MME2203

University of Malta

MME2203 : Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metals

Aluminium and its Alloys

Aluminium Wire Car

Group 3 :
Zachary Cassar Torreggiani

545093(M)

Christina May Cefai

290394(M)

Raisa Chetcuti

325894(M)

Sarah Ciappara

156794(M)

Marvic Cordina

31794(G)

Braden-Steve Cutajar

93694(M)

Daniel Dalli

73994(M)

Zachary De Giovanni

162194(M)

Julian Debono

204294(M)

Christopher Dimech

37794(M)
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Contents
Introduction......03
History
Production
Wrought Aluminium Alloys ...................................................03
Classification
Temper of Wrought Alloys
Cast Aluminium Alloys...........................07
Heat treatable alloys
Non-heat treatable alloys
Classification
Impurities and defects in Cast aluminium alloys
Hydrogen Porosity.......................10
Effects of Hydrogen Porosity
Hydrogen Porosity in Welding
Hardening Mechanisms...............14
Solid Solution hardening
Grain-size hardening
Precipitation hardening
Work hardening
Properties and Applications of Aluminium...........................................18
Physical Propeties
Mechanical Properties
Chemical Properties
Applications of Aluminium

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Introduction
Aluminium is the third most common element
in the worlds crust, sitting at around eight
percent, giving a near unlimited supply. It is a
chemical element having the symbol Al and
an atomic number of 13, meaning it has three
electrons in its outer shell. This gives it a
propensity to form Aluminium oxide,
otherwise known as Alumina. This oxide is
normally extracted from Bauxite, an
aluminium ore.

Figure 1 : Availability of Elements[1]

[][missing reference]

History

In 1807, English chemist Sir Humphry Davy underlined the existence of the element Alumium, a
then unknown metal which produced the salt alum. The element was renamed Aluminium.
However, he was unable to successfully produce Aluminium. In 1825, Danish physicist Hans
Christian rsted first produced Aluminium in an impure form by reacting anhydrous Aluminium
chloride with potassium amalgam, producing a tin-like metal. Friedrich Whlers research in
1845 led to the discovery of the properties of Aluminium, giving it great importance at the time.
The first industrial process to produce alumina from bauxite was created by Henry Sainte-Claire
Deville who entitled it, The Deville Process,. It was invented in 1859, and involves the extraction
of alumina with sodium carbonate. This process was of great importance at the time, as it
produced larger quantities of alumina than with previous methods.
The process of electrolytic reduction of alumina dissolved in molten cryolite was developed by
Charles Hall (Ohio) and Paul Heroult (France) in 1886. Both developed their methods
simultaneously. However, Hall is credited with the discovery since he filed the earlier patent. In
1888, Austrian scientist Karl Bayer further improved the Hall/Heroult method of production. The
Bayer Process is the main industrial means of producing alumina from bauxite.[2]
Production
Aluminium is made by using two processes. First, the Bayer Process is used to produce alumina
(pure aluminium oxide) from bauxite. Four tonnes of bauxite are required to give around two
tonnes of alumina. Then, pure aluminium is extracted from the alumina by electrolysis, using the
Hall/Heroult electrochemical smelting process. Two tonnes of alumina give around one tonne of
aluminium.[3]

Wrought Aluminium Alloys

Alloys that are subjected to working processes such as rolling, extrusion and forging, in order to
obtain desired shapes from ingots are called wrought alloys. They generally possess better
mechanical properties than cast alloys due to their formation processes.
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Classification
Wrought alloys are classified into eight series according to the different impurities added and
their concentrations. A four-digit code is used to define each specific alloy - the first digit
indicating the series it is included in, the second digit showing the alteration of the specific alloy
and the remaining two digits classifying each independent alloy. For instance, the alloy 4164 is
included in the fourth series of silicon, and is the first alteration to the initial 4064 alloy. The last
two digits identify it within the 4xxx series.

Figure 2 : Alloying Elements of the Series[4]

1xxx series Commercially Pure Aluminium

Alloys in this series consist of a minimum of 99% aluminium. Their properties are therefore
similar to those of pure aluminium, including high thermal and electrical conductivities, low
strength and high corrosion resistance, machinability and reflectivity. The strength is increased
by alloying small amounts of iron (Fe) and silicon (Si) as well as through strain hardening. These
properties combined with the high-purity alloys inertness, make them very suitable for
packaging, thus used for foil or food containers, along with electrical conductors, heat
exchangers and decorative trim.[6][4]
2xxx series Copper
Copper (Cu) and Magnesium (Mg) are added to create high-strength alloys with good fatigue,
high-temperature properties and machinability. Copper usually makes up 3-6 wt% while
magnesium makes up 0-2 wt%. Precipitation hardening produces aluminium-copper and
aluminium-copper-magnesium intermetallic phases, which increase the strength of the alloy. A
high concentration of copper however decreases corrosion resistance, due to the precipitation of
the copper across grain boundaries, exposing them to pitting, intergranular corrosion and stress
corrosion. This also causes the alloy to become brittle. The addition of manganese greatly
improves the tensile strength and yield strength of the aluminium-copper-magnesium alloys;
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however this comes at the expense of ductility. Consequently, manganese content should not
exceed 1%.
Alloys in this series are therefore used for applications where a high strength-to-weight ratio is
favorable, including truck and aircraft wheels, military vehicles and bridges. Low carbon content
alloys have better corrosion resistance and are used in the automotive manufacturing. [6]
3xxx series Manganese
Manganese is the main alloying element of this series, producing medium-strength and ductile
alloys with good formability. Only a few alloys of this series are produced due to the small
amount of manganese that can be added to aluminium (generally 1-2%). However, they are
widely used for general purpose applications which include beverage cans, cooking utensils,
packaging and heating equipment.[6]
4xxx series Silicon
High amounts of silicon, up to 12 wt%, are added to create brittle alloys. The silicon is present as
intermetallic precipitates as well as elemental particles, producing low ductility and poor
formability. Their applications include welding materials and brazing sheets due to their low
melting point and casting products where high rigidity is required.[6][4]
5xxx series Magnesium
Alloys having magnesium as the main alloying element are of medium strength and of very good
formability. This is because of the solute and strain hardening that occurs. When the magnesium
content level is below 3 wt%, the alloys of this series are very resistant to corrosion. In fact, their
performance in marine environments is superior to any other series. These properties also make
them suitable for outdoor exposure such as scaffolding. These alloys tend to be harder than those
of the manganese series and can be added in higher quantities; however stress-corrosion cracking
can result as a result of excessive cold work and operation temperature.
6xxx series Magnesium and Silicon
Magnesium and silicon are present in approximately equal proportions in the 6xxx series,
ranging from 0.3-1.5 wt% each, creating the intermetallic compound, Mg2Si. These alloys
possess medium-high strength, though not as much as the 2xxx and 7xxx series. However, they
have high corrosion resistance, formability and weldability. They are widely used in transport,
automotive outer body panels, buildings - including doors and windows, offshore marine
structures and heating such as brazing sheets. Some of these alloys can also be extruded to be
used for machine parts by adding low melting elements such as lead.[4]

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7xxx series Zinc

These are high-strength alloys containing 4-6 wt% zinc and 1-3 wt% magnesium. The addition
of these two metals increases the alloys' response to heat treatment, allowing higher strengths to
be achieved. However, they also significantly reduce corrosion resistance. Their uses which are
based on their superior strength include aerospace, space exploration, military and nuclear
applications. They are also used in high quality sports products such as tennis rackets and ski
poles. Moreover, small amounts of chromium are often added to increase electrical resistivity
while further addition of copper creates the aluminium with very high strength.[4]
8xxx series Other Elements
This is a miscellaneous series that includes alloys whose major alloying element is not
mentioned in the other seven series. Lithium has a very low density and high solubility, and so
can be alloyed with aluminium in high quantities. The resulting alloy is very light. It also has
high stiffness and it responds to age-hardening. This combination of properties made it
interesting in fields where lightweight materials are important such as aerospace. Other examples
of alloying elements include higher levels of lead content, used for foil, 5% calcium which has
superplastic properties and nickel which is used in nuclear power generators due its high
resistance to aqueous corrosion at high temperatures and pressures.
Temper of Wrought Alloys
Alloys can be classified in two groups, heat treatable and non-heat treatable.
For heat treatable alloys, a thermal process is carried out to manipulate the mechanical properties
as well as the work hardening processes which occur during production and post-production. The
second, sixth and seventh series alloys are capable of undergoing these treatments, which are age
or precipitation hardening. There are however, a variety of treatments all resulting in specific
microstructures and tempers.
If an alloy is non-heat treatable, the desired properties will be obtained from hot and/or cold
working operations which occur during the production and post-production work. This work
includes hardening processes such as strain hardening. Annealing is also commonly carried out.
The alloys of the first, third, fourth and fifth series fall under this category.
Table 1 demonstrates the basic temper designations that are used to define the strengthening
processes carried out. [5][4]

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Cast Aluminium Alloys

Cast aluminium alloys are widely used in the aviation,
automobile and maritime industries mainly due to their efficient
manufacturing process and mechanical versatility. This
versatility can either be achieved through heat treatment
processes or through specific combinations of alloying
elements that enhance the mechanical properties of pure Figure 3 : Body frame of a toy car made
aluminium.
out of cast aluminium alloy [7]
There are different types of casting methods that can be used to
create a cast aluminium alloy. The most commonly used processes are sand casting, permanent
mould casting and cold chamber pressure die-casting. All
these processes involve injection moulding, where the
molten material is injected into the mould and cooled until
it solidifies, creating the required component.[8] Advantages
related to the casting process of aluminium alloys include a
very low melting temperature that makes the alloys
adequate for casting due to high solubility capabilities
which in turn results in a good surface finish. On the other
hand, disadvantages related to these alloys include their
Figure 4 Picture taken during the
tendency to shrink a little during the solidification process
process of sand casting [9]
(3.5% to 8.5% approx.).[10]

Cast Aluminium alloys are also classified in a four digit system in order to identify the type of
alloy as shown in table 2.

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The second two digits of all the aluminium alloys classified under the 1xx.x represent the
minimum percentage of aluminium available in the alloy. For example 190.x implies that the
particular composition obtained has a minimum amount of 99.90% aluminium. The last digit
after the decimal point represents the product form denoting the castings.
The second two digits of all the aluminium alloys classified under the 2xx.x to the 9xx.x series
represent a particular number used to represent different aluminium alloys. Additionally, the last
digit after the decimal points represents the product form of the alloy.[10][11]
Heat Treatable Alloys
The cast aluminium alloys that demonstrate a significant improvement in their mechanical
characteristics are known as heat treatable alloys. These alloys' solid solubility improves with
increasing temperature, thus allowing them to undergo heat-treatments like quenching in water,
which traps the alloying element inside the material, making it stronger.[12] The three cast
aluminium alloys which exhibit the best results from any heat treatment operations are the 2xx.x,
the 3xx.x and the 7xx.x series.[13][14][15]
In the 2xx.x series, copper is alloyed with aluminium in order to create a material that can retain
high levels of strength over a wider temperature range making it adequate for aerospace
equipment and heavy duty military vehicles. However, the copper content reduces the corrosion
resistance and ductility of aluminium whilst making the material more vulnerable to hot
cracking, which in turn makes the alloy inappropriate for welding.[13][16][17]
The 3xx.x series can be defined as a combination of Aluminium-Silicon-Magnesium or
Aluminium-Silicon-Copper alloy. It is often used in compressors/pumps or piping systems due to
its increased wear resistance properties and machinability/cast-ability. Even though ductility and
corrosion resistance decrease, strain hardness and weld-ability properties increase.[13][16]
The 7xx.x series, composed of aluminium and zinc, forms one of the strongest composites in the
cast aluminium alloy series. Thus, it is often used in high performance applications where it is
subjected to demanding circumstances. Despite the added strength from the zinc alloying
element, these alloys tend to have low fracture toughness. Consequently, tempering is carried out
to minimise this disadvantage.[13][16]
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Non-Heat Treatable Alloys

Non-heat treatable cast aluminium alloys can be made harder either by alloying them with other
elements or by using the cold working/strain hardening process.
In cold working, the aluminium is plastically deformed when it is under the recrystallization
temperature, thus leading to an increase in strength. This process does not require any heat
treatments.[12]
Precipitation hardening could also be utilised in order to improve the mechanical properties of
cast aluminium alloys without resorting to heat treatments. In the crystal structure of an
aluminium alloy there are different types of dislocations. By preventing the movement of these
dislocations, strength would be increased. Precipitation hardening works in a similar manner.
Extremely small, uniformly dispersed second-phase particles which will act as obstacles to
dislocation motion would be formed. This process would result in an increase in strength.
Classification
Most of the non-heat treatable aluminium alloys can be found in the 4xx.x, 5xx.x and 8xx.x
series.
4xx.x series - Silicon
The 4xx.x series includes all aluminium-silicon cast alloys whose strength is acceptable in
certain applications without causing other problems during the process, such as reaching and
exceeding its yield strength and failure stress. This type of alloy is not the most ductile since
when increasing silicon with aluminium, ductility decreases. The most important property this
alloy provides is that it offers good cast properties. Silicon is a very good element since when
melting metal, it tends to increase the fluidity of the melt and also reduces the effects of
contraction when cooling the material obtained. It also offers good wear and corrosion
resistance. The materials produced from this alloy are usually used in cooking utensils and pump
casings.[13][17][18]
5xx.x series - Magnesium
In the 5xx.x series one finds Aluminium-Magnesium cast alloys. When adding magnesium in an
aluminium alloy, several processes can be made less tedious. For example, when adding
between 0.1% - 4.4%, the formability (the ability to deform a material without causing any
cracks or damage to the object) and weldability will be easier to execute. Moreover, when
adding magnesium to an aluminium alloy, the corrosion resistance of the alloy tends to
improve.[13][19]
8xxx.x series - Tin

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The 8xx.x series consists of Aluminium-Tin cast alloys. These alloys are not the best with
regards to strength. They are however, highly machinable due to their great ductility. These
alloys are typically used as bearings in internal combustion engines due to their good
compressive properties and lubricating capabilities.[13][20]
Impurities and Defects in Cast Aluminium Alloys
Due to the ever-growing industrial demand of cast aluminium alloys, a lot of research and
techniques are being developed to minimize both manufacturing defects and aluminium
impurities which of course hinder the process of achieving the desired mechanical properties.[21]
Manufacturing defects such as material shrinkage and thermal cracks are two of the most
common imperfections when dealing with cast aluminium alloys. Material shrinkage occurs in
the solidifying process when the solidified product occupies less volume than when it was in the
liquid state. These features are unfavourable due to the tolerance specifications of certain
components. Therefore, in order to minimize them, additional molten material is injected into the
moulds during the solidifying process in order to compensate for the volumetric
discrepancy.[21][22][23]
On the other hand, amending thermal cracks is somewhat a harder task to accomplish than
material shrinkage because of the way they develop in the castings. Thermal cracks are the result
of stresses being applied by the already solidified portions of the component on the semisolidified sections which are not as strong. Under these stresses, the semi-solid portions form
cracks and if the volume of the liquid inside the cast is not large enough to cover the cracks, they
will have a significant influence on the fatigue life of the component.[21]
One more factor which highly affects the properties of cast components are material impurities,
caused by the inclusion of impurity elements (Ca, Li, Na) during the melt. These increase the
hydrogen solubility in aluminium, thus resulting in a very porous component with a lower
fatigue life. Hence, the total amount of these impurities should be as low as possible.[21][23]

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Hydrogen Porosity
Hydrogen gas is considered to be the
only gas having an appreciable degree
of solubility in aluminium and its alloys.
The solubility of hydrogen gas in
aluminium is dependent on the phase of
the latter. In fact, hydrogen is more
soluble in aluminium when it is in its
liquid form (0.69mg/L just above the
solidus) rather then when aluminium is
in its solid form (0.04mg/L just below
the solidus). Moreover, within each
aluminium phase, solubility varies
proportionally with temperature and
with the square root of the pressure as
clearly demonstrated in figure 5. [24]

24

[24]

Due to the difference in the solubility of aluminium when it is in the two different phases, when
aluminium cools and solidifies, hydrogen pores start precipitating. This is due to the fact that the
hydrogen concentration is in excess of the low threshold of solubility in solid aluminium. This
process occurs when aluminium solidifies in the presence of hydrogen sources, which include the
atmosphere, moisture and hygroscopic fluxes.
Hydrogen, derived from water by the reaction; 2Al + 3HO AlO + 3H, diffuses in
aluminium when in its liquid state and depending on the cooling rate and hydrogen content, some
hydrogen will be trapped inside the aluminium solid. The issue of hydrogen porosity, which is
evident in the casting and welding processes, should be catered for since it could affect the final
product's desired properties.
As figure 6 demonstrates, the more hydrogen dissolved in aluminium, provided they are at the
same temperature, pressure and cooling rate, the larger is the pore volume fraction and the
average pore size. The rate through which aluminium is cooled plays an important role in this
issue since a slow cooling rate would allow hydrogen to precipitate out of aluminium, thus
giving rise to a larger pore fraction and average pore size. Inversely, a fast cooling rate helps
minimising the hydrogen porosity as illustrated in figure 7. From these relationships, a third
graph, as shown in figure 8, could be obtained. It shows the relationship between the hydrogen
content and cooling rate. Whilst keeping a constant cooling rate, a higher hydrogen content
results in a larger pore fraction, thus agreeing with figure 6.

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Figure 6 : Relationship between Hydrogen content and Pore Volume Fraction [24]

Figure 7 : Pore fraction vs. Cooling Rate (Graphs 1-5 represent different conditions) [24]

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Figure 8 : Cooling rate vs. Hydrogen content (fp denotes pore fraction) [24]

Certain measures one can take in order to prevent or rather reduce hydrogen porosity in
aluminium, are the following :

High temperature : Solubility of hydrogen in aluminium increases proportionally with

temperature. Consequently, aluminium would be able to accept more hydrogen
molecules rather than expelling them as pores.

High pressure : It follows the same relationship as temperature since solubility increases
proportionally with the square root of pressure

Fast cooling rate: A fast cooling rate will limit the time in which hydrogen can
precipitate and produce pores

Limit hydrogen sources : These can all act as donors of hydrogen molecules or ions and
will increase the hydrogen content of the aluminium

In casting, turbulence in the melt, such as during pouring, can facilitate the absorption of
hydrogen from the atmosphere [24]

Effects of Hydrogen Porosity

Hydrogen porosity contributes to the total number of voids in aluminium castings. Another
source of voids would be shrinkage and inclusions. The more voids present in the aluminium
casting, the smaller the average effective cross-sectional area of the product would be. This
implies that because of the reduced area, larger stresses would result in the material when
subjected to a force. Thus, voids have a detrimental effect on tensile strength, yield strength and
fatigue resistance. This relationship is shown in figure 9.
However, hydrogen porosity is not always detrimental when the mechanical properties of the
part are not of utmost importance. Hydrogen may be added deliberately during casting as the
voids caused by hydrogen can partially cancel out some of the negative relative pressures that
occur due to shrinkage.
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This approximately equalizes internal and

external pressures of the part such that there are
less resultant pressures on the surface of the part,
thus withstanding collapse to some degree.
Hydrogen porosity can be measured using
radiography and fluoroscopy. Other methods also
include sectioning the casting and metallography.
However, these are destructive and do not inspect
the whole volume of the casting but a single
plane. The former two methods are therefore
preferred. Hydrogen porosity should be measured
to ensure that hydrogen porosity and any voids in
general are within standards.[24]

24

Hydrogen Porosity in Welding

During the welding process, hydrogen is absorbed by the weld pool which forms pores in the
solidyfing weld metal. As hydrogen gas porosity forms in the metal, the gas emerges from the
solution and forms bubbles while the melt solidifies. During this process, the weld would try to
avoid hydrogen even if most of the times the result is not successful.[26]
The combination of oxygen and aluminium forms an
aluminium oxide layer. This aluminium oxide layer
provides great corrosion resistance but it must be
removed before welding since its melting point is much
higher than that of aluminium (over 2000C compared to
about the 660 of aluminium). If this layer is still present,
welding cannot begin.[26] When there is an excessive
presence of dissolved hydrogen in aluminium, several
negative effects arise. Figure 10 illustrates one of the
detrimetal effects of hydrogen porosity (voids).

Figure 10 : Welding Defects[28]

Porosity in aluminium welds can be minimized by cleaning the piece of aluminium which is
prepared for welding with a degreaser while also making sure that the solvent evaporates before
proceeding on to the welding process.[27] Stainless wire brushes or carbide wheels must be used
in order to remove the protective oxide film. Moreover, a moderate weld travel speed (less than
the solidification rate) and a correct weld position are also factors of utmost importance so that a
good weld with less hydrogen porosity could be produced.[26]

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Hardening Mechanisms
Pure aluminium is a very soft and ductile material. Therefore, in order to use it for certain
applications where better strength and hardness are required, it must undergo certain hardening
mechanisms.[29]
There are four main types of hardening mechanisms:

Solid Solution hardening

Grain-size hardening
Precipitation hardening
Work hardening

The type of hardening mechanism used depends on the properties of the material:
Solid Solution Hardening
Solid solution hardening is the effect of lattice strains imposed by foreign particles/atoms in the
crystalline lattice of a pure metal. These strains are present due to the restriction of motion or
dislocations of a slip plane. This increases the yield strength and hardness of a material.[29]
These foreign bodies are introduced into the aluminium matrix by forming solid solutions. The
strengthening effects are caused by the atomic size difference and by the difference in the
modulus of elasticity. A substitutional or interstitial solid solution can form depending on the
atomic size; in either case the crystal structure remains unchanged (FCC).[29]
A common problem encountered in
this process is that even if aluminium
has many alloying properties, very
few elements have sufficient solid
solubility to give a substantial solution
hardening effect.[29]
The dominant property affecting the
hardness and strength of an
aluminium alloy is known as the size
effect, which is the difference in
atomic size between the solution and
solute atoms - the secondary factor
being solubility. This combination of
effects make copper and magnesium
the prominent solutes for this
hardening mechanism.[29]

Figure 11 : Effect of Mg in Al- Mg [29]

The effects of magnesium in the

Binary Alloy Al-Mg can be seen in
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figure 11, where with increasing amounts of magnesium, yield and ultimate tensile strength
increase, whilst elongation decreases radically.[29]
Grain Size Hardening
In a polycrystalline material, the grain size
affects the physical properties of the material.
Adjacent grains have different crystallographic
orientations with a common grain boundary. For
slip to occur across a grain boundary, large
forces are needed since one grain will have to
change its direction of motion in order to
overcome the crystallographic misorientation.
Therefore, if the grain size is reduced, the area of
grain boundaries increases, thus increasing the
strength of the material. In addition, fine grained
materials are harder and stronger than coarsegrained materials according to the Hall-Petch
equation:

as can be seen in

figure 12. [29]

Figure 12 : Relationship between grain size and

yield strength[29]

The main processes that affect grain size are

those which control the cooling rates for
aluminium to change from the liquid phase to
the solid phase or plastic deformation, such as
work hardening, followed by annealing for
grain refinement. The faster the cooling rate,
the smaller the grain diameter and the harder
the material, as shown in figure 13.[29]

Figure 13 : Relationship between cooling rate and grain diameter [30]

Precipitation Hardening
The most commonly used technique to harden aluminium is precipitation/age hardening which is
used to produce the strongest aluminium alloys. Precipitation hardening is the process in which
heat is first applied to the ductile material. In this mechanism, very small particles of a different
phase within the primary matrix, known as precipitates, are evenly distributed throughout. These
particles inhibit the movement of dislocations present in the primary matrix, thus hardening and
strengthening the heat-treated alloy.[31][32]
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However, not all materials can be strengthened by precipitation hardening. Due to the processes
involved, the material must have a higher solid solubility at a higher temperature. An example of
such a material is an aluminium alloy containing copper. This can be seen in the phase diagram
of figure 14, where Duralumin (an alloy of 96wt%Al--4wt%Cu) is taken into account. At 550C
the material is simply made up of a solid solution of phase . However, as the temperature
decreases to around 500C, a material of phase begins to form (the solvus at 96wt%Al-4wt%Cu). As the temperature decreases further, more is being formed. This means that the
solid solubility of decreases with decreasing temperature. [31]

Figure 14 : Al-Cu phase diagram, showing the 100wt%Al side, along with the
microstructures present in the three stages of precipitation hardening [31]

As figure 14 demonstrates, the three stages of precipitation hardening are:

i)
ii)
iii)

Solution treatment
Quenching
Aging.[31]

Step 1 : Solution Treatment

For a precipitate to form on cooling, a solid solution must first be created, containing as many
alloying elements as possible. Therefore, the alloy must first be heated to a temperature higher
than the solvus temperature. If kept at this high temperature for an extended period of time, the
alloy will become a homogenous solid, where particles will dissolve in the solid solution .
When heating, one must ensure that the alloy is not heated above the eutectic temperature as this
can induce melting of eutectic phases. On the other hand, not heating to a high enough
temperature will also have negative effects on the final properties of the alloy, resulting in a
lower ultimate tensile strength and yield strength.[34]
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Step 2 : Quenching
At this stage, the solid solution is cooled very quickly. This forms a supersaturated solid
solution (denoted as SS) containing excess copper, thus meaning that it is an unstable phase.
This occurs because the solution is not given enough time for the excess copper to diffuse out of
the phase, and consequently no precipitates form. The faster the alloy is quenched, the
stronger and tougher the alloy will be. However, quenching too quickly will have negative
consequences as residual stresses and distortion will occur. The medium in which the solid
solution is quenched dictates the rate of quenching.[31][32]
Step 3 : Aging
The final stage is aging. For the evenly distributed precipitate to form, the now supersaturated
phase must be heated to a temperature lower than both the solvus temperature and the GP
(Guinier Preston) solvus line. Materials can be either naturally or artificially aged. Natural aging
occurs at room temperature, while artificial aging occurs at a raised temperature. Alloys with a
low precipitation reaction rate are artificially aged. As mentioned previously, this supersaturated
solid solution containing excess copper is not stable. Therefore, the excess copper diffuses to
various nucleation sites and the precipitates grow even more. These precipitates which are GP
zones, are small, finely spread out and coherent in the matrix of the alloy. This in turn makes it
difficult for dislocation movement to occur as it would need to cut through the precipitated
particles or bypass them. This makes the alloy stronger and therefore the hardening process is
complete. Over-aging, however, makes the alloy more ductile and lessens in strength as
recrystallization occurs. This is caused by the formation of the intermediate phase and should
be avoided.[31]
Work Hardening
Work or strain hardening is another method of
hardening metals such as aluminium. Not all alloys
are heat-treatable; therefore not all can be hardened
by precipitation hardening. However, work
hardening can also be used to improve certain
properties of alloys that have already been
hardened by precipitation hardening. These
properties include tensile strength, yield strength
and hardness. However, ductility and formability
decrease. This occurs by normal crystallographic
slip processes. The more cold work is done on the
metal, the higher the dislocation density, thus
resulting in an increase in mechanical properties
and a decrease in elongation. This can be seen in
the graphs in figure 15. [33] The effects of work
hardening can be reversed to its original state
through annealing.
Figure 15 : Work-hardening curves for various
wrought non-heat-treatable aluminium alloys [37]

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Properties and Applications of Aluminium

Aluminium is a light weight non ferrous metal with good resistance to corrosion and relatively
high strength whose chemical and physical properties vary upon the grade of the aluminium
used. In fact, as previously mentioned, there are several standards through which aluminium is
classified into grades depending on the amount and type of impurities added. These grades vary
from commercial purity aluminium to extreme purity aluminium.[37] Some of the impurities
added to aluminium are less than 1% silicon and iron, since otherwise useless castings would be
produced. There are also less than 1% carbides, zinc, titanium, nitrogen, copper, tin, sodium,
sulphides and most importantly alumina, which should be carefully controlled since excess
amount of it could result in blow holes. [34]
Physical Properties
Aluminiums crystal structure is of the facecentered cubic type with atomic factor 0.74
which is the most closely packed. It has a
coordination number of 12 which is constant for
all temperatures up to the point of melting.
Atoms in this crystal structure are in a metallic
bond. Moreover, for aluminium there exist 12
Figure 16 : Model of an FCC crystal structure [35]
slip systems, four {111} planes, each having
[38]
three <110> directions.
The density of
aluminium is based on the calculation of the least distance required for a unit cell to be translated
in any direction of the crystal system, thus creating a crystal lattice. It also makes aluminium one
of the lightest materials even if with the addition of impurities, its density increases. The same
concept follows for electrical resistivity where the more the impurities added, the higher is the
electrical resistivity at low temperatures. On the other hand, thermal conductivity of aluminium
decreases as impurities are added to the material. This is
illustrated in table 3 below.[37]
Furthermore, as the
temperature of aluminium increases, specific heat keeps on
increasing until it reaches a steady value at the melting
point. This property along with high thermal conductivity
renders aluminium a practical material to use for the
fabrication of cooking equipment as demonstrated in figure
17.[34] The electrons behaviour in pure aluminium is
comparable to that of free electrons, thus making aluminium
a good conductor. Yet, as impurities are added, the electrical
conductivity of aluminium worsens V, Ti, Cr and Mn
having the worst influence on conductivity. Therefore, when
Figure 17 : Aluminium cooking
[8]
aluminium is needed for the electric industry, the total
equipment
amount of these impurities added together should be
carefully controlled such that it would not exceed 0.015%
and good electrical conductivity would be maintained. Superconductivity is achieved at
temperatures close to zero.[37]

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Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of aluminium alloys are largely dependent on the following micro
structural features:

Inter metallic compounds which are course and range from 0.5 to 10m. These usually
form while the ingot is solidifying by eutectic decomposition. [39] Silicon as well as Iron
are present as impurities. These constituent particles are however divided in soluble
compounds (Al2Cu, Mg2Si, Al2CuMg,) and non soluble constituents (Al3Fe, Al7Cu2Fe, Al (Fe, Mn, Si), Al6 (Fe, Mn)).[40] In wrought high strength alloys, these particles are not
useful and they have the appearance of aligned stringers [39]

Submicron particles which are smaller and range from 0.05 to 0.5 m. They form by
precipitation of the solid state while the ingots are being homogenized. [39] These
compounds consist of at least one transition metal (Manganese, Chromium or Zirconium)
or other elements having a high melting temperature. Such compounds include
Al20Mn3Cu2 and Al3Zr. [40] During heat treatments, recrystallization and grain growth are
retarded by these particles. They relate to the mechanical properties of aluminium
through their influence on the movements of dislocations.[37][39]

Fine precipitates which form up to 0.01m. These develop during the age-hardening heat
treatment processes and contribute significantly to strengthening.[39][40]

Grain shape and size - As Aluminium is being subjected to hot deformation, it recovers
dynamically, thus producing sub grains. Thicker sections undergo less deformation and
therefore the grain structure remains elongated.[40]

Dislocation substructures which do not respond to the age-hardening processes and are
principally formed during cold working.[39][40]

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Tensile Properties
These can be classified into two groups, those who react to precipitation hardening and those
who do not. For the former, the finely dispersed precipitates are the most effective in increasing
the tensile and yield strengths. [39][40] For the latter, the yield and tensile strengths obtained are
dependent on the dislocation substructures formed through cold-working. On the other hand,
course inter metallic compounds are not very effective in increasing the tensile and yield strength
but they reduce the ductility of the aluminium alloys considerably. [39]
The tensile properties of aluminium vary according to the purity of the aluminium, the added
alloying elements and also on the heat treatments the material has undergone. However, pure
aluminium, has its own elastic properties. In fact, it has an elastic modulus of 69-72GPa, and a
shear modulus of 25-26.5GPa. Even if the elastic properties are not very sensitive to changes in
temperature of the test, the same things cannot be said for its mechanical properties which
include hardness, tensile and yield strengths. Pure aluminium is not heat treatable. Yet there are a
number of grades through which pure aluminium is classified. Stable properties along with
strength are enhanced by strain hardening. This is performed from the basic annealing temper.
High grade aluminium is used for electrical conductors and also for foil amongst other uses. [37]
Toughness
While tensile strength caters for the prevention of failure due to excess mechanical load, it is the
toughness which prevents the fracture of the material due to cracks.[39][40] However, as tensile
strength increases by heat treating and by adding alloying elements, toughness has a tendency to
decrease.[40] This is greatly dependent on the micro structures.[39] For instance, the fine
precipitates, forming during the age-hardening process, reduce deformation resulting in a better
toughness. Yet they also have the tendency to generate localization of slip while the material is
plastically deforming. Thus developing 'pockets of slip just before a crack. This is common for
alloys which have aged to peak strength and hardness. The end result would however be a large
loss of toughness where very high strength exists.[40] The reduction or rather control of the
Silicon and Iron impurities would help in increasing the toughness parameter.[39]
Fatigue
This parameter occurs when the material is subjected to fluctuating stresses and dynamic
loading.[40] The fatigue limit is therefore the maximum loading and stress a material can sustain
before failing. Since Aluminium has a face centered cubic crystal structure it has the tendency to
retain its ductility even at very low temperatures.[37] Thus failure occurs gradually making the
fatigue limit an essential parameter. With regards to pure aluminium, necking preceeds failure of
the specimen as voids cause cracks in the material's structure causing the material to fail.
Usually, as the tensile strength of a non-ferrous alloy improves, the fatigue strength decreases.[39]
Moreover, if an alloy relies mostly on precipitation hardening in order to achieve a better tensile
strength, its endurance limit becomes even lower. Hence the importance of the heat treatments
chosen to process the material and the control over the alloying elements to be added. By
carefully selecting these factors, one would be able to achieve the desired properties from the
material. When under cyclic stress, aluminium alloys which have age-hardened tend to have
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undesired fatigue properties because of the precipitates' localised straining.[39][40] In order to

improve the fatigue properties and also prevent the formation of coarse slips, there should be
more uniformly scattered precipitates. A higher dislocation density would also improve these
properties.[39]
Creep
This type of fracture usually starts at high temperatures by the formation of cracks at the grain
boundaries and commonly occurs in aluminium alloys which have undergone age-hardening
since their grains are harder and more resistant to deformation.[40] Over-ageing and a softer
material would result as the aluminium alloy was exposed for a longer time to higher
temperatures. This implies that in order to avoid a decrease in strength, the operating temperature
must be less than the ageing one. In order to resist creep fracture, sub micron inter metallic
compounds (example: Al9NiFe) are introduced.[39][40] These compounds along with other fine
particles are stable at the operating temperature. Alumina fine particles could also be utilised
with the only difference that powder metallurgy is used to introduce them. These particles
contribute to dispersion strengthening and also reduce the movement of grain boundaries.[39]
Chemical Properties
Corrosion is one of the several reasons why materials tend to fail. Commercial aluminium is less
resistant to corrosion than the pure one even if the degree of corrosion depends on the
environment where the metal is used.[37] For instance, aluminium has a good resistance to
corrosion when used in a stable atmosphere. This is because on the surface of aluminium, a
continuous oxide film of alumina which suppresses most of the reaction prognosticated by
thermodynamic information quickly forms.[37][40] If the surface of the metal is grated, then a new
oxide film rapidly reforms.[40] This film which acts as protection from corrosion, is reliable in
conditions where liquids are concerned but whenever acids (except for a few) are implicated,
they would instantly attack aluminium. This oxide film may also be disclosed to air but this type
of film would be extremely thin even if gradual growth occurs especially if exposed to high
temperatures and humidities. This type of film is actually much more protective and adherent
than the aqueous one. Through various chemical treatments, thicker oxide films which would
improve even more resistance to corrosion, may be produced.[39][37]
Aluminium's electrode potential is an essential parameter to consider when taking into account
galvanic effects which arise from divergent metal contact. The electrode potentials could indicate
whether galvanic corrosion is possible. However, other factors such as polarization (influenced
highly by the oxides formed on the aluminium surface) and electrical resistance should also be
taken into consideration in order to determine the active corrosion current.[39][40] For instance,
even if the electrode potentials of stainless steels and aluminium diverge by a large amount, the
electrolytic attack is less than that expected.[40]
However, when it comes to alloys, the most corrosion resistant way through which a metal
would be protected is through a solid solution. When magnesium is alloyed to aluminium,
resistance to corrosion especially to alkaline solutions and salty water would be enhanced. Other
alloying elements - silicon, chromium and zinc do not have a major effect on corrosion as
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magnesium does. However, when zinc is alloyed to Aluminium, electrode potential of the
metallic compound increases. In fact, the latter type of alloy serves as clad coating and also of
galvanic anodes in order to protect steel constructions in salty water. On the other hand, copper,
which is only there as a micro constituent is the least resistant to corrosion amongst all the alloys.
This is because micro constituents are usually the reason behind electrochemical corrosion since
they tend to cause inconstant attacks at localized areas on the alloy's surface such as pitting.
Impurities (iron and silicon) mostly form cathodic compounds such that for instance, Al3Fe
comes up with points where the oxide film of the surface is weak. This promotes electrochemical
attack. However, Magnesium helps in reducing the detrimental effects of iron. Even if they do
not aid much with respect to the corrosion issue, other alloying elements such as titanium help in
refining the size of the grain.[40][39]
Applications of Aluminium
Aluminium with its excellent properties: - Light weight,
Good corrosion resistance, high conductivity and high
ductility, make it a material with very good machining
properties. These all tend to increase the demand for
aluminium, especially since technologically sustainable
products are being increasingly sought by the market.[37][39]
In fact, Aluminium is utilised in various important
industries which include the manufacturing of tools and
machinery, building constructions, Aerospace equipment,
electricity transmission, packages and containers of food
and beverages and development in transportation production of vehicles amongst other sectors.[39] The
intention of the designer is to produce consumer products
which last as long as possible and aluminium is often the
right material to choose in order to achieve so. Aluminium,
usually found in oxide forms is also very useful in nuclear
reactors.[39] In fact, aluminium was the material used as a
protective case around fuel elements (uranium) and also for
tubes in order to have good conduction.[37]

Figure 18 : Aluminium in
powerlines[41]

References
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Available from - http://www.alueurope.eu/about-aluminium/production-process/

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[3] ALU.
[2012]. Refining process.
[Online].
[Accessed on 12th October 2013].
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[2] EAA. [2009]. History of Discovery. [Online]. [Accessed on 12 th October 2013]. Available from - http://www.alueurope.eu/aboutaluminium/production-process/
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[6] ASM international. [1993]. Aluminium and Aluminium alloys. Illustrated edition. Great Britian: ASM international.
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[10] IJ Polmear, IJP, 1981, Light Alloys- Metallurgy of the light metals, 41 Bedford square London, Edward Arnold (Publishers) limited.
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[12] ESAB. [No date]. The difference between heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable aluminium alloys. [Online]. [Accessed on 4th October
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[18] University of Cambridge. [No Date]. Aluminium-Silicon Casting Alloys. [Online]. [Accessed on 5 th October 2013]. Available from http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/abstracts/M7-8.html
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[20] Materials for automobiles, aluminium alloys. [No date]. [Online]. [Accessed on 6 th October 2013]. Available From http://ed.iitm.ac.in/~shankar_sj/Courses/ED5312/Materials_for_Automobiles14.pdf
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[38] Callister, W.D, D.Grethwisch. 2011. Materials Science and Engineering. Asia: John Wiley & Sons.
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Group Form
Name and Surname

ID Card Number Contribution Percentage effort

Cassar Torreggiani Zachary

545093(M)

Cefai Christina May

290394(M)

Chetcuti Raisa

325894(M)

Ciappara Sarah

156794(M)

Cordina Marvic

31794(G)

Cutajar Braden-Steve

93694(M)

Dalli Daniel

73994(M)

De Giovanni Zachary

162194(M)

Debono Julian

204294(M)

Dimech Christopher

37794(M)

25