Introduction to Photonics

Lecture 13/14/15/16: Electromagnetic Optics

November 3/5/10/12, 2014

Electromagnetic theory
Review of Maxwells equations
Electromagnetic waves in dielectric media
Conductive media
Time-harmonic ME and TEM waves
Absorption and dispersion
Resonant media and Lorentz model

Electromagnetic Optics

Ray optics ! light as ray theory

Reflection, refraction, imaging
Good approximation when wavelength is small in comparison to size of
optical component

Wave optics ! light as scalar wave theory

Ray optics plus diffraction and interference (by considering phase)

Electromagnetic optics ! light as vector wave theory

Wave optics plus fraction of light reflected and/or transmitted (by
considering polarization)

Electromagnetic Optics

Light is an electromagnetic phenomenon.

An electromagnetic field is described by two mutually coupled
vector fields, the electric field, E, and the magnetic field, H.
E = (Ex , Ey , Ez) and H = (Hx , Hy , Hz)
Wave optics is a scalar approximation of electromagnetic optics.

Relationship between electric and magnetic field vectors

described by Maxwells equations
3

Review of Maxwells Equations

D(r, t )
H (r, t ) =
+ J (r, t )
t
B (r, t )
E (r, t ) =
t
D(r, t ) = (r, t )
B(r, t ) = 0

E(r, t) , H(r, t) are electric and magnetic fields

D(r, t) is electric flux density (or displacement

field) [C/m2]
B(r, t) is magnetic flux density [W/m2 = T]
is electric permittivity [F/m]

D(r, t ) = E (r, t ) + P(r, t )

B(r, t ) = H (r, t ) + M (r, t )

0 = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m

is magnetic permeability [H/m]

Units of E: [V/m]; Units of H: [A/m]

Six functions of E and H must satisfy M.E.

0 = 4 x 10-7 H/m

J(r, t) is current density [A/m2]

(r, t) is charge density [C/m2]
P(r, t) is polarization density [C/m2]
M(r, t) is magnetization density [A/m]

Many variables, however, this is for any arbitrary medium

Relationships simplify for many media
4

Maxwells Equations in Free Space

In free space:
= o, = o
= 0, J = 0
P(r, t) = 0, M(r, t) = 0

D(r, t ) = 0 E (r, t )
B(r, t ) = 0 H (r, t )

E (r, t )
t
H (r, t )
E (r, t ) = 0
t
E (r, t ) = 0
H (r, t ) = 0
H (r, t ) = 0

Contains only E, H and constants

Note: An electromagnetic field can exist in the absence of charges and
currents ( = 0, J = 0); such fields are called electromagnetic waves
5

E&M Waves in Dielectric Media

Constitutive Relations
From Maxwells equations

D(r, t ) = E (r, t ) + P(r, t )

D is medium independent

B(r, t ) = H (r, t ) + M (r, t )

H (r, t ) =

B(r, t ) M (r, t )

H is medium independent
The constitutive relations describe the specific medium; they
describe how currents and charges are generated
Have relation between P and E and between M and H for medium

Describes dielectric properties

Describes magnetic properties

6

Properties of Dielectric Media

Linear

1.

2.

Nonlinear

Homogeneous
Nonhomogeneous

Isotropic

3.

4.

Anisotropic

Dispersive
Nondispersive

Linear:
Any component of P is weighted superposition
of components of E

Homogenous:
System is invariant to displacement; relation
between P and E is independent of position
Isotropic:
System is invariant to rotation of coordinate
system. P is parallel to E

Nondispersive:
Material is memoryless, i.e., P at time t is related
to E at same time, but not to prior values
7

Maxwells Equations

Curl
equations

Divergence
equations

D(r, t )
+ J (r, t )
t
B (r, t )
E (r, t ) =
t
D(r, t ) = (r, t )
H (r, t ) =

B(r, t ) = 0

Time-varying displacement (electric

field) and current are accompanied by
rotating magnetic field
Time-varying magnetic field
accompanied by rotating electric field
Diverging displacement (electric field)
related to charge (both bound and free)
Diverging magnetic flux density
doesnt exist

Review of Differential Operators

del

i+
j+ k
x y
z

Uses of del:
Gradient
(slope)

i+
j+
k
x
y
z

is scalar field

V V V
Divergence
V 1 + 2 + 3 V = V1i + V2 j + V3k is a vector field
(degree of outwardness)
x
y
z

V = 0

V 0

Review of Differential Operators

del

i+
j+ k
x y
z

Uses of del:

V i +
j + k (V1i + V2 j + V3k ) =
Curl
z
x
x y
(degree of rotation)
V1

y
V2

z
V3

V3 V2 V1 V3 V2 V1
i +
k
=

j +
z z
x x
y
y
V 0

V = 0

10

Review of Differential Operators

Laplacian
(divergence of
the gradient)

2 2 2
( ) = 2 + 2 + 2
x y z
2

2
2
2
2+ 2+ 2
x
y
z
2

Important identities

( ) = 0
( V ) = 0
( V ) = ( V ) 2V
11

M.E. 1: Amperes Law

H (r, t ) =

D(r, t )
+ J (r, t )
t

Displacement current
(added by Maxwell)

A time-varying displacement (electric

field) OR current generates magnetic
field with rotation
Another way to state generates is to say is
accompanied by
The displacement current term allows for
existence of electromagnetic waves (when
J = 0, E still accompanied by H)
Recall curl is a measure of field rotation
how much vector curls around a given point

Conduction
current

12

M.E. 2: Faradays Law

B (r, t )
E (r, t ) =
t
A time-varying magnetic flux (magnetic field) generates an
electric field with rotation
Rotating current (field) on a solenoid generates magnetic field
Time-varying magnetic field generates counter current due to
rotating (curl) electric field

13

M.E. 3: Gausss Law

D(r, t ) = (r, t )

The divergence of the electric displacement (electric flux) is

proportional to the charge density present at the point
Mathematical expression for Coulombs law
Relates charge to electric field
Recall that divergence is a measure of total outgoing flux per unit
volume

14

M.E. 4: Absence of Magnetic Charges

B(r, t ) = 0

There are no points in space that act as sources/sinks for

magnetic field lines (or magnetic flux)
Magnetic field lines always close on themselves
There are no magnetic charges (magnetic monopoles)

15

Introduction to Photonics
Lecture 13/14/15/16: Electromagnetic Optics
November 3/5/10/12, 2014

Electromagnetic theory
Review of Maxwells equations
Electromagnetic waves in dielectric media
Conductive media
Time-harmonic ME and TEM waves
Absorption and dispersion
Resonant media and Lorentz model

16

Review of Maxwells Equations

D(r, t )
H (r, t ) =
+ J (r, t )
t
B (r, t )
E (r, t ) =
t
D(r, t ) = (r, t )
B(r, t ) = 0

E(r, t) , H(r, t) are electric and magnetic fields

D(r, t) is electric flux density (or displacement

field) [C/m2]
B(r, t) is magnetic flux density [W/m2 = T]
is electric permittivity [F/m]

D(r, t ) = E (r, t ) + P(r, t )

B(r, t ) = H (r, t ) + M (r, t )

0 = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m

is magnetic permeability [H/m]

Units of E: [V/m]; Units of H: [A/m]

Six functions of E and H must satisfy M.E.

0 = 4 x 10-7 H/m

J(r, t) is current density [A/m2]

(r, t) is charge denstiy [C/m2]
P(r, t) is polarization density [C/m2]
M(r, t) is magnetization density [A/m]

Many variables, however, this is for any arbitrary medium

Relationships simplify for many media
17

Properties of Dielectric Media

Linear

1.

2.

Nonlinear

Homogeneous
Nonhomogeneous

Isotropic

3.

4.

Anisotropic

Dispersive
Nondispersive

Linear:
Any component of P is weighted superposition
of components of E

Homogenous:
System is invariant to displacement; relation
between P and E is independent of position
Isotropic:
System is invariant to rotation of coordinate
system. P is parallel to E

Nondispersive:
Material is memoryless, i.e., P at time t is related
to E at same time, but not to prior values
18

Linear, Nondispersive, Homogeneous,

Isotropic Media
P = 0 E

E
t
H
E = 0
t
E = 0
H =

D = E

= 0 (1 + )

Contains only
E, H fields

H = 0
2u - (1/c2)2u/ t2=0
non-magnetic materials:

c = ( )-1/2 = co/n

= 0

c0

n= =
= 1+
c
0

Time-Harmonic Fields
A monochromatic (time-harmonic) field can be written as:

1
E (r, t ) = Re{E(r )e jt } = [E(r )e jt + E (r )e jt ]
2
Spatial complex amplitude

This is a different way of writing:

E (r, t ) = Re{E(r )} cos(t ) + Im{E(r )} sin(t )

= E(r ) cos(t + )

Im{E(r )}

where (r) = tan

Re{E(r )}
1

M.E. for Time-Harmonic Fields

H = jD + J
E = j B

Expressed with only complex spatial amplitudes

D =
B

D = 0E + P
B = 0 H + 0M

where complex permittivity is:

= 0 (1 + ) + i

Plane Harmonic Waves

Plane harmonic (monochromatic waves) are defined as:

E (r, t ) = E0 e j (t k r )
constant vector

E(r ) = E0 e jk r
complex amplitude

M.E. for plane monochromatic waves are derived using properties of differential operators:
!differential operators act as a multiplication operation

j
t
jk

k E0 = 0
From M.E. we see that:

k H0 = 0
k E0 = H 0
k H 0 = E0

Helmholtz Equations
For source-free media, and time-harmonic fields:
Vector Helmholtz equations:
2

E+k E = 0

Typical scattering problem

k 2 = 2

2H + k 2H = 0
2

is a dyadic which, when operated

on a vector yields a vector.

In the special case where E is specified relative to a rectangular

Cartesian coordinate system the components of E separately
satisfy the scalar wave equation:

2 + k 2 = 0

What are the boundary conditions ?

Boundary Conditions
D
t
B
E =
t

H = J +

D =
B = 0
Using the divergence theorem

Using Stokess theorem

dl
=
J
+
S
S t n dA
B
S E dl = S t n dA

n (E2 E1 ) = 0
n (H 2 H 1 ) = K

3
D

n
dA
=

r
V

B n dA = 0
V

K : Surface

current density

(D2 D1 ) n =
(B2 B1 ) n = 0
:

Surface charge
density

Boundary Conditions
From M.E. 1, 2:

Tangential components
Condition:

n ( Ei E j ) = 0
n ( Hi H j ) = K

a surface current
density may be present

From M.E. 3, 4:

Normal components
Condition:

n ( Di D j ) =
n ( Bi B j ) = 0

a surface charge
density may be present

Boundary Conditions

Tangential components of E, H continuous

Normal components of D, B continuous

TEM Wave
The simplest solution of Maxwells equations in free space is the harmonic transverse
electromagnetic wave (TEM) wave

E = Eo e j (t z/c o )x
H=
x

Eo

e j ( t z/ co ) y

o = o o = 377 Ohms

Properties:
E and H are orthogonal to one another and to the direction of propagation (the z direction)
The ratio of the magnitudes of E and H is the impedance o = o o = 377 Ohms.

Poynting Vector and Energy Flow

S = EH

Poynting vector (power flux density, W/cm2)

Specifies the transfer rate of E&M energy: of fundamental importance in propagation, absorption, scattering
The rate at which E&M energy is transferred across a general surface:

W = S ndA
A

Positive if energy is absorbed inside V

1
W = [ D E + B H ] E&M energy density (J/cm3)
2
For harmonic fields in linear media, the time-averaged Poynting vector is:

I (r , t ) =

S =

1
Re { E (r ) H *(r )}
2

This is a relevant experimental quantity:

Optical intensity

Intensity Relations for TEM Waves

S=

1
EH
2

I = cW

I=

E02
2

1
W = E02
2

Time-averaged power density flow =

transport of time-averaged energy density
at the velocity of light

Absorption
Absorption is governed by a complex susceptibility:

= + j

Complex permittivity

= o(1 + )

Complex wavenumber

k = o = 1+ ko = 1+ + j ko

k = j 12

Let

then,

j 12 = ko 1 + + j

Expression for plane wave:

U =e

jkz

=e

j( j 12 )z

=e

12 z j z

I = U = e z
2

= absorption coefficient , attenuation coefficient, or extinction coefficient

= propagation constant = nko
nj

2ko

Attenuated wave

= 1+ + j

Expression relating refractive index and

absorption coefficient to complex
susceptibility

Weakly Absorbing Media

' ' << 1 + '
1 + '+ j ' ' = 1 + ' 1 + j 1 + ' (1 + j / 2)

= ' ' /(1 + ' )

n 1+ '

k0
''
n

Strongly Absorbing Media

' ' >> 1 + '
n j / 2k 0

Note that

j ' ' = j ( ' ' ) =

n ( ' ' ) / 2

2k 0 ( ' ' ) / 2

''< 0 > 0

1
(1 j ) ( ' ' )
2

Remarks on Conventions
Complex wavenumber:

1
k= j
2

1
n j
= / 0 = 1 + '+ j ' '
2 k0

Propagation constant
(effective refractive index):

= nk0

Complex impedance: =

0
0
=

1+

In general:
are REAL quantities

are COMPLEX quantities

Complex Refractive Index

With E = E0 f (k r t ) we can obtain the dispersion relation
(relation between k and )

c2k 2

= ( )

c
c
=
=~
k
( ) n ( )

complex electric permitivity

Where

n% ( ) = n + i = ( )
Complex refractive index

Complex Refractive Index

c
c
=
=~
k
( ) n ( )

n% ( ) = n + i = ( )

0
=
n( )
( ) =

Snells law refractive index

(real dispersion)

( )

Absorption coefficient

Intensity extinction
(energy dissipation)

v ph =

Re( k )

vg =
k

c
n ( )

Alternative Relations
2

n% = ( )

n% ( ) = n + i

Complex refractive index

( ) = '+ i ''

= 1+

' = n2 2
'' = 2n
Or, equivalently:
2

n=

( ') + ( '') + '

2
2

(n, ) ( ', '')

( ') + ( '')
2

'

connection describes the intrinsic

optical properties of matter

Kramers-Kronig Relations
Relation between absorption and dispersion: if n() !then ()
For any linear, shift-invariant, causal system with real impulse-response functions,
and are related through Kramers-Kronig relations:

Hilbert transform pairs

Kramers-Kronig relations for n and

Optical Transmission

Origin of Frequency Dependence of Susceptibility

E

Dielectric medium

Linear, homogeneous, isotropic

Regard the P-E relation

as a (dynamic) linear system

P (t) = o (t t )E (t )dt

E (t ) = Re{E( )e jt }

P ( ) = 0 ( )E( )

!Since is frequency dependent,

n and are also frequency dependent.

n( ) j

( )
= 1 + ( ) + j ( )
2 co

LSI Systems and Dielectric Media

Recall LSI = linear, shift-invariant

P (t) = o (t t )E (t )dt

Electric dipole

P
P = -Nex
N: atomic density
-e: electronic charge
x: charge displacement

(t )

P(t )

: response (real)

E (t )

: input (real)

0 (t )

: impulse-response (real)

0 ( ) : transfer function
( ) = ( )*

: Hermitian symmetry

Resonant Medium: Lorentz Model

E loc = E c e j t : local electric field that induces dipole moment

p = ex

induced dipole moment/atom

(-e = electron charge; x = displacement)

P = Np

polarization density
(N = atomic density)

How do we model the dipole moment (of an atom) induced by incident electric field?
! model motion of bound charge as driven harmonic oscillator

There is not a single granule of

light which is not the fruit of an
oscillating charge. -A. Lorentz

Lorentz model of materials

m, e
K

Resonant Medium: Lorentz Model

driving force

Lorentz model of materials

d 2x
dx
m 2 + b + Kx = eEloc
dt
dt

m, e
K

0 2 = K / m resonant frequency
=b/m
damping constant

d 2x
dx
m 2 + m
+ m02 x = eEloc
dt
dt
With harmonic driving field:

E loc = E c e j t
Note: complex representation of real
time-harmonic quantities

Solution:

x = x c e j t

xc =

m ( 0

eE c
2 + j )

Resonant Medium: Lorentz Model

Where does this come from?

Ftotal = ma

Newtons Law

Ftotal = Fexternal + F friction + Frestore

d 2x
dx
m 2 + m
+ m02 x = eEloc
dt
dt
mass* Friction/damping Restoring
acceleration (loss: due to
force
emission,
scattering/
collisions)

Driving force from

electric field of
incident wave

43

Collection of Oscillators
Induced dipole moment of an oscillator is:

p = ex

Polarization density of medium containing N oscillators/unit volume is:

P =

p2
2

0 + j

Where we have defined the plasma frequency:

Recall:

P = 0 E

P = Np = Nex

0E

Ne 2
=
m 0

p2
0 2 2 + j

Dielectric Permittivity of Oscillators

P = 0 E

p2
= 1+ = 1+ 2
0 2 i

= '+ i ''
' = 1+

p 2 ( 0 2 2 )
2

(02 2 ) + 2 2
1

'' =

p 2
2

(02 2 ) + 2 2

Refractive Index of Oscillators

n j

1
= / 0 = 1 + '+ j ' '
2 k0

n j = / 0 = 1 + '+ j ' '

Normal dispersion:
n with frequency

Anomalous dispersion
n with frequency

Absorption
Reflectance
(n 1) 2 + 2
R=
(n + 1) 2 2

n <1

The Resonant Medium

E

Electric Dipole
2x
x 2 e
+

+ o x = E
2
t
t
m

P
P = Nex

e2 N
o =
2
moo

m = mass of bound electron,

= elastic constant of restoring force
o =( /m)1/2 = resonance frequency
= damping coefficient

Solutions of the form:

2P
P
2
2
+

P
=

2
o
o ooE
t
t

P = 0 E

{ }
P(t ) = Re{Pe }
E (t ) = Re Ee jt
jt

( ) = o

2
o

o2 2 + j

Lorentzian susceptibility

0 =

0
2

=
2

Structure of the Lorentz Susceptibility

( ) = o

o2
o2 2 + j

( ) = o

o2 ( o2 2 )
2

( o2 2 ) + ( )2

2o
( ) = o 2
2
( o 2 ) + ( )2

Plots of real and imaginary parts

Peak of -

Q=
Low frequency limit

0 =

Ne
0 m02

Low-frequency
susceptibility

For >> 0, 0

Max/min of ' ( ) : 0Q /(2 m 1 / Q ) occurring at : 0 1 m 1 / Q

Lorentzian Susceptibility Approximations

Approximations: near resonance
( ) = o

o2
o2 2 + j

o 2
( ~ o ) = o
( o ) + j 2

( ) o
( ) 2

o
4

1
( o )2 + ( 2) 2

o
( )

Lorentzian function
drops to peak value
at | - 0 | = /2
! is FWHM

Approximations: far from resonance

( ) = o

o2
o2 2 + j

( ) o

2
o

2o 2
No imaginary part
! negligible absorption

n ( ) 1+ o

o2
2o 2

n( )
no

Dielectric Permittivity Approximations

For frequencies in the vicinity of 0

' 1+

''

p (0 ) / 20
2

( 0 ) + ( / 2 )
p / 40
2

(0 ) + ( / 2 )

Lorentzian lineshape

p 2
''max
0
FWHM( '') 0 = / 2
'max = 1 + ''max / 2
'min = 1 ''max / 2

Absorption/Refraction
n j

1
= / 0 = 1 + '+ j ' '
2 k0

One resonance
(dilute concentration
of atoms)

Multiple resonances
(different lattice and
electronic vibrations)
! Overall susceptibility
from superposition of
resonances

Recall: confined near

resonances; near and
below resonance
!Absoption and
dispersion strong near
resonance;
Away from resonance n
constant (nondispersive,
nonabsorptive)

Transparent [in Visible]

Although medium is approximately nondispersive/nonabsorptive away from resonance,

each resonance contributes to value of refractive index away from [below] resonance
Recall Kramers-Kronig relations:

Absorption/Refraction
n j

1
= / 0 = 1 + '+ j ' '
2 k0

One resonance
(dilute concentration
of atoms)

Multiple resonances
(different lattice and
electronic vibrations)
! Overall susceptibility
from superposition of
resonances

Recall: confined near

resonances; near and
below resonance
!Absoption and
dispersion strong near
resonance;
Away from resonance n
constant (nondispersive,
nonabsorptive)

The Sellmeier Equation

Media with multiple resonances

The imaginary part is confined near resonance

Electronic vibrations
Lattice vibrations
Superposition
of different contributions

The real part contributes at all frequencies

The Sellmeier Equation (far from resonance)

!susceptibility is a sum of terms

n 1+ oi
2

2i

2
2

i
i
2

n 2 ( ) 1 + oii 2
2i
i

Refractive Index of Silica Glass in the Transparent Region

(well described by three resonances)
n ( ) 1 + i
2

2
2 2i

1=.6961663;
2 =0.4079426;
3 =0.89794;

1 =.0684043 m
2 =0.1162414 m
3 =9.896161 m

N
n

N =n

dn
= group index
d

c/N = group velocity

d 2n
D =
c d 2

= dispersion coefficient
(ps/km-nm)

Refractive Index Dispersion

Optics of Conducting Media

Media with free electrons ! include J
For monochromatic waves

D
H =
+J
t
E =

H = j D + J

B
t

With

J = E

B = 0

D =

D = 0 r E = 0 (1 + )E

H = j eff E
where effective electric permittivity given by:

eff

= 0 r +
= 0 (1 + ) +
j
j
dielectric

, r ,

conductive

are generally complex

Optics of Conducting Media

H = j eff E
Describes wave propagation with

k = eff 0

0
=
eff

n and determined from

n j / 2k0 = eff / 0

When conductive effects dominate

eff

where

eff

= 0 r +
j

n / 2 0

2 0
(1 + j ) 0 / 2
58

Physical Meaning
If the imaginary parts of or are nonzero, the amplitude of a plane wave will
decrease as it propagates in the medium ! absorption
Where complex permittivity defined as:

= 0 (1 + ) + j

bound charge current density
free charge current density

Complex phenomenological coefficients of a medium are equivalent to a phase

difference between P and E (or H and B) and are manifested by absorption
Both conductivity and susceptibility contribute to the imaginary part of the permittivity

Im( ) = Im( ) + Re