1. n.

[Geophysics]

ID: 1092

A processed seismic record that contains traces that have been added together from different records to
reduce noise and improve overall data quality. The number of traces that have been added together during
stacking is called the fold.
See: bin, brute stack, common midpoint, common midpoint method, fold, ground roll, noise, processing, random noise, seismic
record, semblance, slant stack, stacking velocity, velocity analysis, zero-offset data

The common reflecting point on a reflector, or the halfway point when a wave travels from a source to a
reflector to a receiver, is shared by numerous locations. Moveout corrections and stacking, or summing of
traces, result in redundancy of the data that improves the signal-to-noise ratio.

bin
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 640

A subdivision of a seismic survey. The area of a 3D seismic survey is divided into bins, which are
commonly on the order of 25 m [82 ft] long and 25 m wide; traces are assigned to specific bins according
to the midpoint between the source and the receiver, reflection point or conversion point. Bins are
commonly assigned according to common midpoint (CMP), but more sophisticated seismic processing
allows for other types of binning. Traces within a bin are stacked to generate the output trace for that bin.
Data quality depends in part on the number of traces per bin, or the fold.
See: common midpoint, fold, stack, three-dimensional seismic data, trace

2. vb. [Geophysics]

ID: 641

To sort seismic data into small areas according to the midpoint between the source and the receiver,
reflection point or conversion point prior to stacking.
See: midpoint, stack

brute stack
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 657

A processed seismic record that contains traces from a common midpoint that have been added together
but has undergone only cursory velocity analysis, so the normal-moveout correction is a first attempt.
Typically, no static corrections are made before the brute stack.
See: common midpoint, normal moveout, processing, record, stack, static correction, trace

common midpoint
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 683

In multichannel seismic acquisition, the point on the surface halfway between the source and receiver
that is shared by numerous source-receiver pairs. Such redundancy among source-receiver pairs
enhances the quality of seismic data when the data are stacked. The common midpoint is vertically
above the common depth point, or common reflection point. Common midpoint is not the same as
common depth point, but the terms are often incorrectly used as synonyms.

The traces from different source-receiver pairs that share a common midpoint, such as receiver 6 (R6), can
be corrected during seismic processing to remove the effects of different source-receiver offsets, or NMO.
After NMO corrections, the traces can be stacked to improve the signal-to-noise ratio.

common midpoint method

1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 682

Method of seismic reflection surveying and processing that exploits the redundancy of multiple fold to
enhance data quality by reducing noise. During acquisition, an energy source is supplied to a number of
shotpoints simultaneously. Once data have been recorded, the energy source is moved farther down the
line of acquisition, but enough overlap is left that some of the reflection points are re-recorded with a
different source-to-receiver offset. Multiple shotpoints that share a source-receiver midpoint are stacked.
The number of times that a common midpoint is recorded is the fold of the data.

ground roll
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 850

A type of coherent noise generated by a surface wave, typically a low-velocity, low-frequency, highamplitude Rayleigh wave. Ground roll can obscure signal and degrade overall data quality, but can be
alleviated through careful selection of source and geophone arrays, filters and stacking parameters

noise
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 937

Anything other than desired signal. Noise includes disturbances in seismic data caused by any unwanted
seismic energy, such as shot generation ground roll, surface waves, multiples, effects of weather and
human activity, or random occurrences in the Earth. Noise can be minimized by using source and receiver
arrays, generating minimal noise during acquisition and by filtering and stacking data during processing.

processing
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 981

Alteration of seismic data to suppress noise, enhance signal and migrate seismic events to the appropriate
location in space. Processing steps typically include analysis of velocities and frequencies, static
corrections, deconvolution, normal moveout, dip moveout, stacking, and migration, which can be
performed before or after stacking. Seismic processing facilitates better interpretation because subsurface
structures and reflection geometries are more apparent.

random noise
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 994

Disturbances in seismic data that are not coherent (they lack a phase relationship between adjacent
traces, unlike air waves and ground roll) and cannot be correlated to the seismic energy source. Random
noise can be reduced or removed from data by stacking traces, filtering during processing or using arrays
of geophones during acquisition.

random noise
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 994

Disturbances in seismic data that are not coherent (they lack a phase relationship between adjacent
traces, unlike air waves and ground roll) and cannot be correlated to the seismic energy source. Random
noise can be reduced or removed from data by stacking traces, filtering during processing or using arrays

of geophones during acquisition.

seismic record
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1030

Traces recorded from a single shotpoint. Numerous seismic records are displayed together in a single
seismic section.

semblance
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1046

A quantitative measure of the coherence of seismic data from multiple channels that is equal to the energy
of a stacked trace divided by the energy of all the traces that make up the stack. If data from all channels
are perfectly coherent, or show continuity from trace to trace, the semblance has a value of unity.

slant stack
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1068

A process used in seismic processing to stack,or sum, traces by shifting traces in time in proportion to their
offset. This technique is useful in areas of dipping reflectors.

stacking velocity
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1091

The distance-time relationship determined from analysis of normal moveout (NMO) measurements from
common depth point gathers of seismic data. The stacking velocity is used to correct the arrival times of
events in the traces for their varying offsets prior to summing, or stacking, the traces to improve the signalto-noise ratio of the data.

velocity analysis
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1146

The process of calculating seismic velocity, typically by using common midpoint data, in order to better
process seismic data. Successful stacking, time migration and depth migration all require proper velocity
inputs. Velocity or stacking velocity can be calculated from normal moveout, or the change in arrival time
produced by source-receiver offset.

zero-offset data
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1178

Seismic data whose source and receiver share a common location. Stacking seismic data acquired with
separated sources and receivers gives the data the appearance of zero-offset data

processing
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 981

Alteration of seismic data to suppress noise, enhance signal and migrate seismic events to the appropriate
location in space. Processing steps typically include analysis of velocities and frequencies, static

corrections, deconvolution, normal moveout, dip moveout, stacking, and migration, which can be
performed before or after stacking. Seismic processing facilitates better interpretation because subsurface
structures and reflection geometries are more apparent.

acquisition
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 579

The generation and recording of seismic data. Acquisition involves many different receiver
configurations, including laying geophones or seismometers on the surface of the Earth or seafloor,
towing hydrophones behind a marine seismic vessel, suspending hydrophones vertically in the sea or
placing geophones in a wellbore (as in a vertical seismic profile) to record the seismic signal. A source,
such as a vibrator unit, dynamite shot, or an air gun, generates acoustic or elastic vibrations that travel
into the Earth, pass through strata with different seismic responses and filtering effects, and return to the
surface to be recorded as seismic data. Optimal acquisition varies according to local conditions and
involves employing the appropriate source (both type and intensity), optimal configuration of receivers,
and orientation of receiver lines with respect to geological features. This ensures that the highest signalto-noise ratio can be recorded, resolution is appropriate, and extraneous effects such as air waves,
ground roll, multiples and diffractions can be minimized or distinguished, and removed through
processing.

Marine seismic vessels are typically about 75 m [246 ft] long and travel about 5 knots [9.3 km/hr or 5.75
statute miles/hr] while towing arrays of air guns and streamers containing hydrophones a few meters below
the surface of the water. The tail buoy helps the crew locate the end of the streamers. The air guns are
activated periodically, such as every 25 m (about 10 seconds), and the resulting sound wave travels into the
Earth, is reflected back by the underlying rock layers to hydrophones on the streamer and then relayed to
the recording vessel.

amplitude anomaly
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 590

An abrupt increase in seismic amplitude that can indicate the presence of hydrocarbons, although such
anomalies can also result from processing problems, geometric or velocity focusing or changes in
lithology. Amplitude anomalies that indicate the presence of hydrocarbons can result from sudden changes
in acoustic impedance, such as when a gas sand underlies a shale, and in that case, the term is used
synonymously with hydrocarbon indicator.

amplitude variation with offset

1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 592

Variation in seismic reflection amplitude with change in distance between shotpoint and receiver that

indicates differences in lithology and fluid content in rocks above and below the reflector. AVO analysis
is a technique by which geophysicists attempt to determine thickness, porosity, density, velocity,
lithology and fluid content of rocks. Successful AVO analysis requires special processing of seismic data
and seismic modeling to determine rock properties with a known fluid content. With that knowledge, it is
possible to model other types of fluid content. A gas-filled sandstone might show increasing amplitude
with offset, whereas a coal might show decreasing amplitude with offset. A limitation of AVO analysis
using only P-energy is its failure to yield a unique solution, so AVO results are prone to misinterpretation.
One common misinterpretation is the failure to distinguish a gas-filled reservoir from a reservoir having
only partial gas saturation ("fizz water"). However, AVO analysis using source-generated or modeconverted shear wave energy allows differentiation of degrees of gas saturation. AVO analysis is more
successful in young, poorly consolidated rocks, such as those in the Gulf of Mexico, than in older, wellcemented sediments.

The variation in seismic energy with change in distance between shot point and receiver reflects differences
in lithology and fluid content in rocks. AVO analysis is a technique by which geophysicists attempt to
determine thickness, porosity, density, velocity, and fluid content of rocks. AVO analysis is more successful
in young, poorly consolidated rocks, such as those in the Gulf of Mexico, than in older, well-cemented
sediments such as those from the midcontinent region of the USA.

automatic gain control

1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 618

A system to control the gain, or the increase in the amplitude of an electrical signal from the original input
to the amplified output, automatically. AGC is commonly used in seismic processing to improve visibility of
late-arriving events in which attenuation or wavefront divergence has caused amplitude decay.

bias

1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 639

An adjustment of the relative positive and negative excursions of reflections during seismic processing by
bulk shifting the null point, or baseline, of the data to emphasize peaks at the expense of troughs or vice
versa. Some authors describe bias as a systematic distortion of seismic data to achieve greater continuity.

convolution
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 695

A mathematical operation on two functions that is the most general representation of the process of linear
(invariant) filtering. Convolution can be applied to any two functions of time or space (or other variables) to
yield a third function, the output of the convolution. Although the mathematical definition is symmetric with
respect to the two input functions, it is common in signal processing to say that one of the functions is a
filter acting on the other function. The response of many physical systems can be represented
mathematically by a convolution. For example, a convolution can be used to model the filtering of seismic
energy by the various rock layers in the Earth; deconvolution is used extensively in seismic processing to
counteract that filtering.

deconvolution
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 715

A step in seismic signal processing to recover high frequencies, attenuate multiples, equalize amplitudes,
produce a zero-phase wavelet or for other purposes that generally affect the waveshape. Deconvolution,
or inverse filtering, can improve seismic data that were adversely affected by filtering, or convolution that
occurs naturally as seismic energy is filtered by the Earth. Deconvolution can also be performed on other
types of data, such as gravity, magnetic or well log data.

deterministic deconvolution
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 728

A type of inverse filtering, or deconvolution, in which the effects of the filter are known by observation or

assumed, as opposed to statistical deconvolution.

signature deconvolution
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1062

A step in seismic processing by which the signature of the seismic source in the seismic trace is changed
to a known, shorter waveform by using knowledge of the source waveform. If the source waveform is
known for each shot, then the process also minimizes variations between seismic records that result from
changes in the source output.

depth conversion
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 721

The process of transforming seismic data from a scale of time (the domain in which they are acquired) to a
scale of depth to provide a picture of the structure of the subsurface independent of velocity. Depth
conversion, ideally, is an iterative process that begins with proper seismic processing, seismic velocity
analysis and study of well data to refine the conversion. Acoustic logs, check-shot surveys and vertical
seismic profiles can aid depth conversion efforts and improve correlation of well logs and drilling data with
surface seismic data.

depth migration
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 723

A step in seismic processing in which reflections in seismic data are moved to their correct locations in
space, including position relative to shotpoints, in areas where there are significant and rapid lateral or
vertical changes in velocity that distort the time image. This requires an accurate knowledge of vertical and
horizontal seismic velocity variations.

dip moveout
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 745

The difference in the arrival times or traveltimes of a reflected wave, measured by receivers at two different
offset locations, that is produced when reflectors dip. Seismic processing compensates for DMO.
See: arrival, DMO, moveout, quicklook

2. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 746

The procedure in seismic processing that compensates for the effects of a dipping reflector. DMO
processing was developed in the early 1980s.

dynamic correction
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 777

A time-variant operation performed on seismic data. Normal moveout (NMO) is a dynamic correction

embedded wavelet
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 793

The shape of a wavelet produced by reflection of an actual wave train at one interface with a positive
reflection coefficient. The embedded wavelet is useful for generating a convolutional model, or the
convolution of an embedded wavelet with a reflectivity function and random noise, during seismic
processing or interpretation.

event
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 795

An appearance of seismic data as a diffraction, reflection, refraction or other similar feature produced by
an arrival of seismic energy. An event can be a single wiggle within a trace, or a consistent lining up of
several wiggles over several traces. An event in a seismic section can represent a geologic interface, such
as a fault, unconformity or change in lithology.

filter
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 808

A process or algorithm using a set of limits used to eliminate unwanted portions of seismic data, commonly
on the basis of frequency or amplitude, to enhance the signal-to-noise ratio of the data or to achieve
deconvolution.
See: alias filter, aliasing, amplitude, aperture, backscatter, band, band-pass, band-reject, coherence filtering, deconvolution,
deterministic deconvolution, Fourier transform, frequency, noise, processing, random noise, signal, signal-to-noise ratio, WalshHadamard transform

1. vb. [Geophysics]

ID: 809

To remove undesirable portions of data during seismic processing to increase the signal-to-noise ratio of
seismic data. Filtering can eliminate certain frequencies, amplitudes or other information.

frequency
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 825

The rate of repetition of complete wavelengths of electrical signals, light, sound and seismic waves
measured in cycles per second, or hertz, and symbolized by f. Typical recorded seismic frequencies are in
the range of 5 to 100 hertz.

header
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 858

The location, acquisition and processing parameters, and other pertinent information attached to a well
log, seismic record and traces.

interpretation
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 877

In geophysics, analysis of data to generate reasonable models and predictions about the properties and
structures of the subsurface. Interpretation of seismic data is the primary concern of geophysicists

3. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 883

A mathematical process by which data are used to generate a model that is consistent with the data, the
process of solving the inverse problem. In seismology, surface seismic data, vertical seismic profiles and
well log data can be used to perform inversion, the result of which is a model of Earth layers and their
thickness, density and P- and S-wave velocities. Successful seismic inversion usually requires a high signalto-noise ratio and a large bandwidth.

Diagrammatic comparison of forward modeling and inversion

lag
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 894

The delay or difference in the arrival time of seismic events that can result from weathering of the rocks or
variations in geologic structures in the subsurface.
Alternate Form: lag
See: arrival, event, weathering

1. vb. [Geophysics]

ID: 1190

Alternate Form: lag

2. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 895

A term used in seismic processing to describe the interval between the zero-time of a crosscorrelation

between two traces and the point of maximum correlation.

See: crosscorrelation, processing

3. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 896

The time delay of the onset of one sinusoidal oscillation, or frequency component of a trace, relative to
another. Also known as a "phase-lag."

n. [Geophysics]

ID: 914

A step in seismic processing in which reflections in seismic data are moved to their correct locations in the xy-time space of seismic data, including two-way traveltime and position relative to shotpoints. Migration
improves seismic interpretation and mapping because the locations of geological structures, especially
faults, are more accurate in migrated seismic data. Proper migration collapses diffractions from secondary
sources such as reflector terminations against faults and corrects bow ties to form synclines. There are
numerous methods of migration, such as dip moveout (DMO), frequency domain, ray-trace and waveequation migration.

Diagram of a datum and hydrophone array

During seismic processing, migration adjusts the location of events in seismic traces to compensate for
dipping reflectors.

moveout
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 923

The difference in the arrival times or traveltimes of a reflected wave measured by receivers at two
different offset locations. Normal moveout (NMO) is moveout caused by the separation between a
source and a receiver in the case of a flat reflector. Dip moveout (DMO) occurs as an effect in addition
to NMO when reflectors dip. Problems that require static corrections can also produce moveout.

Diagram of common midpoint and moveout

The traces from different source-receiver pairs that share a midpoint, such as receiver 6 (R6), can be
corrected during seismic processing to remove the effects of different source-receiver offsets, called normal
moveout or NMO. After NMO corrections, the traces can be stacked to improve the signal-to-noise ratio.

noise
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 937

Anything other than desired signal. Noise includes disturbances in seismic data caused by any unwanted
seismic energy, such as shot generation ground roll, surface waves, multiples, effects of weather and
human activity, or random occurrences in the Earth. Noise can be minimized by using source and receiver
arrays, generating minimal noise during acquisition and by filtering and stacking data during processing.

peg-leg multiple
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 964

A type of short-path multiple, or multiply-reflected seismic energy, having an asymmetric path. Short-path
multiples are added to primary reflections, tend to come from shallow subsurface phenomena and highly
cyclical deposition, and can be suppressed by seismic processing. In some cases, the period of the pegleg multiple is so brief that it interferes with primary reflections, and its interference causes a loss of high
frequencies in the wavelet.

random noise
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 994

Disturbances in seismic data that are not coherent (they lack a phase relationship between adjacent
traces, unlike air waves and ground roll) and cannot be correlated to the seismic energy source. Random
noise can be reduced or removed from data by stacking traces, filtering during processing or using arrays
of geophones during acquisition.

quicklook
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 988

A subset of a 3D seismic survey comprising low fold or simplified processing (such as omitting dip
moveout processing) that can be evaluated soon after acquisition.
See: acquisition, borehole seismic data, dip moveout, fold, processing

2. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 989

Borehole seismic data processed on site in the field

resolution
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1012

The ability to distinguish between separate points or objects, such as sedimentary sequences in a seismic
section. High frequency and short wavelengths provide better vertical and lateral resolution. Seismic
processing can greatly affect resolution: deconvolution can improve vertical resolution by producing a
broad bandwidth with high frequencies and a relatively compressed wavelet. Migration can improve lateral
resolution by reducing the size of the Fresnel zone.

short-path multiple
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1055

Multiply-reflected seismic energy with a shorter travel path than long-path multiples. Short-path multiples
tend to come from shallow subsurface phenomena or highly cyclical sedimentation and arrive soon after,
and sometimes very near, the primary reflections. Short-path multiples are less obvious than most longpath multiples and are less easily removed by seismic processing.

signal
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1061

The portion of the seismic wave that contains desirable information. Noise is the undesirable information
that typically accompanies the signal and can, to some extent, be filtered out of the data

sinc x
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1065

A function commonly used in seismic processing. Sinc x is the Fourier transform of a boxcar function,
which is a function with a rectangular-shaped aperture.

space-frequency domain
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1078

A display, also known as the f-k domain, of seismic data by wavenumber versus frequency rather than the
intuitive display of location versus time for convenience during seismic processing. Working in the spacefrequency domain provides the seismic processor with an alternative measure of the content of seismic
data in which operations such as filtering of certain unwanted events can be accomplished more
effectively.

f-k domain
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 799

The use of frequency (abbreviated as f) and wavenumber (k, the reciprocal of wavelength) as the
reference framework, obtained by using the Fourier transform over time and space.

static correction
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1094

Often called statics, a bulk shift of a seismic trace in time during seismic processing. A common static
correction is the weathering correction, which compensates for a layer of low seismic velocity material near
the surface of the Earth. Other corrections compensate for differences in topography and differences in the
elevations of sources and receivers.

base of weathering
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 629

The lower boundary of the near-surface, low-velocity zone in which rocks are physically, chemically or
biologically broken down, in some cases coincident with a water table. Static corrections to seismic data
can compensate for the low velocity of the weathered layer in comparison with the higher-velocity strata
below.

differential weathering correction

1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 732

A type of static correction that compensates for delays in seismic reflection or refraction times from one
point to another, such as among geophone groups in a survey. These delays can be induced by lowvelocity layers such as the weathered layer near the Earth's surface.

elevation correction

1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 792

Any compensating factor used to bring measurements to a common datum or reference plane. In gravity
surveying, elevation corrections include the Bouguer and free-air corrections. Seismic data undergo a
static correction to reduce the effects of topography and low-velocity zones near the Earth's surface. Well
log headers include the elevation of the drilling rig's kelly bushing and, for onshore locations, the height of
the location above sea level, so that well log depths can be corrected to sea level.

weathered layer
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 539

A near-surface, possibly unconsolidated layer of low seismic velocity. The base of the weathered layer
commonly coincides with the water table and a sharp increase in seismic velocity. The weathered layer
typically has air-filled pores.

weathering correction
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1171

A method of compensating for delays in seismic reflection or refraction times induced by low-velocity
layers such as the weathered layer near the Earth's surface. It is a type of static correction

three-dimensional survey
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1116

The acquisition of seismic data as closely spaced receiver and shot lines such that there typically are no
significant gaps in the subsurface coverage. A 2D survey commonly contains numerous widely spaced
lines acquired orthogonally to the strike of geological structures and a minimum of lines acquired parallel to
geological structures to allow line-to-line correlation of the seismic data and interpretation and mapping of
structures.

time migration
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1120

A migration technique for processing seismic data in areas where lateral velocity changes are not too
severe, but structures are complex. Time migration has the effect of moving dipping events on a surface
seismic line from apparent locations to their true locations in time. The resulting image is shown in terms of
traveltime rather than depth, and must then be converted to depth with an accurate velocity model to be
compared to well logs.

true-amplitude recovery
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1134

Steps in seismic processing to compensate for attenuation, spherical divergence and other effects by
adjusting the amplitude of the data. The goal of TAR is to get the data to a state where the reflector
amplitudes relate directly to the change in rock properties giving rise to them.

wavelet extraction
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1167

A step in seismic processing to determine the shape of the wavelet, also known as the embedded wavelet,
that would be produced by a wave train impinging upon an interface with a positive reflection coefficient.
Wavelets may also be extracted by using a model for the reflections in a seismic trace, such as a synthetic
seismogram. A wavelet is generated by deconvolving the trace with the set of reflection coefficients of the
synthetic seismogram, a process also known as deterministic wavelet extraction. Wavelets may be
extracted without a model for the reflections by generating a power spectrum of the data. By making
certain assumptions, such as that the power spectrum contains information about the wavelet (and not the
geology) and that the wavelet is of a certain phase (minimum, zero), a wavelet may be generated. This is
also called statistical wavelet extraction. A particular processing approach to establishing the embedded
wavelet is to compare the processed seismic response with the response measured by a vertical seismic
profile (VSP) or generated synthetically through a synthetic seismogram in which the embedded wavelet is
known. The wavelet can also be extracted through the autocorrelation of the seismic trace, in which case
the phase of the wavelet has to be assumed.

work station
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1175

An interactive computer suitable for seismic data processing, interpretation and modeling that is
particularly useful for studies of large quantities of seismic data, particularly 3D seismic data.

zero-phase
1. adj. [Geophysics]

ID: 1180

Pertaining to seismic data whose wavelet is symmetrical about zero time. Deconvolution during seismic
processing can convert data of mixed phase to zero-phase data, but is not always successful. Zerophase data tend to provide sharper definition and less distortion between stratigraphic features in the
subsurface, such as sand and shale layers.

Display of acoustic impedance, traces, well logs and a zero-phase wavelet

The zero-phase wavelet on the right is symmetrical about zero time.

sequence stratigraphy
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 453

A field of study in which basin-filling sedimentary deposits, called sequences, are interpreted in a
framework of eustasy, sedimentation and subsidence through time in order to correlate strata and
predict the stratigraphy of relatively unknown areas. Sequences tend to show cyclicity of changes in
relative sea level and widespread unconformities, processes of sedimentation and sources of
sediments, climate and tectonic activity over time. Sequence stratigraphic study promotes thorough
understanding of the evolution of basins, but also allows for interpretations of potential source rocks and
reservoir rocks in both frontier areas (having seismic data but little well data) and in more mature
hydrocarbon provinces. Prediction of reservoir continuity is currently a key question in mature
hydrocarbon provinces where sequence stratigraphy is being applied.
The field originated during the 1960s with the study of the stratigraphy of the continental USA, where
numerous unconformities could be correlated widely, and led to the proposal that major unconformities
might mark synchronous global-scale events. Through sequence stratigraphy, widely-separated
sediments that occur between correlatable unconformities could be compared with each other. Studies
of outcrops and seismic lines bore out these concepts, which initially were called "Seismic Stratigraphy"
and first published widely in 1977. Further study of seismic lines led to the interpretation of the geometry
or architecture of seismic events as representing particular styles of sedimentation and depositional
environments, and the integration of such interpretations with well log and core data. Because of the
simultaneous, competitive nature of the research, numerous oil companies and academic groups use
the terminology of sequence stratigraphy differently, and new terms are added continually.
See: accommodation, aggradation, basin, chronostratigraphic chart, condensed section, correlation, depositional
environment, downlap, eustasy, hiatus, onlap, parasequence, plate tectonics, progradation, regression, reservoir,
retrogradation, sedimentation, seismic stratigraphy, sequence, sequence boundary, source rock, stratigraphy, stratum,
subsidence, systems tract, transgression, unconformity

Elements of sequence stratigraphic interpretation

Sequence stratigraphy. Sequence stratigraphy involves integration of log, core and seismic data to interpret
deposition and architecture of sediments.

accommodation
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 7

Sequence stratigraphic term for the amount of space available for sediment accumulation. Dominant
influences on the amount of accommodation, or accommodation space, include subsidence and eustasy.

aggradation
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 13

The accumulation of stratigraphic sequences by deposition that stacks beds atop each other, building
upwards during periods of balance between sediment supply and accommodation.

Aggradation

Aggradation. Stratigraphic sequences build upward in areas of aggradation.

basin
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 53

A depression in the crust of the Earth, caused by plate tectonic activity and subsidence, in which
sediments accumulate. Sedimentary basins vary from bowl-shaped to elongated troughs. Basins can be
bounded by faults. Rift basins are commonly symmetrical; basins along continental margins tend to be
asymmetrical. If rich hydrocarbon source rocks occur in combination with appropriate depth and duration
of burial, then a petroleum system can develop within the basin.
Synonyms: sedimentary basin

World map of sedimentary basins

Basin. Most of the worldUs sedimentary basins have been identified. Onshore basins are shown in green;
offshore basins are lavender. The brown contour represents 1000-m [3300-ft] water depth

depocenter
1. n. [Geology]
The area of thickest deposition in a basin.

ID: 139

petroleum system
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 385

Geologic components and processes necessary to generate and store hydrocarbons, including a mature
source rock, migration pathway, reservoir rock, trap and seal. Appropriate relative timing of formation of
these elements and the processes of generation, migration and accumulation are necessary for
hydrocarbons to accumulate and be preserved. The components and critical timing relationships of a
petroleum system can be displayed in a chart that shows geologic time along the horizontal axis and the
petroleum system elements along the vertical axis. Exploration plays and prospects are typically
developed in basins or regions in which a complete petroleum system has some likelihood of existing.

Graph of elements of a petroleum system

Petroleum system. The timing of formation of the major elements of a petroleum system can be presented
graphically. This petroleum system is in the Maracaibo basin of Venezuela.

play
1. n. [Geology]
An area in which hydrocarbon accumulations or prospects of a given type occur.
Synonyms: accumulation, exploration play

ID: 398

Map of salt occurrences in the Gulf of Mexico

Play. Salt structures, including salt domes and reservoirs beneath salt sheets, are the basis for attractive
plays in the Gulf of Mexico.

prospect
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 414

An area of exploration in which hydrocarbons have been predicted to exist in economic quantity. A
prospect is commonly an anomaly, such as a geologic structure or a seismic amplitude anomaly, that is
recommended by explorationists for drilling a well. Justification for drilling a prospect is made by
assembling evidence for an active petroleum system, or reasonable probability of encountering
reservoir-quality rock, a trap of sufficient size, adequate sealing rock, and appropriate conditions for
generation and migration of hydrocarbons to fill the trap. A single drilling location is also called a
prospect, but the term is more properly used in the context of exploration. A group of prospects of a
similar nature constitutes a play

Structure map and cross section of a prospect

Prospect. The structure map of Sand X shows a prospective drilling location at the crest of the faulted
anticline. The cross section A-A' demonstrates essential elements of the Prospect, including the reservoir,
cap rock or seal, source rock and trap.

chronostratigraphic chart
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 84

A graphic display, with geologic time along the vertical axis and distance along the horizontal axis, to
demonstrate the relative ages and geographic extent of strata or stratigraphic units in a given area, also
known as a Wheeler diagram. In addition, information from seismic data, well logs and rock samples, and
biostratigraphic and lithostratigraphic information can be shown within each chronostratigraphic unit. A
chronostratigraphic chart can concisely illustrate sequence stratigraphic interpretations

condensed section
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 101

In sequence stratigraphy, a section of fine-grained sedimentary rocks that accumulated slowly, thereby
representing a considerable span of time by only a thin layer. In condensed sections, fossils and organic,
phosphatic and glauconitic material tend to be concentrated compared with rapidly deposited sections that
contain few fossils. Condensed sections are most commonly deposited during transgressions. In such
cases they are associated with "maximum flooding surfaces" and form important sequence stratigraphic
markers.

correlation
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 10936

A connection of points from well to well in which the data suggest that the points were deposited at the
same time (chronostratigraphic) or have similar and related characteristics.
Alternate Form: correlate

2. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 696

The comparison of seismic waveforms in the time domain, similar to coherence in the frequency domain.
See: autocorrelation, check-shot survey, coherence, coherence, crosscorrelation, frequency, pick, tie, tie, two-dimensional
survey, waveform

3. n. [Reservoir Characterization]

ID: 10935

A positive relationship between data samples that implies a connection or a relationship between them.

downlap
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 171

The termination of more steeply dipping overlying strata against a surface or underlying strata that have
lower apparent dips; a term used to describe a particular geometry of reflections in seismic data in
sequence stratigraphy.

Onlap, downlap and progradation

Downlap. The geometry of steeper-dipping seismic reflections that terminate against reflections with
shallower dip is called downlap.

eustasy
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 191

Global sea level and its variations. Changes in sea level can result from movement of tectonic plates
altering the volume of ocean basins, or when changes in climate affect the volume of water stored in
glaciers and in polar icecaps. Eustasy affects positions of shorelines and processes of sedimentation, so
interpretation of eustasy is an important aspect of sequence stratigraphy.
Alternate Form: eustatic

hiatus

1. n. [Geology]

ID: 263

A cessation in deposition of sediments during which no strata form or an erosional surface forms on the
underlying strata; a gap in the rock record. This period might be marked by development of a lithified
sediment (hardground) or burrowed surface characteristic of periods when sea level was relatively low. A
disconformity can result from a hiatus.

onlap
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 363

The termination of shallowly dipping, younger strata against more steeply dipping, older strata, or the
termination of low-angle reflections in seismic data against steeper reflections. Onlap is a particular
pattern of reflections in seismic data that, according to principles of sequence stratigraphy, occurs
during periods of transgression.

Onlap, downlap and progradation

Onlap. The geometry of seismic reflections that terminate against steeper reflections is called onlap

parasequence
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 377

Relatively conformable depositional units bounded by surfaces of marine flooding, surfaces that separate
older strata from younger and show an increase in water depth in successively younger strata.
Parasequences are usually too thin to discern on seismic data, but when added together, they form sets
called parasequence sets that are visible on seismic data.

plate tectonics
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 395

The unifying geologic theory developed to explain observations that interactions of the brittle plates of
the lithosphere with each other and with the softer underlying asthenosphere result in large-scale
changes in the Earth. The theory of plate tectonics initially stemmed from observations of the shapes of
the continents, particularly South America and Africa, which fit together like pieces in a jigsaw puzzle
and have similar rocks and fossils despite being separated by a modern ocean. As lithospheric plates
heat up or cool down depending on their position, or their tectonic environment, relative to each other
and to warmer areas deeper within the Earth, they become relatively more or less dense than the
asthenosphere and thus tend to rise as molten magma or sink in cold, brittle slabs or slide past each
other. Mountain belts can form during plate collisions or an orogeny; diverging plates or rifts can create
new midoceanic ridges; plates that slide past one another create transform fault zones (such as the San
Andreas fault); and zones of subduction occur where one lithospheric plate moves beneath another.
Plate tectonic theory can explain such phenomena as earthquakes, volcanic or other igneous activity,
midoceanic ridges and the relative youth of the oceanic crust, and the formation of sedimentary basins
on the basis of their relationships to lithospheric plate boundaries. Convection of the mantle is

postulated to be the driving mechanism for the movement of lithospheric plates. Measurements of the
continents using the Global Positioning System confirm the relative motions of plates. Age
determinations of the oceanic crust confirm that such crust is much younger than that of the continents
and has been recycled by the process of subduction and regenerated at midoceanic ridges.
Synonyms: tectonics

Schematic cross section of convection and tectonic plates

Plate tectonics. Convection within the Earth has been proposed as a cause of development of midoceanic
ridges and subduction zones according to plate tectonic theory.

Diagram of layers of the Earth

Plate tectonics. The major compositional layers of the Earth are the core, the mantle and the crust. The
lithosphere includes all of the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle. The asthenosphere comprises
much of the upper mantle. The Moho, or Mohorovicic discontinuity, is the boundary between the crust and
the mantle. These compositional and mechanical layers play a significant role in the movement of the
Earth's tectonic plates.

progradation
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 413

The accumulation of sequences by deposition in which beds are deposited successively basinward
because sediment supply exceeds accommodation. Thus, the position of the shoreline migrates into the
basin during episodes of progradation, a process called regression.

Onlap, downlap and progradation

Progradation. Sediments build out into the basin in areas of progradation.

regression
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 419

The migration of shoreline into a basin during progradation due to a fall in relative sea level. Deposition
during a regression can juxtapose shallow-water sediments atop deep-water sediments.
Antonyms: transgression
Alternate Form: regressive

reservoir
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 423

A subsurface body of rock having sufficient porosity and permeability to store and transmit fluids.
Sedimentary rocks are the most common reservoir rocks because they have more porosity than most
igneous and metamorphic rocks and form under temperature conditions at which hydrocarbons can be
preserved. A reservoir is a critical component of a complete petroleum system.

retrogradation
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 425

The accumulation of sequences by deposition in which beds are deposited successively landward
because sediment supply is limited and cannot fill the available accommodation. Thus, the position of the
shoreline migrates backward onto land, a process called transgression, during episodes of retrogradation.
Antonyms: progradation

sedimentation
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 450

The process of creation, transportation and deposition of sediments.

sequence
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 451

A group of relatively conformable strata that represents a cycle of deposition and is bounded by
unconformities or correlative conformities. Sequences are the fundamental unit of interpretation in
sequence stratigraphy. Sequences comprise systems tracts.

sequence boundary
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 452

A surface that separates older sequences from younger ones, commonly an unconformity (indicating
subaerial exposure), but in limited cases a correlative conformable surface. A sequence boundary is an
erosional surface that separates cycles of deposition.

source rock
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 467

A rock rich in organic matter which, if heated sufficiently, will generate oil or gas. Typical source rocks,
usually shales or limestones, contain about 1% organic matter and at least 0.5% total organic carbon
(TOC), although a rich source rock might have as much as 10% organic matter. Rocks of marine origin
tend to be oil-prone, whereas terrestrial source rocks (such as coal) tend to be gas-prone. Preservation of
organic matter without degradation is critical to creating a good source rock, and necessary for a complete
petroleum system.

stratigraphy
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 473

The study of the history, composition, relative ages and distribution of strata, and the interpretation of
strata to elucidate Earth history. The comparison, or correlation, of separated strata can include study of
their lithology, fossil content, and relative or absolute age, or lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy, and
chronostratigraphy.

stratum
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 474

Layers of sedimentary rock that form beds.

Alternate Form: strata

subsidence
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 485

The relative sinking of the Earth's surface. Plate tectonic activity (particularly extension of the crust,
which promotes thinning and sinking), sediment loading and removal of fluid from reservoirs are
processes by which the crust can be depressed. Subsidence can produce areas in which sediments
accumulate and, ultimately, form sedimentary basins.

Cross sections and maps of evaporites, rifting and subsidence

Subsidence. Offshore Congo has experienced subsidence through much of the last 150 million years, as
shown in this series of cross sections and paleogeographic maps. The position of the cross sections is
indicated on the maps by the red line.

systems tract
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 491

Subdivisions of sequences that consist of discrete depositional units that differ in geometry from other
systems tracts and have distinct boundaries on seismic data. Different systems tracts are considered to
represent different phases of eustatic changes. A lowstand systems tract develops during times of
relatively low sea level; a highstand systems tract at times of high sea level; and a transgressive systems
tract at times of changing sea level.

transgression
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 504

The migration of shoreline out of a basin and onto land during retrogradation. A transgression can result in
sediments characteristic of shallow water being overlain by deeper water sediments.
Antonyms: regression
Alternate Form: transgressive

unconformity

1. n. [Geology]

ID: 518

A geological surface separating older from younger rocks and representing a gap in the geologic
record. Such a surface might result from a hiatus in deposition of sediments, possibly in combination
with erosion, or deformation such as faulting. An angular unconformity separates younger strata from
eroded, dipping older strata. A disconformity represents a time of nondeposition, possibly combined
with erosion, and can be difficult to distinguish within a series of parallel strata. A nonconformity
separates overlying strata from eroded, older igneous or metamorphic rocks. The study and
interpretation of unconformities locally, regionally and globally is the basis of sequence stratigraphy.

Photograph of Siccar Point unconformity

Unconformity. Hutton's Unconformity at Siccar Point, Scotland, UK, is the classic example of an angular
unconformity because that is where the famous geologist recognized the importance of unconformities in
geology. Note the vertical beds in the foreground beneath gently dipping beds to the left.

Photograph of west Texas unconformity

Unconformity. Flat-lying Cretaceous carbonate rocks unconformably overlie dipping Paleozoic rocks of
Ouachita age.

depositional environment
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 143

The area in which and physical conditions under which sediments are deposited, including sediment
source; depositional processes such as deposition by wind, water or ice; and location and climate, such
as desert, swamp or river.
See: bathyal, channel, delta, depositional energy, depositional system, eolian, estuary, facies, fluvial, glacial, lacustrine,
lithofacies, littoral, marine, marsh, neritic, paleontology, paludal, parasequence, point bar, reef, sabkha, sediment,
sedimentary, sequence stratigraphy, swamp, terrestrial, vitrinite

You are here: SLB.com > Products & Services > Resources > Oilfield Glossary

Schematic diagram of depositional environments

Depositional environment. The sediment source, physical processes and environment of deposition affect
the development of sedimentary rocks.

bathyal
1. adj. [Geology]

ID: 54

Pertaining to the environment of deposition and the organisms of the ocean between depths of 200 m

[656 ft], the edge of the continental shelf, and 2000 m [6560 ft]. The bathyal environment is intermediate
between the neritic environment and the abyss.

Profile of continental margin to abyss

Bathyal. Marine bathymetric zones are generally grouped from littoral, or within tidal range; and neritic,
where waves and tides dominate; to Bathyal, where oceanic currents dominate; and abyssal, where there is
low depositional energy.

channel
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 80

A linear, commonly concave-based depression through which water and sediment flow and into which
sediment can be deposited in distinctive, often elongated bodies. Channels can occur in a variety of
morphologies, e.g., straight, meandering or braided. In some areas, coarse sediments can fill channels
of streams or rivers that cut through finer grained sediments or rocks. The close proximity of coarsegrained and fine-grained sediments can ultimately lead to the formation of stratigraphic hydrocarbon
traps

Photograph of channel

Channel. The light-colored body in the center of the photograph is the cross section of a channel that cuts
through the darker shale.
Photo courtesy of G. M. Gillis.

2. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 668

A device to carry data from a receiver to a recorder, such as from a group of geophones. Simultaneous
recording of 500 to 2000 channels is common during 3D seismic acquisition, and 120 to 240 channels
during onshore 2D seismic acquisition.

delta
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 135

An area of deposition or the deposit formed by a flowing sediment-laden current as it enters an open or
standing body of water, such as a river spilling into a gulf. As a river enters a body of water, its velocity
drops and its ability to carry sediment diminishes, leading to deposition. The term has origins in Greek
because the shape of deltas in map view can be similar to the Greek letter delta. The shapes of deltas
are subsequently modified by rivers, tides and waves. There is a characteristic coarsening upward of
sediments in a delta. The three main classes of deltas are river-dominated (Mississippi River), wavedominated (Nile River), and tide-dominated (Ganges River). Ancient deltas contain some of the largest
and most productive petroleum systems.

depositional energy
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 142

The relative kinetic energy of the environment. A high-energy environment might consist of a rapidly
flowing stream that is capable of carrying coarse-grained sediments, such as gravel and sand.
Sedimentation in a low-energy environment, such as an abyssal plain, usually involves very fine-grained
clay or mud. Depositional energy is not simply velocity. For example, although glaciers do not move
quickly, they are capable of carrying large boulders.

Schematic diagram of sediments and Udden-Wentworth scale

Depositional energy. Areas of steep slopes and rapidly flowing water or wind have higher depositional
energy and can transport larger grains of sediment than areas of gentle slopes and slow-moving water or
wind.

depositional system
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 144

The three-dimensional array of sediments or lithofacies that fills a basin. Depositional systems vary
according to the types of sediments available for deposition as well as the depositional processes and
environments in which they are deposited. The dominant depositional systems are alluvial, fluvial, deltaic,
marine, lacustrine and eolian systems

eolian
1. adj. [Geology]

ID: 184

Pertaining to the environment of deposition of sediments by wind, such as the sand dunes in a desert.
Because fine-grained sediments such as clays are removed easily from wind-blown deposits, eolian
sandstones are typically clean and well-sorted.
Alternate Form: aeolian

estuary
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 190

A semi-enclosed coastal environment of deposition in which a river mouth permits freshwater to contact
and mix with seawater.
Alternate Form: estuarine

facies
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 198

The overall characteristics of a rock unit that reflect its origin and differentiate the unit from others around
it. Mineralogy and sedimentary source, fossil content, sedimentary structures and texture distinguish one
facies from another.
See: depositional environment, lithofacies

2. n. [Reservoir Characterization]

ID: 10938

The characteristics of a rock unit that reflect its origin and permit its differentiation from other rock units
around it. Facies usually are characterized using all the geological characteristics known for that rock unit.
In reservoir characterization and reservoir simulation, the facies properties that are most important are the
petrophysical characteristics that control the fluid behavior in the facies. Electrofacies and other
multivariate techniques are often used to determine these characteristics. Rock types rather than facies
are more likely to be used in reservoir simulation.

fluvial
1. adj. [Geology]

ID: 210

Pertaining to an environment of deposition by a river or running water. Fluvial deposits tend to be well
sorted, especially in comparison with alluvial deposits, because of the relatively steady transport
provided by rivers.

glacial
1. adj. [Geology]

ID: 246

Pertaining to the environment of deposition by glaciers.

Alternate Form: glacier

lacustrine
1. adj. [Geology]

ID: 301

Pertaining to an environment of deposition in lakes, or an area having lakes. Because deposition of

sediment in lakes can occur slowly and in relatively calm conditions, organic-rich source rocks can form
in lacustrine environments.

lithofacies
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 309

A mappable subdivision of a stratigraphic unit that can be distinguished by its facies or lithology-the
texture, mineralogy, grain size, and the depositional environment that produced it.

littoral
1. adj. [Geology]

ID: 317

Pertaining to an environment of deposition affected by tides, the area between high tide and low tide.
Given the variation of tides and land forms from place to place, geologists describe littoral zones locally
according to the fauna capable of surviving periodic exposure and submersion.

marine
1. adj. [Geology]

ID: 324

Pertaining to sediments or environments in seas or ocean waters, between the depth of low tide and the
ocean bottom.

marsh
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 325

An environment from which water rarely drains that supports primarily grassy vegetation and does not form
peat.

neritic
1. adj. [Geology]

ID: 350

Describing the environment and conditions of the marine zone between low tide and the edge of the
continental shelf, a depth of roughly 200 m [656 ft]. A neritic environment supports marine organisms,
also described as neritic, that are capable of surviving in shallow water with moderate exposure to
sunlight.

paleontology
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 372

The study of fossilized, or preserved, remnants of plant and animal life. Changes in the Earth through time
can be documented by observing changes in the fossils in successive strata and the environments in
which they formed or were preserved. Fossils can also be compared with their extant relatives to assess
evolutionary changes. Correlations of strata can be aided by studying their fossil content, a discipline
called biostratigraphy.

paludal
1. adj. [Geology]

ID: 373

Pertaining to a depositional environment or organisms from a marsh. It also refers to the type of
environment in which palustrine sediments can accumulate

parasequence
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 377

Relatively conformable depositional units bounded by surfaces of marine flooding, surfaces that separate
older strata from younger and show an increase in water depth in successively younger strata.
Parasequences are usually too thin to discern on seismic data, but when added together, they form sets
called parasequence sets that are visible on seismic data.

point bar
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 402

An arcuate deposit of sediment, usually sand, that occurs along the convex inner edges of the meanders
of channels and builds outward as the stream channel migrates.

reef
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 417

A mound, ridge, or buildup of sediment or sedimentary rock, most commonly produced by organisms that
secrete shells such as corals. Reefs are typically taller than the sediment that surrounds them, resistant to
weathering and wave action, and preserved within sediment of a different composition. Carbonate reefs
form in a limited range of temperatures, water depths, salinities and wave activities, so their occurrence
can be used to interpret past environmental conditions. Because the rocks that surround reefs can differ in
composition and permeability, porous reefs can form stratigraphic traps for hydrocarbons. Porosity of
reefal limestones depends on post-depositional diagenetic changes.
Alternate Form: reefal

sabkha
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 435

An environment of coastal sedimentation characterized by arid or semiarid conditions above the level of
high tide and by the absence of vegetation. Evaporites, eolian deposits and tidal-flood deposits are
common in sabkhas.

swamp
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 487

A wetland depositional environment in which water is present either permanently or intermittently and in
which trees and large woody plants can grow but peat does not form. Swamps can contain considerable
quantities of organic matter.

terrestrial
1. adj. [Geology]

ID: 497

Pertaining to sediments or depositional environments on land or above the level of high tide.

vitrinite
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 530

A type of woody kerogen that is relatively uniform in composition. Since vitrinite changes predictably and
consistently upon heating, its reflectance is a useful measurement of source rock maturity. Strictly
speaking, the plant material that forms vitrinite did not occur prior to Ordovician time. Also, because
vitrinite originated in wood, its occurrence in marine rocks might be limited by the depositional processes
that act in a given depositional environment.

wave
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1170

A periodic vibrational disturbance in which energy is propagated through or on the surface of a medium
without translation of the material. Waves can be differentiated by their frequency, amplitude, wavelength
and speed of propagation.

See: absorption, acoustic emission, acoustic log, acoustic wave, air wave, aliasing, amplitude, angle of approach, angle of
incidence, apparent velocity, attenuation, average velocity, backscatter, birefringence, body wave, character, coherence,
diffraction, displacement, extensive dilatancy anisotropy, frequency, Fresnel zone, hertz, image, interval transit time, Love wave,
normal incidence, P-wave, peak, plane wave, reflection coefficient, refraction, refractor, S-wave, seismic, seismic wave,
seismology, shear, signature, Snell's law, spherical divergence, spherical wave, Stoneley wave, surface wave, transverse
electric mode, transverse magnetic mode, traveltime, trough, tuning effect, velocity, velocity correction, vibratory seismic data,
wave equation, waveform, wavefront, wavelength

converted wave
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 694

A seismic wave that changes from a P-wave to an S-wave, or vice versa, when it encounters an interface.

body wave
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 649

A wave that propagates through a medium rather than along an interface. P-waves and S-waves are
examples of body waves.

P-wave
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 956

An elastic body wave or sound wave in which particles oscillate in the direction the wave propagates. Pwaves are the waves studied in conventional seismic data. P-waves incident on an interface at other than
normal incidence can produce reflected and transmitted S-waves, in that case known as converted waves.
Synonyms: acoustic wave, compressional wave, dilatational wave

S-wave
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1016

An elastic body wave in which particles oscillate perpendicular to the direction in which the wave
propagates. S-waves are generated by most land seismic sources, but not by air guns. P-waves that
impinge on an interface at non-normal incidence can produce S-waves, which in that case are known as
converted waves. S-waves can likewise be converted to P-waves. S-waves, or shear waves, travel more
slowly than P-waves and cannot travel through fluids because fluids do not support shear. Recording of Swaves requires receivers coupled to the solid Earth. Interpretation of S-waves can allow determination of
rock properties such as fracture density and orientation, Poisson's ratio and rock type by crossplotting Pwave and S-wave velocities, and by other techniques.

Synonyms: shear wave, tangential wave

SH-wave
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1048

A shear wave that is polarized so that its particle motion and direction of propagation are contained in a
horizontal plane.

SV-wave
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1103

A shear wave that is polarized so that its particle motion and direction of propagation occur in a vertical
plane.
See: converted wave, S-wave, SH-wave

surface wave
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1100

A wave that propagates at the interface between two media as opposed to through a medium. A surface
wave can travel at the interface between the Earth and air, or the Earth and water. Love waves and
Rayleigh waves are surface waves.

guided wave
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 853

Synonyms: channel wave

See: channel wave, surface wave

Love wave
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 903

A type of surface wave in which particles oscillate horizontally and perpendicularly to the direction of wave
propagation.
Synonyms: Q-wave

Rayleigh wave
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 997

A type of surface wave in which particles move in an elliptical path within the vertical plane containing
the direction of wave propagation. At the top of the elliptical path, particles travel opposite to the
direction of propagation, and at the bottom of the path they travel in the direction of propagation.
Because Rayleigh waves are dispersive, with different wavelengths traveling at different velocities, they
are useful in evaluation of velocity variation with depth. Rayleigh waves make up most of the energy
recorded as ground roll.

Diagram of Rayleigh wave propagation

The particles in a Rayleigh wave oscillate in an elliptical path within the vertical plane containing the
direction of wave propagation. Within the elliptical path, particles travel opposite to the direction of wave
propagation at the top of the path and in the direction of propagation at the bottom of the path.

ground roll
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 850

A type of coherent noise generated by a surface wave, typically a low-velocity, low-frequency, highamplitude Rayleigh wave. Ground roll can obscure signal and degrade overall data quality, but can be
alleviated through careful selection of source and geophone arrays, filters and stacking parameters.

water-bottom roll
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1162

The marine equivalent of ground roll. Water-bottom roll consists of a pseudo-Rayleigh wave traveling along
the interface of the water and the seafloor. As the use of seabed receiver systems increases, noise from
water-bottom roll has become more of a concern.

Stoneley wave
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1096

A type of large-amplitude interface, or surface, wave generated by a sonic tool in a borehole. Stoneley
waves can propagate along a solid-fluid interface, such as along the walls of a fluid-filled borehole and are
the main low-frequency component of signal generated by sonic sources in boreholes. Analysis of
Stoneley waves can allow estimation of the locations of fractures and permeability of the formation.
Stoneley waves are a major source of noise in vertical seismic profiles.

tube wave
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1135

A Stoneley wave that occurs at the low frequencies of seismic data.

See: Stoneley wave, surface wave

2. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1136

An interface wave that occurs in cased wellbores when a Rayleigh wave encounters a wellbore and
perturbs the fluid in the wellbore. The tube wave travels down the wellbore along the interface between the
fluid in the wellbore and the wall of the wellbore. A tube wave suffers little energy loss and typically retains
a very high amplitude which interferes with reflected arrivals occurring later in time on vertical seismic
profile (VSP) data. Because the tube wave is coupled to the formation through which it is traveling, it can
perturb the formation across open fractures intersecting the borehole. This squeezing effect can generate
secondary tube waves which travel both up and down from the fracture location. Such events can be
diagnostic of the presence of open fractures and their amplitude related qualitatively to the length and
width, e.g., volume of the fluid-filled fracture space. This effect is generally seen only in shallow formations
where the overburden pressure is lower.
See: coupling

channel wave
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 667

An type of elastic wave propagated and confined in a layer whose velocity is lower than that of the
surrounding layers, such as a layer of coal.
Synonyms: guided wave

shadow zone
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1049

Generally, an area of the Earth from which waves do not emerge or cannot be recorded. In seismology,
the term is used to more specifically describe regions of the subsurface where P-waves and S-waves are
difficult to detect, such as regions of the core at certain distances from the epicenter of an earthquake, or
the point on the Earth's surface directly above an earthquake. Such zones were first observed in 1914 by
Beno Gutenberg (1889 to 1960), an American geologist born in Germany. Because of the molten nature of
the outer core, S-waves are especially difficult to detect at 103 to 142 degrees from the epicenter of an
earthquake and not observable from 142 to 180 degrees from the epicenter. Areas below salt features are
also called shadow zones because the high velocity of salt bends and traps energy, so seismic data quality
beneath salt is generally poor unless special seismic processing is performed.
See: blind zone, P-wave, S-wave, seismology

absorption
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 563

The conversion of one form of energy into another as the energy passes through a medium. For example,
seismic waves are partially converted to heat as they pass through rock.

acoustic emission
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 567

A type of elastic wave produced by deformation or brittle failure of material and characterized by relatively
high frequency.

acoustic log
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 570

A display of traveltime of acoustic waves versus depth in a well. The term is commonly used as a synonym
for a sonic log. Some acoustic logs display velocity.
Alternate Form: acoustic velocity log

acoustic wave
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 576

General term for a P-wave.

Synonyms: P-wave

air wave
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 587

A sound wave that travels through the air at approximately 330 m/s and can be generated and recorded
during seismic surveying. Air waves are a type of coherent noise.

aliasing
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 589

The distortion of frequency introduced by inadequately sampling a signal, which results in ambiguity
between signal and noise. Aliasing can be avoided by sampling at least twice the highest frequency of the
waveform or by filtering frequencies above the Nyquist frequency, the highest frequency that can be
defined accurately by that sampling interval.

amplitude
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 593

The difference between the maximum displacement of a wave and the point of no displacement, or the
null point. The common symbol for amplitude is a.

Diagram of a wavelet

The maximum positive or negative deflection of a wave about the zero crossing is its amplitude.

angle of approach
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 595

The acute angle at which a wavefront impinges upon an interface, such as a seismic wave impinging upon
strata. Normal incidence is the case in which the angle of incidence is zero, the wavefront is parallel to the
surface and its raypath is perpendicular, or Normal, to the interface. Snell's law describes the relationship
between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction of a wave.

angle of incidence
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 596

The acute angle at which a raypath impinges upon a line normal to an interface, such as a seismic wave
impinging upon strata. Normal incidence is the case in which the angle of incidence is zero, the
wavefront is parallel to the surface and its raypath is perpendicular, or normal, to the interface. Snell's
law describes the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction of a wave.
Synonyms: incident angle

Diagram of reflection and refraction

The angle between the normal to the interface of two media and an incident raypath is the angle of
incidence, and is equal to the angle of reflection in isotropic media. The angle of refraction depends on the
velocity of the wave in that medium. Snell's law describes the changes in the direction of a wavefront as it
travels in media of different velocities.

apparent velocity
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 604

In geophysics, the speed of a wavefront in a certain direction, typically measured along a line of receivers
and symbolized by va. Apparent velocity and velocity are related by the cosine of the angle at which the
wavefront approaches the receivers:

attenuation
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 614

The loss of energy or amplitude of waves as they pass through media. Seismic waves lose energy through
absorption, reflection and refraction at interfaces, mode conversion and spherical divergence, or spreading
of the wave.
Alternate Form: attenuate

average velocity
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 620

In geophysics, the depth divided by the traveltime of a wave to that depth. Average velocity is commonly
calculated by assuming a vertical path, parallel layers and straight raypaths, conditions that are quite
idealized compared to those actually found in the Earth.

backscatter
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 624

A reflection phenomenon of energy in which a nonreflective surface, which is a surface that does not
reflect energy coherently, randomly scatters energy. No coherent reflected energy can be identified and the
energy is scattered in all directions, including back in the direction from which it came. For example, light
can be scattered or redistributed by rough, nonreflective surfaces.

birefringence
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 643

The splitting of an incident wave into two waves of different velocities and orthogonal polarizations.
Birefringence occurs in optical mineralogy (see petrography) when plane-polarized light passes through an
anisotropic mineral and emerges as two rays traveling at different speeds, the difference between which is
characteristic of a mineral. In seismology, incident S-waves can exhibit birefringence as they split into a
quasi-shear and a pure-shear wave. Although birefringence was first described by Danish physician
Erasmus Bartholin (1625 to 1698) in crystals in 1669, the phenomenon was not fully understood until
French physicist Etienne-Louis Malus (1775 to 1812) described polarized light in 1808.
Synonyms: double refraction

character

1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 669

A distinguishing feature of a waveform in a seismic event, such as shape, frequency, phase or continuity.
Synonyms: signature

coherence
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 674

A measure of the similarity of two seismic traces.

See: correlation, phantom, semblance

2. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 675

The quality of two wave trains, or waves consisting of several cycles, being in phase.
See: phase, wave

3. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 676

The similarity of two mathematical functions as evaluated in the frequency domain.

See: correlation

4. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 677

A quantitative assessment of the similarity of three or more functions, also called semblance.
See: semblance

phantom
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 968

An interpretation of the presumed continuation of an event. In areas of discontinuous, divergent reflectors

or incoherent data, drawing phantoms allows the interpreter to generate a map on a discontinuous event.
See: coherence, event, interpretation

semblance
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1046

A quantitative measure of the coherence of seismic data from multiple channels that is equal to the energy
of a stacked trace divided by the energy of all the traces that make up the stack. If data from all channels
are perfectly coherent, or show continuity from trace to trace, the semblance has a value of unity.
See: channel, coherence, coherence, stack

diffraction
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 734

A type of event produced by the radial scattering of a wave into new wavefronts after the wave meets a
discontinuity such as a fault surface, an unconformity or an abrupt change in rock type. Diffractions appear
as hyperbolic or umbrella-shaped events on a seismic profile. Proper migration of seismic data makes use

of diffracted energy to properly position reflections.

abnormal events
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 559

A term to indicate features in seismic data other than reflections, including events such as diffractions,
multiples, refractions and surface waves. Although the term suggests that such events are not common,
they often occur in seismic data.

arrival
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 613

An event or appearance of seismic data as a reflection, refraction, diffraction or other similar feature, or the
time at which seismic data appear. An event in a seismic section can represent a geologic interface.

event
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 795

An appearance of seismic data as a diffraction, reflection, refraction or other similar feature produced by
an arrival of seismic energy. An event can be a single wiggle within a trace, or a consistent lining up of
several wiggles over several traces. An event in a seismic section can represent a geologic interface, such
as a fault, unconformity or change in lithology.

reflection
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1005

Generally, the return or rebound of particles or energy from the interface between two media. There are
two laws of reflection, which state (1) that incident rays, reflected rays and the normal to the reflecting
interface at the point of incidence are coplanar, and (2) that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle
of reflection. In geophysics, reflection refers to the seismic energy or signal that returns from an
interface of contrasting acoustic impedance, known as a reflector, according to Snell's law. Reflection
seismic surveys are useful for mapping geologic structures in the subsurface, interpreting sedimentary
environments and evaluating hydrocarbon accumulations that might occur as amplitude anomalies.
Reflection surveys are complicated by the variation of velocity as well as the various types of wave
energy that are propagated within the Earth. In electromagnetics, variation in electrical properties
produces reflections.

raypath
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 998

The path or direction along which wave energy propagates through the Earth. In isotropic media, the
raypath is perpendicular to the local wavefront. The raypath can be calculated using ray tracing. Seismic
energy travels through media of variable anisotropy and can propagate by diffraction, factors that
complicate determination of raypaths.

ray tracing
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 996

A technique for predicting or determining arrival times of waves at detectors using raypaths. Ray tracing

requires a velocity model and the assumption that rays behave according to Snell's law. Ray tracing
provides the traveltimes that are required for Kirchhoff migration.

acoustic impedance
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 569

The product of density and seismic velocity, which varies among different rock layers, commonly
symbolized by Z. The difference in acoustic impedance between rock layers affects the reflection
coefficient.

acoustic impedance section

1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 568

A seismic reflectivity section, or a 2D or 3D seismic line, that has been inverted for acoustic impedance.
Sonic and density logs can be used to calibrate acoustic impedance sections.

acoustic transparency
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 572

The quality of a medium whose acoustic impedance is constant throughout, such that it contains no
seismic reflections. An example of an acoustically transparent medium is water.

acoustic transparency
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 572

The quality of a medium whose acoustic impedance is constant throughout, such that it contains no
seismic reflections. An example of an acoustically transparent medium is water.

amplitude anomaly
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 590

An abrupt increase in seismic amplitude that can indicate the presence of hydrocarbons, although such
anomalies can also result from processing problems, geometric or velocity focusing or changes in
lithology. Amplitude anomalies that indicate the presence of hydrocarbons can result from sudden changes
in acoustic impedance, such as when a gas sand underlies a shale, and in that case, the term is used
synonymously with hydrocarbon indicator.

attenuation
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 614

The loss of energy or amplitude of waves as they pass through media. Seismic waves lose energy through
absorption, reflection and refraction at interfaces, mode conversion and spherical divergence, or spreading
of the wave.

2. n. [Formation Evaluation]

ID: 3266

The reduction in amplitude of an electromagnetic wave passing through the formation, usually measured in

decibels/meter, dB/m. The term is used in particular with reference to the propagation resistivity log and the
electromagnetic propagation log.

autotrack
1. vb. [Geophysics]

ID: 619

To use computer software to pick a particular reflection or attribute in seismic data automatically.
Autotracking can speed interpretation of 3D seismic data,but must be checked for errors, especially in
areas of faulting and stratigraphic changes.

bow tie
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 653

A concave-upward event in seismic data produced by a buried focus and corrected by proper migration
of seismic data. The focusing of the seismic wave produces three reflection points on the event per
surface location. The name was coined for the appearance of the event in unmigrated seismic data.
Synclines, or sags, commonly generate bow ties.

Schematic diagram of a bow tie

A syncline might appear as a bow tie on a stacked section and can be corrected by proper migration of
seismic data.

complex-trace analysis
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 688

A mathematical method to determine seismic attributes, including reflection strength and instantaneous
frequency, by using the Hilbert transform, a special form of the Fourier transform, and the quadrature
trace, or the component of the signal that is 90 degrees out of phase.

converted wave
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 694

A seismic wave that changes from a P-wave to an S-wave, or vice versa, when it encounters an interface.

displacement
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 164

The offset of segments or points that were once continuous or adjacent. Layers of rock that have been
moved by the action of faults show displacement on either side of the fault surface.

Photograph of displacement by normal faults

Displacement. Movement of faults can produce offset of beds on either side of the fault surface. In this
photograph, there is obvious offset caused by intersecting normal faults.

extensive dilatancy anisotropy

1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 798

A form of azimuthal anisotropy that occurs when fractures or microcracks are not horizontal. Waves that
travel parallel to the fractures have a higher velocity than waves traveling perpendicular to fractures.

frequency
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 825

The rate of repetition of complete wavelengths of electrical signals, light, sound and seismic waves
measured in cycles per second, or hertz, and symbolized by f. Typical recorded seismic frequencies are in
the range of 5 to 100 hertz.

Fresnel zone
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 826

A frequency- and range-dependent area of a reflector from which most of the energy of a reflection is
returned and arrival times differ by less than half a period from the first break, named for French
physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1788 to 1827). Waves with such arrival times will interfere
constructively and so be detected as a single arrival. Subsurface features smaller than the Fresnel zone
usually cannot be detected using seismic waves.

Diagram of Fresnel zone resolution

Spherical divergence and attenuation of seismic waves causes a Fresnel zone, shown in this 2D sketch as
length A-A'. In 3D seismic, the Fresnel zone is a circular and has diameter A-A'. The size of the Fresnel zone
can be calculated to help interpreters determine the minimum size feature that can

hertz
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 859

The unit of measurement of frequency, equivalent to one cycle per second and symbolized by Hz. The unit
is named after German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857 to 1894), who discovered electromagnetic waves.

image
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 867

The apparent source of a received wave. The image is the point in the subsurface that the rays would
appear to have come from if they were not reflected, but were shot up from below. A ray that travels from
a source and is reflected to a geophone has the same appearance as a ray that travels straight from the
image and up to the geophone.

Schematic diagram of an image

The image is the point in the subsurface from which seismic energy would appear to have come if it had
been shot up from below.

interval transit time

1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 879

The amount of time for a wave to travel a certain distance, proportional to the reciprocal of velocity,
typically measured in microseconds per foot by an acoustic log and symbolized by t or DT. P-wave interval
transit times for common sedimentary rock types range from 43 (dolostone) to 160 (unconsolidated shales)
microseconds per foot, and can be distinguished from measurements of steel casing, which has a
consistent transit time of 57 microseconds per foot.
Synonyms: transit time

plane wave
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 972

A wave that is far enough from its source that its wavefront has no effective curvature, or is planar, over a
short distance. Seismic and electromagnetic waves are treated as plane waves even though that
assumption is not strictly correct.

reflection coefficient
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1003

The ratio of amplitude of the reflected wave to the incident wave, or how much energy is reflected. If the
wave has normal incidence, then its reflection coefficient can be expressed as:

Typical values of R are approximately -1 from water to air, meaning that nearly 100% of the energy is
reflected and none is transmitted; ~ 0.5 from water to rock; and ~ 0.2 for shale to sand. At non-normal
incidence, the reflection coefficient defined as a ratio of amplitudes depends on other parameters, such as
the shear velocities, and is described as a function of incident angle by the Zoeppritz equations.
Synonyms: reflectivity

refractor
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1010

A layer of rock that is sufficiently thick, areally extensive, and has a distinctly higher velocity than the rocks
immediately above it such that it can transmit a head wave, or a wave transmitted at its critical incident
angle.

seismology
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1044

The study of seismic or elastic waves, such as from earthquakes, explosions or other causes.
Interpretation of the structure and composition of the Earth from artificially created seismic waves is a chief
concern of seismologists exploring for hydrocarbons and other resources. English physicist John Mitchell
(1724 to 1793) is known as the founder of seismology in part because of his observation that one can
determine an earthquake's epicenter, or point of origin in the subsurface, by measuring the arrival time of
earthquake waves at different locations. The invention of the modern seismograph in 1880 promoted
further studies of earthquakes.

shear
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1053

A type of vertical seismic profile in which the source is a shear-wave source rather than a compressionalwave source. Shear waves travel through the Earth at about half the speed of compressional waves and
respond differently to fluid-filled rock, and so can provide different additional information about lithology
and fluid content of hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs

signature
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1063

A distinguishing feature of a waveform in a seismic event, such as shape, polarity, amplitude, frequency or
phase. The signature of the seismic source waveform is of particular interest to geophysicists.
Synonyms: character

Snell's law
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1070

The mathematical description of refraction, or the physical change in the direction of a wavefront as it
travels from one medium to another with a change in velocity and partial conversion and reflection of a
P-wave to an S-wave at the interface of the two media. Snell's law, one of two laws describing
refraction, was formulated in the context of light waves, but is applicable to seismic waves. It is named
for Willebrord Snel (1580 to 1626), a Dutch mathematician. Snell's law can be written as:

spherical divergence
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1083

The apparent loss of energy from a wave as it spreads during travel. Spherical divergence decreases
energy with the square of the distance.

See: divergence, Q, true-amplitude recovery, wave

2. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1084

The apparent loss of intensity of a gravitational or magnetic field with distance. Spherical divergence
decreases energy with the square of the distance.

transverse electric mode

1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1130

A mode of the electromagnetic field that involves only one component of the electric field and the two
components of the magnetic field perpendicular to it; e.g., the x-component of the electric field and y- and
z-components of the magnetic field. The TE mode is useful in describing 2D models in which the electric
field is perpendicular to the 2D plane of the model. For this case, Maxwell's equations can be reduced to a
single scalar equation for the electric field component, which simplifies calculations tremendously. There is
an analogous mode for the magnetic field called the TM mode. A general EM field in a region without
sources can be expressed as a sum of TE and TM modes

transverse magnetic mode

1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1131

A mode of the electromagnetic field that involves only one component of the magnetic field and the two
components of the electric field perpendicular to it; e.g., the x-component of the magnetic field and y- and
z-components of the electric field. The TM mode is useful in describing 2D models in which the magnetic
field is perpendicular to the 2D plane of the model. For this case, Maxwell's equations can be reduced to a
single scalar equation for the magnetic field component, which simplifies calculations tremendously.

traveltime
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1132

The duration of the passage of a signal from the source through the Earth and back to the receiver. A time
seismic section typically shows the two-way traveltime of the wave.
Alternate Form: acoustic traveltime

trough
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1133

The minimum (negative) deflection of the seismic wavelet. Seismic interpreters commonly pick or track
seismic data on paper sections along the trough of a wavelet rather than the solid-colored peak. With the
advent of workstations, this is no longer necessary because of automatic picking techniques and the ability
to reverse the polarity of the data in real time.
Antonyms: peak

tuning effect
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1137

A phenomenon of constructive or destructive interference of waves from closely spaced events or

reflections. At a spacing of less than one-quarter of the wavelength, reflections undergo constructive

interference and produce a single event of high amplitude. At spacing greater than that, the event begins
to be resolvable as two separate events. The tuning thickness is the bed thickness at which two events
become indistinguishable in time, and knowing this thickness is important to seismic interpreters who wish
to study thin reservoirs. The tuning thickness can be expressed by the following formula:
Z = VI/2.8 fmax,
where Z = tuning thickness of a bed, equal to 1/4 of the wavelength
VI = interval velocity of the target
fmax = maximum frequency in the seismic section.
The equation assumes that the interfering wavelets are identical in frequency content and are zero-phase
and is useful when planning a survey to determine the maximum frequency needed to resolve a given
thickness. Spatial and temporal sampling requirements can then be established for the survey.

vibratory seismic data

1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1153

Seismic data whose energy source is a truck-mounted device called a vibrator that uses a vibrating
plate to generate waves of seismic energy; also known as Vibroseis data (Vibroseis is a mark of
Conoco). The frequency and duration of the energy can be controlled and varied according to the terrain
and type of seismic data desired. The vibrator typically emits a linear "sweep" of at least seven seconds,
beginning with high frequencies and decreasing with time ("downsweeping") or going from low to high
frequency ("upsweeping"). The frequency can also be changed in a nonlinear manner, such that certain
frequencies are emitted longer than others. The resulting source wavelet is not impulsive. Vibrators are
employed in land acquisition in areas where explosive sources cannot be used, and more than one
vibrator can be used simultaneously to improve data quality.

Photographs of a vibrator and a vibrator truck

Vibratory seismic acquisition uses a truck-mounted device called a vibrator (right) to generate waves of
seismic energy. Vibrators are employed in land acquisition of surface seismic or vertical seismic profile
(VSP) data in areas where explosive sources cannot be used, and more than one vibrator truck (left) can be
used simultaneously to improve data quality.

wave equation
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1163

A mathematical expression to represent wave displacement and wave velocity (V) as functions of space
(x,y,z) and time (t).

waveform
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1164

The shape of a wave, typically shown as a graph of amplitude (or other quantity of interest) versus time.

wavefront
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1165

The edge of an advancing wave, which includes adjacent points that have the same phase

wavelength
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1166

The distance between analogous points in a wave train, measured perpendicular to the wavefront. In
seismic data, the wavelength is the seismic velocity divided by frequency. It can be expressed
mathematically as:

velocity
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1151

The rate at which a wave travels through a medium (a scalar) or the rate at which a body is displaced in a
given direction (a vector), commonly symbolized by v. Unlike the physicist's definition of velocity as a
vector, its usage in geophysics is as a property of a medium-distance divided by traveltime. Velocity can be
determined from laboratory measurements, acoustic logs, vertical seismic profiles or from velocity analysis
of seismic data. Velocity can vary vertically, laterally and azimuthally in anisotropic media such as rocks,
and tends to increase with depth in the Earth because compaction reduces porosity. Velocity also varies
as a function of how it is derived from the data. For example, the stacking velocity derived from normal
moveout measurements of common depth point gathers differs from the average velocity measured
vertically from a check-shot or vertical seismic profile (VSP). Velocity would be the same only in a constant
velocity (homogeneous) medium.

Alternate Form: acoustic velocity

See: acoustic, acoustic impedance, angular dispersion, anisotropy, apparent velocity, attribute, average velocity, base of
weathering, birefringence, channel wave, check-shot survey, depth conversion, depth migration, discontinuity, dispersion,
extensive dilatancy anisotropy, gas chimney, horizon, hydrocarbon indicator, interval velocity, Poisson's ratio, processing, pullup, push-down, ray tracing, reflection coefficient, reflection tomography, refraction, refractor, root-mean-square velocity, seismic
trace, seismic velocity, sonic log, stacking velocity, static correction, synthetic seismogram, time migration, tomography, velocity
analysis, velocity anomaly, velocity correction, velocity layering, velocity survey, vertical seismic profile, wave, wave equation,
wavelength, weathering correction

angular dispersion
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 597

The variation of seismic velocity in different directions.

anisotropy
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 26

Predictable variation of a property of a material with the direction in which it is measured, which can
occur at all scales. For a crystal of a mineral, variation in physical properties observed in different
directions is anisotropy. In rocks, variation in seismic velocity measured parallel or perpendicular to
bedding surfaces is a form of anisotropy. (Compare with homogeneity.)
Antonyms: isotropy
Alternate Form: anisotropic

Anisotropy - isotropy comparison

Anisotropy. Anisotropy and isotropy can depend on scale. While a single crystal can be anisotropic, many
crystals together can form an isotropic or homogeneous layer within an otherwise anisotropic rock.

apparent velocity
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 604

In geophysics, the speed of a wavefront in a certain direction, typically measured along a line of receivers
and symbolized by va. Apparent velocity and velocity are related by the cosine of the angle at which the
wavefront approaches the receivers:

attribute
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 616

A measurable property of seismic data, such as amplitude, dip, frequency, phase and polarity. Attributes
can be measured at one instant in time or over a time window, and may be measured on a single trace,
on a set of traces or on a surface interpreted from seismic data. Attribute analysis includes assessment
of various reservoir parameters, including hydrocarbon indicators, by techniques such as amplitude
variation with offset (AVO) analysis.

Geological significance of seismic attributes

Seismic attributes can be used to make a variety of geological interpretations

Sample level and volume-related attributes

Measurable properties of seismic data, or attributes, include amplitude, dip, frequency, phase and polarity.

average velocity
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 620

In geophysics, the depth divided by the traveltime of a wave to that depth. Average velocity is commonly
calculated by assuming a vertical path, parallel layers and straight raypaths, conditions that are quite
idealized compared to those actually found in the Earth.

base of weathering
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 629

The lower boundary of the near-surface, low-velocity zone in which rocks are physically, chemically or
biologically broken down, in some cases coincident with a water table. Static corrections to seismic data
can compensate for the low velocity of the weathered layer in comparison with the higher-velocity strata
below.

check-shot survey
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 670

A type of borehole seismic survey designed to measure the seismic traveltime from the surface to a known
depth. P-wave velocity of the formations encountered in a wellbore can be measured directly by lowering a
geophone to each formation of interest, sending out a source of energy from the surface of the Earth, and
recording the resultant signal. The data can then be correlated to surface seismic data by correcting the
sonic log and generating a synthetic seismogram to confirm or modify seismic interpretations. It differs
from a vertical seismic profile in the number and density of receiver depths recorded; geophone positions
may be widely and irregularly located in the wellbore, whereas a vertical seismic profile usually has
numerous geophones positioned at closely and regularly spaced intervals in the wellbore.
Synonyms: velocity survey, well shoot

depth conversion
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 721

The process of transforming seismic data from a scale of time (the domain in which they are acquired) to a
scale of depth to provide a picture of the structure of the subsurface independent of velocity. Depth

conversion, ideally, is an iterative process that begins with proper seismic processing, seismic velocity
analysis and study of well data to refine the conversion. Acoustic logs, check-shot surveys and vertical
seismic profiles can aid depth conversion efforts and improve correlation of well logs and drilling data with
surface seismic data.

depth migration
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 723

A step in seismic processing in which reflections in seismic data are moved to their correct locations in
space, including position relative to shotpoints, in areas where there are significant and rapid lateral or
vertical changes in velocity that distort the time image. This requires an accurate knowledge of vertical and
horizontal seismic velocity variations

discontinuity
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 751

A subsurface boundary or interface at which a physical quantity, such as the velocity of transmission of
seismic waves, changes abruptly. The velocity of P-waves increases dramatically (from about 6.5 to 8.0
km/s) at the Mohorovicic discontinuity between the Earth's crust and mantle.

dispersion
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 752

A type of distortion of a wave train in which the velocity of the wave varies with frequency. Surface waves
and electromagnetic body waves typically exhibit dispersion, whereas P-waves in most rocks show little
change in velocity with frequency.

gas chimney
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 830

A subsurface leakage of gas from a poorly sealed hydrocarbon accumulation. The gas can cause
overlying rocks to have a low velocity. Gas chimneys are visible in seismic data as areas of poor data
quality or push-downs.

Seismic displays of a gas chimney

A gas chimney is a subsurface leakage of gas from a poorly sealed hydrocarbon accumulation, clearly
visible in the center of the lower seismic section P-P but not as apparent in the upper seismic section P-S.
Section P-P displays conventional P-wave data. Section P-S, however, includes S-wave energy, which
improves seismic imaging in areas where the acoustic impedance contrast is small, such as in a gas
chimney, because the presence of gas has little effect on S-wave propagation.

horizon
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 266

An informal term used to denote a surface in or of rock, or a distinctive layer of rock that might be
represented by a reflection in seismic data. The term is often used incorrectly to describe a zone from
which hydrocarbons are produced.
See: hardground

2. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 862

An interface that might be represented by a seismic reflection, such as the contact between two bodies of
rock having different seismic velocity, density, porosity, fluid content or all of those

hydrocarbon indicator
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 864

A type of seismic amplitude anomaly, seismic event, or characteristic of seismic data that can occur in a
hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir. Although "bright spots," as hydrocarbon indicators are loosely called,
can originate in numerous ways, they are not all indicative of the presence of hydrocarbons. Criteria to
distinguish true hydrocarbon indicators (sometimes called HCIs) from other types of amplitude
anomalies include:

amplitude variation with offset

bright or dim spot(s) in amplitude as a result of variations in lithology and pore fluids,
sometimes occurring in groups of stacked reservoirs

change or reversal in polarity because of velocity changes, also called phasing

conformity with local structures

diffractions that emanate from fluid contacts

flat spot that represents a fluid (gas-oil or gas-water) contact, which can also show the downdip
limit of the reservoir in some cases

gas chimneys above leaking reservoirs

shadow zones below the accumulation
velocity push-down because of lower velocities of hydrocarbons than rocks
difference in response between reflected pressure and shear energy.

Hydrocarbon indicators are most common in relatively young, unconsolidated siliciclastic sediments with
large impedance contrasts across lithologic boundaries, such as those in the Gulf of Mexico and
offshore western Africa. An ongoing issue in exploration for hydrocarbon indicators is the difficulty in
distinguishing between gas accumulations and water with a low degree of gas saturation ("fizz water").
Synonyms: amplitude anomaly, bright spot

Questions to discern the validity of a hydrocarbon indicator

Valid hydrocarbon indicators must meet numerous criteria.

interval velocity
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 880

The velocity, typically P-wave velocity, of a specific layer or layers of rock, symbolized by vint and
commonly calculated from acoustic logs or from the change in stacking velocity between seismic events
on a common midpoint gather.

Poisson's ratio
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 974

An elastic constant that is a measure of the compressibility of material perpendicular to applied stress, or

the ratio of latitudinal to longitudinal strain. This elastic constant is named for Simeon Poisson (1781 to
1840), a French mathematician. Poisson's ratio can be expressed in terms of properties that can be
measured in the field, including velocities of P-waves and S-waves as shown below.

Note that if VS = 0, then Poisson's ratio equals 1/2, indicating either a fluid, because shear waves do not
pass through fluids, or a material that maintains constant volume regardless of stress, also known as an
ideal incompressible material. VS approaching zero is characteristic of a gas reservoir. Poisson's ratio for
carbonate rocks is ~ 0.3, for sandstones ~0.2, and above 0.3 for shale. The Poisson's ratio of coal is ~ 0.4.

pull-up
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 985

A phenomenon of relative seismic velocities of strata whereby a shallow layer or feature with a high
seismic velocity (e.g., a salt layer or salt dome, or a carbonate reef) surrounded by rock with a lower
seismic velocity causes what appears to be a structural high beneath it. After such features are correctly
converted from time to depth, the apparent structural high is generally reduced in magnitude.
Antonyms: push-down

Diagram of a pull-up

A velocity pull-up occurs when a layer or feature with a high seismic velocity, such as a salt layer or salt
dome, surrounded by rock with a lower seismic velocity forms what appears to be a structural high beneath
it. After such features are converted from time to depth, the apparent structural high is reduced in size.

push-down
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 986

A phenomenon of relative seismic velocities of strata whereby a shallow layer or feature with a low
seismic velocity (e.g., a shale diapir or a gas chimney) surrounded by rock with a higher seismic velocity
causes what appears to be a structural low beneath it. After such features are converted from time to
depth, the apparent structural low is generally reduced in magnitude. Hydrocarbon indicators can
display velocity push-downs because the velocity of hydrocarbon is slower than that of rock.

Antonyms: pull-up

Diagram of a push-down

A velocity push-down occurs when a layer or feature with a low seismic velocity, such as a shale diapir,
surrounded by rock with a higher seismic velocity forms what appears to be a structural low beneath it. After
such features are converted from time to depth, the apparent structural low is reduced in size.

reflection tomography
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1004

A technique to measure and display the three-dimensional distribution of velocity or reflectivity of a volume
of the Earth by using numerous sources and receivers at the Earth's surface. In reflection tomography,
space is divided into cells, each having a certain velocity and reflectivity. The final model is the one whose
velocities and reflectivities best describe the data.

root-mean-square velocity
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1015

The value of the square root of the sum of the squares of the velocity values divided by the number of
values, symbolized by vrms. The root-mean-square velocity is that of a wave through subsurface layers of
different interval velocity along a specific raypath, and is typically several percent higher than the average
velocity. The stacking velocity and the root-mean-square velocity approach equality when source-receiver
offset approaches zero and layers are horizontal and isotropic.

seismic trace
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1036

The seismic data recorded for one channel. A seismic trace represents the response of the elastic
wavefield to velocity and density contrasts across interfaces of layers of rock or sediments as energy
travels from a source through the subsurface to a receiver or receiver array.
Synonyms: trace

sonic log
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1071

A type of acoustic log that displays traveltime of P-waves versus depth. Sonic logs are typically recorded

by pulling a tool on a wireline up the wellbore. The tool emits a sound wave that travels from the source to
the formation and back to a receiv

stacking velocity
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1091

The distance-time relationship determined from analysis of normal moveout (NMO) measurements from
common depth point gathers of seismic data. The stacking velocity is used to correct the arrival times of
events in the traces for their varying offsets prior to summing, or stacking, the traces to improve the signalto-noise ratio of the data.

synthetic seismogram
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1104

The result of one of many forms of forward modeling to predict the seismic response of the Earth. A
more narrow definition used by seismic interpreters is that a synthetic seismogram, commonly called a
synthetic, is a direct one-dimensional model of acoustic energy traveling through the layers of the Earth.
The synthetic seismogram is generated by convolving the reflectivity derived from digitized acoustic and
density logs with the wavelet derived from seismic data. By comparing marker beds or other correlation
points picked on well logs with major reflections on the seismic section, interpretations of the data can
be improved. The quality of the match between a synthetic seismogram depends on well log quality,
seismic data processing quality, and the ability to extract a representative wavelet from seismic data,
among other factors. The acoustic log is generally calibrated with check-shot or vertical seismic profile
(VSP) first-arrival information before combining with the density log to produce acoustic impedance.

Display of acoustic impedance, traces, well logs and a zero-phase wavelet

The synthetic seismogram in the fifth column was generated by convolving the digitized sonic and density

logs with a wavelet shown in the column to the right. By comparing geological markers picked on logs, such
as the top of the chalk in this display, with major reflections on the seismic section, seismic data can be used
to map physical properties between wells.

tomography
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1125

A technique to measure and display the three-dimensional distribution of velocity or reflectivity of a volume
of the Earth by using numerous sources and receivers. There are several types of tomography used by
geophysicists, including transmission tomography (which uses measurements between boreholes,
surface-to-surface, or between a borehole and the surface), reflection or seismic tomography (based on
standard reflection seismology), and diffraction tomography (using Fermat's principle for computations
instead of Snell's law). Variations in velocity can be attributed to changes in density and elastic properties
of rocks, which in turn are affected by the increasing temperature with depth in the Earth. Tomographic
techniques have been used to construct maps of the Earth's interior, deep in the mantle, as well as for
mapping the shallow subsurface by borehole tomography

velocity analysis
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1146

The process of calculating seismic velocity, typically by using common midpoint data, in order to better
process seismic data. Successful stacking, time migration and depth migration all require proper velocity
inputs. Velocity or stacking velocity can be calculated from normal moveout, or the change in arrival time
produced by source-receiver offset.

velocity anomaly
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1147

A feature in seismic data that results from changes in velocity, both laterally and vertically. Pull-up and
push-down are examples of velocity anomalies.

velocity correction
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1148

A change made in seismic data to present reflectors realistically. Velocity corrections typically require that
assumptions be made about the seismic velocities of the rocks or sediments through which seismic waves
pass

velocity layering
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1149

Those thicknesses of rock or sediment that have a common velocity, as opposed to the sedimentary
layering or bedding of the rock or sediments.

velocity survey
1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1150

Measurements used to determine average velocity versus depth, such as from an acoustic log or checkshot survey. Acquiring a velocity survey is also known as "shooting a well."

Synonyms: check-shot survey

vertical seismic profile

1. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 1152

A class of borehole seismic measurements used for correlation with surface seismic data, for obtaining
images of higher resolution than surface seismic images and for looking ahead of the drill bit; also called
a VSP. Purely defined, VSP refers to measurements made in a vertical wellbore using geophones inside
the wellbore and a source at the surface near the well. In the more general context, VSPs vary in the
well configuration, the number and location of sources and geophones, and how they are deployed.
Most VSPs use a surface seismic source, which is commonly a vibrator on land and an air gun in
offshore or marine environments. VSPs include the zero-offset VSP, offset VSP, walkaway VSP, walkabove VSP, salt-proximity VSP, shear-wave VSP, and drill-noise or seismic-while-drilling VSP. A VSP is
a much more detailed survey than a check-shot survey because the geophones are more closely
spaced, typically on the order of 25 m [82 ft], whereas a check-shot survey might include measurements
of intervals hundreds of meters apart. Also, a VSP uses the reflected energy contained in the recorded
trace at each receiver position as well as the first direct path from source to receiver. The check-shot
survey uses only the direct path traveltime. In addition to tying well data to seismic data, the vertical
seismic profile also enables converting seismic data to zero-phase data and distinguishing primary
reflections from multiples.

Diagram of VSP configurations

There are numerous methods for acquiring a vertical seismic profile (VSP). Zero-offset VSPs (A) have
sources close to the wellbore directly above receivers. Offset VSPs (B) have sources some distance from
the receivers in the wellbore. Walkaway VSPs (C) feature a source that is moved to progressively farther
offset and receivers held in a fixed location. Walk-above VSPs (D) accommodate the recording geometry of
a deviated well, having each receiver in a different lateral position and the source directly above the
receiver. Salt-proximity VSPs (E) are reflection surveys to help define a salt-sediment interface near a
wellbore by using a source on top of a salt dome away from the drilling rig. Drill-noise VSPs (F), also known
as seismic-while-drilling (SWD) VSPs, use the noise of the drill bit as the source and receivers laid out along
the ground. Multi-offset VSPs (G) involve a source some distance from numerous receivers in the wellbore.

dip
1. n. [Geology]
The magnitude of the inclination of a plane from horizontal. True, or maximum, dip is measured
perpendicular to strike. Apparent dip is measured in a direction other than perpendicular to strike.
Alternate Form: dip

ID: 158

updip
1. prep. [Geology]

ID: 524

Located up the slope of a dipping plane or surface. In a dipping (not flat-lying) hydrocarbon reservoir
that contains gas, oil and water, the gas is updip, the gas-oil contact is downdip from the gas, and the
oil-water contact is still farther downdip.
Antonyms: downdip

Schematic cross section of updip and downdip

Downdip. Well 2 is downdip of both Well 1 and the oil-water contact. Well 1 is updip of the oil-water contact.

fault
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 200

A break or planar surface in brittle rock across which there is observable displacement. Depending on
the relative direction of displacement between the rocks, or fault blocks, on either side of the
fault, its movement is described as normal, reverse or strike-slip. According to terminology derived from
the mining industry, the fault block above the fault surface is called the hanging wall, while the fault block
below the fault is the footwall.
Given the geological complexity of some faulted rocks and rocks that have undergone more than one
episode of deformation, it can be difficult to distinguish between the various types of faults. Also, areas
deformed more than once or that have undergone
continual deformation might have fault surfaces that are rotated from their original orientations, so
interpretation is not straightforward. In a normal fault, the hanging wall moves down relative to the
footwall along the dip of the fault surface,
which is steep, from 45o to 90o. A growth fault is a type of normal fault that forms during sedimentation
and typically has thicker strata on the downthrown hanging wall than the footwall. A reverse fault forms
when the hanging
wall moves up relative to the footwall parallel to the dip of the fault surface. A thrust fault, sometimes
called an overthrust, is a reverse fault in which the fault plane has a shallow dip, typically much less than
45o.
Movement of normal

and reverse faults can also be oblique as opposed to purely parallel to the dip direction of the fault
plane. The motion along a strike-slip fault, also known as a transcurrent or wrench fault, is parallel to the
strike of the fault surface, and the
fault blocks move sideways past each other. The fault surfaces of strike-slip faults are usually nearly
vertical. A strike-slip fault in which the block across the fault moves to the right is described as a dextral
strike-slip fault. If it moves left,
the relative motion is described as sinistral. A transform fault is a particular type of strike-slip fault that is
a boundary of an oceanic tectonic plate. The actual movement of a transform fault is opposite to its
apparent displacement.
The presence
of a fault can be detected by observing characteristics of rocks such as changes in lithology from one
fault block to the next, breaks and offsets between strata or seismic events, and changes in formation
pressure in wells that penetrate both sides of
a fault. Some fault surfaces contain relatively coarse rubble that can act as a conduit for migrating oil or
gas, whereas the surfaces of other faults are smeared with impermeable clays or broken grains that can
act as a fault seal

Schematic diagrams of normal, reverse and strike-slip faults

Fault. The main varieties of faults are normal faults, reverse faults and strike-slip faults.

antithetic fault
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 33

A minor, secondary fault, usually one of a set, whose sense of displacement is opposite to its associated
major and synthetic faults. Antithetic-synthetic fault sets are typical in areas of normal faulting.

Normal fault with antithetic and synthetic faults

Antithetic fault. Laboratory experiments to produce normal faults can simulate nature closely. This sequence
of photographs from a laboratory experiment shows progressive development of a growth fault as well as
synthetic and antithetic faults.

aulacogen
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 43

In plate tectonics, a failed rift arm. At the junctions of tectonic plates, three intersecting lithospheric plates
typically are separated by "arms." Arms might be areas of rifting, convergence or transform faults (similar
to strike-slip faults). The arm along which the motion that spreads the plates apart ceases is termed the
failed arm, or aulacogen. Spreading or rifting along the other arms of the triple junction can form new
oceanic basins, whereas the aulacogen can become a sediment-filled graben

cataclastic
1. adj. [Geology]

ID: 76

Pertaining to a type of metamorphic rock with shearing and granulation of minerals caused by high
mechanical stress during faulting or dynamic metamorphism, typically during episodes of plate tectonic
activity.
Alternate Form: cataclasite

collision
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 95

An interaction of lithospheric plates that can result in the formation of mountain belts and subduction
zones. The collision of two plates of continental lithosphere, known as an A-type collision, can produce
high mountains as rocks are folded, faulted and uplifted to accommodate the converging plates, as
observed in the Alps and the Himalayas. B-type collisions, in which oceanic lithospheric plates collide with
continental lithospheric plates, typically produce a subduction zone where the relatively denser oceanic

plate descends below the relatively lighter continental plate, as seen on the Pacific coast of South
America.

competent
1. adj. [Geology]

ID: 97

Describes a bed that maintains its original thickness during deformation. Often pertains to relatively brittle,
solid strata that deform by faulting, fracturing or folding, rather than flowing under stress. Incompetent beds
are more ductile and tend to flow under stress, so their bed thickness changes more readily during
deformation.
Antonyms: incompetent

decollement
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 133

A fault surface parallel to a mechanically weak horizon or layer, or parallel to bedding, that detaches or
separates deformed rocks above from undeformed or differently deformed rocks below. Decollements, or
decollement surfaces, are typical of regions of thrust faulting such as the Alps.

dextral
1. adj. [Geology]

ID: 148

Pertaining to a strike-slip fault or right-lateral fault in which the block across the fault moves to the right.
If it moves left, the relative motion is described as sinistral. Clockwise rotation or spiraling is also
described as dextral.
Antonyms: sinistral

Dextral and sinistral offset in strike-slip faults

Dextral. Movement of strike-slip faults that offsets rocks can be described as dextral or sinistral. If the fault
block across the fault has moved to the right, the motion is dextral. If it has moved left, it is sinistral.

displacement
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 164

The offset of segments or points that were once continuous or adjacent. Layers of rock that have been
moved by the action of faults show displacement on either side of the fault surface.

en echelon
1. adj. [Geology]

ID: 183

Describing parallel or subparallel, closely-spaced, overlapping or step-like minor structural features in rock,
such as faults and tension fractures, that are oblique to the overall structural trend.

fault trap
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 202

A type of structural hydrocarbon trap in which closure is controlled by the presence of at least one fault
surface.

stratigraphic trap
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 472

A variety of sealed geologic container capable of retaining hydrocarbons, formed by changes in rock
type or pinch-outs, unconformities, or sedimentary features such as reefs. Structural traps, in contrast,
consist of geologic structures in deformed strata such as faults and folds whose geometries permit
retention of hydrocarbons.

Block diagrams of structural and stratigraphic traps

Stratigraphic trap. Hydrocarbon traps that result from changes in rock type or pinch-outs, unconformities, or
other sedimentary features such as reefs or buildups are called stratigraphic traps. Hydrocarbon traps that
form in geologic structures such as folds and faults are called structural traps.

structural trap
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 479

A variety of sealed geologic structure capable of retaining hydrocarbons, such as a fault or a fold.
Stratigraphic traps form where changes in rock type can retain hydrocarbons.

Block diagram of faulted anticline

Structural trap. This structural trap is formed by an anticline and a normal fault.

Block diagrams of structural and stratigraphic traps

Structural trap. Hydrocarbon traps that form in geologic structures such as folds and faults are called
structural traps. Hydrocarbon traps that result from changes in rock type or pinch-outs, unconformities, or
other sedimentary features such as reefs or buildups are called stratigraphic traps.

flower structure

1. n. [Geology]

ID: 208

Folded structures associated with strike-slip faults. In areas where strike-slip faults occur in converging
crust, or transpression, rocks are faulted upward in a positive flower structure. In areas of strike-slip
faulting in diverging crust, or transtension, rocks drop down to form a negative flower structure. Flower
structures can form hydrocarbon traps. The term "flower structure" reflects the resemblance of the
structure to the petals of a flower in cross section

Block diagram of flower structure

Flower structure. Convergence associated with strike-slip faulting can form flower structures. The largest
arrows indicate dextral strike-slip motion. The crossed arrows in the middle of the structures denote
anticlines formed by the combination of convergence and strike-slip faulting. This is an example of a positive
flower structure.

fracture
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 218

A crack or surface of breakage within rock not related to foliation or cleavage in metamorphic rock along
which there has been no movement. A fracture along which there has been displacement is a fault.
When walls of a fracture have moved only normal to each other, the fracture is called a joint. Fractures
can enhance permeability of rocks greatly by connecting pores together, and for that reason, fractures
are induced mechanically in some reservoirs in order to boost hydrocarbon flow.
Alternate Form: fracture

Borehole image of fracture

Fracture. This borehole image shows bedding (outlined in green) and a fracture at a depth of XX896 feet
(highlighted in yellow).

Global Positioning System

1. n. [Geology]

ID: 249

A system of numerous Earth-orbiting satellites that can be used to determine the location (latitude,
longitude and elevation) of a receiver or station on the Earth within about 2 m [6 ft]. Fixed receivers on
Earth can be used to determine the relative motions of fault blocks and lithospheric plates. Hand-held
receivers can be used for producing accurate geologic maps, acquiring navigation data for 3D seismic
surveys, and positioning wells in the field.

graben
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 252

A relatively low-standing fault block bounded by opposing normal faults. Graben (used as both singular
and plural) can form in areas of rifting or extension, where normal faults are the most common type of
fault. Between graben are relatively high-standing blocks called horsts. A half-graben is a downdropped
block bounded by a normal fault on only one side.

Schematic cross section of horst and graben pairs

Graben. Horst and graben pairs can occur in areas of rifting, where the crust of the Earth is being pulled
apart and normal faults form, as shown in this schematic cross section.

rift
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 432

Region in which the Earth's crust is pulling apart and creating normal faults and down-dropped areas or
subsidence.

You are here: SLB.com > Products & Services > Resources > Oilfield Glossary

Cross sections and maps of evaporites, rifting and subsidence

Rift. Offshore Congo has experienced rifting throughout the last 150 million years, as shown in this series of
cross sections and paleogeographic maps. The position of the cross sections is indicated on the maps by
the red line.

growth fault
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 256

A type of normal fault that develops and continues to move during sedimentation and typically has
thicker strata on the downthrown, hanging wall side of the fault than in the footwall. Growth faults are
common in the Gulf of Mexico and in other areas where the crust is subsiding rapidly or being pulled
apart.

Schematic diagram of growth fault

Growth fault. Growth faults are a particular type of normal fault that develops during ongoing sedimentation,
so the strata on the hanging wall side of the fault tend to be thicker than those on the footwall side.

horst
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 267

A relatively high-standing area formed by the movement of normal faults that dip away from each other.
Horsts occur between low-standing fault blocks called graben. Horsts can form in areas of rifting or
extension, where normal faults are the most abundant variety of fault.

incompetent
1. adj. [Geology]

ID: 287

Pertaining to strata that are relatively ductile and tend to flow under stress rather than deform by brittle
faulting or fracturing. The bed thickness of incompetent beds tends to change during deformation.
Antonyms: competent, competent

inversion
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 289

The reversal of features, particularly structural features such as faults, by reactivation. For example, a
normal fault might move in a direction opposite to its initial movement.
See: fault, normal fault, structure

2. n. [Geology]

ID: 290

The atypical appearance of structural and topographic features, such as an anticline being exposed in a
valley instead of as a hill; also called inverted relief.
See: anticline, structure, topographic map

3. n. [Geophysics]

ID: 883

A mathematical process by which data are used to generate a model that is consistent with the data, the
process of solving the inverse problem. In seismology, surface seismic data, vertical seismic profiles
and well log data can be used to perform inversion, the result of which is a model of Earth layers and
their thickness, density and P- and S-wave velocities. Successful seismic inversion usually requires a
high signal-to-noise ratio and a large bandwidth.

Diagrammatic comparison of forward modeling and inversion

Seismic inversion begins with a seismic trace and outputs an acoustic impedance model.

joint
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 297

A surface of breakage, cracking or separation within a rock along which there has been no movement
parallel to the defining plane. The usage by some authors can be more specific: When walls of a fracture
have moved only normal to each other, the fracture is called a joint.

lithologic contact
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 311

The surface that separates rock bodies of different lithologies, or rock types. A contact can be
conformable or unconformable depending upon the types of rock, their relative ages and their attitudes.
A fault surface can also serve as a contact.

Lithologic contact of dike and gneiss

Lithologic contact. The black rock is an igneous dike that intruded into the lighter colored metamorphic
gneiss. The lithologic contact between the two different rock types is defined as an intrusive contact.
Photo courtesy of G. M. Gillis.

lithology
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 312

The macroscopic nature of the mineral content, grain size, texture and color of rocks.

normal fault
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 352

A type of fault in which the hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall, and the fault surface dips
steeply, commonly from 50o to 90o. Groups of normal faults can produce horst and graben topography,
or a series of relatively high- and low-standing fault blocks, as seen in areas where the crust is rifting or
being pulled apart by plate tectonic activity. A growth fault is a type of normal fault that forms during
sedimentation and typically has thicker strata on the downthrown hanging wall than the footwall.

offset
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 354

The horizontal displacement between points on either side of a fault, which can range from millimeters
to kilometers. Perhaps the most readily visible examples of offset are features such as fences or roads
that have been displaced by strike-slip faults, such as the San Andreas fault of California, USA.
Synonyms: offset well

orogeny
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 365

A major episode of plate tectonic activity in which lithospheric plates collide and produce mountain belts, in
some cases including the formation of subduction zones and igneous activity. Thrust faults and folds are
typical geological structures seen in areas of orogeny.

Alternate Form: orogenic

overthrust
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 371

A thrust fault having a relatively large lateral displacement.

reverse fault
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 427

A type of fault formed when the hanging wall fault block moves up along a fault surface relative to the
footwall. Such movement can occur in areas where the Earth's crust is compressed. A thrust fault,
sometimes called an overthrust if the displacement is particularly great, is a reverse fault in which the
fault plane has a shallow dip, typically much less than 45o.

seal
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 444

A relatively impermeable rock, commonly shale, anhydrite or salt, that forms a barrier or cap above and
around reservoir rock such that fluids cannot migrate beyond the reservoir. A seal is a critical component of
a complete petroleum system. The permeability of a seal capable of retaining fluids through geologic time
is ~ 10-6 to 10-8 darcies.
Synonyms: cap rock

strain
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 470

The permanent deformation evident in rocks and other solid bodies that have experienced a sufficiently
high applied stress. A change in shape, such as folding, faulting, fracturing, or change, generally a
reduction, in volume are common examples of strain seen in rocks. Strain can be described in terms of
normal and shear components, and is the ratio of the change in length or volume to the initial length or
volume.

strike
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 476

The azimuth of the intersection of a plane, such as a dipping bed, with a horizontal surface

strike-slip fault
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 477

A type of fault whose surface is typically vertical or nearly so. The motion along a strike-slip fault is
parallel to the strike of the fault surface, and the fault blocks move sideways past each other. A strikeslip fault in which the block across the fault moves to the right is described as a dextral strike-slip fault. If
it moves left, the relative motion is described as sinistral. Local deformation near bends in strike-slip
faults can produce pull-apart basins and grabens. Flower structures are another by-product of strike-slip
faults. A wrench fault is a type of strike-slip fault in which the fault surface is nearly vertical.

synthetic fault
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 490

A type of minor fault whose sense of displacement is similar to its associated major fault. Antitheticsynthetic fault sets are typical in areas of normal faulting

antithetic fault
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 33

A minor, secondary fault, usually one of a set, whose sense of displacement is opposite to its associated
major and synthetic faults. Antithetic-synthetic fault sets are typical in areas of normal faulting.

Normal fault with antithetic and synthetic faults

Antithetic fault. Laboratory experiments to produce normal faults can simulate nature closely. This sequence
of photographs from a laboratory experiment shows progressive development of a growth fault as well as
synthetic and antithetic faults.
<< Return to previous page

thrust fault
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 499

A type of reverse fault in which the fault plane has a very shallow dip, typically much less than 45o. The
hanging wall fault block moves up the fault surface relative to the footwall. In cases of considerable lateral
movement, the fault is described as an overthrust fault. Thrust faults can occur in areas of compression of
the Earth's crust.

transform fault
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 503

A particular type of strike-slip fault that is a boundary of an oceanic tectonic plate. The actual movement of

a transform fault is opposite to its apparent displacement because of the interplay of spreading and faulting
between tectonic plates.

transpression
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 506

The simultaneous occurrence of strike-slip faulting and compression, or convergence, of the Earth's crust.
In areas of transpression, rocks can be faulted upward to form a positive flower structure. Areas of strikeslip faulting in rifting or diverging crust are experiencing transtension, in which rocks can drop down to form
a negative flower structure.

transtension
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 507

The simultaneous occurrence of strike-slip faulting and extension, rifting, or divergence of the Earth's crust.
In areas of transtension, rocks can be faulted downward to form a negative flower structure. Areas of
strike-slip faulting in converging crust are experiencing transpression, in which rocks can be faulted
upwards to form a positive flower structure.

wrench fault
1. n. [Geology]

ID: 543

A type of strike-slip fault in which the fault surface is vertical, and the fault blocks move sideways past each
other. Given the geological complexity of some deformed rocks, including rocks that have experienced
more than one episode of deformation, it can be difficult to distinguish a wrench fault from a strike-slip
fault. Also, areas can be deformed more than once or experience ongoing structuring such that fault
surfaces can be rotated from their original orientations.