream s e c t i o n . The
equal to q,. = 0.04
a length
sand
feed
kg/sm. The measured suspended l o a d
kg/sm. Hence, the bed load t r a n s p o r t r a t e was
kg/sm.
Upstream o f the t r e n c h the sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

near the bed
t o about 20 mg/1
t r a t i o n gradients
vary from about 1000 mg/1
near the water s u r f a c e . There are l a r g e concen-
i n the near-bed l a y e r . I n the d e c e l e r a t i o n zone ( p r o f i l e
where the f l o w v e l o c i t y i s reduced, there i s a decrease o f the

and
was
the v e r t i c a l g r a d i e n t s near the
4)
concentrations
bed.
I n the middle o f the t r e n c h ( p r o f i l e 6) a f u r t h e r decrease o f the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s can be observed. Thus, the s e t t l i n g process i s dominant i n b o t h
d e c e l e r a t i o n and
the
the middle zone o f the t r e n c h . I n the a c c e l e r a t i o n zone
-11.3-
( p r o f i l e 7) the e r o s i o n process i s dominant and the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s show an

i n c r e a s i n g t r e n d . Downstream o f the t r e n c h ( p r o f i l e 8) the c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t i n the upstream
section.
S i m i l a r r e s u l t s f o r a c u r r e n t superimposed
sented by Van R i j n , 1985,
by f o l l o w i n g waves have been p r e -
1986.
Another t y p i c a l example o f non-uniform sediment t r a n s p o r t i s the generation: o f

c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s i n a c l e a r flow (no sediment l o a d ) e n t e r i n g a channel
w i t h a plane sediment bed. F i g u r e 11.3.2 shows c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s a t v a r i ous l o c a t i o n s i n a flume i n case o f a c u r r e n t ( = 0.18 m/s)
superimposed
f o l l o w i n g waves (H = 0.11 m) over a f i n e sediment bed ( d ^ ^
100 ym).
by
The
h o r i z o n t a l adjustment l e n g t h o f the c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s and the t r a n s p o r t

r a t e t o the e q u i l i b r i u m values i s approximately equal t o 20 times the water
depth. Graphs t o determine the adjustment l e n g t h as a f u n c t i o n o f sediment and
f l o w c o n d i t i o n s are presented i n S e c t i o n 11.5.2, see F i g , 11.5.1.
11.4
11,4.1
Mathematical d e s c r i p t i o n o f suspended sediment t r a n s p o r t
Mass-balance e q u a t i o n
A p p l i e d t o i n s t a n t a n e o u s v a r i a b l e s , the mass-balance e q u a t i o n s o f a u n i t volume

are
g i v e n by:
Fluid
: 1
^ ( p ( 1 - C ) ) + 1^ (p(1-C) U^^.) = 0
i
sediment: |^ ( p ^ d - O ) + f ^ ; (pg C U^^.) = 0
(11.4,1)
(11,4,2)
i n which:
C
= l o c a l volume c o n c e n t r a t i o n
Uj. = l o c a l f l u i d
velocity
Ug = l o c a l sediment
p
= fluid
velocity
density
Pg = sediment d e n s i t y
(-)
(m/s)
(m/s)
{kg/m3)
(kg/m3)
= coordinate
(m)
= time
(s)
The e f f e c t o f t u r b u l e n c e can be i n t r o d u c e d by a p p l y i n g the well-known Reynolds'

procedure i n which the v a r i a b l e s are represented as the sum o f a time-averaged
( o v e r b a r ) component and a f l u c t u a t i o n (prime) component, as f o l l o w s :
-11.4-
U = u + u'
(11.4.3)
(11.4.4)
S u b s t i t u t i o n o f Eqs. (11.4.3) and (11.4.4) i n Eqs. (11.4.1) and ( 1 1 . 4 , 2 ) , aver a g i n g over time and assuming t h e f l u i d and sediment d e n s i t y t o be c o n s t a n t ,
results i n :
It
^ ^ ^ i ^ '
3
it
(1-) ^ k ; ((1-) ' ^ f , i - ^ f , i ) )

/ - N
.
9
^ ^
= 0
(11.^.5)
( " s , i * '"'s,i^ =
(11.4.6)
The f l u i d and sediment p a r t i c l e s a r e assumed t o behave as a f l u i d - s e d i m e n t

m i x t u r e . The sediment v e l o c i t y i s assumed t o be equal t o t h e f l u i d
velocity
(= m i x t u r e v e l o c i t y ) w i t h exception o f t h e v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n where a c o n s t a n t
s l i p v e l o c i t y equal t o p a r t i c l e f a l l v e l o c i t y (w^) i s assumed. Thus:
"s,i = " f , i
- "s * i
The eddy v i s c o s i t y
induced
(X = ^
= 0, 6^ = 1)
(11,4,7)
( d i f f u s i o n ) concept i s a p p l i e d t o r e p r e s e n t t h e t u r b u l e n c e -
t r a n s p o r t components. The c o e f f i c i e n t s expressing t h e t r a n s f e r o f
f l u i d momentum and sediment mass a r e h e r e i n s h o r t l y c a l l e d f l u i d and sediment

mixing c o e f f i c i e n t .
A p p l y i n g t h e e d d y - v i s c o s i t y concept, t h e t u r b u l e n c e - r e l a t e d components a r e :
f,i
= -"f
(11.4.8)
^,i = - ^ s l f :
(11.4.9)
i n which:
= f l u i d mixing c o e f f i c i e n t
(mVs)
Eg = sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t
(mVs)
S u b s t i t u t i o n o f Eqs. (11.4.7), (11.4.8) and (11.4.9) i n Eqs. (11.4.5) and

(11,4,6) r e s u l t s i n :
-11.5-
^MiSient:
( O ^ | ^ ( c ( u ^ ^ . - w^S.) -
^ 0
(11.4.11)
In t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l - v e r t i c a l ( x - z ) plane t h e mass-balance equations read, as

follows:
iMid
It
(1-c) ^
sediment: |t ( O - |^ (c u -
in
If) . 1^
(d-c) u .
|f)
(d-c) w .
. |^ ( c (w-w^) -
e,-|f)
|f) = 0
0 (11.4.12)
(11.4.13)
which:
X = l o n g i t u d i n a l coordinate
(m)
z = v e r t i c a l coordinate
(m)
u = f l u i d velocity i n x-direction
(m/s)
w = f l u i d velocity i n z-direction
(m/s)
For a steady and u n i f o r m f l o w (3u/9t = 0, 8c/3t = 0, 9u/3x = 0, 9c/3x = 0 ) ,

the equations reduce t o :
fluid
: (1-c) w +
sediment:
(11.4.14)
c (w-w ) - e ^ = 0
s
s dz
Elimination
(1-c)
gf = 0
(11.4.15)
of the v e r t i c a l f l u i d v e l o c i t y
c Wg + ( e ^ + c ( e ^ - e^))
(w) y i e l d s :
= 0
(11.4.16)
Equation (11.4.16), f i r s t presented by H a l l b r o n (1949) and Hunt (1954), r e p r e sents t h e sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e f o r e q u i l i b r i u m

introduction
conditions.
By t h e
o f t h e mass-balance e q u a t i o n , the v e r t i c a l r e t u r n f l o w due t o t h e
f l u i d d i s p l a c e d by the f a l l i n g p a r t i c l e s has been taken i n t o account.

Assuming t h a t the f l u i d and sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s are a p p r o x i m a t e l y
equal (e
d-c)
c w^ +
e ) , i t follows
= 0
that:
(11.4.17)
-11.6-
Equation
(11.4.17) can a l s o be expressed, as:
dc
c ws,in
+ e : s3 dz
- = 0
\ M. 1
. .4H 1
.
8)
i n which:
"s,m - (''-c)Wg = p a r t i c l e f a l l v e l o c i t y i n f l u id-sed iment m i x t u r e .
Experimental
research by Richardson and Zaki (1954) has shown t h a t the
v e l o c i t y i s not o n l y a f f e c t e d
but a l s o by a d d i t i o n a l
by the r e t u r n f l o w due
t o the d i s p l a c e d
fall
fluid
e f f e c t s such as: p a r t i c l e c o l l i s i o n s , p a r t i c l e - i n d u c e d
t u r b u l e n c e and m o d i f i e d drag c o e f f i c i e n t s . The o v e r a l l e f f e c t can be r e p r e sented
by:
"s,m = ^^'^^"^ "s
(11.4.19)
i n which:
Wg = p a r t i c l e f a l l v e l o c i t y i n a c l e a r , s t i l l f l u i d
a
- coefficient ( 4
The
and
t o 5 f o r p a r t i c l e s i n the range o f 50 t o 500
i n f l u e n c e o f the sediment p a r t i c l e s on the t u r b u l e n c e
ym).
characteristics
r e s u l t i n g i n a damping o f the turbulence and hence a r e d u c t i o n o f the
effec-
t i v e m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t (e ) should a l s o be taken i n t o account.

s
For s m a l l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (1-c ^ 1) Equation
(11.4.18) reduces t o the
following
expression:
"s ^ ^s i
11.4.2
(11.4.20)
Ffomentum balance f o r f l u i d - s e d i m e n t m i x t u r e
To r e p r e s e n t the m o d i f i c a t i o n o f the f l u i d m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s and hence the

f l u i d v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s due t o the presence o f the suspended sediment p a r t i c l e s , the momentum balance f o r the f l u i d - s e d i m e n t m i x t u r e should be
solved.
I n the present a n a l y s i s i t i s assumed t h a t the f l u i d and sediment v e l o c i t y

(= m i x t u r e v e l o c i t y ) are equal i n the h o r i z o n t a l
d i r e c t i o n s , while there i s a
c o n s t a n t s l i p v e l o c i t y equal t o the p a r t i c l e f a l l v e l o c i t y i n the v e r t i c a l

direction.
-11.7-
A p p l i e d t o instantaneous v a r i a b l e s , t h e momentum balance f o r t h e f l u i d - s e d i m e n t

m i x t u r e i s g i v e n by:
It
* fT
(oA.i-'^j' = - kl
* I t <".,ij)
^V
i n which:
p
= p(1-C) + p C = d e n s i t y o f f l u i d - s e d i m e n t m i x t u r e
(kg/m3)
171
U .
m,i
Pjjj
.- w 6. = l o c a l v e l o c i t y o f f l u i d - s e d i m e n t m i x t u r e
f,i
s 1
= l o c a l pressure
.. = l o c a l v i s c o u s shear s t r e s s
m,ij
g
= acceleration o f gravity
The
(m/s)
(N/m2)
(N/m2)
(m/s2)
viscous shear s t r e s s due t o t h e shearing o f t h e i n t e r g r a n u l a r f l u i d and
t h e " s h e a r i n g " by sediment p a r t i c l e i n t e r a c t i o n s can be represented by:

3U
,
^
'^m 3x
J
m, 1
m,ij
in
(11.4.22)
which:
"2
= y^ (1+a.jC)
= dynamic v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t o f t h e f l u i d
as m o d i f i e d by t h e presence o f t h e p a r t i c l e s
(kg/sm)
y^
= dynamic viscc
v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t o f t h e f l u i d phase
(kg/sm)
aâ^
= coefficients
U s u a l l y , t h e v i s c o u s shear s t r e s s i s n e g l e c t e d i n the momentum balance e q u a t i o n

for
a c l e a r f l o w . For a two-phase f l o w , however, t h e sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
may be r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e near the bed. Consequently, t h e viscous shear s t r e s s e s

near t h e bed may become i m p o r t a n t because o f t h e increased
The
as
viscosity.
e f f e c t s o f t u r b u l e n c e a r e i n t r o d u c e d by a p p l y i n g t h e Reynolds'-procedure,
follows:
. + u'
.
m, 1
m, 1
(11.4.23)
P
m
= p + p'
*^m "^m
(11.4.24)
p
^m
= p + p'
^m ^m
(11.4.25)
-11.8-
S u b s t i t u t i o n o f Eqs.
(11.4.22), (11.4.23), (11.4.24) and
(11.4.25) i n Eq.
(11.4.21) and averaging over t i m e , y i e l d s :
it
^Pm \ , i ^
^ IT
(Pm % , i
"m,J^ = " IT
J
in
^^m^ ^ i T ? (^m,ij ^ ^ m , i j
(11.4.26)
which
-V
^ .. =
m,ij
(3u_ ./3x.) = viscous shear s t r e s s

m,1
j
^m ^ 1 = " Pm '^m i "^1 1 - 'J-, p I

m,ij
m m,i m,j
m,im
5
= p (1-c) + p
m,j
^ "
m,J
4 p ' ^' . = t u r b u l e t t c c - I n d u c e d
m m,i
shear s t r e s s ( i . J)
c = mean d e n s i t y o f m i x t u r e
= y^ ( 1 + a.jC) 2 = dynamic v i s c o s i t y o f m i x t u r e
p'
m
= ( p ^ - p) c'
s
= density f l u c t u a t i o n of mixture
To d e r i v e Equation (11.4.26), the f o l l o w i n g terms have been n e g l e c t e d :

t i m e dependent f l u c t u a t i o n s , 3(p'u' . ) / 3 t = 0
m ni J1.
f l u c t u a t i o n terms due t o viscous shear s t r e s s
t r i p p l e f l u c t u a t i o n terms o f the t u r b u l e n t shear s t r e s s , p'u' .u' , = 0
' m m,i m,j
t u r b u l e n c e - i n d u c e d p r e s s u r e , p u^ û^ . = 0
The turbulence-induced shear s t r e s s ( T ^ ) can be represented by ( i * J ) :
.
^ m , i j = - (P - PC - P3C)
3u
.
- (P3-P)
u^^. I f -
(11.4.27)
I n the x-z plane w i t h v e l o c i t i e s u and w Equation (11.4.27) reads, as f o l l o w s :
It
<v>
in
which:
X - =
* k
< v
V - =
,zx = -
Equations
") * k
< v
> = -
* k
'':,.x * '^,.K> ^ V
^ l*
* V X ' f X S
<"-''-2
<"-*-3>
* I f ' - (P^-.'XS"" M
* " |f)<".t.31)
(11.4.12), (11.4.13), (11.4.28) and (11.4.29) d e f i n e a system o f 4
e q u a t i o n s w i t h 5 unknown v a r i a b l e s , being c, u, w, p^^^ and e. By r e l a t i n g t h e

m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t t o l o c a l f l o w v a r i a b l e s a p p l y i n g a simple m i x i n g l e n g t h
-11.9-
model or a more s o p h i s t i c a t e d k-Epsilon model ( i n c l u d i n g terms f o r the s o l i d

phase), the system can be closed and solved using a p p r o p r i a t e boundary
condi-
t i o n s . The k-Epsilon model which i s based on the a p p l i c a t i o n o f t r a n s p o r t

equations f o r the k i n e t i c energy ( k ) o f the turbulence and i t s d i s s i p a t i o n
r a t e ( E p s i l o n ) , o f f e r s the most promising r e p r e s e n t a t i o n because the damping
of
the t u r b u l e n c e energy and hence the r e d u c t i o n o f t h e m i x i n g
can be represented
11.4.3
coefficients
i n a s t r a i g h t - f o r w a r d way.
H o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l f l u i d and sediment m i x i n g
General
M i x i n g processes i n f l u i d s a r e r e l a t e d t o molecular d i f f u s i o n , t u r b u l e n t d i f f u s i o n o f s m a l l - s c a l e random f l u i d motions ( e d d i e s ) and t o l a r g e - s c a l e c i r c u l a t i o n c e l l s (near o b s t a c l e s and s t r u c t u r e s ) .
U s u a l l y , the e d d y - v i s c o s i t y concept i s a p p l i e d t o r e p r e s e n t the t r a n s f e r o f

f l u i d momentum and sediment mass. I n analogy w i t h the shearing i n a l a m i n a r
f l u i d f l o w ( T ^ J = pv 3 u ^ / 3 X j ) , the shearing i n a t u r b u l e n t f l u i d f l o w i s
represented as: T ^ J - pe 3u^/3Xj, w i t h e = eddy v i s c o s i t y or f l u i d
mixing
coefficient.
B a s i c a l l y , the f l u i d m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t i s d e f i n e d as:
^ f = "T^
(11.4.32)
i n which:
u | = f l u i d v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n and
a. - m i x i n g l e n g t h .
H e r e i n , two types o f shear f l o w s are d i s t i n g u i s h e d : wall-bounded shear f l o w s
and f r e e shear f l o w s .
For wall-bounded shear f l o w s w i t h a constant shear s t r e s s i n the n e a r - w a l l

r e g i o n , the eddy v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t can be d e r i v e d by assuming
t h a t the
m i x i n g l e n g t h v a r i e s i n p r o p o r t i o n t o the d i s t a n c e ( z ) from the w a l l and
that
the v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s a r e o f the order o f the c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d shear v e l o c i t y (u), y i e l d i n g :
= K Ujj z
in
(11.4.33)
which:
K = p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y constant
order o f
0.1
0.4). The depth-averaged e^-value i s o f t h e
h.
For f r e e - s h e a r f l o w s t h e eddy v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t u s u a l l y i s r e l a t e d
t o the
l o c a l t h i c k n e s s o f the m i x i n g l a y e r and t h e v e l o c i t y d i f f e r e n c e across
this
layer, yielding:
= a b Au
in
(11.4.34)
which:
Au = v e l o c i t y
difference
= m i x i n g l a y e r t h i c k n e s s and
= p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y constant
0.01).
In s h a l l o w water t h e w a l l - s h e a r and t h e free-shear e f f e c t i n t e r a c t , b u t gener a l l y t h e f r e e - s h e a r e f f e c t i s dominating when:
Assuming u^j/Au
0.1, t h i s means b >> h.
The sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t (e^) g e n e r a l l y i s r e l a t e d t o t h e f l u i d
mixing
c o e f f i c i e n t ( e ^ ) as f o l l o w s :
Eg = 6 <(>
in
(11.4.35)
which:
6 = factor related
t o t h e m i x i n g o f sediment mass and f l u i d momentum
(see s e c t i o n 8.3)
4 = t u r b u l e n c e damping f a c t o r ( s e c t i o n 8.3).
Horizontal mixing
H o r i z o n t a l m i x i n g g e n e r a l l y i s most i m p o r t a n t near c i r c u l a t i o n c e l l s because
i t governs t h e t r a n s f e r o f f l u i d momentum and sediment mass from t h e main f l o w
-11.11-
t o the c i r c u l a t i o n c e l l . Herein, the h o r i z o n t a l mixing c o e f f i c i e n t i s assumed

t o be constant over the depth. Most i n f o r m a t i o n from the l i t e r a t u r e i s r e l a t e d
t o the d i s p e r s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t (K) which i s d i f f e r e n t from the eddy v i s c o s i t y
c o e f f i c i e n t ( e ^ ) . U s u a l l y , the d i s p e r s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i s determined
d e p t h - i n t e g r a t e d mathematical
from a
model a p p l i e d t o s i m u l a t e a dye-release e x p e r i -
ment by t u n i n g the d i s p e r s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t . For example, the two-dimensional

v e r t i c a l c o n v e c t i o n - d i f f u s i o n equation f o r small sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s reads
as:
If -1; <-> - k <^,. If> * k "-"s>=> - k

The p h y s i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Eq.
lf> =
(11.4.36) i n a steady f l o w ( 9 u / a t = 0,
3c/at = 0) i s t h a t the sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are convected
in longitudinal
and v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n by the mean f l o w (u,w), w h i l e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y the s e d i ment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are mixed i n both d i r e c t i o n s by the t u r b u l e n t motions
(e
, e
S J X
) and are moved downwards by g r a v i t y (w ) . The c o n v e c t i o n and d i f S y Z
f u s i o n process i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 11.4.1A, showing the behaviour
of a line
i n j e c t i o n o f dye (Wg = 0) a f t e r r e l e a s e a t t = 0.
Equation
(11.4.36) can be s i m p l i f i e d by i n t e g r a t i n g over the depth,
yielding
1
^ (h5) . 1
^ (h5) - 1
^ [h(K . i ^ ^ P | | ] . S = 0
in
(11.4.37)
which:
h
he
Jc
dz
o
h
= water
depth
= depth-averaged
sediment mixing c o e f f i c i e n t
depth-averag
S } X
= d i s p e r s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , S = source term.
A p p l y i n g t h i s approach, a d i s p e r s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i s i n t r o d u c e d which becomes a

t u n i n g parameter r e f l e c t i n g a l l p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s such as c o n v e c t i v e t r a n s p o r t
by secondary c u r r e n t s and c o n v e c t i v e e f f e c t s r e l a t e d
procedure.
t o the d e p t h - a v e r a g i n g
G e n e r a l l y , the d i s p e r s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t K i s much l a r g e r
mixing c o e f f i c i e n t
than
the
. When t h i s l a t t e r parameter i s n e g l e c t e d , the d i s p e r
s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t a l s o represents t u r b u l e n c e - r e l a t e d m i x i n g processes. Thus,

the p r i c e t o be paid f o r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f Eq,
(11.4.36), i s the
introduction
-11.12(
o f a d i s p e r s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t which i s mainly r e l a t e d
t o the f l o w system c o n s i -
dered. The magnitude o f the d i s p e r s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t can o n l y be determined

mathematical
s i m u l a t i o n o f dye-release experiments
from
i n t h e f i e l d . An order o f
magnitude e s t i m a t e can be obtained from formulae and graphs presented i n t h e

l i t e r a t u r e . Some i n f o r m a t i o n o f the d i s p e r s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i s givn by Okubo
(1971), who reexamined data r e l a t e d
t o the h o r i z o n t a l spreading o f i n s t a n t a -
neous dye releases i n t h e upper mixed l a y e r s o f marine and e s t u a r i n e f l o w s . Mo

d i f f e r e n c e was made between transverse and l o n g i t u d i n a l
m i x i n g because o f t h e
extremely i r r e g u l a r dye d i s t r i b u t i o n p a t t e r n s . The d i s p e r s i o n l e n g t h s c a l e was

a r b i t r a r i l y d e f i n e d as t h e diameter o f an e q u i v a l e n t c i r c l e i n which 95% o f
the dye was enclosed a t t h e time o f o b s e r v a t i o n . Okubo p r e s e n t s the e f f e c t i v e
h o r i z o n t a l d i s p e r s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t as a f u n c t i o n o f a d i s p e r s i o n l e n g t h s c a l e
( a ) . Some t y p i c a l values a r e (see a l s o F i g . 11.4.IB):
S, = 10 m
K = 10"^ mVs
a = 10^ m
K = 10 mVs
d = 10^ m
K = 10^
mVs
il = 10^ m
K = 10^
mVs
I n f o r m a t i o n o f the l o n g i t u d i n a l
d i s p e r s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i s a l s o given by T a y l o r
(1954) and Elder (1959). For f u l l y developed
boundary l a y e r f l o w i n a s t r a i g h t
channel they d e r i v e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y :
^x = %
with a
10
(11.4.38)
Much l a r g e r a -values have been found f o r l a r g e - s c a l e meandering r i v e r s

(Sayre, 1975). Equation
(11.4.38) y i e l d s values which a r e much l a r g e r than t h e
t u r b u l e n c e - r e l a t e d m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t . R e c a l l , f o r example, t h a t the d e p t h averaged e d d y - v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t i s
=^ 0.1 Uj^h.
I n f o r m a t i o n o f the t r a n s v e r s e d i s p e r s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i n f u l l y developed
boun-
dary l a y e r f l o w i n f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s i s given by Sayre (1975) and by Prych

( 1 9 7 0 ) . Based on a n a l y s i s o f experimental r e s u l t s , i t was found
K =
y
uh
that:
(11.4.39)
-11.13-
with a
0.1 t o 0.2 f o r s m a l l - s c a l e
s t r a i g h t channels and
^ 0.2 t o 2 f o r
l a r g e - s c a l e meandering r i v e r s . D e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s
i n s t r a i g h t channels shows some ( u n c l e a r ) i n f l u e n c e o f t h e channel w i d t h o r
b e t t e r t h e w i d t h - d e p t h r a t i o because t h i s parameter a f f e c t s t h e s i z e o f v e r t i cal
secondary c i r c u l a t i o n c e l l s causing transverse
r e l a t i o n s h i p s representing
mixing.
Generally-accepted
the w i d t h - e f f e c t a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e . N a t u r a l r i v e r s
have the f o l l o w i n g t y p i c a l f e a t u r e s i n t e n s i f y i n g t h e t r a n s v e r s e m i x i n g
process:
1. i r r e g u l a r depth,
2. meandering p l a n f o r m and
3. presence o f s t r u c t u r e s and obstacles
Transverse m i x i n g
(groins, spurdikes,
i s i n t e n s i f i e d by generation
bridge p i e r s e t c . ) .
o f free-shar l a y e r s and by
secondary c u r r e n t s . I n case o f a s l o w l y meandering r i v e r and a small

roughness (few g r o i n s ) the a -value w i l l be i n the range o f a
side-wall
0.2 t o 1. I n
case o f a s h a r p l y curved r i v e r w i t h a l a r g e s i d e - w a l l roughness (many g r o i n s )

the a - value w i l l be i n t h e range o f a
y
y
Transverse m i x i n g
i n free-shear
1 t o 2.
l a y e r s can be estimated
from Eq. (11.4.34),
giving:
y = 0.01 b AU
(11.4.40)
D e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n o f the i n f l u e n c e o f the h o r i z o n t a l mixing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

on t h e computed depth-averaged v e l o c i t y f i e l d
i n and near r e c i r c u l a t i n g f l o w s
i s given by F l o k s t r a e t a l (1986) a p p l y i n g a depth-averaged f l o w model. V a r i o u s

values o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l d i s p e r s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t were used i n t h e computations
(K = 10, 1, 0.1 m2/s). The computer r e s u l t s show a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e
influence
o f t h e K-value on the v e l o c i t y f i e l d near r e c i r c u l a t i o n zones when t h e K-value

i s i n t h e range o f 10 t o 1 mVs. The i n f l u e n c e i s s m a l l f o r K i n t h e range o f
1 t o 0.1 m2/s. F l o k s t r a e t a l a l s o found a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e
l o c a l bathymetry on t h e v e l o c i t i e s near the r e c i r c u l a t i o n zone. Applying
Eq.
(11.4.40) w i t h b = 100 m and Au = 1 m/s, which a r e t y p i c a l values f o r t h e geometry considered by F l o k s t r a e t a l , the K-value i s found t o be about 1 m2/s.
The
v a l u e s o f Okubo (1971) y i e l d K=^ 0.1 m2/s. Thus, t y p i c a l K-values f o r
s h a l l o w water f l o w a r e i n the range o f 0.1 t o 1 m2/s. The exact value i s n o t

o f e s s e n t i a l importance because i t s e f f e c t on t h e computed v e l o c i t i e s i s r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l f o r K i n t h i s range.
-11.14-
Although t h e K-values may be l e s s i m p o r t a n t f o r a good r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e

r e c i r c u l a t i o n zone, a good e s t i m a t e o f the K-value i s s t i l l
important f o r the
d i f f u s i v e sediment t r a n s p o r t , because i t d i r e c t l y a f f e c t s t h e magnitude o f t h e

t r a n s v e r s e d i f f u s i v e t r a n s p o r t o f sediments from t h e main f l o w t o t h e r e c i r c u l a t i o n zone.
Vertical
mixing
Assuming q u a s i - e q u i l i b r i u m boundary f l o w , the v e r t i c a l m i x i n g

u s u a l l y i s represented
by a p a r a b o l i c d i s t r i b u t i o n , as f o l l o w s :
^s,z = ^s,max " ^s,max

's,max =
coefficient
" R^J^
(11.4.4la)
6 K u^ h
(11.4.4lb)
in which:
^s,z " c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d v e r t i c a l sediment mixing
Ujj
= bed-shear v e l o c i t y
= water depth
= Von Karman constant
= r a t i o o f sediment and f l u i d mixing
The maximum e
The
-value
(=: 0.4)
1)
i s equal t o 0.1 uh f o r K = 0.4 and 6 = 1 .
depth-averaged value i s
A parabolic-constant
coefficient
^ = 0.067 Uj^h.
mixing c o e f f i c i e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n may a l s o be a p p l i e d (see
s e c t i o n 8.3), as f o l l o w s :
t2 1
s ,max
^s,z = ^s,max =
lBCiy?!25?_f
c.
1 - h~J
6 < u^ h
v e r t i c a l density
f o r z/h < 0.5
(11.4.42a)
f o r z/h > 0.5
(11.4.42b)
gradients
V e r t i c a l d e n s i t y g r a d i e n t s caused by t h e presence o f t e m p e r a t u r e , s a l i n i t y and

sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n v a r i a t i o n s have a damping ( s t a b i l i z i n g ) e f f e c t on t h e
v e r t i c a l m i x i n g process because a d d i t i o n a l energy i s needed t o mix a f l u i d
p a r c e l o f a l a r g e r d e n s i t y i n a lower l a y e r w i t h a f l u i d p a r c e l o f a l e s s e r
d e n s i t y i n an upper l a y e r a g a i n s t t h e a c t i o n o f g r a v i t y . T h i s a d d i t i o n a l
-11.15-
energy i s e x t r a c t e d from the t u r b u l e n t

turbulent
k i n e t i c energy r e s u l t i n g i n s m a l l e r
v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s and e d d y - v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s . T h i s
g e n e r a l l y i s modeled by i n t r o d u c t i o n
o f the Richardson number, as
effect
follows:
c_ = e ^ (1 + a R i ) ^
f
f, o
in
(11.4.43)
which:
e
= f l u i d m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t i n the absence o f v e r t i c a l d e n s i t y g r a d i e n t
f ,0
2
Ri
= g ( 3 p / 3 z ) / ( p ( a u / a z ) ) = Richardson number
a,3
= coefficients
S i l t and mud
suspensions have a s m a l l v e r t i c a l d e n s i t y g r a d i e n t ( e x c e p t c l o s e
t o the bottom,
f l u i d mud)
and thus these suspensions would be expected
t o have
l i t t l e e f f e c t upon the v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e and the f l u i d m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n . Fine sand suspensions have a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e v e r t i c a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n

g r a d i e n t near the bed y i e l d i n g a c o n s i d e r a b l e damping of t u r b u l e n c e .
11.4.4
Scale a n a l y s i s
The b a s i c equation f o r the sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n the
two-dimensional
v e r t i c a l plane reads as:
If
* h (-) -h^'sk*k
(^<"-"s - k <'s lf> =
A p p l y i n g the f l u i d mass balance |^ + |^ = 0, Eq.

OA
<"-'-^"
(11.4.44) can be
simplified
oZ
to:
ic^^^lc
3t
9x
3 c _ l c _ 3_ ( aC) _ 3_
^) = 0
9z
s 9z
9X ^ s 3x'^
3z ^ s 3z'^
(11.4.45)
The magnitude o f each s i n g l e term can be estimated by u s i n g a n o r m a l i z i n g

method. Each term i s represented as the product o f a c o n s t a n t s c a l e f a c t o r
a dimensionless
v a r i a b l e o f the order o f u n i t y , 0 ( 1 ) . The
term i s then i n d i c a t e d
Applying t = T t ' ,
E e', Equation
s
importance
by the r e l a t i v e magnitude o f i t s s c a l e
o f each
factor.
c = C c ' , u = U u ' , w=Ww', x = L x ' , z = H z '
(11.4.45) can be expressed as:
and
and
- 1 1 . 1 6 -
C r l c ^ l ^ y_C r
T Ut'^
L
I"
3c_|_i ^ W_C
9x'J ^ H
r . 9c'
"sC r9c'
" 9i^J - I T
9i^J ^
The s e t t l i n g terra w 9c/3z i s taken as the r e f e r e n c e term and each term i s

s
m u l t i p l i e d by H/(WgC), g i v i n g :
J L ll + O
"sT 9 t '
[u. 9cl ^ W_ [. 901] _ [9cli ^

ax'
"s
9z'
9Z'
As an example t h e case o f trench dredged i n a t i d a l channel i s c o n s i d e r e d . The

t r e n c h has a depth s c a l e o f H = 1 0 m, a l e n g t h s c a l e o f L = 1 0 0 m. The v e l o c i t y s c a l e s a r e U = 1 m/s, W = 0 . 1 m/s. The m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s c a l e i s E =
0 . 1 m2/s. The f a l l v e l o c i t y i s Wg = 0 . 0 1 m/s. The t i d a l time s c a l e i s T =
10000
s.
The s c a l e f a c t o r s o f Eq.
( 1 1 . 4 . 4 7 )
become:
'
0(10,
S
0(10)
W
S
^ "
WsL2
WgH
0 ( 1 0 - 2 )
0 ( 1 0 0 )
Based on these r e s u l t s , the l o n g i t u d i n a l d i f f u s i v e t r a n s p o r t (e ac/ax) i s

s
found t o be n e g l i g i b l e s m a l l . The time-dependent c o n c e n t r a t i o n term ( a c / a t ) i s
a l s o r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l , which means t h a t t h e time l a g between t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and f l o w v e l o c i t i e s remains small i n case o f a depth o f 1 0 m and a f a l l
v e l o c i t y o f 0 . 0 1 m/s. The time l a g w i l l increase f o r a l a r g e r depth and a
s m a l l e r f a l l v e l o c i t y ( s i l t s and muds). I n case o f a s m a l l time l a g p e r i o d
(AT^ ^ 0 ) t r a n s p o r t r a t e p r e d i c t i o n s can be made i n t i d a l f l o w by a p p l y i n g t h e
formulae g i v e n i n s e c t i o n s 8 . 2 and 8 , 3 .
-11.17-
11.4.5
The
R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f neap-spring c y c l e i n sediment t r a n s p o r t
computations
t i d a l range o f a neap-spring t i d a l c y c l e v a r i e s as a f u n c t i o n o f time which
i s mainly caused by astronomical e f f e c t s .

Apart from a s t r o n o m i c a l e f f e c t s , t h e r e a r e a l s o c l i m a t o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s (wind
e f f e c t ) which a r e superimposed on the a s t r o n o m i c a l v a r i a t i o n s .
The
neap-spring c y c l e can be represented by a mean t i d a l c y c l e . To r e p r e s e n t
the sediment t r a n s p o r t over a neap-spring c y c l e c o r r e c t l y , t h e mean t i d a l

c y c l e must be a d j u s t e d t o account f o r t h e higher v e l o c i t i e s d u r i n g
springtide
(power-law r e l a t i o n s h i p o f sediment t r a n s p o r t and v e l o c i t y ) . T h i s e f f e c t can

be taken i n t o account by m u l t i p l y i n g t h e c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s o f t h e mean t i d e
by a c o r r e c t i o n
factor ( 5 ) .
In t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s the c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r ( 5 ) i s d e r i v e d , assuming:
a power-law r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e sediment t r a n s p o r t
averaged v e l o c i t y (),
The
(q^.) and t h e d e p t h -
q^ = a *^ (zero time l a g ) .
depth-averaged f l o w v e l o c i t y () o f each d a i l y c y c l e i s assumed t o v a r y
sinusoidally
i n time:
= sin(w t )
(11.4.48)
i n which:
= c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y a t time t o f a d a i l y t i d a l c y c l e ( f l o o d or ebb)
= maximum c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y o f a d a i l y t i d a l c y c l e ( f l o o d or ebb)
0) =
~
T = duration
m
frequency
o f t i d a l cycle
Assuming a power-law r e l a t i o n s h i p (q, = a '^) between t h e sediment

(qj.) and t h e depth-averaged f l o w v e l o c i t y (),
transport
the tide-integrated
transport
sediment
(Qj.) can be r e l a t e d t o t h e maximum v e l o c i t y () o f a t i d a l
cycle.
The
v a r i a t i o n o f t h e t i d a l range (H) d u r i n g a neap-spring c y c l e i s assumed t o
be
sinusoidal.
The
t i d a l range (H) i s expressed as:
H = a H
m
(11.4.49)
-11.18-
in which:
H
= t i d a l range a t time T
Hjjj = t i d a l range o f mean t i d e

A
= 1 + a sin(u)T) = t i d a l
coefficient
) = 2t\/T = a n g u l a r frequency
T
= d u r a t i o n o f a neap-spring c y c l e
= t i d a l rage o f s p r i n g t i d e
The maximum depth-averaged v e l o c i t y o f each t i d e i s assumed to. be r e l a t e d t o

the t i d a l range, as f o l l o w s :
u H,n
(11.4.50)
For t h e mean t i d e i t f o l l o w s
that:
I n most e s t u a r i n e channels t h e r e i s a n e a r l y l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p
maximum f l o w v e l o c i t y
between t h e
() and t h e t i d a l range (H) r e s u l t i n g i n n =^ 1. I n coas-
t a l c o n d i t i o n s (open sea) t h e n - c o e f f i c i e n t may be as s m a l l as n = 0.5. Measurements should be analyzed t o determine t h e exact v a l u e o f t h e n - c o e f f i c i e n t

for
each s p e c i f i c
location.
The a s t r o n o m i c a l c o r r e c t i o n
f a c t o r c, , which i s a m u l t i p l i c a t i o n f a c t o r f o r
Si
the v e l o c i t i e s o f t h e mean t i d e , can be determined, as f o l l o w s :
(11.4.52)
Substitution
o f Eqs. (11.4.48), (11.4.49), (11.4.50), (11.4.51) i n Eq.
(11.4.52) y i e l d s :
/
n>b
r / n n>b ,
(11.4.53)
or
f,-
\^
r "b ,
( 1 + a sintoT)"^ d
(11.4.54)
11.19-
Equation (11.4.54) y i e l d s :
nb = 2
= f'
nb = 3
= [1 + I ( a ) ^ ] ^ ^ ^
^ (a)2]^^2
nb = 4
^3 = [ l + 3 ( a ) 2 + I
nb = 5
?a =
nb = 6
5^")^
[ 1 . If
(11,4.55)
(a)^]^/^
()^]^^^
( ; ) 2 . ] i | ( i ) ^ , 5 ^ ( ^ ) 6 ] 1/6
F i g u r e 11.4.2 shows t h e c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r ^
as a f u n c t i o n o f a and nb.
3.
Climatological_effects
The maximum c u r r e n t o f ^ t h e mean t i d e i s assumed t o have a normal d i s t r i b u t i o n
w i t h an average value
and standard d e v i a t i o n a .
Thus:
A
n)
--
e-^^-%)^/2a2
(11.4.56)
(2TT)0-5au
or,
2
f(x)
e"^
(11.4.57)
(2tt)-5 Gâ
i n which:
A
X = f - ^)/^
m-^ m
a = a /u
u m
The p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t
F() = J
f() d =
< < 2 or x.^ < x < X2 i s : .
J
XI
f ( x ) dx =
(2TT)0-bo x i
e"^ ^
dx
(11.4.58)
-11.20-
The c o r r e c t i o n
f a c t o r t.
due t o c l i m a t o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s f o l l o w s
from:
c
A
" h
^'^c ^m^ -
" .
(lI)
"
"
dO
(11.4.59)
Gl
resulting i n :
- (^)-^ f ' i i j ^
( H x ) ^ f ( x ) dx =
13-
The 5 - c o r r e c t i o n
( U x ) ^ e-^^=^dx
""1
(11.4.60)
c o e f f i c i e n t has been determined f o r v a r i o u s values o f b and
O by u s i n g a numerical i n t e g r a t i o n method. The r e s u l t s are.presented i n F i g u r e

11.4.2.
Characteristic
t i d e f o r sediment
transport
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t i d e can be determined by m u l t i p l y i n g the v e l o c i t i e s o f the

mean t i d a l c y c l e w i t h a c o r r e c t i o n
f a c t o r ( ^ ) . The c o r r e c t i o n
factor (5) i s
d e f i n e d as:
^ =
^c
(11.4.61)
In the afore-mentioned method the neap-spring t i d a l c y c l e i s assumed t o v a r y

sinusoidally
i n time superimposed
by a normal p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n t o
r e p r e s e n t the c l i m a t o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s . The l o n g - p e r i o d t i d a l components have

been n e g l e c t e d . Furthermore, i n p r a t i c e i t w i l l be d i f f i c u l t t o separate t h e
v a r i o u s e f f e c t s ( a s t r o n o m i c a l and
11.5
11.5.1
climatological).
Mathematical models
Introduction
E a r l y a t t e m p t s o f two-dimensional v e r t i c a l m o d e l l i n g have been c a r r i e d o u t by

K a l i n s k e (1940) and by Dobbins (1943). L a t e r a more g e n e r a l approach
was
pre-
sented by O'Connor (1971). Smith and O'Connor (1977) presented a two-dimensio n a l v e r t i c a l model based on the l a t e r a l l y - i n t e g r a t e d momentum and
continuity
e q u a t i o n s f o r the f l u i d and sediment phases, and an "one-equation" t u r b u l e n c e

c l o s u r e model t o r e p r e s e n t the f l u i d shear s t r e s s e s and d i f f u s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s .
Kerssens e t a l (1979) presented a two-dimensional v e r t i c a l model f o r g r a d u a l l y varied
f l o w s n e g l e c t i n g v e r t i c a l c o n v e c t i o n and l o n g i t u d i n a l d i f f u s i o n .
-11.21-
L o g a r l t h m i c v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s were used t o represent the f l u i d v e l o c i t y

The
field.
v e r t i c a l sediment mixing c o e f f i c i e n t s were represented by a p a r a b o l i c -
c o n s t a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n . A c o n c e n t r a t i o n - t y p e boundary c o n d i t i o n was
the bed, assuming instantaneous adjustment
bed. Van R i j n (1980,
1985,
1986,
t o e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n s near the
198?) improved t h i s model by a p p l y i n g a semi-
a n a l y t i c a l method t o r e p r e s e n t non-uniform
f i c i e n t s . The f l o w w i d t h was
applied at
v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s and m i x i n g
coef-
i n c o r p o r a t e d t o extend the a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f the
model t o g r a d u a l l y v a r i e d f l o w i n t r a n s v e r s e d i r e c t i o n .
C e l i k and Rodi (1984) presented a model s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f Smith and O'Connor
(1977). However, the former a p p l i e d a "two-equation"
( k - e p s i l o n model).
t u r b u l e n c e c l o s u r e model
From 1980 onwards t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l models are becoming
i n c r e a s i n g l y popular because o f the advancement o f computer technology.

d i m e n s i o n a l m o d e l l i n g has been performed
and
by Sheng and B u t t e r ( 1 9 8 2 ) , by Wang
Adeff (1986), by O'Connor and Nicholson
(1986,
Three-
(1988) and by Van
R i j n and
Meijer
1988).
H e r e i n , the two-dimensional v e r t i c a l and the t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l approach o f

Rijn (1987)
11.5.2
are described
Van
briefly.
Two-dimensional v e r t i c a l suspended sediment model
T h i s s t e a d y - s t a t e model i s based on the mass balance o f suspended sediment i n

the v e r t i c a l plane, represented
as:
1
^ (buc) . 1
^ [b(w-W3)c] -
(be^ If) - 0
in
which:
= l o c a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t h e i g h t z above bed
= l o c a l h o r i z o n t a l f l u i d v e l o c i t y a t h e i g h t z above bed
= l o c a l v e r t i c a l f l u i d v e l o c i t y a t h e i g h t z above bed
(11.5.1)
w = p a r t i c l e f a l l v e l o c i t y
e = sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t
s
X
= h o r i z o n t a l coordinate
= width of flow
H o r i z o n t a l d i f f u s i v e t r a n s p o r t has been n e g l e c t e d (see s e c t i o n 11.4.3).
The
f l u i d v e l o c i t y f i e l d i s represented by simple l o g a r i t h m i c p r o f i l e s i n case o f a
-11.22-
c u r r e n t ( w i t h o r w i t h o u t waves) over a g r a d u a l l y v a r y i n g bottom topography. The

v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s i n s t r o n g l y non-uniform
f l o w s w i t h s e p a r a t i o n and r e v e r s a l
are d e c r i b e d by a f l e x i b l e p r o f i l e method which i s based on a l i n e a r combinat i o n o f a l o g a r i t h m i c p r o f i l e r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e law o f t h e w a l l and a p e r t u r b a t i o n p r o f i l e r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e o f pressure g r a d i e n t s .

The v e r t i c a l f l u i d v e l o c i t y f o l l o w s from t h e c o n t i n u i t y
1
b
3(bu)
equation:
9w
i i =
(11.5.2)
The v e r t i c a l c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t i s represented by a

parabolic-constant v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n :
^s,c =
- ( 1 - 2 z / h ) 2 ] 0.25 K
p h
^s,c = -2^ " " , c ^

in
f o r z/h < 0.5
(11.5.3a)
^^"^
(11.5.3b)
> 0.5
which:
u ^ ^ j , = c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed-shear v e l o c i t y
h
= water
depth
= Von Karman c o n s t a n t (== 0.4)
The v e r t i c a l wave-related sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t i s represented by an

e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , as described i n s e c t i o n
^s,w
= ^s,w,bed
^s,w = ^s,w,max
< 6^
(11.5.4a)
> 0.5 h
(11.5.4b)
s " ^ " ^'^^
(11.5.4c)
for z
r
's,w = ^s,w,bed ^
1 r ^-^s
1
^s,w,max- ^s,w,bedJ l o T s h l i - J
s
in
which:
^s,w,bed " wave-related sediment mixing c o e f f i c i e n t near t h e bed

^s,w,max ^ wave-related sediment mixing c o e f f i c i e n t i n upper h a l f o f t h e depth
"Sg
= near-bed m i x i n g l a y e r t h i c k n e s s
^s,w,bed
Ufi, H and T.
^s,w,max" values are r e l a t e d t o b a s i c wave parameters such as
-11.23-
In case o f combined c u r r e n t s and waves t h e o v e r a l l sediment mixing c o e f f i c i e n t

i s computed as:
e
= [(e
)2 + (e
s,cw
s,c
s,w
The
(11.5.5)
bed boundary c o n d i t i o n , which i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t boundary c o n d i t i o n , i s
modeled by p r e s c r i b i n g the bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t a s m a l l h e i g h t
(z=a=reference
l e v e l ) above t h e mean bed l e v e l . I n t h a t case t h e bed c o n c e n t r a t i o n

be represeented by i t s e q u i l i b r i u m value ( c ^ g) as described
The
reference
( c ^ ) may
by Eq.
(8.3.17).
l e v e l i s a p p l i e d a t h a l f t h e bed form h e i g h t .
At t h e water s u r f a c e
z e r o : w^c +
i t i s assumed t h a t t h e n e t v e r t i c a l sediment t r a n s p o r t i s
9c/9z = 0.
At t h e i n l e t boundary t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
computation o f t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
p r o f i l e i s prescribed.
After
and v e l o c i t y f i e l d t h e d e p t h - i n t e g r a t e d
sediment t r a n s p o r t (q^.) i s computed as:

h
q*. = Qu +
The
J
a
buc dz
(11.5.6)
bed load t r a n s p o r t ( q j ^ ) i s represented by a f o r m u l a which r e l a t e s t h e bed
load t r a n s p o r t t o t h e l o c a l bed-shear s t r e s s .
The
bed l e v e l change (zj^) f o l l o w s froms:
9(bZ|^)
9t
9(bqj.)
p (1-p)
s
9x
Computed c o n c e n t r a t i o n
= 0
(11.5.7)
p r o f i l e s and t r a n s p o r t r a t e s based on t h e above-given
model a r e shown i n F i g s .
11.3.1 and 11.3.2. Reasonable agreement between
measured and computed values can be observed.

The
model has a l s o been a p p l i e d t o compute t h e adjustment l e n g t h o f sand
concentration
p r o f i l e s i n case o f under- and overloaded c u r r e n t s . The
adjustment l e n g t h i s d e f i n e d as the l e n g t h a f t e r which t h e suspended sediment

t r a n s p o r t d i f f e r s l e s s than 5% from the e q u i l i b r i u m t r a n s p o r t . Based on a
l a r g e number o f computations, an adjustment l e n g t h graph has been composed
which i s shown i n F i g . 11.5.1. This graph can be a p p l i e d t o determine t h e type
o f mathematical model t o be a p p l i e d i n a m o r p h o l o g i c a l study. When t h e
adjustment l e n g t h i s l a r g e r than t h e maximum a l l o w a b l e g r i d s i z e , a suspended
sediment model r e p r e s e n t i n g
t h e v e r t i c a l c o n v e c t i o n - d i f f u s i o n process should
be a p p l i e d . Otherwise, a model based on a t r a n s p o r t formula can be used.
-11.2l^-
11.5.3
Three-dimensional suspended sediment model
The t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l steady s t a t e model i s based on 3D mass balance e q u a t i o n ,

as f o l l o w s :
i i ' - ) * i7
- h
" " - " 3 ' = ' - I J < s , X l f > -17 <s,y I7'
The f l o w v e l o c i t i e s i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n are d e s c r i b e d by l o g a r i t h m i c
p r o f i l e s , as f o l l o w s :
" = -1 . l n ( h / z ^ )
^ = -1
1 " ^^/ô)
. In(h/z^)
(11.5.9a)
1"
(11.5.9b)
i n which: u and v a r e depth-averaged v e l o c i t i e s computed by a two-dimensional

h o r i z o n t a l model f o r depth-averaged f l o w .
The v e r t i c a l f l o w v e l o c i t y (w) f o l l o w s from t h e mass balance e q u a t i o n :
9u
9v
9w
i i ^ 9 ^ - i i = 0
(11.5.10)
The v e r t i c a l sediment m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t (e
) i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f Eqs.
S Jz
( 1 1 . 5 . 3 ) , (11.5.4) and ( 1 1 . 5 . 5 ) . The h o r i z o n t a l m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s e

and
^
s,x
e
a r e assumed t o be c o n s t a n t i n the computational domain. R e a l i s t i c values
are i n t h e range o f 0.1 t o 1 m2/s (see s e c t i o n 11.4.2).

The boundary c o n d i t i o n s a r e s i m i l a r t o those presented i n s e c t i o n 11.5.2.
A f t e r computation o f t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n and v e l o c i t y f i e l d , t h e d e p t h i n t e g r a t e d sediment t r a n s p o r t r a t e s a r e determined as:
h
^t,x = % , x W
'^t.y ' '^b,y
(UC - e^^^ 9c/9x)dz
(11.5.11)
h
'' (vc - e^^y 9c/9y)dz
(11.5.12)
An example o f computed t r a n s p o r t r a t e s i n a p a r t i a l l y c l o s e d channel a r e shown

i n F i g . 11.5.2.
-11.25-
11, 6
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DOBBINS, W.E., 1944

E f f e c t o f Turbulence
on Sedimentation
Am. Soc. o f Civ. Engrs. T r a n s a c t i o n s , Vol. 109, USA
CELIK, I . and RODI, W., 1984

A D e p o s i t i o n - Entrainment Model f o r Suspended Sediment T r a n s p o r t
Report SFB 210/T/6, Univ. o f Techn. o f K a r l s r u h e , West Germany
ELDER, J.W., 1959

The D i s p e r s i o n o f Marked F l u i d i n Turbulent Shear Flow
J o u r n a l o f F l u i d Mechanics, V o l . 5, p. 544- 560
FLOKSTRA, C. VERBOOM, G.K., WIERSMA, A.K., 1986

Computation o f Steady R e c i r c u l a t i n g Flow
Report Rl150-2, D e l f t H y d r a u l i c s , D e l f t , The Netherlands
HALLBROW, G., 1949

Remarque sur l a Theorie de "L'Austausch" applique au T r a n s p o r t des Materiaux
en Suspension
T h i r d lAHR-Congress, Grenoble, France
HUNT, J.N., 1954

The T u r b u l e n t T r a n s p o r t o f Suspended Sediment i n Open Channels
Proc. Roy. S o c , V o l . 224 A, p. 322-335, London
KALINSKE, A.A., 1940
Suspended M a t e r i a l under Non-Equilibrium C o n d i t i o n s
Trans. Am. Geophysical
Union, Vol. 21
KERSSENS, P.J.M. , PRINS, A. and VAN RIJN, L.C, 1979

Model f o r Suspended Sediment Transport
J o u r n a l o f the H y d r a u l i c s D i v i s i o n , ASCE, HY5
-11.26-
O'CONNOR, B.A., 1971

Mathematical Model f o r Sediment
Distribution
14th lAHR Conference, Paper D23, P a r i s , France
O'CONNOR, B.A, and NICHOLSON, J., 1988

A Three-Dimensional Model o f Suspended P a r t i c u l a t e
Sediment T r a n s p o r t
Coastal E n g i n e e r i n g , 12, p. 157-174
OKUBO, A., 1971

Oceanic D i f f u s i o n
Diagrams
Deep-Sea Research, V o l , 18, p, 789-802, Pergamon Press
PRYCH, E.A.,
Effects
1970
o f Density D i f f e r e n c e s on L a t e r a l Mixing i n Open Chanel Flows
Report KH-R-21, W.M. Keck Lab., C a l i f o r n i a I n s t , o f Technology

Pasadena, C a l i f o r n i a , USA
RICHARDSON, Y.F. and ZAKI, W.N., 1954
Sedimentation and F l u i d i z a t i o n , Part 1
Trans. I n s t . Chem. Engrs., V o l . 32, p. 35-53
SAYRE, W.M.,
1975
N a t u r a l M i x i n g Processes i n Rivers
I n : Environmental Impacts on Rivers e d i t e d
by H.W, Shen,
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SHENG, Y.P. and BUTLER, H.L., 1982

Modeling C o a s t a l Currents and Sediment Transport
I 8 t h ICCE-conference, Cape Town, South A f r i c a
SMITH, T.J. and O'CONNOR, B.A., 1977

A Two-Dimensional Model f o r Suspended Sediment Transport
lAHR-congress, Baden-Baden, West-Germany
TAYLOR, G.I., 1954

The D i s p e r s i o n o f Matter i n T u r b u l e n t Flow through a Pipe
Proc. Royal soc. A 223, p. 446-468
-11.27-
VAW RIJN, L.C., 1980

Model f o r Sedimentation P r e d i c t i o n s
19th lAHR-congress, New D e l h i ,
India

Two-Dimensional V e r t i c a l Mathematical Model f o r Suspended Sediment Transpo
f o r C u r r e n t s and Waves
Report S 488-IV, D e l f t H y d r a u l i c s , D e l f t , t h e Netherlands

Mathematical M o d e l l i n g o f Suspended Sediment i n Non-Uniform Flows
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J o u r n a l o f t h e Waterway, P o r t , Coastal and Ocean E n g i n e e r i n g ,
ASCE, V o l . 112, No. 5
VAN RIJN, L.C. and MEIJER, K., 1986

Three-Dimensional M o d e l l i n g o f Suspended T r a n s p o r t f o r Current and Waves
Repport H 461/Q 250/Q 432, D e l f t H y d r a u l i c s , D e l f t , The Netherlands
VAN RUM,
L.C. , 1987
Mathematical M o d e l l i n g o f M o r p h o l o g i c a l Processes i n t h e case o f Suspended

Sediment T r a n s p o r t
Thesis, D e l f t University
o f Technology, D e l f t , The Netherlands

The S t a t e o f t h e A r t o f Sediment T r a n s p o r t M o d e l l i n g
Keynote L e c t u r e , I n t . Symp. o f Sed. T r a n s p o r t M o d e l l i n g , New Orleans, USA
WANG, S.S.Y. and ADEFF, S.E., 1986

Three-Dimensional M o d e l l i n g o f River Sedimentation Processes
Third
I n t . Symp. on River Sedimentation, Univ. o f M i s s i s s i p p i ,
USA
0.150
(mg,
300
c
O
ncenl
O
[_
200
iment
0
u
100
9,00
11.00
13.00
15.00
> t i m e (hours)
17.00
19.00
MEASURED VELOCITIES AND CONCENTRATIONS

IN THE EASTERN SCHELDT ESTUARY,
THE NETHERLANDS
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 11.2.1
time lag AT^
c
c
time lag AT2
transport
capacity
K EROSION
- > time
SEDIMENTATION
t r a n s p o r t capacity
>
local transport
t r a n s p o r t capacity
<
local transport
TIME LAG OF SUSPENDED SEDIMENT

TRANSPORT IN TIDAL
DELFT
FLOW
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 11.2.2
PROFILE
8
1.0
0.39
Qo=0S1 m/s
0.5
\4
0 5
2.0
1.5
Q5
1^
1.0
maasuras
in m.
>
.175
flow
0.4
Q2
1
0.60
0.6
vslocity
0.8
-^tlow
(m/s)
02
1.0
1
E
N
N
0.5O
020
0.50
040
CJ
020
0.10
lO'^
10-^
concantration
-^floW
02
1
0 6 0
0 4 0
f r . flow
0,2
1.0
6
i
020
XI
O
t
\x
'\
(m/s)
0.8
1.0
1
DD/-iirii tr
0 4 0
O30
O 20
\
0.10
<l
>
0
2
-fr. c o n c e n t r a t i o n
flow
velocity
10'
(ppm)
8,_2 2
10^

(m/s)
4 6 8
,
10^
concentration
4 6
8 .
10^
(ppm)
Flow velocity
M
0 5 0
=RC) F I L .E
B
XI
CS
040
\N
O
-t-
10"
O)
>
o
velocity
0.6
O50
<
TD"
0.4
0,60
=ROFIL- E
0.60
10^
10^ ,
^ . c o n c e n t r a t i o n (ppm)
(m/s)
-Q-
0.3O
OIO
^
10^
o>
0.8
\\
0 5 0
0.6
1
<
(ppm)
"8
0.4
vatocity
/<
PRC FIL E
4
030
10'
0.10
(m/s)
1.0
-C
OB
>
O
0.30
XI
CS
velocity
0.6
xf
PR DPI - E
0 4 0
0.6O
04
O30
Sediment concentration
computed
Ul
computed
measured
020
measured
0.10
/It
a.
0
2
10'
6 8 , 2
4
6 8
IO-'
10-=
-> concentration
10"
(ppm)
FLOW VELOCITIES AND CONCENTRATIONS

IN A TRENCH
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
1 FIG 11.3.1
outflow w a t o r *
ssdimont <pump)
(moasuros in m)
A. EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
1,2
IV)
\
a
>!*
hi
0.4
=Q 24
18
20
measured
ff/
02
0
computed
. = 0 011 k g / s m ( c o m j u t c d )
0.6
10
12
>
14
16
distance,
22
24
26
28
30
^
h
B. SUSPENDED SEDIMENT TRANSPORT

1,^
F =
PRC>FIL
N|
.J_..LIU J.
.05
.1
r m
111'
PR
T"
PROFILE 4 , " f
n
4.2
8.3-
computed
measured
o'
B
IC
rni.
' h
4 6
IL c
5 E
10^
D,
6 8
IC
6 B
sediment
C.
o'
concentration
(ppm)
CONCENTRATIONS
CONCENTRATIONS GENERATED BY AN
INITIALY CLEAR FLOW WITH WAVES
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 11.3.2
surface
A.
DISPERSION RELATED TO A LINE SOURCE
I08|
RHENO
A 1964
1962 n
O 1962 n
o 1961 I
I
" *Z
A #3
CM
E
u
c
I *4
#5
#6
10' h- O NEW
NORTH
SEA
OFF
CAPE
KENNEDY
YORK BIGHT
'u
1*0
@
O
u
c
,o
I05
t_
cs
*b
@ # c OFF
9 *<i CALIFORNIA
e e
a> * f
<: BANANA RIVER
Q.
0)
O
H
C
O
I04
L.
x:
lOî
10^
10"*
B.
lo5
dlspersion
|o6
length scale
]Q7
(cnn)
DISPERSION COEFFICIENTS
DISPERSION OF CONCENTRATIONS
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 11.4.1
1.15
nb = 6
nb = 5
nb
1.10
=4
astronomical
nb = 3
effect
1.05
nb=2
1.00
0.1
02
0.3
0.4
05
06
1" a
1.15
B
'
1.10
b=E
V-O
^b=4
climatological
effect
b=;
1.05
1.00
0.06 0.10
014
018
022
026 Q30
> a- =u
H
CL r maxinlum tidal
max
CT,= relative
standard deviation of maximum c u r r e n t velocity

'-'
of mean tide
: exponent of p o w e r - l a w relationship of sediment t r a n s p o r t and
current velocity
ar =
b
coefficient
CORRECTION FACTOR REPRESENTING
NEAP-
SPRINGTIDE AND CLIMATOLOGICAL EFFECTS

DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 11.4.2
= 0.05
= 0.05<^
10,-1
101
^
,0.5
C
=18 log
4 5 6 789 ,
4 5 6789^,
.
8
-h-
c u r r e n t - related
^
-"8
bed-shear
velocity
c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d Chzy - coefficient
depth-averaged c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y
p a r t i c l e fall velocity
c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d bed-roughness height
w a v e - r e l a t e d bed-roughness height
w a t e r depth
s i g n i f i c a n t wove height
e q u i l i b r i u m sediment t r a n s p o r t
= a d j u s t m e n t length f r o m
= to
's,w
H.
(m/s)
(mO-5/s)
(m/s)
(m/s)
(m)
(m)
(m)
(m)
(kg/sm)
= 1
ADJUSTMENT LENGTH OF SUSPENDED

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 11.5.1
HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF DEPTH - INTEGRATED

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
DELFT HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 11.5.2
-12.1-
12.
TRANSPORT OF COHESIVE MATERIALS
12.1
Introduction
Sediment m i x t u r e s w i t h a f r a c t i o n o f c l a y p a r t i c l e s (d < 4 pm, Am. Geoph,

Union Scale) l a r g e r than about 10^ have cohesive p r o p e r t i e s because e l e c t r o s t a t i c a l f o r c e s comparable t o or higher
than t h e g r a v i t y f o r c e s a r e a c t i n g
between t h e p a r t i c l e s . Consequently, t h e sediment p a r t i c l e s do n o t behave as

i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s b u t tend t o s t i c k t o g e t h e r forming aggregates known as
f l o e s whose s i z e and s e t t i n g v e l o c i t y a r e much l a r g e r than'those o f t h e
individual particles.
F l u i d - s e d i m e n t m i x t u r e s c o n s i s t i n g o f water, f i n e s i l t s , c l a y s and o r g a n i c
m a t e r i a l s are g e n e r a l l y c a l l e d muds. I n a n a t u r a l environment t h e r e i s a
c o n t i n u o u s t r a n s p o r t c y c l e o f mud m a t e r i a l w i t h o f s e t t l i n g ,
deposition,
c o n s o l i d a t i o n , e r o s i o n and so on.
Because o f t h e c o m p l e x i t y
and the lack o f fundamental knowledge, t h e
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s processes i s l a r g e l y e m p i r i c a l . T h i s chapter
summarizes t h e most i m p o r t a n t
processes i n t h e f o l l o w i n g o r d e r :
cohesion, p l a s t i c i t y , v i s c o s i t y and y i e l d
stress
flocculation
settling
deposition
consolidation
erosion
transport
12.2
Cohesion, p l a s t i c i t y , v i s c o s i t y and y i e l d stress
I f a cohesive s o i l sample w i t h a low water content

stresses
i s submitted
t o shear
( T ) under v a r i o u s normal pressures ( a ) t o t h e p o i n t o f f a i l u r e , t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p between x and a can be expressed as (Law o f Coulomb):
T =
+ o t a n (t)
(12.2.1)
i n which:
T
= yield
stress
= angle o f i n t e r n a l
friction
-12,2-
The
y i e l d stress i s generally
i n t e r p r e t e d as t h e "cohesion" o f t h e sample.
Thus, a cohesive sediment sample i s able t o w i t h s t a n d

for
0 = 0 . The angle o f i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n
a f i n i t e shear
r e p r e s e n t s t h e machanical
stress
resistance
t o d e f o r m a t i o n by f r i c t i o n and i n t e r l o c k i n g o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s .
P l a s t i c i t y i s the property
o f cohesive m a t e r i a l t o undergo s u b s t a n t i a l
permanent d e f o r m a t i o n w i t h o u t
breaking.
Suspensions o f w a t e r , f i n e sand, s i l t ,
c l a y (and o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l ) have a
p s e u d o - p l a s t i c o r a Bingham p l a s t i c shearing behaviour, which means t h a t t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p between s h e a r - s t r e s s ( x ) and shear r a t e (3u/9z) i s n o n - l i n e a r .
The
s l o p e o f t h e curve expresses t h e e f f e c t i v e v i s c o s i t y o f t h e m a t e r i a l . The
i n t e r c e p t w i t h t h e shear s t r e s s a x i s i s c a l l e d t h e y i e l d s t r e s s
(x ) and
r e p r e s e n t s t h e i n i t i a l p a r t i c l e i n t e r a c t i o n f o r c e which must be overcome t o

give a d i s t o r t i o n i n the m a t e r i a l .
V i s c o s i t y and y i e l d s s t r e s s can be measured i n a viscometer. T h i s i n s t r u m e n t
usually
c o n s i s t s o f two c o n c e n t r i c
c y l i n d e r s i n which the sediment m a t e r i a l i s
p l a c e d . Once c y l i n d e r i s r o t a t e d a t a c o n s t a n t r a t e g i v i n g a c o n s t a n t s h e a r i n g
r a t e , w h i l e t h e f o r c e i s measured on t h e o t h e r
c y l i n d e r g i v i n g t h e shear
stress.
Based on e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a , t h e y i e l d s t r e s s i s found t o be p r o p o r t i o n a l t o
the sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n
( x ^ c 3 ) . Many a t t e m p t s have been made t o r e l a t e
the y i e l d s t r e s s t o t h e chemical p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e sediment m a t e r i a l . General

r e l a t i o n s h i p s do n o t e x i s t . Krone (1962) measured yild s t r e s s e s o f v a r i o u s
n a t u r a l m a t e r i a l s and found values i n t h e range o f 0,01 t o 0,1 W/m2 f o r
concentrations
i n t h e range o f 30 t o 60 kg/m3. Other values a r e g i v e n i n t h e
f o l l o w i n g t a b l e (Allersma,
1984):
-12.3-
Sediment C o n c e n t r a t i o n (kg/m3)
Material
Kaolinite
= 0.05
- 0.1 N/m2
0.1
250
150
100
50
0.3
0,5 -
1.0
1 -
y
Natural
mud
i n f r e s h water
Natural
=0.5-1.0
N/m2
>
N/m2
1 -
10
mud
= 0.1
0.3
>
10
in saline
water
Viscosity
values f o r n a t u r a l mud
as a f u n c t i o n o f the sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n
are g i v e n i n the f o l l o w i n g t a b l e (Nedeco, 1965). The
v i s c o s i t y o f the
fluid-
sediment suspension begins t o d e v i a t e markedly from t h a t o f c l e a r water f o r

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s l a r g e r than 50
especially
t o 100
i n s a l i n e water.
Sediment C o n c e n t r a t i o n {kg/m3)
Material
50
0
natural
200
100
350
500
5-10
20-50
mud
s a l i n e water
natural
kg/m3. Then, i t i n c r e a s e s r a p i d l y ,
n=0.001 kg/sm
0.002-0.004 0.01
Ti=0.001 kg/sm
0.001
-0.03
0.3
-0.7
mud
fresh
water
12.3
Flocculation
0.002-0.003 0.007-0.01 0.1-0.6
3-9
Most o f the c l a y p a r t i c l e s have a n e g a t i v e charge. I n the absence o f

d i s r u p t i v e f o r c e s (such as t u r b u l e n t f l u i d f o r c e s ) the s t a b i l i t y o f a
suspension o f cohesive p a r t i c l e s i s mainly c o n t r o l l e d by the magnitude o f
the
e l e c t r o k i n e t i c p o t e n t i a l a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the p a r t i c l e s .
I n f r e s h water the e l e c t r o k i n e t i c p o t e n t i a l g e n e r a l l y
and
is sufficiently
as a r e s u l t the p a r t i c l e s w i l l r e p e l each o t h e r . I n s a l i n e water
p o t e n t i a l i s reduced below a c r i t i c a l value and

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the p a r t i c l e s c o l l a p s e s and
the e l e c t r i c a l
large
the
layer
the p a r t i c l e s f l o c c u l a t e
(stick
-12.Al-
t o g e t h e r ) due
t o the presence o f dominating
molecular
a t t r a c t i v e f o r c e s , known
as the London-Van der Waals f o r c e s . Other b i n d i n g f o r c e s are
electro-statical
s u r f a c e f o r c e s (double l a y e r ) and chemical f o r c e s (hydrogen bonds, c a t i o n

bonds,
cementation).
F l o c c u l a t i o n r e q u i r e s p a r t i c l e c o l l i s i o n s . T h e t h r e e most i m p o r t a n t
collision
mechanisms a r e : (1) the Brownian motions o f the p a r t i c l e s (< 4 ym)
due
t o the
random bombardment by the t h e r m a l l y agigated water molecules, (2) t u r b u l e n t

m i x i n g due
t o the presence o f v e l o c i t y g r a d i e n t s i n the f l u i d and
(3)
d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t i e s because the l a r g e r p a r t i c l e s have l a r g e r

s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t i e s and may
t h e r e f o r e " f a l l " on the s m a l l e r
particles.
Other f a c t o r s enhancing f l o c c u l a t i o n a r e : s i z e , c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p a r t i c l e s ,
salinity,
temperature and o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l .
A s m a l l p a r t i c l e s i z e i n combination
with a large concentration g r e a t l y
i n t e n s i f i e s the f l o c c u l a t i o n process because these two f a c t o r s y i e l d a s m a l l

r e l a t i v e d i s t a n c e between the p a r t i c l e s . Experimental
research
(Krone,
1962)
has shown t h a t f l o c c u l a t i o n q u i c k l y reaches an e q u i l i b r i u m s i t u a t i o n a t a

s a l i n i t y o f about 5 p r o m i l l e which i s s m a l l compared t o t h a t (35 p r o m i l l e ) o f
sea water ( F i g . 12.3.1 A). A low temperature a l s o enhances the f l o c c u l a t i o n
process because the thermal motions o f the ions decrease i n magnitude and
this
leads t o a decreased r e p u l s i o n . Organic m a t e r i a l i n and on the f l o e s

s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n t e n s i f y the f l o c c u l a t i o n process, because the
m a t e r i a l s g e n e r a l l y have a p o s i t i v e charge. The
due
organic
b i n d i n g f o r c e s become l a r g e r
t o the presence o f o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l and the f l o e s are much harder t o break
up.
Break up o f the f l o e s i s caused by l a r g e s h e a r i n g f o r c e s i n the f l u i d . When
these f o r c e s are l a r g e r than the s t r e n g t h o f the f l o e s , the f l o e s are broken
i n t o s m a l l e r f l o e s o r p a r t i c l e s . Large shearing f o r c e s e x i s t close t o the
bottom where the v e l o c i t y g r a d i e n t s are l a r g e s t . Large shearing f o r c e s are
a l s o generated i n s m a l l - s c a l e eddies everywhere i n the f l u i d . Under the
i n f l u e n c e o f t u r b u l e n t f o r c e s t h e r e i s a continuous
process o f f l o c c u l a t i o n
and break-up r e s u l t i n g i n a dynamic e q u i l i b r i u m o f the f l o e s ( s i z e , d e n s i t y

and s t r e n g t h ) .
A n a l y s i s o f under-water photographs shows the presence o f macroflocs
s i z e s i n the range o f 100 to 1000
to
100 ym and
with
ym, m i n i f l o c s w i t h s i z e s i n the range o f
s i n g l e m i n e r a l p a r t i c l e s s m a l l e r than about 10
10
ym.
-12.5-
12.4
Settling
An i m p o r t a n t parameter i n sedimentation s t u d i e s o f cohesive m a t e r i a l s i s t h e

s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y o f the f l o e s . A n a l y s i s o f l a b o r a t o r y
and f i e l d data has
shown t h a t the s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y o f the f l o e s i s s t r o n g l y
related
t o the
sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( c ) .
In case o f f l o c c u l a t i n g suspensions ( s a l i n i t y > 5 p r o m i l l e )
with
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n c r e a s i n g i n the range from 100 t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10000 mg/l

t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e o f the s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y . When the sediment
concentrations are larger
than a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10000 mg/l,
the s e t t l i n g
decreases w i t h i n c r e a s i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n s due t o the hindered s e t t l i n g
velocity
effect.
Hindered s e t t l i n g i s the e f f e c t t h a t the s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y o f the f l o e s i s

reduced due t o an upward f l o w o f f l u i d d i s p l a c e d by the f l o e s . At very l a r g e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s the v e r t i c a l f l u i d f l o w can be so s t r o n g t h a t the upward f l u i d
drag f o r c e s on the f l o e s become equal t o the downward g r a v i t y f o r c e s r e s u l t i n g
i n a s t a t e o f dynamic e q u i l i b r i u m
w i t h no n e t v e r t i c a l movement o f t h e f l o e s .
T h i s s t a t e which occurs close t o bed,

laboratory
g e n e r a l l y i s c a l l e d f l u i d mud. I n t h e
the h i n d e r e d s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y can be q u i t e a c c u r a t e l y determined
from c o n s o l i d a t i o n t e s t s by measuring t h e subsidence o f the
sediment-fluid
i n t e r f a c e . The s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y i n t h e two ranges can be expressed, a s :
for
k c
f l o c c u l a t i n g suspensions (0-10000 mg/l)
(12.4.1)
s ,m
= w
(1-c)
in hindered-settling
suspensions (> 10000 mg/l)
(12.4.2)
i n which:
w
= s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y o f floes i n fluid-sediment mixture
s ,m
w
= s e t t l i n g velocity o f individual floes
s
c
= volume c o n c e n t r a t i o n
= coefficient
= coefficient
= c o e f f i c i e n t (== 3 t o 5)
1 t o 2)
Some r e s u l t s f o r cohesive m a t e r i a l
The
i n s a l i n e water a r e shown i n F i g .
12.3.IB.
s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t i e s i n f l o c c u l a t i n g suspensions were mostly determined i n
s t i l l water by a n a l y z i n g f l u i d - s e d i m e n t samples taken from the o r i g i n a l

suspension and may not represent the a c t u a l
turbulent
flow.
settling velocity in a natural
-12.6-
A n a l y s i s o f s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t i e s i n f l u i d s o f d i f f e r e n t water depths shows a

marked i n f l u e n c e o f the water depth, which i s caused by the d i f f e r e n t i a l
s e t t l i n g e f f e c t . Larger f l o e s have l a r g e r s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t i e s than the
f l o e s and may
t h e r e f o r e " f a l l " on the smaller f l o e s forming new
smaller
larger floes.
Consequently, i n n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s the s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t i e s i n the lower

l a y e r s w i l l be l a r g e r than those i n the upper l a y e r s , e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g the
s l a c k water p e r i o d o f t i d a l f l o w , when the d i s r u p t i v e t u r b u l e n t f l u i d
forces
are absent ( F i g . 12,3. IC). I n f l o w i n g water t h e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n

o f the s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t i e s close t o the bed due
to the presence o f d i s r u p t i v e
t u r b u l e n t shear f o r c e s i n the boundary l a y e r (see F i g . 12.3.IC) breaking

larger floes i n smaller
floes.
(
I t i s c l e a r t h a t general r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o determine the s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y o f

the f l o e s a t a p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n are not a v a i l a b l e . The
best approach i s t o
do f i e l d measurements when t h e r e i s no i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e . Since, the

s e t t l i n g and d e p o s i t i o n process i s most e f f e c t i v e d u r i n g the s l a c k water
p e r i o d o f t i d a l f l o w , the measurements should be concentrated
Sampling p o s i t i o n s should
in t h i s period.
be l o c a t e d near the water s u r f a c e , a t middepth and
near the bed t o determine d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l i n g e f f e c t s ( F i g . 12,3.IC). These

type o f measurements can be c a r r i e d out w i t h an i n - s i t u s e t t l i n g tube, which
i s lowered h o r i z o n t a l l y to the sampling p o s i t i o n where i t t r a p s a f l u i d
sediment sample. The
sample c o n t a i n e r i s r o t a t e d i n t o a v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n and
the s e t t l i n g process s t a r t s ( i n s t i l l w a t e r ) . The s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y can
be
determined by measuring the sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n the c o n t a i n e r as a

f u n c t i o n o f time. The
l e n g t h o f the s e t t l i n g tube should be s m a l l
0,3
^
m)
to
a v o i d d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l i n g i n the tube. Another method t o determine the

s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y i s the a n a l y s i s o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e s measured d u r i n g ^
the s l a c k water p e r i o d .
Neglecting
h o r i z o n t a l d i f f u s i v e t r a n s p o r t (e
3^c/8x^
0) and
vertical
s
convective
t r a n s p o r t (w
0 ) , the f a l l v e l o c i t y can be determined
i n t e g r a t i o n o f the two-dimensional v e r t i c a l mass balance e q u a t i o n ,

h
h
"s z ^ c t "
(3c/9t)dz - u(ac/3x)dz - e 3c/3z]
'
z
z
from
yielding:
(12,4,3)
i n w h i c h : w^^^ = f a l l v e l o c i t y a t h e i g h t z, c = c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t h e i g h t z,
t i m e , u = v e l o c i t y a t h e i g h t z,
= mixing c o e f f i c i e n t a t h e i g h t
t=
z,
-12.7-
F a l l v e l o c i t i e s based on t h i s method have been found t o be c o n s i d e r a b l y
larger
( f a c t o r 3 t o 10) than those d e r i v e d from s e t t l i n g tube measurements. For

example, Boere (1987) found w
= 1-3 mm/s
( a p p l y i n g Eq.
12.4.3) i n the Western
s
Scheldt
Estuary i n The
N e t h e r l a n d s . Analysis o f i n - s i t u s e t t l i n g
measurements showed values i n the range o f 0.1
t o 0.3
mm/s.
tube
These d e v i a t i o n s
are assumed t o be caused by f l o e d e s t r u c t i o n by the sampling
instrument.
Furthermore, the e x i s t i n g s e t t l i n g tubes are n o t l o n g enough f o r
accurate
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the l a r g e r f a l l v e l o c i t i e s because e l i m i n a t i o n o f the

d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l i n g e f f e c t ( g i v i n g e x t r a f l o c c u l a t i o n ) r e q u i r e s a s h o r t tube
length.
12.5
Deposition
12.5.1
Introduction
Deposition
i s d o m i n a t i n g when the bed-shear s t r e s s (T^) f a l l s below a
v a l u e f o r d e p o s i t i o n (i^ ^ ) ,
as shown by Krone (1962). He s t u d i e d
the
d e p o s i t i o n process o f cohesive m a t e r i a l by c i r c u l a t i n g n a t u r a l mud
at
f l o w v e l o c i t i e s i n a l a b o r a t o r y flume w i t h s a l i n e water. The

from San
Francisco
Bay)
various
(mud
had a p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h 60^ s m a l l e r
2 pm and 50^ s m a l l e r than

Figure
material
critical
than
1 ym.
12,5.IA shows the d e p o s i t i o n processes i n case o f an i n i t i a l
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 15 kg/m^ and a f l o w v e l o c i t y o f about 0.1
m/s.
mud
Three d i s t i n c t
p e r i o d s can be observed:
e
a p e r i o d o f about 10 hours w i t h (slow) d e p o s i t i o n (due t o the
hindered
s e t t l i n g e f f e c t ) t o a suspension c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f about 10 kg/m3,
a p e r i o d o f about 100 hours w i t h more r a p i d d e p o s i t i o n (due
t o the
f l o c c u l a t i o n e f f e c t ) t o a suspension c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f about 0.3
kg/m3,
a f i n a l p e r i o d o f l o n g d u r a t i o n w i t h a very slow d e p o s i t i o n o f
concentrations
< 0.3
kg/m3. D e p o s i t i o n
i n t h i s stage c o u l d be
s i g n i f i c a n t l y by p l a c i n g a g r i d i n the f l o w ( t o i n t e n s i f y
12.5.2
increased
flocculation).
Concentrations > 10 kg/m3
A f l u i d mud
o f sediment p a r t i c l e s was
found t o e x i s t a t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
10 kg/m3 i n which the f l o e s are p a r t i a l l y supported by escaping f l u i d

as the hindered
12,5.IA).
above
(known
s e t t l i n g e f f e c t ) and p a r t i a l l y by i n t e r f l o c c o n t a c t s ( F i g .
- 1 2 . 8 -
I n n a t u r e where the water depths are l a r g e , t h e r e w i l l be a s i t u a t i o n w i t h

concentrations
i n c r e a s i n g towards the bed.
increasing concentrations
The
s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y reduces f o r
(hindered s e t t l i n g ) . Thus, the s e t t l i n g
w i l l be r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l near the bed and
r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e a t the upper l a y e r s
r e s u l t i n g i n the f o r m a t i o n o f a near-bed f l u i d mud
l a y e r ( e s p e c i a l l y i n neap-
t i d e c o n d i t i o n s ) w i t h i n c r e a s i n g sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
300
kg/m3. The
t h i c k n e s s o f the f l u i d mud
velocity
i n the range o f 1 0 t o
l a y e r w i l l i n c r e a s e as l o n g as
d e p o s i t i o n r a t e a t the upper s i d e o f the l a y e r i s l a r g e r than
the
the
c o n s o l i d a t i o n r a t e a t the bottom s i d e . Values upto s e v e r a l meters have been

observed. The
c u r r e n t due
f l u i d mud
l a y e r can be t r a n s p o r t e d h o r i z o n t a l l y as a
turbidity
to:
g r a v i t y f o r c e s on a s l o p i n g bottom,
p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t f o r c e s due
t o h o r i z o n t a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n sediment
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and f l u i d d e n s i t i e s ,
e
shear f o r c e s a t the i n t e r f a c e generated by the o v e r f l o w i n g water.
T u r b u l e n t m i x i n g a t the i n t e r f a c e ( L u t o c l i n e ) between the f l u i d mud
layer
t h e o v e r l y i n g water g e n e r a l l y i s s m a l l because o f the s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t

the h e a v i e r sediment m a t e r i a l which has
K i r b y and
Parker
concentrations
( 1 9 8 0 ,
1 9 8 3 )
t o be moved a g a i n s t
have observed f l u i d mud
and
of
gravity.
layers with
> 1 5 kg/m3 t r a n s p o r t e d w i t h v e l o c i t i e s o f about 0 . 3 m/s
i n the
Severn Estuary i n England.
1 2 . 5 . 3
The
Concentrations o f 0.3
to 10 kg/m3
d e p o s i t i o n process i n t h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n range i s dominated by
f l o c c u l a t i o n e f f e c t s , as shown by the increase o f the d e p o s i t i o n r a t e i n t h e

flume experiment o f Krone,
The
(see F i g .
12.5.IA).
decrease i n time o f the c o n c e n t r a t i o n was,
log(c/CQ)
in
1 9 6 2
r - K log(t)
( 1 2 . 5 . 1 )
which:
C Q = i n i t i a l concentration
t
= time
= coefficient
as f o l l o w s :
(at t = 0 )
-12.9-
Mehta and
(initial
Partheniades (1975) performed experiments w i t h cohesive m a t e r i a l s

concentrations
covered by an annular
o f 1 t o 10 kg/m3) i n an annular
flume, which
was
r i n g i n c o n t a c t w i t h the water s u r f a c e . A simultaneous
r o t a t i o n o f the two components i n opposite d i r e c t i o n s generates an

t u r b u l e n t f l o w w i t h minimum r o t a t i o n - i n d u c e d secondary c u r r e n t s .
12.5.2A shows some experimental
uniform
Figure
results. After a short period of rapid
d e p o s i t i o n an e q u i l i b r i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n
(Cg) i s o b t a i n e d . Floes w i t h a
low
shear r e s i s t a n c e are broken down i n the near-bed l a y e r w i t h l a r g e v e l o c i t y

g r a d i e n t s and
the smaller f l o e s or p a r t i c l e s are resuspended. Floes w i t h a
h i g h shear r e s i s t a n c e can be d e p o s i t e d .
The
equilibrium concentration
found t o be dependent on the a p p l i e d bed-shear s t r e s s (x^^), the type

the i n i t i a l
a l s o found a constant
r a t i o c^/c^ a t a constant bed-shear s t r e s s (T^) f o r
concentrations
( c ^ ) . The
on the Xj^-value (see F i g . 12,5.2B). The
Partheniades
r a t i o Cg/Cg appeared t o be dependent

r e s u l t s can be summarized, as f o l l o w s :
t h e r e i s a minimum bed shear s t r e s s ( x ^ ^ ^^^) below which a l l sediment

p a r t i c l e s are deposited
( c ^ ) . Mehta and
of
sediment m a t e r i a l and
various i n i t i a l
concentration
was
^ = cw
net
s,m
for"
on the bed y i e l d i n g a maximum d e p o s i t i o n r a t e
< X, , ^.
b,d,min
(12.5.2)
t h e r e i s a maximum bed-shear s t r e s s (xj^ ^ ^^^) above which a l l p a r t i c l e s or

f l o e s J u s t remain i n suspension y i e l d i n g a zero d e p o s i t i o n r a t e
0 4. = 0
net
f o r X, > X, ,
b
b,d,max
(12.5.3)
t h e r e i s an i n t e r m e d i a t e range o f bed-shear s t r e s s e s between which a p a r t

o f the sediment p a r t i c l e s o r f l o e s i s d e p o s i t e d ,
depending on the v a l u e
of
the a p p l i e d bed-shear s t r e s s (TJ^) :
^ n e t ^ "s,m
^b,d,min < ^b < ^b,d,max
^^^'^'^^
w i t h a = fC-r^j).
Mehta and
Partheniades (1975) found T^^^j^min
for
K a o l i n i t e i n d i s t i l l e d water.
The
experimental
0-2 N/m2 and
T^^^^^^J^X
"
r e s u l t s can be i n t e r p r e t e d by assuming t h a t t h e r e are
groups o f f l o e s . The
f i r s t have s u f f i c i e n t l y s t r o n g bonds t o r e s i s t
the
^^^^
two
-12.10-
d i s r u p t i v e near-bed shear s t r e s s e s and w i l l be a b l e t o reach t h e bottom. The

second donot have s u f f i c i e n t l y s t r o n g bonds and w i l l be broken down b e f o r e
r e a c h i n g t h e bed r e s u l t i n g i n resuspension. The r a t i o c^/c^ r e p r e s e n t s t h a t
percentage o f t h e f l o e s which a r e resuspended.
The d e p o s i t e d f l o e s develop bonds w i t h t h e bed f l o e s . The bed-shear
stress
to
d i s r u p t these bonds and t o overcome t h e submerged f l o e w e i g h t has t o be l a r g e r

than t h a t a t which t h e f l o e i s d e p o s i t e d . This l a r g e r v a l u e i s c a l l e d t h e
c r i t i c a l bed-shear
s t r e s s f o r e r o s i o n (T, ) .
b,e'
I n one experiment Mehta and Partheniades s l o w l y r e p l a c e d t h e f l u i d - s e d i m e n t

m i x t u r e ( h a v i n g t h e e q u i l i b i r u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n c^) by c l e a r water and found no
measurable
sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e r e p l a c e d water. T h i s i n d i c a t e d
that
t h e r e was no e r o s i o n o f d e p o s i t e d f l o e s . Thus, t h e r e was no process o f

s i m u l t a n e o u s d e p o s i t i o n and e r o s i o n
(equilibrium).
Based on t h e r e s u l t s o f Mehta and Partheniades, t h e f o l l o w i n g processes can be

distinguished:
pure s c o u r i n g
x > x
b
b,e
no s c o u r i n g o r d e p o s i t i o n
T,_
< x < x
b,d,max
b ~ b,e
hindered deposition
x,. ^ . < x, < x

b,d,min
b
b,d,max
f u l l deposition
x, < x
b
b,d,min
12.5.4
Concentration
< 0.3 kg/m3
Krone (1962) performed a s e r i e s o f d e p o s i t i o n experiments i n a flume w i t h

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s s m a l l e r than 0.3 kg/m3. The f l o c c u l a t i o n e f f e c t appeared
of
t o be
minor importance. I n each experiment a c o n s t a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( c ^ ) was
e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e flume w h i l e t h e water was r e c i r c u l a t i n g .

Then, t h e f l o w v e l o c i t y was decreased t o s t a r t t h e d e p o s i t i o n process w i t h
d e c r e a s i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , as shown i n F i g . 12.5.IB. The d e c r e a s i n g
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ( c ) can be d e s c r i b e d , as f o l l o w s :
c_
c
(12.5.5)
-12.11-
i n which;
= c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t time t
= i n i t i a l concentration a t t = 0
s ,m
= s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y o f p a r t i c l e s or f l o e s a t T, = 0 (zero f l o w )
D
= time
= coefficient
D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h respect t o time o f Eq. (12.5.5) g i v e s the n e t d e p o s i t i o n

r a t e (D^g^.) a t t h e bed:
D
net
dt
. ,ow^
s,m
(12.5.6)
The q u a n t i t y he r e p r e s e n t s the volume ( o r mass) deposited a t the bed per u n i t

time and per u n i t area. The d e p o s i t i o n r a t e s measured by Krone (1962) a r e
shown i n F i g . 12,5. IC, as a f u n c t i o n o f the a p p l i e d bed shear s t r e s s (x^^).
Extrapolation o f the l i n e indicates that:
no n e t d e p o s i t i o n occurs a t
> 0,06 N/m2
maximum d e p o s i t i o n r a t e a t x, = 0 corresponding t o a s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y
c
b
6,6
10"
m/s
which
i
s
e q u i v a l e n t t o a Stokes diameter o f about
w
s,m
2.5 ym.
According t o Krone (1962), the s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y i n Eq. (12.5,5) i s t h e v a l u e

measured a t x, = 0 ( z e r o f l o w ) . The value o f w^ ^ = 6,6 10"^ m/s c o r r e s p o n d i n g
b
, in
t o a Stokes diameter o f 2,5 ym, i n d i c a t e s t h a t f l o c c u l a t i o n i s o f minor
importance (Stokes diameter i s about equal t o t h a t o f the i n d i v i d u a l
p a r t i c l e s ) . F l o c c u l a t i o n increased s i g n i f i c a n t l y when a g r i d was placed i n t h e
flume t o c r e a t e e x t r a t u r b u l e n c e and hence f l o c c u l a t i o n (more p a r t i c l e
i m p a c t s ) , as shown i n F i g . 12.5.IA.
The a- c o e f f i c i e n t o f Eq. (12.5.5) was found t o be
- V^b,d)
"^^^ V x
= '
^b = ^b,d
^^'-^-^^
i n which:
= a p p l i e d bed-shear s t r e s s
X,. ^ = c r i t i c a l bed-shear s t r e s s f o r d e p o s i t i o n ( n e t d e p o s i t i o n r a t e = 0
b,d
a t T, = X. ,, see F i g . 12,5.1C).
b
b,d'
-12.12(
Based on these r e s u l t s o f Krone, the f o l l o w i n g processes can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d :
zero d e p o s i t i o n
hindered d e p o s i t i o n D
f u l l deposition
, = 0
nec
. r ( 1 - T K / T , ,) cw
b b,d
s,m
D^^^^ = cw^^^
f o r T, =
5
^
b,d
f o r x, <
b
^
b,d
f o r x^^ = 0
A n e t d e p o s i t i o n r a t e equal t o zero (D^^g^ = 0) can be i n t e r p r e t e d as a process

o f zero d e p o s i t i o n alone (and no e r o s i o n ) or as an e q u i l i b r i u m process o f
simultaneous d e p o s i t i o n (D) and e r o s i o n ( E ) . B a s i c a l l y , the minimum d e p o s i t i o n
should be D = cWg w i t h Wg = s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y o f the i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s when
the f l o e s are completely broken down i n the near-bed
shear l a y e r . The a c t u a l
d e p o s i t i o n may a l s o be l a r g e r , but then there i s always and equal amount o f

e r o s i o n . The experiments o f Krone donot give i n f o r m a t i o n whether
simultaneous d e p o s i t i o n and e r o s i o n . According t o Mehta and
there i s
Partheniades
(1975), simultaneous e r o s i o n and d e p o s i t i o n does not occur.
The r e s u l t s o f Krone ( 1,962) w i t h i n i t i a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
c^ < 0.3
somewhat d i f f e r e n t from the r e s u l t s o f Mehta-Partheniades
kg/m3 are
(1975) w i t h c^
1 kg/m3. The l a t t e r researchers found f u l l d e p o s i t i o n f o r -x^ < 0.2 W/m2,

w h i l e Krone found f u l l d e p o s i t i o n f o r x^^
zero d e p o s i t i o n f o r
= 0.06
M/m2,
= 0 N/m2. Mehta-Partheniades
found
= 1 N/m2, w h i l e Krone found zero d e p o s i t i o n f o r
The l a r g e r values o f Mehta-Partheniades
can be e x p l a i n e d
by
the f l o c c u l a t i o n e f f e c t . A l a r g e r i n i t i a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n y i e l d s l a r g e r f l o e
s i z e s (due t o increased f l o c c u l a t i o n ) w i t h l a r g e r s e t t l i n g
Consequently,
in
12.6
The
velocities.
a l a r g e r energy l e v e l ( l a r g e r x^^) i s necessary
t o keep the f l o e s
suspension.
(kinsolidation
i n c r e a s e or decrease o f the top l e v e l o f the bed i s equal t o the r a t e o f
d e p o s i t i o n (from the suspension) or erosion minus the r a t e o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n

(of
the bed). C o n s o l i d a t i o n
i s a process o f f l o e compaction under the
i n f l u e n c e o f g r a v i t y f o r c e s w i t h a simultaneous e x p u l s i o n o f pore water and a

g a i n i n s t r e n g t h o f the bed m a t e r i a l .
G e n e r a l l y , three c o n s o l i d a t i o n stages are d i s t i n g u i s h e d :
'
-12.13-
The process c o n s i s t s o f h i n d e r e d s e t t l i n g
i n i t i a l stage (days)
and
c o n s o l i d a t i o n . The f l o e s i n a f r e s h l y d e p o s i t e d
l a y e r are grouped i n an open s t r u c t u r e w i t h a
l a r g e pore volume. The weakest bonds are broken
down f i r s t and the network g r a d u a l l y
secondary stage (weeks):
collapses.
The pore volume between t h e f l o e s i s f u r t h e r

reduced. Small t h i n v e r t i c a l p i p e s ( d r a i n s ) are
formed a l l o w i n g the pore water t o escape.
f i n a l stage
(years)
The pore volume i n s i d e the f l o e s i s f u r t h e r

reduced and the f l o e s are broken down.
The c o n s o l i d a t i o n process i s s t r o n g l y a f f e c t e d by t h e :
content o f organic m a t e r i a l ,
salinity,
water temperature.
The presence o f o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l ( w i t h a dry d e n s i t y

kg/m3)
i n the range o f 1200-1500
causes b i o c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s r e s u l t i n g i n gas p r o d u c t i o n
the f l u i d
temperature).
Gas bubbles can e a s i l y escape i n the
(dependent on
initial
c o n s o l i d a t i o n phase when the m a t e r i a l s t r e n g t h i s low. I n l a t e r stages ( o r

deeper l a y e r s ) w i t h i n c r e a s i n g m a t e r i a l s t r e n g t h t h e gas bubbles remain
p r e s e n t i n the bed and a f f e c t the c o n s o l i d a t i o n process.
Figure 12.6.1
shows t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n process i n a l a y e r o f pure k a o l i n i t e
m a t e r i a l i n s a l i n e water (31/oo). The i n i t i a l h e i g h t o f the u n i f o r m

suspension was 0.1 m and 0,3 m. The i n i t i a l
( d r y ) sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
25, 50 ,100, 175, 250 and 500 kg/m3 (Van R i j n , 1985). The t e s t s c o n s i s t e d
measuring the h e i g h t
were
of
( h ) o f t h e k a o l i n i t e s u r f a c e above the bottom o f t h e
c y l i n d e r as a f u n c t i o n o f t i m e . The v a r i o u s c o n s o l i d a t i o n phases can be

c l e a r l y observed. A t h i n l a y e r ( h ^ = 0.1 m) o f mud
consolidates
f a s t e r than a
t h i c k l a y e r ( h ^ = 0.3 m) w i t h the same i n i t i a l d e n s i t y because i n the l a t t e r

case t h e pore water has a l a r g e r t r a v e l distance
t o the mud
surface.
F i g u r e 12.6.2A shows t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n process o f n a t u r a l mud

Bar Channel, Nedeco 1965) i n s a l i n e water. Several i n i t i a l
( h ^ ) and wet sediment d e n s i t i e s ( p ^ )
the mud
surface
(from Bangkok
suspension
were t e s t e d . D u r i n g the i n i t i a l
s i n k s l i n e a r l y w i t h time t .
heights
phase
I n t h e second phase the mud
-12.14-
0. 5
surface sinks with t
. I n the f i n a l c o n s o l i d a t i o n phase the mud
s i n k s w i t h l o g ( t ) . The
wet sediment d e n s i t y (averaged over the depth h) i s
shown i n F i g . 12.6.2B. I t appears t h a t the mud
w i t h low i n i t i a l
surface
density
g r a d u a l l y tends t o a t t a i n the same d e n s i t y as the samples w i t h the

i n i t a l d e n s i t y . I n one
experiment the c o n s o l i d a t e d
r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s t o s i m u l a t e wave-induced and
p r e s e n t i n n a t u r e . The
m a t e r i a l was
current-induced
higher
stirred
at
motions as
r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e a r e t a r d a t i o n o f the c o n s o l i d a t i o n
process. A n a l y s i s o f sub-samples taken a t v a r i o u s e l e v a t i o n s shows t h a t the

wet
sediment d e n s i t y increases toward the bottom o f the c y l i n d e r due
p r e s s u r e s i n the deeper l a y e r s . Figure
12.6.2C shows v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f
the dry sediment d e n s i t y o f c o n s o l i d a t e d

o f D i x i t (1982) and
surface,
0.7
to larger
mud
Thorn-Parson (1980), who
l a y e r s . Based on the measurements

analyzed samples c l o s e t o the
the dry sediment d e n s i t y near the surface
i s i n the range o f 0.2
mud
to
times the averaged value over the l a y e r .
Lane and
Koelzer (1953) analyzed top l a y e r samples (always submerged) o f
r e s e r v o i r d e p o s i t s and
Pd = Pd,o
proposed the f o l l o w i n g
expression:
(12.6.1
i n which:
= dry sediment weight
(kg/m3)
p.
= dry sediment weight a f t e r 1 year o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n
(kg/m3)
= time
= coefficient
silt:
Ph
c l a y : P^ =
( i n years)
(kg/m3)
1050
kg/m3 and
e ^ 100
500
kg/m3 and
6 ^ 250 kg/m3
Values o f the wet and
kg/m
dry sediment d e n s i t i e s (p
. = p + p.
(p -p)/p
s u c c e s s i v e c o n s o l i d a t i o n stages i n e s t u a r i n e c o n d i t i o n s are g i v e n
i n the
f o l l o w i n g t a b l e . Various c o n s o l i d a t i o n stages are d i s t i n g u i s h e d . Mud

wet d e n s i t y o f about 1200
kg/m3 i s s t i l l s a i l a b l e f o r s h i p s . The
with a
nautical
d e p t h i n the harbour o f Rotterdam i s d e f i n e d a t a wet d e n s i t y o f 1200

The
) in
t r a n s i t i o n from the f l u i d t o the s o l i d phase occurs a t p^^^ ^ 1300
kg/m3.
kg/m3
-12.15-
Consolidation
rheological
wet sediment
dry sediment
stage
behaviour
d e n s i t y (kg/m^)
d e n s i t y (kg/m3)
freshly
(1
consolidated
1000-1050
0-100
1050-1150
100-250
1150-1250
250-400
1250-1350
400-550
solid
1350-1400
550-650
solid
>1400
>650
dilute fluid
mud
day)
weakly c o n s o l i d a t e d
fluid
(1 week)
(Bingham)
medium c o n s o l i d a t e d
mud
dense f l u i d
(1 month)
(Bingham)
highly
fluid-solid
(1
consolidated
mud
year)
s t i f f mud
hard mud
12.7
(10 years)
(100
years)
Erosion
12.7.1
Introduction
Sediment p a r t i c l e s , f l o e s or lumps o f the bed w i l l be eroded when the a p p l i e d

c u r r e n t - i n d u c e d or wave-induced bed-shear s t r e s s (T:^) exceeds a c r i t i c a l
for
value
e r o s i o n (x,
) , which depends on the bed m a t e r i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( m i n e r a l
b, e
composition,
organic m a t e r i a l s , s a l i n i t y , density e t c . ) . Experimental
results
show t h a t the c r i t i c a l bed-shear s t r e s s f o r e r o s i o n i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r

than t h a t f o r d e p o s i t i o n (T^ ^ > '^^ ^) Various types o f e r o s i o n
are
d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n the l i t e r a t u r e : 1. s u r f a c e or f l o e e r o s i o n which i s t h e
by one
one
removal o f p a r t i c l e s and/or aggregates, 2. mass e r o s i o n which i s the
e r o s i o n o f c l u s t e r s or lumps o f aggregates due
t o f a i l u r e w i t h i n the
bed.
Many a t t e m p t s have been made t o r e l a t e the x, - values t o b a s i c parameters as

b, e
p l a s t i c i t y index, voids r a t i o , water c o n t e n t , y i e l d s t r e s s and o t h e r s .
G e n e r a l l y accepted r e l a t i o n s h i p s , however, are not a v a i l a b l e . D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f
the T, - value must be based, t h e r e f o r e , on l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s u s i n g n a t u r a l
b, e
mud or on i n - s i t u f i e l d t e s t s .
-12.16-
12.7.2
All
Consolidated hard deposits
i n f o r m a t i o n i s based on the a n a l y s i s o f scour data o f s m a l l n a t u r a l
channels.
Lane (1955) proposed the f o l l o w i n g t h r e s h o l d v e l o c i t i e s f o r e r o s i o n :
Material
moderate
loose
compact
compacted
sandy c l a y
0.45
m/s
0.9
m/s
1.3 m/
clay
0.35
m/s
0.8
m/s
1.2
m/s
0.3
m/s
0.7
m/s
1.0
m/s
lean clayey
Hughes
(I98O)
soil
examined the s c o u r i n g process i n s m a l l n a t u r a l channels ( a t
l o c a t i o n s ) i n the southwestern
USA
by measuring and s t a t i s t i c a l l y
v e l o c i t i e s associated w i t h i n i t i a t i o n
150
anlyzing
o f scour. Three types o f s o i l s were
d i s t i n g u i s h e d : sandy s i l t , s i l t y c l a y ( f i r m compacted) and c l a y (compact).

r e s u l t s are shown i n F i ^ .
12.7.1. The
The
^% t h r e s h o l d v e l o c i t y i s the maximum
v e l o c i t y which w i l l not g i v e channel e r o s i o n i n 99 cases out o f 100 and f o r

p r a c t i c a l purposes i s e q u i v a l e n t t o the maximum non-eroding v e l o c i t y .
Comparison w i t h o t h e r data showed good agreement when the ^% t h r e s h o l d v a l u e
was
used.
Kamphuis (1982) found t h a t a f l u i d
c o n t a i n i n g sand p a r t i c l e s w i l l cause
e r o s i o n o f a c o n s o l i d a t e d cohesive bed a t much lower f l u i d v e l o c i t i e s ( o r

shear s t r e s s e s ) than i f the f l u i d was
were o f the order of 2.10
m/hour f o r v e l o c i t i e s i n the range o f 1 t o 2
12.7.3
Consolidated s o f t deposits
Migniot
(1968),
Cormault
f r e e o f sand. The average e r o s i o n r a t e s
(1971),
Terwindt-Breusers
( 1 9 7 2 ) , Thorn
(I98I)
m/s.
and
Parchure-Mehta (1985) observed t h a t the c r i t i c a l bed-shear s t r e s s f o r e r o s i o n

(x,
D,
) i s r e l a t e d t o the sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n (= dry d e n s i t y ) . T h e i r r e s u l t s
a r e g i v e n i n the f o l l o w i n g
The
table.
annular flume experiments o f Parchure and Mehta (1985) c l e a r l y demonstrate
t h a t the x^^ ^- value increases w i t h depth i n the bed l a y e r , because the dry
sediment d e n s i t y increases w i t h depth. For a given c o n s t a n t
current-induced
-12.17-
bed-shear s t r e s s an e q u i l i b r i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n (Cg) i s e s t a b l i s h e d a f t e r some

time ( F i g , 12.7.2A). A f u r t h e r increase o f t h e c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y and hence t h e
bed-shear s t r e s s (x, ) w i l l r e s u l t ( a f t e r some t i m e ) i n a new b u t l a r g e r
b
e q u i l i b r i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( F i g . 12.7.2A).
sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n (kg/m^)
Material
100
150
400
N a t u r a l mud
s a l i n e water
300
200
= 0.01-0.08 N/m2
0,03-0,2
0,05-0.4
0.1-0,9
= 0.05 N/m2
0,1
0.2
0,6
= 0,2-1 N/m2
0,4 -0,6
0.8 -1.0
1,3-2,5
>1,7
= 0.2 N/m2
0.2
0.5
0.15
0,25
0.1
0,25-2,5
( M i g n i o t , 1968)
N a t u r a l mud
s a l i n e water
(TerwindtBreusers, 1972)
N a t u r a l mud
s a l i n e water
^b. e
(Thorn, 1981)
N a t u r a l mud
s a l i n e water
^b, e
(PurchureMehta, 1985)
Kaolinite
s a l i n e water
(ParchureMehta, 1985)
Kaolinite
t a p water
(ParchureMehta, 1985)
^b. e
= 0,1 N/m2
-12.18-
This sequence can be i n t e r p r e t e d as e r o s i o n o f the top l a y e r down t o a l e v e l

a t which the bed m a t e r i a l s t r e n g t h (x,
) i s equal t o the a p p l i e d bed-shear
b, e
s t r e s s ( t j ^ ) . Then, the e r o s i o n i s stopped. T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s c o n f i r m e d by
the r e s u l t s o f a s p e c i a l experiment i n which the f l u i d - s e d i m e n t suspension
above the bed was
s l o w l y replaced
by c l e a r water showing no f u r t h e r e r o s i o n
( r e p l a c e d f l u i d remained c l e a r ) . Thus, the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f an e q u i l i b r i u m

concentration
i s caused by an e r o s i o n stop (x^^ = Xj_^ ^) and not by s a t u r a t i o n
o f the suspension. Parchure and Mehta (1985) determined x,. - v a l u e s as a

b,e
f u n c t i o n o f the dry sediment d e n s i t y . The
f l u m e . Suspension c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
bed by u s i n g a metal corer
t e s t s were performed i n an a n n u l a r
were measured. Samples were taken from the
( a f t e r f r e e z i n g ) . The
segments t o determine the dry d e n s i t i e s . The
samples were d i v i d e d i n
thickness
o f the eroded
l a y e r s a t each stage ( w i t h c o n s t a n t e q u i l i b r i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n )
from the increase o f the suspension c o n c e n t r a t i o n .
was
current-
= x,_ when
b
i s stopped, w h i l e the dry sediment d e n s i t y o f the top bed
can be determined from the observed suspension c o n c e n t r a t i o n

(corresponding
for
determined
Since, the a p p l i e d
induced bed-shear s t r e s s (x, ) i s always known, i t f o l l o w s t h a t x,.

b
"
b,e
the e r o s i o n
bed
t o an eroded l a y e r t h i c k n e s s ) . Figure
increase
12.7.2 shows the r e s u l t s
k a o l i n i t e i n s a l i n e water. Other experiments o f Parchure and
a c l e a r e f f e c t o f the s a l i n i t y on the x,
surface
- values. The
Mehta showed
e f f e c t s were l a r g e s t
for
s a l i n i t i e s i n the range o f 0 t o 2/oo. Further
had
a m a r g i n a l e f f e c t . A l a r g e r c o n s o l i d a t i o n time r e s u l t e d i n a l a r g e r
g- value. No f u r t h e r increase
10 days. The
consolidation
Otsubo and
stresses
was
increase
o f the
salinity
observed a f t e r a c o n s o l i d a t i o n p e r i o d
^- v a l u e a t the top bed s u r f a c e
(z=0) was
of
not dependent on
time,
Muraoko (1988) performed many t e s t s t o determine the c r i t i c a l
o f n a t u r a l muds. Based on t h e i r e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s , the
shear s t r e s s f o r f l o e e r o s i o n
(T,
and mass e r o s i o n
D,e,i
(x,
) was
shear
critical
related
Q5gb,e,2
t o the y i e l d s t r e s s (x,,), as f o l l o w s : x,
, = 0,27 x
and x,.
0.94
y
b,e,1
y
b,e,2
0.79 ,y
.
A r o t a r y viscometer was used t o determine the x - v a l u e . The x,.
values
y
b,e,1
were i n the range o f 0.05-0.5 N/m2, and x,
i n the range o f 0.1-1
N/m2.
b, e, :
F i n a l l y , i t i t noted t h a t the e r o s i o n a l s t r e n g t h o f a mud
bed
is largely
a f f e c t e d by v a r i o u s p h y s i c a l - c h e m i c a l parameters. For example, the
critical
shear s t r e s s depends on the pore water p r o p e r t i e s , A good parameter d e s c r i b i n g

pore water p r o p e r t i e s i s the Sodium Absorption
w i l l increase
w i t h decreasing SAR,
An increase
Ratio (SAR), I n g e n e r a l , x,
b, e,
i n pH and i n temperature w i l l
-12.19-
both r e s u l t i n a decrease o f x, . An increase i n o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l i s g e n e r a l l y

b,e
considered t o increase t h e cohesiveness o f the sediments ( l a r g e r x^^ ^ ) .
T h i s l a t t e r phenomena was e x p e r i m e n t a l l y found by Otsubo and Muraoko (1988).
12.7.4
Erosion rates
E r o s i o n r a t e s a r e , g e n e r a l l y , expressed
E .
, [liL-Ib^l
b,e
as ( P a r t h e n i a d e s , 1963)
f o r , , > ,
(,2.7.,)
The M - c o e f f i c i e n t ( i n mass per u n i t area and t i m e ) i s a m a t e r i a l " c o n s t a n t "

depending on m i n e r a l c o m p o s i t i o n , organic m a t e r i a l , s a l i n i t y e t c . Reported
v a l u e s a r e i n t h e range o f M = 0.00001 - 0.0004 kg/sm2 f o r n a t u r a l muds.
Parchure and Mehta (1985) found a r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e form:
E = E
exp[a(x. - x. ^)*^]
f o r x > x. ^
(12.7.2)
The E^-value ( i n kg/sm2) i s d e f i n e d as the value

z=0) and can be determined
surface
by e x t r a p o l a t i o n from a p l o t o f E a g a i n s t
x,_ - T,_ . The E^-values a r e i n t h e range o f 0.0005 t o 0.005 (kg/ms^) f o r

b
b,e
0
k a o l i n i t e and n a t u r a l mud i n s a l i n e water. The a - c o e f f i e n t i s i n t h e range o f
10 t o 20 (m/N'^).
12.7.5
Bed forms and roughness
When t h e c r i t i c a l shear s t r e s s f o r e r o s i o n i s exceeded (x^ > x^^ ^), v a r i o u s

types o f bed forms may be generated, as f o l l o w s :
e
l o n g i t u d i n a l grooves and r i d g e s w i t h a t y p i c a l spacing i n t h e range o f

0.01
m t o 1 m, which a r e probably genrated by s p i r a l f l u i d
motions.
Meandering grooves have a l s o been observed,

e
f l u t e marks which a r e spoon-shaped depressions

generated
i n t h e bed s u r f a c e p r o b a b l y
by t h e h i g h e s t v e l o c i t i e s o f t u r b u l e n t eddies,
s m a l l - s c a l e i s o l a t e d r i p p l e s w i t h a l e n g t h o f 0.1 m and a h e i g h t o f 0.005 m

have been observed i n flumes ( v e l o c i t y = 0.3 m/s,
The m i c r o topography
- 0.2 N/m^).
o f a muddy bed i n low-energy r e g i o n s may a l s o be
c o n t r o l l e d by b i o l o g i c a l
activity.
-12.20-
A l t h o u g h l o c a l l y , s m a l l - s c a l e bed forms are generated,

cohesive
the f l o w over a
bed s u r f a c e g e n e r a l l y i s found t o be h y d r a u l i c a l l y smooth w i t h
r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e Chzy-coefficients i n the range o f 60 t o 80 m'^/s.

e f f e c t i v e bed roughness h e i g h t s i s i n the range o f 0.1
12.8
to 1
The
mm.
Transport of mud by currents
12.8.1
Steady flow
The wash l o a d o f a r i v e r c o n s i s t s of the f i n e s t - g r a i n e d p o r t i o n o f the t o t a l

sediment l o a d . The wash load shows an almost u n i f o r m c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e
(no
v e r t i c a l g r a d i e n t s ) . The wash load t y p i c a l l y i s c o n t r o l l e d by the upstream

supply r a t e and not by the l o c a l r i v e r f l o w parameters.
G e n e r a l l y , the wash
l o a d bears no r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the discharge o f the r i v e r . C o n c e n t r a t i o n s

t o be l a r g e when t h e r e i s a ready source o f f i n e sediments i n the
b a s i n ( s o i l e r o s i o n ) . Extremely
50%
drainage
l a r g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ( h y p e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s upto
sediment by weight i n the f l u i d ) are a common occurrence
f l o o d s i n s e m i - a r i d environments.
The
tend
G e n e r a l l y , t h i s may
occur
during flash
i n small r i v e r s .
Yellow r i v e r i s a dramatic e x c e p t i o n w i t h h y p e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n the range
o f 500
t o 1000 kg/m3 due t o presence o f e x t e n s i v e l o e s s d e p o s i t s i n the upper
r i v e r b a s i n . About ]0% o f t h i s m a t e r i a l c o n s i s t s o f c l a y (< 5
ym).
The
remaining m a t e r i a l c o n s i s t s o f s i l t and f i n e sand (25 - 50 ym),
al,
1988). Hyperconcentrations
may
(Wing e t
enhance the t o t a l bed m a t e r i a l t r a n s p o r t
because t h e suspended sand p a r t i c l e s have a reduced s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y

remain l o n g e r i n suspension before they are d e p o s i t e d again on the
and
bed.
A n a l y s i s o f measured v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s shows a l o g a r i t h m i c d i s t r i b u t i o n
K - values decreasing
approaches 0.4
12.8.2
with
f o r i n c r e a s i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , but the K- v a l u e
again f o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s > 800 kg/m3.
Non-steady ( t i d a l ) flow
F i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n s i n t i d a l f l o w show the presence o f a c y c l i c process o f

e r o s i o n , t r a n s p o r t , s e t t l i n g , d e p o s t i o n and
consolidation.
G e n e r a l l y , a t h r e e - l a y e r system can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n v e r t i c a l
c o n s o l i d a t e d mud
kg/m3. The
direction:
l a y e r a t the bottom w i t h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s l a r g e r than
f l o e s and p a r t i c l e s are supported
by the i n t e r n a l f l o e frame-
work.
The mud
300
i n t e r f a c e i s d e t e c t a b l e by echosounding i n s t r u m e n t s (30
kHz).
-12,21-
f l u i d mud suspension l a y e r w i t h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
kg/m3. The l a y e r thickness
i n the range o f 10 t o 300
i s o f the order o f 0,1 t o Im, The f l o e s and
p a r t i c l e s a r e supported by f l u i d drag f o r c e s exerted

(hindered
by t h e escaping
fluid
s e t t l i n g e f f e c t ) , A c l e a r i n t e r f a c e ( l u t o c l i n e ) can be observed
from echosounder recordings
(30 kHz) or from nuclear
density
recordings.
T r a n s p o r t o f f l u i d mud may take place by wave-induced f o r c e s and g r a v i t y

f o r c e s ( s l o p i n g bottom). Tide-generated shear f o r c e s a r e u s u a l l y n o t l a r g e
enough t o cause h o r i z o n t a l movement.
d i l u t e mud suspension w i t h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
which a r e d e t e c t a b l e
i n t h e range f 0 t o 10 kg/ m3,
by o p t i c a l methods and mechanical samples.
F l o c c u l a t i o n i s dominant. The f l o e s and p a r t i c l e s a r e supported by

t u r b u l e n c e - i n d u c e d f l u i d f o r c e s and t r a n s p o r t e d by t i d e - d r i v e n and w i n d driven currents.
Erosion a t the consolidated
mud i n t e r f a c e or a t t h e f l u i d mud i n t e r f a c e w i l l
occur i n a c c e l e r a t i n g f l o w when t h e a p p l i e d bed-shear s t r e s exceeds t h e

c r i t i c a l v a l u e f o r erosion
(T, > T
) , see F i g . 12.8.IA, S i m i l a r l y ,
d e p o s i t i o n w i l l take place i n d e c e l e r a t i n g f l o w when t h e a p p l i e d

s t r e s s f a l l s below the c r i t i c a l value f o r d e p o s i t i o n
(T^^ <
bed-shear
j).
Deposition
i s maximum around s l a c k water because t h e f l o e d e s t r u c t i o n due t o t u r b u l e n t

shear s t r e s s e s
i s minimum and f l o e growth due t o d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l i n g i s
maximum ( l a r g e f l o e s " f a l l " on s m a l l f l o e s y i e l d i n g new l a r g e r f l o e s ) . As a

r e s u l t o f these processes t h e mud c o n c e n t r a t i o n s vary i n time and space, see
F i g , 12,8,IA and 12,8,2, The c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
period
( d e p o s i t i o n ) and increase
concentrations
decrease near t h e s l a c k water
towards maximum f l o w ( e r o s i o n ) . Maximum
g e n e r a l l y occur a t a c e r t a i n ( l a g ) p e r i o d a f t e r maximum f l o w
because i t takes time t o t r a n s p o r t t h e p a r t i c l e s or f l o e s t o t h e upper l a y e r s ,

see F i g , 12,8,IA, The l a g p e r i o d i s r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e near t h e water
and
surface
r e l a t i v e l y small near t h e bottom. The small s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t i e s o f t h e
i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s prevent s e t t l i n g o f a l l p a r t i c l e s d u r i n g s l a c k water.
Thus, t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
remains always l a r g e r than zero (background
concentration).
The
spring-neap c y c l e may have a marked i n f l u e n c e on t h e v e r t i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f
the mud suspension (see F i g , 12,8,IB),
-12.22-
s p r i n g t i d e : n e a r l y u n i f o r m ( w e l l - m i x e d ) c o n c e n t r a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n a t maximum
f l o o d and ebb v e l o c i t i e s , f o r m a t i o n o f f l u i d mud i n t e r f a c e s
( l u t o c l i n e s ) near the bottom d u r i n g s l a c k water, l u t o c l i n e i s
moving downward, re-entrainment
neaptide
o f mud d u r i n g the next t i d e ,
: t i d a l v e l o c i t i e s a r e g e n e r a l l y too s m a l l t o cause e r o s i o n a t t h e
near-bed f l u i d mud l a y e r , the f l u i d mud l a y e r may s u r v i v e over
s e v e r a l t i d a l c y c l e s as a s t a t i o n a r y l a y e r .
Mathematically,
t h e t r a n s p o r t o f cohesive sediments i s d e s c r i b e d
by t h e
c o n v e c t i o n - d i f f u s i o n equation. Since, the v e r t i c a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n

above t h e f l u i d mud l a y e r i s n e a r l y u n i f o r m , the c o n v e c t i o n - d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n
can be averaged over the depth,
yielding:
i n which:
c
= depth-averaged c o n c e n t r a t i o n
u,v
= depth-averaged c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s i n x,y d i r e c t i o n s
Kjj,Ky
= d i s p e r s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i n x,y d i r e c t i o n s
= water depth
= source-sink
term r e p r e s e n t i n g e r o s i o n and d e p o s i t i o n depending on
the h y d r a u l i c s c o n d i t i o n s , S = E f o r T,. > T,.

and S = D f o r
b
b, e
T,
< T,
, and S = 0 f o r T, ^ < T,. <
.
b
b,d
b,d
b
b,e
The
boundary c o n d i t i o n s , e r o s i o n and d e p o s i t i o n f u n c t i o n s , a r e g i v e n i n
s e c t i o n s 12.5 and 12.7.
Figure 12.8.3 shows an example o f computed
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and t r a n s p o r t r a t e s a p p l y i n g a 3D-model (Toro e t a l , 1989).

The
bed l a y e r should
own
t h i c k n e s s , d e n s i t y , shear s t r e n g t h and c o n s o l i d a t i o n stage. When
d e p o s i t i o n occurs,
occurs,
be represented
t h e t h i c k n e s s o f the bed l a y e r i n c r e a s e s . When e r o s i o n
the bed l a y e r t h i c k n e s s decreases. C o n s o l i d a t i o n causes a
decrease o f the bed-layer
12.9
as a number o f s u b l a y e r s , each w i t h i t s
continuous
thickness.
Transport of mud by waves
F i e l d observations
have shown a s i g n i f i c a n t increase o f the mud c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
near t h e bed d u r i n g and a f t e r p e r i o d s w i t h l a r g e waves (Van R i j n and L o u i s s e ,
-12.23-
1987;
Kendrick
and C l i f f o r d ,
I98I).
Flume experiments w i t h waves over a
c o n s o l i d a t e d mud bed have shown t h a t l a r g e waves can e a s i l y f l u i d i z e the t o p

l a y e r o f the mud bed and generate a t h i n f l u i d mud l a y e r w i t h
l a r g e r than
(Van R i j n and Louisse,
1 0 0 kg/m3
1987;
concentrations
Maa and Mehta,
1986).
F l u i d i z a t i o n o f t h e t o p mud l a y e r i s i n i t i a t e d by wave-induced p r e s s u r e
v a r i a t i o n s a t t h e bed, which l e a d t o an increase o f the water pressure i n t h e
pores and hence t o a r e d u c t i o n o f the i n t e r n a l s o i l shear s t r e n g t h . Various
types o f sediment m i x t u r e s
(1985,
1987).
I n four
i n s a l i n e water were t e s t e d by Van R i j n and Louisse
e x p e r i m e n t s t h e bed c o n s i s t e d
o f pure
(100^)
kaolinite
w i t h d i f f e r e n t d e n s i t i e s . I n two other experiments the bed c o n s i s t e d o f a

m i x t u r e o f f i n e sand ( 100 ym) and k a o l i n i t e . Each experiment c o n s i s t e d o f
e x e c u t i n g a sequence o f t e s t s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g wave h e i g h t s . At each c o n s t a n t
wave h e i g h t , an e q u i l i b r i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n was e s t a b l i s h e d a f t e r a few hours.
O p t i c a l l y and m e c h a n i c a l l y - c o l l e c t e d samples were used t o measure t h e sediment
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . The r e s u l t s o f t e s t T 4 w i t h a bed o f
k a o l i n i t e (p^^y - 6 4 0 kg/m3), a wave p e r i o d o f 1 . 5 s and a water depth o f 0 . 2 5
m a r e shown i n F i g .
12.9.1.
wave h e i g h t =
m : general sediment movement, g e n e r a t i o n o f a t h i n
0.022
The f o l l o w i n g f e a t u r e s were observed:
suspension l a y e r (== 0 . 0 1 m) w i t h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f
about 0 . 1 kg/m3.
wave h e i g h t = 0 . 0 3 m :
suspension l a y e r w i t h a t h i c k n e s s o f 0 . 0 5 m and
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s upto
0 . 5 kg/m3
(Fig.
12.9.1A),
a vague
i n t e r f a c e was v i s i b l e .
wave h e i g h t =
0.047
m:
i n i t i a l l y , the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s were reduced due t o

o r b i t a l mixing w i t h c l e a r water from higher
levels,
a f t e r 3 0 minutes t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
increased
r a p i d l y . Equilibrium concentrations
ranging
from 2 . 5 kg/m3 near the bed t o 0 . 5 kg/m3 near t h e

s u r f a c e were e s t a b l i s h e d a f t e r 2 0 0 minutes ( F i g .
1 2 . 9 . I B ) . A f t e r t h i s p e r i o d , t h e wave g e n e r a t o r was
stopped and the suspension was a l l o w e d
t o s e t t l e and
c o n s o l i d a t e f o r 4 3 hours r e s u l t i n g i n a c l e a r f l u i d
w i t h l o c a l l y s m a l l scour holes
the bed.
(depth ^ 0 . 0 2 m) on
-12.24-
wave h e i g h t = 0.07
m :
g e n e r a t i o n o f a f l u i d mud
l a y e r ( = 0.025 m) w i t h
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f 100 kg/m^, the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s above

the f l u i d mud
l a y e r ranged from 20 kg/m3 near the
t o 4 kg/m3 near the s u r f a c e ( F i g . 12.9.IC),

i n j e c t i o n s showed t h a t the f l u i d mud
Dye
l a y e r was
slowly
(== 0,02
m/s)
induced
v e l o c i t i e s ( d r i f t ) . The g e n e r a t i o n o f a
mud
bed
moving i n the wave d i r e c t i o n by wavefluid
l a y e r has a s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t on the e r o s i o n
process because v e l o c i t y g r a d i e n t s and hence
bed-
shear s t r e s s e s remain r e l a t i v e l y malll.
Experiments w i t h m i x t u r e s o f f i n e sand
100 ym) and k a o l i n i t e showed t h a t a
c o n s o l i d a t e d bed o f 75% k a o l i n i t e and 25^ f i n e sand had a s i m i l a r e r o s i o n a l

behaviour
and
as a pure (100^) k a o l i n i t e bed.
A bed c o n s i s t i n g o f 25^ k a o l i n i t e
75% f i n e sand had a completely d i f f e r e n t behaviour.
t o p l a y e r d i d not occur. The

about 0,3
F l u i d i z a t i o n o f the
k a o l i n i t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s were n o t l a r g e r than
kg/m3, because o n l y the top l a y e r o f the bed was
washed o u t .
The
sand c o n c e n t r a t i o n s were a l s o q u i t e s m a l l ( f a c t o r 30 s m a l l e r than i n case o f

100^ sand bed) due
t o a s t r o n g suppression
o f sand r i p p l e s ( h e i g h t
0,002 m).
-12.25-
12.10
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S i m u l a t i o n o f Mud ( i n Dutch)
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F a l l V e l o c i t y and Mud T r a n s p o r t Measurements i n Western and Eastern S c h e l d t ,
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-12.26-
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The E f f e c t o f Waves on K a o l i n i t e / S a n d Beds
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The E f f e c t o f Waves on Cohesive Bed Surfaces
Proc. Coastal and Port Eng. Conf., B e i j i n g , China
Alternating
S A L I N I T Y , ppl
A.
SALINITY
EFFECT
ON
FLOCCULATION
10'
8
6
s
E
E
t'
7^
10"
8
6
/ r
\\
'
B
3
3LINITE
o
i:
\
e
10'
8 IO'
8 10^
\;
\
8 10=
c o n c e n t r a t i o n (mg/-E)
B. S E T T L I N G V E L O C I T Y A S
A FUNCTION
OF
CONCENTRATION
surface
still water
i o o 1
1 1
! A 1
5
"
"
1 ^ ^ !
1
1
floe sizes
bed
\ " V
flowing water
t
setting
velocity
SZ
1 ^ f <-.!
T
setting
velocity
C.
SETTLING A N D
FLOCCULATION
concentration
* velocity
IN S T I L L
AND
concentration
FLOWING
WATER
FLOCCULATION AND SETTING VELOCITY

DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 12.3.1
HOURS
A.
OF
DEPOSITION
DEPOSITION EXPERIMENT,
..I
Co = 15 k g / m ^
C, DEPOSITION RATE, Co = 0.1-1 k g / m ^
DEPOSITION EXPERIMENTS OF KRONE. 1962
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
461
FIG. 12.5.1
n
SERIES
RUNS
T"
SUSPENDED SEDIMENT
IV
l-e
CONCENTRATION v s . TIME
DEPTH M S C M .
F O R V A R I O U S INITIAL
VLX)OITy'BI.O O M / S E C .
CONCENTRATIONS
-1
1
T
\
BUN B j
RW
-^0
"
0 , ^ 0 0 . 0 , 8 1 0
Ca / C o
= 0.668
0,
/ C o
C.
/ C ^ .
0.498
0 / C q /
O S 40
^ 'i^
\
\
\
RUNS
IZ
16
18
21
0.540_
24
27
30
33
TIME A F T E R S T A R T IN HOURS
A.
CONCENTRATION AS A FUNCTION
O F TIME,
Co = 1 - 1 0 k g / m ^ , Xb= c o n s t a n t
Symbol
O
O
A
min
B.
RATIO Ce/Co
Dpth(W
e
9
12
13
Wppr n) Rongi
1078- 2 5 0 0 0
r058- 2 4 2 0 0
1135 .- 2 5 9 3 0
7 6 6 0 - . 15900
Tfc (dynes/cm^)
AS A FUNCTION OF Tb
DEPOSITION EXPERIMENTS OF
MEHTA - PARTHENIADES, 1975

DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
1 FIG. 12.5.2
* time in days
0.1
X)
4 6 8 10^
02
, 0.5
4 6 8 10^ 2
4 6 8 10^
tinnc in nninutes
3 4 567
4 6 8 IO"*
6 810^
Co= initial concentration in kg/rri^

B. CONSOLIDATION TEST, hp = 0.3 m
CONSOLIDATION TEST OF KAOLINITE

IN SALINE
WATER, VAN RIJN 1985
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 12.6.1
TIME
lo
IN
20
HOURS
50
(OO
1
1
5O0 rooo
200
006
sooo
2000
H60
2
oso
(ISO AHD IOT5
I 00
IISO AND (OftS
J J 1 so
HSO AHD
>
\
p..
i1
\-
1
1
V
a
A.
TIME
5
10
20
1
1
INTERRUPTED
1 hour
1 day
CONSOLIDATION
TESTS,
1 week
1 month
l""""
NEDECO 1 9 6 5
IN HOURS
50
100
200
1
]
1
CONSOLIDATION ^ . . o i o y .
500
,
1000
,
DENSITY
2000
,
moriLC
5000
1
1.0
\ ^
h. o,s
V \
0.8
I 2-40
)370
\\
\\\
0,6
X
7
V \
V% \^ \
0)0.4
0.0 6
1140
O.JO
(UO
0 29
(1 SO AND 4<OS
OSO
HSO AKO (07S
1.00
1I5 0 AND loss
l.SO
<I5D Am
200
1150
0.2
1095
IF
72 yar
I day
0.5
1.0
relative
bed
2.0
1,5
concentration,
bed
B.
W E T SEDIMENT
DENSITY, NEDECO 1 9 6 5
C. VERTICAL
SEDIMENT
DISTRIBUTION O F DRY
DENSITY
CONSOLIDATION TEST OF NATURAL MUD

IN SALINE WATER. NEDECO. 1985
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FK5. 12.6.2
1I
111
1II
I I I
- stable
- scoured
SANDY SILT S O I L S
probability of channel erosion
.2
A.
.3 .4 .5
1
2
3 4 5
DEPTH OF FLOW f t
10
SANDY SILT SOIL

1
1IIII
I 11
1III
I I I
S I L T Y CLAY SOILS
- stable
a - scoured
probability of channel
erosion
-J
1I
.2
B.
l l l l
-J
' ' I
.3 .4 .5
1
2
3 4 5
DEPTH OF FLOW ft
SILTY CLAY
1
10
SOIL
1
1 1 1 1
1 I
1 1 1 11
CLAY SOILS
20
u
*^
^ 10 :
>t
:
.
/
a"^^^
.99
50"
.01-
probability of c h a n n e l
erosion
3 a - D
, /
-cr
-|a
li-
^
'
* *
stable
D-scoured
1
C.
CLAY
.2 .3 .4
.5
1 1
1
2
3 4 5
DEPTH OF FLOW ft
1 1
10
20
SOIL
CRITICAL EROSION VELOCITIES OF CONSOLIDATED

HARD DEPOSITS, HUGHES, 1980
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG.
12.7.1
TIME, t ( hours)
T I M E . t (hours)
A.
C O N C E N T R A T I O N - T I M E PROFILE IN EROSION TEST
DENSITY,/? {q/)
B.
DRY DENSITY PROFILE OF BED LAYER
SHEAR STRENGTH.TslNAr?)
1,0'
C.
CRITICAL
STRESS
EROSION SHEAR
IN BED
LAYER
EROSION TESTS OF KAOLINITE IN SALINE WATER,

PARCHURE
AND MEHTA, 1985

DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 12.7.2
deposition
erosion
jêros]on_^
HH
u
O
CURRENT
VELOCITY
1
1.0
w
^1
t
c
o
'+J
V ^ n e a r bed
I-
u
c
0.5
lag period
~ V^near surface
MUD
CONCENTRATION
12
0
->
A. MUD CONCENTRATION
water
10
1\ \
>
o
t i m e (hours)
IN T I M E
surface
nearly uniform suspension (springtide)
il\
OT
-C
0.1
fluid mud interface (neap tide)

\
0,01
0.1
B.
VERTICAL
cons olidoted mu d
V
10
100
1000
mud concentration (kg/m^)
CONCENTRATION
10000
DISTRIBUTION
MUD CONCENTRATION IN TIDAL FLOW
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 12.8.1
STAGE ( H )
AND
VELOCITY
'' E B B
E
Z
0.5
\V
'
A,
CV)
\ /
0.5
0.5
0.5 i>
F L D ^
SILT
CONCENTRATION
IN
p.p.m.
/
70
79
56
_i4
j
/
5"
ID
7? 1
1 '78 / /
18a
ua/
ISO
in
->io
-joy
"'^^
li-^
U30 /
U50
SILT C O N C E N T R A T I O N
IN
" ' - 6
' " - 4
p.p.m.
4 0 0
300
200
IOO
O
i s o o r V E R T I C A L SILT
TRANSPORT
AT B O T T O M IN 9 / h m ^
45O0
4 0 0 0 0.
SOO
O
500
Hooo g
1500
HORIZONTAL
IN kg/sac m
SILT
TRANSPORT
EBB
FLD
FLD
^
8
\0
TIME
IN
12
hourj
14
5
16
APRIL
18
1952
MUD TRANSPORT IN TIDAL FLOW, CHAO PHYA

ESTUARY, THAILAND. NEDECO. 1965
DELFT
HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 12.8.2
^'
0
1
4
1
12
16
O
A
+
20
TIME
1
24
1
28
1
32
1
36
1
40
1
44
r
48
(HOURS)
BOTTOH (K=ll
MID
(K=4)
SURFACE {K=6)
A. CONCENTRATIONS
AT BOTTOM ( o ) , M I D - D E P T H
TIME
B. DEPTH-INTEGRATED
(A) AND SURFACE ( + )
(HOURS)
TRANSPORT
RATES
COMPUTED MUD CONCENTRATIONS
DELFT HYDRAULICS
461
FIG.12.8.3
+
X
O
TIME
riHE
riME
riME
TIME
=
=
5
10
20
30
45
MIN
MIN
MIN
MIN
MIN
'>4
consolidated
kaolinite bed
Kls.'l---1'-
ToT
0^
10<
OONCENIRATION
105
(MG/L)
A. CONCENTRATION PROFILES, WAVE. HEIGHT = 0.03 m
MEAN-VALUE OPCON.
riME
TIME
TIME
TIME
TIME
-+1X4r
15
60
105
I 70
240
MIN
MIN
MIN
MIN
MIN
MEAN-VALUE SIPHON
TIME = 105 MIN

TIME " i r O MIN
1 *
consolidated
kaolinite bed
10'
10=
44;
10'
CONCENTRATION
10=
(MG/L)
B. CONCENTRATION PROFILES. WAVE HEIGHT = 0.047m
O
+
X
TIME
TIME
TIME
TIME
TIME
TIME
TIME
12
25
45
60
90
120
150
MIN
MIN
MIN
MIN
MIN
MIN
MIN
^0.20
Xf
fluid ized
layer
consolidated
bed t = O m i n
10<
CONCENTRATION
C.
lb'
(MG/L)
CONCENTRATION PROFILES, WAVE HEIGHT = 0.07 m
MUD TRANSPORT BY WAVES,

VAN RIJN-LOUISSE, 1987
DELFT HYDRAULICS
H 461
FIG. 12.9.1

Handbook Sediment Transport by Currents and Waves - Leo Van Rijn

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7^.

FLUID VELOCITIES AND BED SHEAR STRESS

Bed shear s t r e s s and bed f r i c t i o n

Bed shear s t r e s s and bed f r i c t i o n

Mass t r a n s p o r t i n non-breaking waves

Mass t r a n s p o r t by breaking waves

Combined c u r r e n t and waves

Current v e l o c i t i e s and bed-shear s t r e s s e s

CHARACTERISTIC SEDIMENT TRANSPORT PARAMETERS

Excess bed-shear s t r e s s parameter

FLUID AND SEDIMENT PROPERTIES

INITIATION OF MOTION AND SUSPENSION

Upper regime w i t h Anti-dunes

Bed forms i n non-steady c u r r e n t s

Bed forms i n Waves

S u r f zone bars or longshore bars

Bed forms i n c u r r e n t s and waves

Transverse sand waves

EFFECTIVE BED ROUGHNESS

Methods based on bed-form parameters

Methods based on i n t e g r a l parameters

Wave-related bed roughness....,

Bed roughness i n combined c u r r e n t s and waves

BED MATERIAL SSPENSIC! AND TRANSPORT I N STEADY UNIFORM

P r e d i c t i o n method o f Meyer-Peter and Mller ( 1948)

P r e d i c t i o n method o f Bagnold (1966)

P r e d i c t i o n method o f Van R i j n ( 1984)

T r a n s p o r t a t low shear stresses

Comparison o f bed load t r a n s p o r t formulae

P r e d i c t i o n method o f Bagnold (1966)

P r e d i c t i o n methods o f E i n s t e i n , Bagnold, B i j k e r and Van R i j n , , ,

P r e d i c t i o n method o f Engelund-Hansen (1967)

P r e d i c t i o n method o f Ackers-White (1973)

BED MATERIAL SUSPENSI(J AND TRANSPORT I N UNIFORM WAVES, , , ,

P a r t i c l e s i z e and f a l l v e l o c i t y o f suspended sediment

New r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r wave-related mixing

Sediment mixing c o e f f i c i e n t f o r non-breaking and breaking

BED MATERIAL SUSPENSION AND TRANSPORT I N COMBINED WAVES AND

o f measured and computed

Comparison o f measured and computed c o n c e n t r a t i o n

Computation o f sediment t r a n s p o r t i n non-breaking waves

Computation o f sediment t r a n s p o r t i n breaking

o f measured and computed

Comparison o f measured and computed t r a n s p o r t r a t e s

BED MATERIAL TRANSPORT IN NON-STEADY AND NON-UNIFORM FLOW

Non-steady suspended sediment t r a n s p o r t

Non-uniform suspended sediment t r a n s p o r t , a d j u s t m e n t l e n g t h , . , .

Mathematical d e s c r i p t i o n o f suspended sediment t r a n s p o r t

H o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l f l u i d and sediment m i x i n g

Two-dimensional v e r t i c a l suspended sediment model

Three-dimensional suspended sediment model

TRANSPORT OF COHESIVE MATERIALS

C o n c e n t r a t i o n < 0.3 kg/m3

Bed forms and roughness

I n i t i a t i o n o f motion and suspension.

Bed m a t e r i a l suspension and t r a n s p o r t i n steady u n i f o r m

Bed m a t e r i a l suspension and t r a n s p o r t i n uniform

Bed m a t e r i a l suspension and t r a n s p o r t i n combined waves and c u r r e n t s

Bed m a t e r i a l t r a n s p o r t i n non-steady and non-uniform f l o w .

The a u t h o r hopes t h a t t h i s handbook w i l l serve as a p r a c t i c a l t o o l f o r r i v e r

FLUID VELOCITIES AND BED SHEAR STRESS

i n c u r r e n t s and/or waves do mainly occur i n t h e

near-bed r e g i o n . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s o f e s s e n t i a l importance t o know t h e magnitude

According t o t h e Reynolds' procedure, t h e shear s t r e s s a t h e i g h t z i n a steady