Ch"pter 17

l7-l Introductionto the Field of

Finite AmplitudeWave Theory
l7-1.1 T.r1ta
o.fPowerScrics

F inite Amplitude
Waves

l 7 - l . l . l T h i s c h a p t e rd e a l sr v i t h t h e p r o b l e m o f p e r i o d i c
t r v o - d i m e n s i o n af il n i t e a m p l i t u d e \ 1 a v e s .i n r l , h i c h n o n _
linear effectsare partly taken into account b1, the use of
power series.The subject matter has been introduced
b r i e f l yi n C h a p r e rl 5 i n t l i e g e n e r a li n r r o d u c r i o n1 0 w a t e r
\\'aves.Thc purpose ol this chapter is to prescnt more
advanccd considerations.n,hich for m the background
for this subjectmatter. However,the mathematicaldetails
are beyond the scopeof this book, so that only the main
resultswill be presented.
It has been shown that solutions can be expressedas
power seriesin termsof a quantity which is small compared
to the other dimensions_
The small quantity used hcre is
ItlL for small L r/: it is thc mosr significanr paramerer
i n d c e pu , a t c r I. l 1 1i s u s c df o r l a r g c1 _1 1i:t i s n t o s ts i g n i f r c a n t
parametcrln shallo\\'\\,ater.
In thc first case(dcvelopmcntin tcrms of 11 L). the first
term of the pouer seriesis obtained bv application of the
linear theory. Thesearc the Stokes(or ..Stokesian")wave
theories.Manv seriesare expressedin terms of 2a/L, where
a is a parametersuch that

4(?)^

: ot

(" ::at thenrsto'a")

while others are expressedin terms of HIL directly.

In the secondcase,the first term of the series is already
a solution of nonlinearequations.They are called cnoidal
wave theories becausether are mathematically defined
by the so-calledcnoidal functions.The definition of these
functions, .as well as the development of these theories,
are beyond the scopeof this book. These are the essential
basic principles.
17-l.l.2In order to illustrate this method, the following
exampleis presented:There exist in the American literature

239

Part 3: Water Wave Theories

24o

contains several theories which may not be identical.

Since all cnoidal representationsare truncated series,the
order of approximation is important because high-order
terms are generally significant.
There are two types of cnoidal theories. The oldest
is intuitive in nature.while the newer theoriesare straight( 1 7 - r ) [orward and more rigorous. Al1 are irrotational. The
primary intuitive theory is that of Korteweg and de Vries
(1895).The first and second tbrms of the seriesare deduced
cos20
m4 : mA cos0 + lBrr. * B2afutA)21(mA)z
but no schemeis presentedfor extension to higher-order
cos30
* [Br: * BrrQnA)2)(nr.4)3
terms. The terms which are found trre unique. More
-t Boo(mA)a
(11-2)
cos50
cos40 * 855(nr,4)s
rigorous theories have been developed.All are based on
perturbation expansion. Unfortunately, even though
a
arecomplex
where.4 is relatedto H l2andthe B coefficients
prevails,the newer theoriesalso divergevery rapidly.
rigor
functionsol dlL.
It seemsthen that the high-order theory is not necessarily
betterthan its lower-ordercounterpartcos0

at least five different irrotational Stokesian wave theories

at a fifth ordeq of approximation, all of them are based
on the sameassLmption,but the mathematical formulations
are different. The free surface profiles are given for three of
them (0 : nu - kt):

+ : " f , , . on, g

!:

A6

* Brr(mAo)al
ft * fl13(mAo)z

+ lfrr, * []2a(mA)2)ntAocos20
+ lp* * P3rQnA.)llQnA)2 cos 30
* foofutA,)3cos 40 * {) ''5futA.)acos 50

Transporl
17-1.2 Vorticity atul Jva[ass

l 7 - 1 . 2 . 1 T h e p r o b l e m c o n s i s t si n i t i a l l y o f s o l v i n g a
. o n l L - n t u l na, n d b o u n d a r y
p r o b l e m s a t i s l y i n gc o r t t r l t u i t y m
conditions.The motion is assumedto be periodic and the
The B coelllcients are complex functions of d/L. This
exampleof the mathematicalrepresentationfor steady-state *'aveprofileis assumedto be that of a steadystate.However,
theseassumptionsare not sufficientfor solvingthe nonlinear
periodic waves over a constant depth illustratesthe complexity of a systematiccomparison betweenwave theories problem. Trvo more conditions are necessary.This leads
supposedlydevelopedwith the same aim. The complexity to discussionof the problem of rotationality and mass
transport (as they are related) and the arbitrarinessof
increaseswith the number of possibleassumptionswhich
water wave theories.
a
wave
theory.
can be used initially for developing
The arbitrarinessin the calculation of wave motion
to the arbitrarinesswhich prevailsin the assumpwaves.
inherent
is
irrotational
l7-1.1.3 Consider further the caseof
which
are used in the calculation of the mass transthe
tions
upon
depend
The values of the wave characteristics
rvavemotion can be determinedby assuming
portation.
The
power
expansion,
series
for
the
number of terms chosen
either in terms of wave steepnessIIIL (Stokesiansolution) that there is no mass transport at all. These are the closed
or in terms of relative height H/r/ (cnoidal-typesolution). o r b i t t h e o r i e s .s u c h a s t h c e x a c t s o l u t i o n o f G e r s t n e r
The Stokesian power series solution is not uniforrr,lv (1809)in deep water and the power series solutions of
for shallowrvater.As a result of this assumption,
Boussinesq
convergent,and the validity of the solution is lost when
the motion is found to be rotational and the vorticity is
the relative depth dlL tends to a small value (say,dlL < 0.1
in the opposite direction to the particle rotation, i'e., in
for a fifth-order solution), since the coefficient functions
opposite direction to what should be expected physically
of dlL tend to infinity.
under the influenceof a shearingstressdue to wind blowing
Thi sameoccurs in the caseof the cnoidal wave solution.
in the wave direction (Fig. 17-l).
There is no unique cnoidal theory; rather, the literature
( l7-3)

C h a p t e rl 7 : F i n i t e A m p l i t u d eW a v e s

17-1.2.2If one usesa power seriessolution in terms of

wave steepness
II/L to the secondorder of approximation,
one finds that the general relationship betrveen mass
transport U and vorticitr,2rJis given by

-r,. H) aU
-,'' _ - f
a I i:

rr:k sinh2nltl+ :)1

--_-|
sinh2nrrl ]

w h e r e i t i s r e c a l l e dt h a t H i s t h e w a v e h e i g h t ,n t : 2 n l L ,
L i s t h e w a v e l e n g t h ,k : 2 r l T .
T i s t h e i r a v e p e r i o d ,d
i s t h e w a t e rd e p t h .a n d _ -i s t h e v e r t i c a lc o o r < j i n a r e .
I n t h e c a s eu h e r c t ' ( : ) : 0 ( B o u s s i n e ssq. a v e )

H ' rrr2k
f sinh 2nr(d+ -11
^z r .t l 1
...........'..---..------------_-'-l
' l . ul l = :o- - l
4 L
sinh2nr,1 l
NO NET MASS

TRANSPORT

In the Stokesianwave theories(ry: 0) where one assumes

that the integratingconstantis such that U : 0, one has

ur=)l : t-^-+i
2tnkt
+-, - sinh2mrl-l
j s l n n ' l r ( .l[.orr'
/
o
l,r

CLOSED OREIT

Figure l7-l

Different kindsof assumptiorr.s

orr nrcss
transportation in periodic proqressiuev,ates.

The wave motion can also be assumed to be irrotational,

in which case a mass transport distribution is found as
a
result of nonlinearity. These are the Stokesian wave theories

which include Stokes (L847),Levi-Civita (1925),Struik

(1926),
and Nekrassov(1951).
Eventhoughthereis a givenmasstransportdistribution
* hichis a functionof theverticalcoordinate,
theintegrating
constantis oftendeterminedby assumingthat the "u..ug.
masstransport U is nil for the sakeof continuity,i.e.,1
steadyflow is superimposed
suchthat

'

u:f-'u'''dz:o

whereU(z)is the masstransport.

Jl

2ntl

In the morc gcneralcaseu'ltereboth Lr and r1are diffcrcnt

from zero,one can write
ttc):

ttlqk)lu-ol

Figurel7-2 Masstransport
asafunctiono_[torticity.

2ar

Part 3: Water Wave Theories

which gives (assuming U : 0)

I

U(t):fu+

1)[U(z)ln=o]

where ;r is an arbitrary coefficient.

The casewhere p : - I correspondsto the Boussinesq
(closed-orbit) solution. I : 0 corresponds to the irrotational theory of Stokes.If p, > 0, the averagevorticity is
in the same direction as the orbit direction,such as found
when a strong wind blows in the wave direction. The case
where p <-1 gives a negative vorticity and a negative
mass transport at the free surfacewhich can be due to a
wind blowing locally in opposite direction to the wave
propagation (a frequent nearsho(e occurrence).In the case
where - | < 1t < 0, the vorticity is in the opposite direction
and the mass transport is smaller than in the irrotational
case.These facts are schematicallyrepresentedinFig. 17-2.
Due to viscous forces,the mass transport at the bottom
is always in the wave directiorr. Numerous experiments
confirm this result,and the following value of the bottom
masstransport velocitycan be derived:

Another condition is generally preferred. This condition

consists of assuming that the average momentum over a
wavelength is zero. In this case,another expression for C
is found which results in a different mass transport- Thus,
it is further realized that the calculation of wave theories
is subject to arbitrariness becauseof different assumptions
that lead to different valuesof C.
17-1.3 The Essential C'haracteristicsof
Some Tw'o-Dintensional Periodic
e Ir r o I a t i onal WaL'a Tlrcor i es
P r oqres.siL'
A brief review o[ some classicalwave theories is now
presented.

l7-1.3'l The lineartlrcor1'6f {ivf in Eulerian coordinates

gives the essentialcharacteristicsof the wave pattern in a
simple formulation. The free surface is sinusoidal, particle
paths are elliptic and follow a closed orbit (zero mass
transport).and lines of equipressureare also sinusoida!'
. owever.nonlinear
T h e t e r m s i n ( H l L ) 2 a r e n e g l e c t e dH
bc dctermined from
can
cffectssuch as the wavc sct-do\\'n
(
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
l6-7).
thistheory
ub: t\H:*Fr,
The linear theory of Airy in Lagrangian coordinates
also gives elliptic particle paths, but the free surfaceand
(as in the deep
17-1.2.3Finally, it is recalled that the mathematical lines of equipressureare now trochoidal
(A
is the locus
trochoid
of
Gertsner).
theory
water wave
representationof water wave motions are found as a
line')
a
straight
on
rolling
circle
point
a
within
a
solution of a set of basic equations and assumptions- describedby
theory
of
the
as
same
is
the
t'aue
tlrcorf
long
The
linear
These basic equationsare the equationsof continuity and
consequence,
a
As
srnall.
is
dlL
tl'tat
it
is
assumed
where
Airy
momentum, the solutions of rvhich must satisfy given
the formulas are simplified considerably.The pressureis
boundary conditions. The first assumption is that of
hydrostatic and the horizontal velocity distribution is
rotationalityor masstransportas they are related.However,
(gd)tt''
anothercondition is required.For example,for progressive uniform. The wave velocityis simply
monochromatic waves, the solution sought represents
17-1.3.2The theorl' o/ Sto/.e.sat a second order of
a steady state such that the potential function @ :
by the sum of two sinusoidal
is characterized
approximation
velocity.
Ct),whereC is a constantequal to the wave
f (r
'componentsof period T and T12,respectively.As a result,
steadyIn this case,the solution is unique. Although the
the wave crest becomes peaked and the troughs become
state solutions are of the same form, C is still undetermined,
The wave profile can even be characterized by the
flatter.
is
and for the determination of C, another condition
of a hump in the middle of the wave trough.
appearance
reqqired. For example, it can be assumedthat the average
elliptical particle path is deformed and tends
the
Similarly,
given
location
horizontal velocity over a wave period at a
the crest and flatten under the trough.
under
to
hump
minimum.
necessarily
is zero, but the masstransport is then

Chapter17: FiniteAmplitudeWaves

In this theory as in all the following u,ave theories,there

is mass transport as a result of irrotationality and nonlinearity.Howevef, phasevelocity,wave length and group
ielocity are lhe same as in the linear theories.The terms
rn (H lL)3are neglected.
The theory of Stokesat a third order of approximation
is charactcrizedby the sum of three sinusoidal terms of
period I T 12, and f,/3, respectively.The same lo-cical
resultsare found. Phaseand group velocity exhibit nonlinear corrcctions. The coefficients of H,tL which are
functionsol tl,'L tend tt'r in{init1,whcn d L tcnds to zcro
so that the thcory cannot be used in verl shallow water.
(The series is nonuniformly convergent.)The terms in
(H lU4 are neglected
The theory of Stokesat a fifth order of approximation
is the sum of fivc sinusoidal terms. The coefficientsof
lHlL) are functions of dlL and tend to large values for
r; > 3 even sooner than in the case of the third-order
theory, i.e., for larger values of dlL. Consequently,thc
tlfth-order wavc theort, is less valid than rhe third-order
ri avc thcory for srnallvalucsof r//L and cannot bc usedu,hen
,1L < 0.1.Thc terms in (HlL)6 are ne_qlecred.
l7-1.3.3 Tlte tlrcory of Keulegan an(l Pilrerson belongs
to the cnoidal family of water wave theories.It follows the
same physical approach as the theory of Korteweg and
de Vries. From a purely mathematical view point, there
are some inconsistenciesas some third-order terms are
included while some other second-order terms are ne'
-elected;however, it gives relatively good resutts. The
horizontal velocity component varies with depth, while
the pressureis hydrostatic.
The c'noidttlwaue theory of Laitone is mathematically
rigorous. At a first order of approximation, the vertical
distribution of horizontal velocity is uniform. There is no
masstransport. The terms in (Hld)z are neglected.
The theory of Laitone at a secondorder of approximation
gives a nonuniform velocity distribution. There is mass
transport. The vertical distribution of mass transport
velocity is uniform. The second-orderterm becomeslarger
than the first-order term as Hfd increases. (Hld is not

necessarilya small parameter whereas HIL is always.)

The series is nonuniformly convergent. The terms in
(Hld)3 are neglected.The results of this theorv diverse
significantlyfrom experimentalresults.
l7-1.3.4Thc .so/itrrr'_r'
tt'ute thcorv of Boussinesqis the
r e s u l t o f a p u r e l - ri n t r r i t i v ea p p r o a c h .T h e v e r t i c a l c o m p o n e n to f v e l o c i n i s i n i t i a l l v a s s u m e dt o b e l i n e a r l yd i s t r i buted from the-bottom (equal to zero) to the free surface
(equal to the linearized free surface velocity iql6t\. The
v e r t i c a ld i s t r i b u t i o no f h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t y i s a s s u r n e dt o
bc uniform.
A correctiondue to path curvature(verticalacceleration)
is addcd to the hvdrostatic pressure.The equations of
m o t i o n a r e l i n e a r i z e dv e r t i c a l l y b u t r e m a i n n o n l i n e a r
horizontalll,, i.e.. convectit,e inertia terms u'here the
vertical component of velocity appears are neglected,
b u t t h c p r o d u c r r r ( r ' r r ' i t - )r e m a i n s .T h e s o l u t i o n i s t h e n
exact. As in anl' solitary wave theory, 4 l.rasahvays a
positivcvaluc and tht-rc is masstransportequal to thc
v o l u m e o f l l r c r i a r c a b o v c t l r c s t i l l i l , a t c r l c v e l .T l i c t c r m s
in \II 1tl)2arc neclecrcd.TItc u ar.evclocity is [4(11+ I]))t i).
The solitary u,arc theory of McCowan is nrore rigorous
and satisfiesthe kinematic frec surfaceboundary condition
exactly.It correspondsto a highcr-ordcrsolution than thc
theoryof Boussinesq.
The verticaldistribution of horizontal
velocity is nonuniform. The terms ia @ ld)3are neglected.
17-1.3.5The .slrcrln.functiontlrcorv of Reid and Dean
is also irrotational (Vtrlt :0) even though the use of the
stream function allows the study of rotational motion.
It is actually a numerical method requiring the use of a
computer. The solution is presentedas a seriesof harmonic
functions with unknog'n coefficients determined numerically in such a uar rhat the deviation from the Bernoulli
constantaI the freesurfaceis minimum.
17-1.3.6Thefor nulat ion of God ais basedon experimental
results and assumesthat the particle velocity at the crest
of a limit wave is equal to the phase velocity. Accordingly
an empirical correction parameter is introduced in the
linear wave theorl .

243

Part 3: Water Wave Theories

where (a,B) are two parameters which define the mean

position of the consideredparticle. The particle describes
circles of radius r : ae^f. The rvavelength is L : gT2 l2n.
The free surfaceand the lines ofequipressure are trochoids.
The limit wave is a cycloid of steepnessHIL:0.31.
Figure l7-3 illustratessome essentialcharacteristicsgiven
by this theory. The free surfacecorresponds to l) : 0 and is
definedby the parametricequation

44
17-1.4 The Theory of Gertsner
The rotational heep water wave theory of Gerstner is
exact. It is a closed orbits theory with the rotation in
opposite direction to the particle path. Its interest is
mostly historical,since it dates to 1807, although it rvas
also developedindependentlyby Rankine at a later date.
It gives a simple geometric representation of the wave
motion defined by the coordinates (x,z) of a given particle,
such as (see Fig. l7-3; note the ; coordinate system is
p o s i t i v ed o u ' n r v a r d ) :
_\:1-

ae^[ sin(kt - n1p-) ,:

)n

-x:a-asin(kr-Dra)
: : -a cos (kr - n:oz )
The pressureon a particle uhose mean position is B is
independentof time and is given by the expression

l ] - a e " ' Fc o s ( k t - n : o )
)r

p : pSp -f

O R I G I NO F A X E S

f-'
R E C T I O N OF WAVE

)mR

R'e-"'"+ conslant

Gertsnerv'ure

F-igurel7-3
DArUM FORp

,,2

/ st ^1-

D IR E C T I O N
ROTATION O F
G EN E R A T I I I G C I R C L E

= lJo-

R O { - L I N GC I R C L E
RADIUS

FREE SURFACE

PATH OF PARTICLE

!
f'

-vARrATroN rN oRBrrAL
R A D r u s . ' w r rDHE P T H

2-(

Chapter l7: Finite Amplitude Waves

The pressureis constantif f is constant,and thus all particles

at the samemean level have the samepressureas they move
about; this pressqreis the same as the pressureon that
. h e v o r t i c i t yi s
p a r t i c l ei n i t s s t i l l p o s i r i o nT

z":2:tko!'!'
| - m2e2^a
Finall_v,
the energyin a u'avelengthis

- 4 '\
E: i P q h '(t
\
)

17-1.5 Deterntination of the Doryain oJ'

Validitl, of Finite Antplitude Waue
Tlteories
I7-1.5.1Knowledgeof the featuresof thesewave theories
is essentialto the engineer interested,for example, in
calculating the forces on submerged structures such as
pilings. For this purposc, he needs rcliable expressions
f o r t h e v e l o c i t y f i c l d w i t h i n t h e u ' a v e .U p o n c h o o s i n t u
suitable dcsign wave (tliat is, mean water dcpth, wa\/e
hcieht, and wave period), he then proceeds to select a
theory to describe that wave. This choice is not easily
made, since he must evaluatethe applicability of at least
a dozen theories. It may be hoped, for example, that a
theory developedto a fifth order of approximation is more
accurate than its lower-order counterparts, which may or
mav not actually be the case.Unfortunately. the range of
validities of the various wave theories is not well defined.
(An attempt to classifythem hasbeenpresentedin Fig. 15-7.)
Also, only a few experimental results are available. Some
are presentedhere.
In this comparison with experiments,one can choosethe
horizontal particle velocity under the crest as an important
feature, since, in applications, velocity is generally most
critical and the velocity under the crest is the greatest
attained at any depth. Furthermore, a theory which
prescribes the velocity field well is constrained to be good
for other- features,. such as accelerations and pressures,
a priori. Velocity profiles under the wave crest are shown

in Figs. 17-4and l7-5. A comparisonof various freesurface

profilesgiven by theoriesand experimentsis also presented
in Fig. 17-6.All thesecomparisonsare done for relatively
shallow u,ater $,aves o[ large relative amplitude. It is
seen that the linear theory is alu'avsgood at the bottom
wherc the boundary condition is linear and the convective
effects are relatively small. The linear theory Ioses its
validity,to\\'ard the free surface.Hou,evcr.in gencral,thc
nonlinear theoriesare not better than the lincar thcory.
Even though the numerical method of Reid and Dean
is not shon'nin this figure,it has beenproven to bc as good
a s o r b e t t c r t h a n t h e o t h e r t h e o r i e sw h e n c o m l t a r c d 1 o
laborator)' experiments.The empirical formulation of
Goda is still the best.Due to its simplicity, it appearsthat
a n e m p i r i c a lr e l a t i o n s h i po f t h i s k i n d i s t h e b e s tm e t h o d t o
recommend from an engineeringstandpoint. This lcads
us to discussthe selectionof the " best" theory for practical
purposes.
17-l-5.2In a narrow two-dimensionalwavc tank. viscous
c f f e c t si n t h e b o u n d a r y l a v e r n e a r t h c b o t t o m i n d u c e
v o r t r c i t ) 'u l r i c h d i l T u s c su p r v a r d .A l s o . t h e l a c t t h a t t h c
w a v e t a n k i s l i m i t c d c a u s e sa r e t u r n f l o w q h i c h n u l l i f i c s
the total masstransport.(If the wavetank is large,transverse
effects take place, and the return flow meander.) The
theoretical approach which takes into account viscous
effects gives a mass transport which is relatively well
verified by laboratory experiments. Figure l7-7 shows
qualitativelythe resultsof such theory.
17-1.5.3Under storm condition, the wind stressinduces
a large mass transport and vorticity in the wave motion.
This mass transport remains in a thin upper layer at the
beginning of the storm and slowly diffuses downward
under the influenceof the turbulent fluctuations (mostly
due to white caps).At the same time, the mass transport
near the surface,which is in the main direction of the wave
travel at the beginning of the storm, tends to be subjected
to the Coriolis effect. Therefore the mass transport near
the free surface is at a small angle with the wave direction
and has a direction which changes with depth. Eventually
the mass transport results in a storm surge which, in

245

Part 3: Water Wave Theories

246

T = 2.2 scc
H = 0.523 fi; tO,60cm
D : 0 . 6 1 9 f l ; 2 O , 3 1c m

2.O
u, ftlsec

30

60
cmltec
Figure l7-4

2.4

a.o

90

r20

Particle t,elocity under a wate cresl

addition to being influenced by Coriolis acceleration,is

also subjected to coastal boundary effects. The storm
surge calculation method is based on the nonlinear long
independentlyof rvater
waveequations(seeSection18-1.2.4)
lvaveeffects.Therefore,it is seenthat storm surgecalculation
and nonlinear wave theoriesare two separateapproaches
for what is actually a unique phenomenum resulting from
air-sea interaction in shallow water. Actually, it is a fallacy
to use irrotational or closed-orbit nonlinear wave theory
for calculating wave forces on piles, for example. The
wind-induced mass transport near the free surface could
be as high asSO/"of the particle velocity given by the linear

theory. The nonlinear corrections are meaninglessfor an

engineer confronted with decision on what his structure
should look like. Failure of Texas towers may be attributed
to the neglect of wind-induced mass transport in water
waves.
The correct theory is a rotational wave theory n'ith mass
transport function of wind forces, duration of wind, and
fetch (lehgth of water surface over which the wind exerts
its action), as done in wave hindcast methods. The description of such a method is beyond the scope of this book.
However, a possible approach consists of finding a stream
function solution of Y2r! : f (lt).

Chapter l7: Finite Amplitude Waves

) a-

L.NG*ou. --l

3rd STOKES
2rd STOKES

+
p

T = l.16sec
H:0.255ft(Z7cm)
o = 0 . 5 8 7 f t ( r 7 .8 9 c m )

? 4
u , ftlsec

60

90

c m/ s 6 c
Figure l7-5

Particle relocitl,under a wate cresl

17-1.6 Limit Waue Steepness

Although it is beyond the purpose of this book to deeplv
analyze limit wave steepness and the phenomenon of
n'ave breaking, the relationship between the rate of rota_
tionality and the limit wave steepnessis worthwhile
mentioning.
It has been mentioned (Section lS-1.2.71that wave_
breaking inception will occur when the wave profile
reachesq limit wav.esteepness.EI/Ll_.,. This limit steepness
is theoretically 0.142 for a deep water irrotational periodic

wave. Rotationality at the crest in the direction of the

wave travel such as that due to a generating wind will
reduce the limit u,ave steepnessto a smaller value (see
Fig. l7-8). A deep sea wave steepnesslarger than 0.10 is
rarely encountered.
Rotatignality in the oppositedirection will rheoretically
.
increase the limit wave steepness.Such a case can be
observed near the coasts when the wave travels in the
opposite direction to a wind blowing offshore. At the limit.
according to the closed-orbit Gertsner theory, the maximum
limit steepnessis 0.31, but the rotationality at the crest

Part 3: Water Wave Theories

248
E X P E R T M E N T ALL: 6 . 4 6 f r - t 9 6 . 9 0 c m
-218.24 cm
--3rd STOKES L = 716 ft
__
_247.50cm
5 r h S T O X E SL : g . t 2 l r
Ht\rccowaN
@
L=-.lsl LAGRAI'IG|AN
L :6-65tt - 20?.O8 cm
- 2O2.08cm
--2 n d S T O K E SL : 6 . 6 l t t
K A P C N O I o A LL = 7 . 3 O l r - ? 2 2 . 3 O c m
AIRYL :6.6tfi
_2OB.OBcm
A - - - - - - 6 B C U S S I N E S 0L : @

F:

;o
Figurcl7-6
U (

Free sutJucc eleta ! iott

ot'er on e- hu lf x'auelengt h.

U
lrJ

T:1.6!e
H:0.271 fi (8.?6cm)
D.O.5A6fr (17.07cm)

DISTANCE FROM CREST, x, fl

I
@
cm

is then infinity and in the opposite direction to the wave

travel. It is evident that this result of the Gertsner theory
has no physicalsignificance.
It is seen how important it would be to establisha
general rotational wave theory and to relate the rotationality and masstransport to the wind action and bottom
friction. The effect of viscous friction at the bottom has

already been subjectedto investigation to some extent.

However, a general theory of irregular waves with an
arbitrary rotationalityor masstransportationand quadratic
bottom friction,valid for any wave height,any wave period,
and any water depth, would be preferred. Then it will
remain to calibratesome parametersas functions of wind
stress,wind duration.and fetch lensth.

Figure l7-7
Periodic progressiuewaue with
mass t runsporta t ion efe ct.

r-ance{

suaur-f

Chapter l7: Finite Amplitude Waves

WAVE TRAVEL

WAV TRAVEL

249

wrNo

NO WIND

tzoo
IRROTATIONAL

-Hl I . o . t c
tt

F i g u r el 7 - 8

H I
-i<
O .1 4
L tmox

mox

WAVE TRAVEL

GERSTNER WAVE

Rotatiortulitt und tuL c lintit .staqtncss.

ROTATION

H l

o 14
; Ll >
rmot

ROTATION

INFINITY

AT

THE

CREST

g l

l L- l =m o ro 3 l

17-2 hrotational Waves:Methods of

Calculationand Results
17-2.1GeneralProcessof Calculation
It is assumed that the two unknowns, the velocity
potential @and the free surfaceelevation r?,may be transformed into the ,following power series expressions with
respect to a parameter a. This parameter is chosen arbitrarily but has the dimension of a length, usually taken to
be a half-waveheight.
6 : a 6 , + a ' Q ,* a ' d t + . . . + a " Q , 4 . . .
q : a r y r* o ' 4 , * o ' q r + . . . + a n 4 nt . . .
When this expression is substituted in the continuity
relationshipY'Q:0,
it is seen that each of these terms
@n is an independent solution of the Laplace equation
Y'Q,:-0. Each @" also satisfies the fixed boundary condition O$JAn: 0 and the free surfacecondition.

The free surfaceconditions are expressedin terms oi

their values at the still *,ater level (z : 0). Devetoping
f(g,y,0 * 4,t) in terms of power seriesin 4 gives

* nf6d(x.v' 0' *r)l

Q6,y,,1,t):
@(x,y,0,r)
L

or

*,[3'l
.ilt31 +
Lot"=,:
[d].=o
'L?,
) = =o 2 l y ) z ' ) " = o
When this expressionfor { is introduced into the free
surfaceconditions given in Section 16-1.3.2,one obtains
the kinematiccondition

* ( r . , # *) :- X . X * ( r * , y) .
. X * (*o, * . )

Part 3: Water Wave Theories

250

and the dynamic condition

and

-*lr*,19.]. i[{*r('

c@

\ \ ?

46,

\t-

I n' o^z + . . . 1 >

a'

))

. { * ( r . , #+ . \. )l ,f1l + s ' r : 0

aQ''

/) )

Now the problem is completely formulated. When the

expressionsfor @ and 4 are substituted in the above free
surfaceconditions, calculations caii-be completed.

*gqr:tJ

; , t + 9 4 2 - ,4u
' al rQ
a r' .**ir[Lf \g* /)* ' +lJ: o
:

-*.

sq,: f'(0,-t,4n-r)

17-2.2 Method of Solutions

These relationships must be verified for any value of a
since a is arbitrarily taken. Grouping together the terms
of common powers of a, it is found, respectively,
that

"(Y* +)
+"'(*
+alr
0tJ
dr
\oz
\a:
*

A'@'
r',1 -;-;
o:-

/ t t

-ry'+-'++). n.()+ - o
o_\

6:,\

al;

Taken in pairs, the above equations may be solved for

0,1,=o and rynwhen @n-r l"= o anci qn- | ate known, using
V'Q,:0
a n d ( 6 S , 1 6 z ) 1 , = - o : 0 . I n p a r t i c u l a r ,t h e t w o
equationswhich are linear in c give
^

' ( " + * ?( n )/ : o
\cs

a0,

DQ,

\
,f
^ ' * s" ' 4' ), l + a " \ O n z - # -

!f

tt\t/

f| , "^ d) ,

t r

which leadsto

and

a l-

a n d , ( - +( ^+r e 4 , ) : o

,,I

i'Q,

t l' ,t .t :( :

* iI- lLf (\/ "d;^ 6;,/\ 2 + (/ a;6/, \ , * (/ a;dl ,\ r l )l f

\'y /
/
\"" / J)
+ rlt("') + "' : 0
This leadsto the following equationswhich are independent
of the value of n

L ct-

t q", i ,^, b|, l :_ u.

r: l=_o

This may be comparedwith the Cauchy-Poissoncondition,

which was previously developed.The linear motion will
t h e n b e d e f i n e db y 6 : u $ r , a n d q : a 4 r .
In practice,the study of nonlinear problems requires
very long and tedious calculations.Sometimes,this may
be reducedin the caseof two-dimensionalmotion by using
the function W : O * iry' where r/ is the stream function
andi:(-l)t/'.
17-2.3 The Bernoulli Eouation and the
Rayleiqlt Principle

lfugL.:n
av av

ln the caseof periodic progressivewave moving in the

OX direction at a celerity C, the generalsolution for @is
Q:P(z)F(x-Ct)

00,-l-, 04,:

-:-

Oz

=-

Ot

f@"-,.4n- t)

and

u!: -rrraF'(x- ct)

0t

Chapter 17: Finite Amplitude Waves

also

after division br Cl
rv2 2qu
/, - C\t
| L| *;r*-^):

, 0 6 : P(z)F'(x - Ct)
\
6,

Henceit is seenthat

e 0:

-L

a't

- a1 -o:

25r

L _

constant

L -

The constantcan be taken equal to unity. It is seenthat the

motion could b'econsideredas a steady motion in a nen'
s ) ' s t e mo f r c l a t j r ec o o r d i n a t e sI .n t h i s s y s t e mo f c o o r d i n a t e s .
the origin oi the O.X axis moves at the wave celerity C
(the Rayleigh principle).The free surfaceand the bottom
are streamlinesin this moving systemof coordinates.

+Ll'r

Introducing theserelationships,it is seenthat the Bernoulli

equationin the caseof progressivewavestakes the form

-Cu * !(u2 + w' ) + l * g r : o

p

1 7 - 2 - 4 S t r r A i . s l a nT h e o r t a t u S e c o t t d
O r d t r o l A p p r o x i u t u ti L t r t

Aftersometranslormations.
this becomes:

Some mathematical results for a periodic irrotational

progressive\\'a\e at a second order of approximation are
C2 - 2Cu+ u2 + *, +! + 2oz: C2
p r e s e n t c idn T a b l e l 7 - 1 .
p
These have been obtained by a method similar to the
C2beinga constant,
and p beingalsoa constantat thefree one bricfly outlined in the previous sectionsaccording to
surface,
the dynamicconditionat the freesurfacebecomes t h e a s s u m p t i o n ds c s c r i b e di n S e c t i o n1 7 - 1 . 2 .

Table l7-1

Periodic'progressit'evace: sccondordcr oJ'approxinnri()tt

Dcrp xuter

Wave velocity

^:

(ut'\"

vr

\2n/

2n

Third order

(oLf
C : ( r l l + l
trrl

Potcntial function

0 :

Fra surface

I ut t,rutd iut e \ ut cr de pt 11

ladl|r
fuL
C:l:
tanh
I
L I
l2n

/ H 2n\21)'t2
I l )
\7 L/ l)

H
:Ce'.'sin

(tr - rr,r)

H
..
/H\cos 21/.t - mr)
4 : '2 cos (kr - .t1 + i.\
I /

IJ
A:-tC
Il
t::

c o s b r n ( r ,+l : )

/HY
sin(At-rrx) -*,"{'t/

,int'u,t

/ r t \ : c o s h n r d ( c o s h 2 r r d+ 2 )
cos{(r- nrr)+ rr{ ^ } _,-,__
c o s 2 ( k r- m x )
c s t n n -r l d
\.'

H
|
/It\.
/
= - c r r r t A t r r r ) t r r r l^ I
.. .ll
'
I
l i r n h , n , /\
\'
I\,Iidlevelelcvation
M6s transport
(nonclosedorbits)

ar /H\'
A : - l
I
2 \2./

I
/H\'
t
ar{ I
ll
tanhrr/\
\l/

(l) No returnflow: U : nll

( 2 ) A v e r a g em a s s
t r a n s p o r tn i l :

'

3
\
t:..._-lcos2tAr-art1
I rinh'nr//

.i
\
. .I
lsrnh'rr,l/

/ H\2

u : m'\-)ce.h'

cosh2rr{d+ z)
C -:;
sin2(kt-nxl

c o s h r m ( o l+ z )
r H\r
I C
2 sinh' md
\:,/

-/H\r
: -'(t/

|
r.tntr

/
rt

lcosh

2n(/ + a -

sinh2nd\
,*

Part 3: Water WaveTheories

252

can be observedjointly is when a wave (tidal wave or wind

wave) oscillates along a pervious ground or a pervious
quay. The water table motion induced by the waves at
sea is damped very rapidly with distance.
These facts can, of course, be demonstrated and calcu_
lated exactly. A short parallel between the most typical
equationsfor thesetwo kinds of motion is now presented.

17-3 DiffereqcesbetweenWater Waves

and Unsteady Flow through porous
Media
17-3.1A Reuiewof the Basic
Assumptions
Before concluding the study of the finite amplitude wave
theories,it is particularly interestingto establisha parallel
between unsteady flow through porous media and
irrotational water waves and to point out the essential
differences.
It is recalled that the study of thi averageflow through
a porous mediunt can generally be performed by neglecting
all inertial forces,local and convective(seeSection9_2.1.3t
Pressure and body forces always balance friction forces.
In the case of Water waves, pressure and body forces
balanceinertial forcesand the friction forcesare negrected.
As a consequenceof this first equality bctrveenpi.r.r.",
body force, and friction forces, a .,watcr rvave cllect..
for a flow through a porous medium is impossible.For
example, considcr a hump of the free surface elevation
4(x,t) and ft(x,r)with a zero velocity at time r : 0 such as
shown on Fig. 17-9.
In the caseofwater waves,the potentialenergyis replaced
by kinetic energy as r1(x,r)tends to zero and the kinetic
energy is in turn changed into potential energy.The free
surface elevation osc_illates
around the still water level
(SWL) and the initial perturbation generatesa water wave.
In the caseof flow through porous medium,the potential
energy is at any time dissipatedby the friction forces.The
free surfaceelevation tends slowly toward the still water
level.A caseof practicalintcrestwhere the two phenomena

l7-3.2 Dynantic Conditions

Both problemsconsistin defininga potential function
@
satisfyin_e
the Laplaceequation Vr6 : 0.
It is recalled (see Section 9-2.2.3)rhat the potenrial
function for a flow through porous medium is defined in
the caseo[ two-dimensionalmotion by

.-ao

U:-,l\-:-

dx

* : - Kozy
* h c r c t h c a v c r a - qd
c o u b l e b a r i , F i s e l i n t i n a r e df o r t h e
s a k eo f s i m p l i c i t y I. t i s r e c a l l e dt h a t u n d e rs u c ha c o n d i t i o n .

6 : Lps+ ,
In particular, O : h at the free surlace where z : ft(x,r)by
definition. Thus the free surfaceequation is
h ( x , t ): g ( x , z , t ) 1 , = ,
or again
h(x,t): glx,h(x,t).t)
Although the word "dynamic" would now be misused.
i t h a s t o b e n o t e d t h a t t h i s e c l u a t i o nc o r r e s p o n d st o t h e

Figure l7-9

a"

OATUT

Flow throughporous medium

h(x, t) - still water leuel (SW L).
Water waues:4$, t\ oscillates.

Chapter l7: Finite Amplitude Waves

free surfacedynamic condition for water waves:

253

-x.t(#)'.
.
(#)'l

s4:f(t)

The basicdifferenceis that in one case/r is proportional to @,

and in tlre other case 4 is proportional to A$let due to
local inertia.
17-3.3 Kinematic Conditiort
I t i s r e c a l l e d( s e e S e c t i o n l 6 - 1 . 3 ) t h a t t h e k i n e m a t i c
condition for rvaterwavesis in two dirnensions

P - - a ' , * e di rg) ,\- ,

r'I

\it

i.x

A similar equation does exist for flow through porous

medium. However,due to the fact that the water fills only
the voids,and due to the changeofdefinition ofthe potential
function, this equation has to be slightly modified as a
function of the void coefficient r: and the coefficicnt of
permeabilityK as follows.
Let us consideran elementdo of the free surfaceat time
r (seeFig. 17-10)and at time t + dt. The volume of fluid
rvithin ABCD is equal to the dischargethrough ,4B times
the interval of time dt. On one hand the volume of water
in ABCD is edo dn, where e is the void coefficient and
dn : @hlAt)dt cos a. On the other hand, the fluid discharge
through ,4B during the time dr is
[usinado+ wcosadofdt
By inserting tan a : -(AhlAx\ and replacing u and w by
- K(AflAx) and - K(0$l0z) respectivelyand then dividing
by cos u dt, one obtains for continuity

a0

eOh.6QAh

oz

I\ ot

ox ax

This is the kinematicconditionfor flow througha porous

media.
At the free surface z : h(x,t): $lx,h(x,t),r]. Differ(* means
entiatingh with respectto r and x successively

Figurc l7-10 N'orotionfor thefree sur.face

equations

t or .\). glvcs

ah a 0 , a f a h

a* a " - a n a *

This can be u'ritten as

a0 (, - af\ah
ox

and

\'

a') u,

'*:('-#)x

One can..eliminate
/i from the kinematiccondition of the
previoussectionby substitutionof the abovetwo expressions.This sives

: a0_ (i o\'* \(ry\'

a ' ) - ao
Kt:\a-i
a'

Part 3: Water Wave Theories

254

Table l7-2 summarizes the main equations for the

formulation of a two-dimensional wave and flow through
porous medium.

which can be written as

' o3:!(o*\ * !(og)- +

Az| Az/ 0z
0x)

K 0t

0x\'

sinceV2d : 0. When the vertical componentof motion

A0ftz is negligible,this becomes
^

r \

+ + :* ( o ? \
K0t

dx\

ox/

When f : h is used this becomesthe Dupuit approximatiort'

If the variations in li are small with respectto /r,(ir : d + 'l),
the equation becomes

17-3.4Formof Solutions
It is now possible to substantiate mathematically the
fact that a water rvave effect is impossible in the case of
flow through a pqrous medium.
In the caseof water waves,4 is proportional to 6QlAt or
t2.In other words, u'hen
is proportional rc A2Q1e
C(.,162

6 : f (x,z)e"'

^1

e a 4 o:n
Kd 0t
it is seentharA6lez is proportionalto o2S, which is real'
exist'
which is the heat or diJfusiortequation of mathematicai The periodicwaterwavesolutiondoes
medium,a wave
porous
a
through
of
flow
case
In
the
physics.
Table l'7-2 Equationsfor two-dimensionalx,eDesancl.ftow throughporous mediums
I rt t)tIII it)Il(lI l1(ll(',' rt(ll('.s

F-klll' througlt porous nrcdiunt

- K t<b
+

_,!

Definitionof the potentialfunction

(-\

i-x

---i0
,

-;

a:

Exprcssionof the potential function

e4)
.
CZ

Kinematic condition at the free surface

_K

Az

.f("r,z,r)
e4,t(b?n
rtl

C.r dx

/adYl
- aaor ^I [/id\'
l l ^ l + [-l
l + grt
i[\..\/

Dynamic condition at the free surface

\('zl I

,
p
Q : - + z

e0

ps

t , e h , aQah
^ ^
dx 0x

KCt

dz

o:h

- l'(r\
Kinematicand dynamicconditiongives

,'d

a(

LZ

:0

t: d(L

(linearizcd)

K At

a / - , \ )

l/(@\-

L\4.'/

. (#)'l#

or

t ah

af.ahl

K a t :* l

*l

(Dupuit approximation)

Chapter 17: Finite Amplitude Waves

effect is impossible since ft is proportional to @ and O$ft2

is proportional to A$l)t.
Then a solution such as 6 : f$,2)ei", for wave motion
rvould lead to ah imaginary relationship between h and S
unlesso is imaginary,i.e.,io is then real, which meansthat
the motion is exponentialin time insteadof oscillatory.
Figure l7-9 illustratestheseconsiderationsphysically.

PROBLEMS
l 7 . l T h e s u p e re l e v a t i o no f t h e m i d w a l e rl e v e li n f r o n t o f a
vertical wall causing total wave reflection,(clapotis)at a
secondorder of approximation.is .
/ "u \ 2
A : 2 -t n l I

r'

f
lr ,

J?

*
\2/ tanh,7 L' o t-t';,

a6-ila1

Let us consider the incident wave dellned by wave height

H : ll ft(3.35m),waveperio
T d: 6 s e c , w a t e r d e p t h t o t h e
still water leveld : 26 ft {7.92m\. Calculatesuccessively:
l . T h e v a l u ef o r A .
2. The ntaximum and minimum water level elevation.
l'l^ur'

ll^;n'

3. The pressure fluctuation Ap at the bottom (using

the linear theory)
4. The maximum horizontal force on the wall and the
resulting location. (It will be assumedthat the pressure
on the wall is linearly distributed between the free
surfaceand the bottom.)
17.2 Draw free surface lines of equipressure,particle paths,
streamlines according to the Gerstner wave theory in the
casewhere T : 12 secand wave height 2a : 14 ft (4.26m).

255