A Critical Introduction

to Syntax

JIM MILLER

c o n tin u u m

A Critical
Introduction
to Syntax

A l s o a v a ila b le f r o m C o n t in u u m
C ritica l In tr o d u c tio n to P h o n e tic s, Ken L odge
C ritica l In tr o d u c tio n to P h o n o lo g y , D a n ie l S ilv e rm a n
C ritica l In tr o d u c tio n to T ra n s la tio n S tu d ie s . J e a n B o a se -B e ie r (fo rth c o m in g )
In tr o d u c tio n to S y n ta c tic Theory\ E d ith A . M o ra v c sik
In tro d u c tio n lo S y n ta x . E d ith A . M o ra v c sik

A Critical
Introduction
to Syntax
Jim Miller

Continuum Critical Introductions to Linguistics

c o n t in u u m

C o n tin u u m In te rn a tio n a l P u b lish in g G roup

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[ i m M ille r 2 0 1 1

i*ll r i g h t s r e s e r v e d N o p a r t o f t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n m a y b e r e p r o d u c e d o r
tr a n s m itte d i n a n y f o r m o r b y a n y m e a n s , e le c tr o n ic o r m e c h a n ic a l,
i n c lu d in g p h o t o c o p y i n g , c o r d i n g , o r a n y i n f o r m a t i o n M o rjg c
< t

r e tr ie v a l s y s te m , w i t h o u t p r i o r p e r m i s s i o n in w r i t i n g f ro m

th e p u b lis h e r s

J im M i l l e r h a s a s s e r t e d h i s r i g h t u n d e r t h e C o p y r i g h t , D e s i g n s a n d
P a te n ts A c t, 19K 8, t o b e id e n tif ie d a s A u t h o r o f t h is w o r k .

B ritish L ib ra ry C a lalo g u in g -in -P u b licatio n D ata

A c a t a l o g u e r e c o r d f o r t h i s b o o k is a v a i l a b l e f r o m t h e B r i t i s h l i b r a r y

IS B N : 9 7 8 - 0 - 8 2 6 4 - 9 7 0 3 - 1 !h a r d c o v e r )

9 7 8 - 0 - 8 2 6 4 - 9 7 0 4 - 8 (p a p e rb a c k )

L ib rary o f C o n g ress C atalo g in g -in -P u b licatio n D ata

M il le r . [. E . ( J a m e s E d w a r d ) . 19 4 2
A c r i t i c a l i n t r o d u c t i o n t o s y n t a x / J i m M ille r .
p. c m , - ( C o n t in u u m c ritic a l i n tr o d u c ti o n s t o lin g u is tic s )
IS B N : 9 7 8 -0 -8 2 6 4 -9 7 0 3 -1 (h a rd c o v e r)

I S B N : 9 7 8 - 0 - 8 2 6 4 - 9 7 0 4 - 8 ( p b k .)
1. G r a m m a r , C o m p a r a t i v e a n d g e n e r a l S y n t a x

I T i t l e . I I . S e r ie s .

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Contents
In t r o d u c t io n a n d A c k n o w le d g e m e n t s

1 T h e o ry , D a t a a n d A n a ly s is

vii

2 D e p e n d e n c y R e la t io n s

41

3 Noun

61

P h r a s e s a n d N o n - c o n f ig u r a t io n a lit y

4 C o n s t r u c t io n s

99

5 G ra m m a t ic a lit y

118

6 U sa g e -b a se d M o d e ls

140

7 G ra m m a r a n d

S e m a n tic s : T h e G e t P a s s iv e

163

8 G ra m m a r a n d

S e m a n tic s : w h w o r d s

175

9 G ra m m a r a n d

S e m a n tic s : P a rt s o f S p e e c h

191

10 G r a m m a r a n d

S e m a n tic s : T h e m a t ic R o le s

198

L a n g u a g e C o m p le x it y
2 F irst L a n g u a g e A c q u is it io n

219

237

A p p e n d ix

255

E p ilo g u e

261

R e fe re n c e s

262

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273

T h is p a g e in te n tio n a lly l e f t b la n k

Introduction and
Acknowledgements
T h is b o o k h a s a s lig h tly u n o r t h o d o x p e rs p e c tiv e , re fle c tin g m y p a r tic u la r
e x p e rie n c e o f s y n ta x , th e te a c h in g o f s y n ta x a n d t h e v a r i o u s a u d ie n c e s fo r
sy n ta x . S e v e ra l lo n g - h e ld id e a s u n d e r p i n a n d c o n n e c t th e d if f e r e n t c h a p te rs
a n d to p ic s . T h e o n e t h a t w ill p e r h a p s b e m o s t o b v io u s is t h a t s p o k e n la n g u a g e
m u s t b e ta k e n se rio u sly , o r r a t h e r s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e ; t h a t is, s p o
k e n la n g u a g e p r o d u c e d b y s p e a k e r s in c ir c u m s ta n c e s t h a t a llo w a m i n i m u m o f
p la n n i n g ti m e . N o t t h a t w r it te n la n g u a g e is d o w n g r a d e d ; ra th e r , s p o k e n a n d
w r itte n la n g u a g e a r c tr e a te d a s e q u a lly w o r th y o f a tt e n ti o n , a lt h o u g h s p e e c h
h a s p r i o r i t y fo r e a rly firs t la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n .
T h e a b o v e id e a is r a n k e d f i r s t b e c a u s e s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e a n d
f o rm a l w r i t te n la n g u a g e ( t o ta k e t h e tw o p o le s o f a c o n t i n u u m o f te x t ty p e s )

a re n o t ju s t d if f e r e n t b u t p r o f o u n d ly d if fe re n t. T h is a ffe c ts c o r e s y n ta c tic
t.ie o r y { n o s e n te n c e s ; d if f e r e n t w a y s o l c o m b in in g c la u s e s; d if f e r e n t c o n s tr u c t o n s a n d s o o n ) a n d b e a r s d ir e c tly o n th e o r ie s o f firs t la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n
( C h a p te r 12), la n g u a g e c o m p le x ity ( C h a p te r 1 1) a n d e v o lu tio n o f la n g u a g e .
T h e last to p ic is n o t in c l u d e d in t h e b o o k , b u t th e o r ie s o f la n g u a g e e v o lu tio n
m u s t ta k e a c c o u n t o f t h e fa c t t h a t h u m a n s s p o k e lo n g b e fo r e t h e y b e g a n to
w rite . In d e e d , e v e n to d a y , o n c e th e y fin is h f o r m a l s c h o o lin g , t h e m a jo r ity o t
h u m a n s u s e s p o k e n la n g u a g e m o r e t h a n th e y u s e w r it te n la n g u a g e .
A s e c o n d id e a is th a t g r a m m a r a n d m e a n i n g a r e c lo s e ly c o n n e c te d , to th e
e x te n t th a t all g r a m m a tic a l m o r p h e m e s c a r r y m e a n i n g a n d t h a t fo r m o s t u se rs
c f g r a m m a r , e s p e c ia lly n o n - n a t iv e le a r n e r s o f a n y la n g u a g e , t h e m o s t s a tis fy
in g e x p la n a tio n o l s o m e g r a m m a t ic a l p o i n t is a s e m a n tic o n e t h a t w o rk s . T h is
id e a in f o r m e d m y d o c to r a l re s e a rc h in t h e la te 1 9 6 0 s o n a s p e c t in R u ssia n ,
w o rk in g w ith in a lo c a lis t fr a m e w o rk . H e re , t h e r e la tio n b e tw e e n g r a m m a r a n d
s e m a n tic s is d is c u s s e d v ia l o u r to p ic s , in C h a p te r s 7 - 1 0 : t h e g e t p a ss iv e , ivh
w o rd s , p a r t s o f s p e e c h a n d th e m a ti c ro les.
A t h i r d id e a , d is c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 1 o n th e o r y , d a ta a n d a n a ly s is , is th a t it is
e s s e n tia l to h a v e in s ig h tf u l, re lia b le d e s c r ip tiv e g r a m m a r a s w ell a s f o r m a l
m o d e ls . B o th a p p r o a c h e s to la n g u a g e a r e th e o r e tic a l a n d f o r m a l m o d e ls g o
a s tra y w ith o u t s o lid d e s c r ip tiv e s u p p o r t. (S e c , fo r e x a m p le , th e d is c u s s io n o f

V III

Introduction an d A ckno w ledgem en ts

s tr o n g a n d w e a k fe a tu r e s a n d I n d ir e c t Q u e s ti o n s in C h a p t e r 1 .) T h e a u d ie n c e
fo r g o o d d e s c r ip tiv e g r a m m a r s a n d g r a m m a r is e n o r m o u s ; t h e m a r k e t a n d
ra n g e o f a p p lic a tio n s l o r d e s c r ip tiv e g r a m m a r is la r b ig g e r t h a n t h e sp e c ia list
m a r k e t fo r f o r m a l m o d e ls . It m u s t b e e m p h a s iz e d t h a t d e s c r ip tiv e g r a m m a r
c o e s n o t s t a n d still, ju s t a s f o r m a l m o d e ls d o n o t s t a n d s till. G o o d d e s c rip tiv e
g r a m m a r s d r a w o n th e v a st a m o u n t o f w o rk t h a t h a s b e e n d o n e in s id e a n d
o u ts id e f o r m a l m o d e ls o v e r t h e p a s t f if ty y e a rs o r s o a n d a d e s c r ip tiv e g r a m
m a r p r o d u c e d in 2 0 1 0 is n o t a t all th e s a m e a s a d e s c r ip tiv e g r a m m a r p r o d u c e d
in 1950.
T h e d is c u s s io n o f t h e v a r i o u s to p ic s h a s a ls o b e e n in f lu e n c e d b y th e
im p o r t a n c e o f c o lle c tin g re lia b le d a ta . A s a u s e r o f d a ta b a s e s a n d a c o lle c to r o f
s p o k e n d a t a , JM is a w a re o f th e lim i ta t io n s o n a n y o n e s p e a k e r 's e x p e rie n c e
c-f la n g u a g e a n d i n t u it io n s a b o u t s y n ta x a n d o t t h e n e e d to k e e p te s tin g
fo rm a l r u le s a n d p r i n c ip l e s a g a in s t n a tu r a ll y o c c u r r in g d a ta a s o p p o s e d to
in v e n te d e x a m p le s . T h is to p ic is c e n tr a l to C h a p te r 6 , o n u s a g e - b a s e d m o d e ls .
S o m e o f th e c h a p t e r to p ic s m ig h t s e e m to b e o n ly in d ir e c tly re la te d to
sy n ta x . W h a t a r e c o m p le x ity , g r a m m a t ic a l it y a n d c o n f i g u r a t io n a li ty d o in g
i:i th is b o o k ? C o m p le x ity is in c l u d e d b e c a u s e it is c e n tr a l to t h e d iffe re n c e s
b e tw e e n s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e a n d w r it te n la n g u a g e , e s p e c ia lly th e
w r itte n la n g u a g e r e q u ir e d a t s c h o o l a n d u n iv e r s ity a n d in m a n y p ro fe s s io n s .
(W e leav e o n o n e s id e t h e q u e s t io n o f w h e th e r a n d in w h a t re s p e c t o n e la n
g u a g e m ig h t b e m o r e c o m p le x t h a n a n o th e r .) I t is d ir e c tly re le v a n t to th e o r ie s
o f firs t la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n a n d t o th e o r ie s o f t h e e v o lu tio n o f la n g u a g e . T h e
c o n c e p t o f g r a m m a tic a lity is c e n tr a l to a ll g e n e r a tiv e g r a m m a r , to d e s c rip tiv e
g r a m m a r , to th e o r ie s o f firs t la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n , to th e te a c h in g o f E n g lish as
a n a d d it io n a l la n g u a g e a n d to th e p r a c tic e o l s p e e c h th e r a p y . T o d e te r m in e
w h e th e r a p a t i e n t h a s s o m e s p e e c h d e fic it o r is s i m p l y u s i n g a s p o k e n - la n g u a g e
c o n s t r u c ti o n , s t a n d a r d o r n o n - s ta n d a r d , s p e e c h th e r a p is ts n e e d a th o r o u g h
k n o w le d g e o f s p o k e n a n d w r it te n E n g lis h a n d o f t h e n o n - s t a n d a r d v a rie ty
s p o k e n in th e a re a w h e r e th e y p ra c tis e .
C o n f ig u r a ti o n a li ty h a s to d o w ith w h e th e r h e a d s a n d m o d if ie r s , p a r t ic u
larly n o u n s a n d m o d if y in g d e m o n s tr a tiv e s a n d a d je c tiv e s , a r e a d ja c e n t o r
s e p a r a te d b y o t h e r c o n s t it u e n ts o f a c la u s e . T h e r e a r e la n g u a g e s in w h ic h th e y
a r e n o t a d ja c e n t; t h e q u e s t io n is h o w th e fa c ts a r e to b e in t e r p r e te d , a n d th is in
tu r n tie s in w ith w o r k o n s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e . T h e fa c ts a lso b e a r o n
th e q u e s t io n o l c o n s t it u e n t s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e e x te n t t o w h ic h a n a ly s ts in v e s ti
g a tin g s p o k e n la n g u a g e h a v e s im p ly a p p li e d t h e s t r u c tu r e s fa m ilia r to th e m

Introduction and A ckn o w le d gem e n ts

f r o m w r it te n la n g u a g e (m a in ly t h e w r itte n v a r ie tie s o f la n g u a g e s s p o k e n in
E u ro p e ).
N a tu ra lly o c c u r r in g e x a m p le s o f s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e a r c s c a t
te re d t h r o u g h o u t th e b o o k . T h e R u ssia n o n e s a r e ta k e n f r o m Z e m s k a ja ( 1 9 7 3 ).
T h e E n g lish o n e s c o m e f r o m v a r i o u s c o rp u s e s .

T h e M ille r B r o w n C o r p u s , e s t a b l i s h e d a s p a r t o f a r e s e a r c h p r o je c t o n t h e s y n t a x o f
S c o t t is h E n g l i s h b e t w e e n J a n u a r y 1 9 7 8 a n d J u n e 1 9 8 0 ( T h e p r o je c t w a s f u n d e d b y
t h e o l d S o c i a l S c i e n c e R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l , t h e P r in c ip a l I n v e s t i g a t o r s w e r e J im M ille r
a n d K e i t h B r o w n a n d t h e d a t a w a s c o l l e c t e d b y M a r t in M i l l a r a n d B ill W a t s o n . )
T h e p r o j e c t w a s c a r r i e d o u t in t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f l i n g u i s t i c s , t h e U n iv e r s it y o f
E d in b u r g h . T h e c o r p u s c o n s i s t s o f a p p r o x i m a t e ly 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 w o r d s s p l it in t o 1 0 0 c o n
v e r s a t io n s . T h e c o r p u s i s s t o r e d in t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f L in g u i s t i c s a n d E n g li s h L a n
g u a g e a t t h e U n iv e r s it y o f E d i n b u r g h . A n o t h e r c o p y is i n t h e S c o t t i s h T e x t s A r c h iv e ,
s u p e r v is e d b y t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f E n g li s h L a n g u a g e , U n iv e r s it y o f G l a s g o w .

t h e W e llin g t o n C o r p u s o f S p o k e n N e w Z e a la n d E n g lis h w a s c o lle c t e d b e tw e e n

1988

and

1994

by

re s e a rc h e rs in

t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f L in g u i s t i c s a n d A p p l i e d

L a n g u a g e S t u d i e s a t t h e V i c t o r i a U n iv e r s it y o f W e l l i n g t o n , N e w Z e a la n d . T h e c o r p u s
c o n s i s t s o f o n e m illio n w o r d s m a d e u p o f ? . 0 0 0 - w o r d e x t r a c t s It c o n t a i n s f o r m a l,
s e m i - f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l s p e e c h , b o t h m o n o l o g u e a n d d i a l o g u e , a n d in c l u d e s
b r o a d c a s t m a t e r ia l a s w e l l a s p r i v a t e i n t e r a c t io n s in a r a n g e o f s e t t i n g s . T o g e t h e r
w i t h t h e W e l l i n g t o n W r i t t e n C o r p u s , it w a s m a d e a v a i la b le t o t h e p u b l i c i n 1 9 9 8 in
t h e f o r m o f a C D e n t i t l e d W e ll in g t o n C o r p o r a o f N e w Z e a l a n d E n g l i s h . T h e w e b s i t e
is a t h t t p Z f w w w v u w . a c . m l la t s . E x a m p l e s f r o m t h is c o r p u s a r e la b e lle d ' W S C . f o r
W e llin g t o n S p o k e n C o r p u s '.

T h e tr a n s c r i p ti o n s in t h e W S C a n d t h e M ille r - B r o w n C o r p u s h a v e n o
p u n c tu a t io n a n d n o c a p ita l le tte r s . T o h e lp re a d e r s , lo n g e r s p a c e s h a v e b e e n
in s e r te d t o sig n a l th e e n d s a n d b e g in n in g s o f w h a t a r e ta k e n to b e c la u se s.

S o m e e x a m p l e s c o m e f r o m t h e M a c q u a r i e C o r p u s , s p e c if i c a l ly f r o m t h e A u s t r a l ia n
c o m p o n e n t o f t h e In t e r n a t io n a l C o r p u s o f E n g li s h , w h i c h is a b b r e v ia t e d t o 'A u s t r a lia n
I C E in

t h e la b e ls o n

t h e e x a m p le s

T h e d a ta c o m e fro m

te x ts c a t e g o r iz e d a s

u n s c r i p t e d d i a l o g u e , c o d e d b y ' S I A ' in t h e M a c q u a r i e C o r p u s . O n e o r t w o e x a m
p l e s c o m e f r o m t h e N e w Z e a l a n d c o m p o n e n t o f I C E , a l s o p a r t o f t h e M a c q u a r ie
A r c h iv e

I a m g r a te fu l to P a m P e te rs a n d A d a m S m ith f o r g iv in g m e a c c e s s to th e

a r c h iv e .
O n e o r t w o e x a m p l e s a r e t a k e n f r o m C a r t e r a n d M c C a r t h y ( 1 9 9 7 ) , t r a n s c r ip t s
o f v a r i o u s in t e r a c t io n s .
C A N C O D E p r o je c t .

T h e d a t a w e r e c o lle c t e d a n d t r a n s c r ib e d a s p a r t o f th e

Introduction an d A ckno w ledgem en ts

O n e e x a m p le c o m e s f r o m

t r a n s c r ip t o f a

c o n v e r s a t io n

b e tw e e n

a d o cto ra l

r e s e a r c h e r , G i ll ia n F o y , a n d t h e m o t h e r o l a s c h o o l s t u d e n t , o n e o f t h e s u b je c t s
t a k i n g p a r t in G F 's w o r k o n lit e r a c y .
T w o e x a m p l e s o f r e s u l t a t i v e s in

C h a p te r 6

co m e

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Ron

M a c a u la y 's

book

L o c a t i n g D i a l e c t i n D is c o u r s e .

I c lo s e th is v e r y s h o r t in t r o d u c t i o n b y a c k n o w le d g in g m y d e b t to v a rio u s
fr ie n d s a n d c o lle a g u e s. M y g e n e r a l o u tl o o k o n la n g u a g e a n d lin g u is tic s w as
m u c h in f lu e n c e d b y p e o p le I w o rk e d w ith a t t h e U n iv e rs ity o f E d in b u r g h : th e
late D e n n is W a r d ( i n t h e R u s s ia n D e p a r tm e n t) , J o h n L y o n s, K e ith B ro w n a n d
K eith M itc h e ll in L in g u is tic s , lo h n A n d e r s o n in E n g lis h L a n g u a g e . L atterly ,
I h a v e le a r n e d m u c h f r o m R o s a n n a S o rn ic o la a t th e U n iv e rs ity F e d e ric o II in
N ap les a n d h a v e b e e n in s p ir e d b y th e w o r k o l C la i r e B la n c h e -B c n v e n is te
in P aris a n d A ix -e n - P ro v e n c e . D u r in g t h e la s t f o u r y e a rs o f m y c a re e r, a t th e
U n iv e rs ity o f A u c k la n d , 1 h a d m a n y illu m in a tin g d is c u s s io n s w ith A n d re e a
C a lu d e , J im F e is t, K e ith M o n tg o m e r y a n d I le le n C h a r te r s . ( T h e y p r o b a b l y d id
r o t re a liz e a t th e t i m e h o w illu m in a t in g th e i r c o m m e n ts a n d q u e s t io n s w e re .)
A n d re e a C a lu d e , J im F eist a n d W in if r e d B a u e r h a v e c o m m e n te d o n p a r t s o f
th e b o o k a n d a n s w e re d q u e s tio n s . O f c o u r s e , I a lo n e a m re s p o n s ib le f o r a n y
m o r t h o d o x i e s a n d m ista k e s.

Theory, Data and Analysis

Chapter Outline
In t r o d u c t io n

E x p l a n a t io n a n d d e s c r ip t io n

D a t a a n d th e o ry

D a t a a n d a n a ly s is

11

C la u s e a n d se n te n c e

21

T ric k y s t r u c t u r e s in s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g li s h

26

C o n c l u s i o n : in t e g r a t e d a n d u n in t e g r a t e d s t r u c t u r e s

39

Introduction
W h a t c o u n t s a s d o in g s y n ta x ? S o m e m ig h t in s e r t t h e w o r d re a l: w h a t c o u n ts
*s d o in g re a l s y n ta x ? T h e r e a r e tw o m a i n c a m p s : th o s e lin g u is ts fo r w h o m real
sy n tax fo c u s e s o n th e o r ie s o f first la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n a n d th o s e w h o see
s y n ta x a s fo c u s in g 011 c o n c e p t s l o r th e a n a ly s is a n d d e s c r ip tio n o f la n g u a g e s,
li n g u is ts w h o p r a c tis e th e first k in d o f s y n ta x lik e to se e it a s e x p la n a to ry , w ith
ih e s e c o n d k in d b e in g 'm e r e ly ' d e s c r ip tiv e . In th is c h a p te r , w e a r g u e t h a t all
sy n ta c tic w o rk in v o lv e s th e o r y , t h o u g h n o t n e c e s s a rily f o r m a l m o d e ls , a n d th a t
d a ta a r c im p o r t a n t. T h e o r y r e s tin g o n in c o r r e c t d a ta o r u n s a tis f a c to r y a n a ly se s
o f c o r r e c t d a ta m ig h t b e c o h e r e n t a n d in te r n a lly c o n s is te n t, b u t c a n n o t b e
a c c e p te d w ith o u t re lia b le s u p p o r t i n g e v id e n c e . G a th e r i n g s u f f ic ie n t e v id e n c e
is n o t a s im p le m a tte r , e v e n l o r w r it te n la n g u a g e , w h ile o b ta i n in g g o o d s p o k e n
d a ta is d iffic u lt, its t r a n s c r i p ti o n is t i m e - c o n s u m i n g a n d its a n a ly s is is trick y .
iS ce C h a p t e r 5 fo r a d is c u s s io n o f d a ta a n d g r a m m a t ic a l ly .)

A C ritic a l In t r o d u c t io n to S y n t a x

T h e n e e d to c h e c k th e d a ta o n w h ic h p ie c e s o f th e o r y a r e b a s e d is d e m o n
s tr a te d in p p . 4 - 7 v ia a n a c c o u n t o f in d ir e c t o r e m b e d d e d q u e s tio n s . Ju st
h o w d if fic u lt it is to a n a ly s e t h e s y n ta x o f s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e is
d e m o n s tr a t e d in p p . 1 3 - 2 0 v ia a n e x a m i n a ti o n o f t r a n s c r i p t i o n p r o b le m s ,
e xcep t c la u s e s ( m a i n o r s u b o r d in a te ? ) a n d t h e b e sa t!b e s to o d s t r u c tu r e s , all
fr o m C a r te r a n d M c C a rth y (1 9 9 7 ) , a n d v ia a d is c u s s io n o f c o n s t r u c ti o n s
ty p ic a l o f s p o k e n la n g u a g e : N P - C la u s e ( N P - N o u n P h r a s e ) , V - D i r e c t O b je c t
N P - C o m p lc m c n t C la u s e , W U c le ft ( th e s p o k e n c o n s t r u c ti o n r a t h e r th a n th e
w r itte n o n e ) a n d t h e th in g - is c o n s t r u c ti o n .

Explanation and description

T h e c o n c e p ts a n d m e th o d s o f s y n ta x a r e tw o o f th e s e t o t to o ls f o r th e
a n a ly sis a n d d e s c r ip tio n o f la n g u a g e s . T h e s m a lle s t u n it s o f s y n ta x a r e w o rd s .
T h e y c o m b i n e i n t o p h r a s e s , p h ra s e s in to c la u s e s a n d c la u s e s in to s e n te n c e s .
S e n te n c e s c o m b i n e i n t o lo n g e r te x ts , b u t t h e d is c o u r s e lin k s o v e r c h u n k s o f
te x t a r e d if f e r e n t f r o m th e lin k s b e tw e e n w o rd s , p h r a s e s a n d c la u s e s . T h e s t r u c
tu r e o f p h r a s e s a n d c la u s e s is d if f e r e n t f r o m t h e s t r u c t u r e o f s e n te n c e s ; th e
classical c rite r ia fo r d e te r m i n in g c o n s t it u e n t s t r u c t u r e a p p ly n e a tly to p h ra s e s
a n d c la u s e s b u t m u c h less n e a tly to s e n te n c e s . T h a t i s to say , p h r a s e s a n d
c la u s e s r e q u ir e d if f e r e n t te c h n iq u e s o f a n a ly s is f r o m s e n te n c e s , a n d lo n g e r
te x ts r e q u ir e v e r y d if f e r e n t a n a ly tic a l te c h n iq u e s . ( T h e s t r u c t u r e o f w o r d s is
lik ew ise d if f e r e n t f r o m th e s t r u c t u r e o f p h ra s e s a n d c la u s e s a n d w ill n o t b e
d e a lt w ith in t h i s b o o k e x c e p t in p a s s in g .)
W h a t d o lin g u is ts d e s c r ib e w ith sy n ta x ? T h e y p r o d u c e re fe re n c e g r a m m a r s
a f in d iv id u a l la n g u a g e s , d e s c r ip tio n s th a t t r y to e n c o m p a s s all th e s t r u c tu r e s
f o u n d in all t h e d if f e r e n t ty p e s o f te x t in a g iv e n la n g u a g e : c o n v e r s a tio n , le c
tu r e s , p o e tr y , n o v e ls , n e w s p a p e rs , re s e a rc h m o n o g r a p h s , te x tb o o k s fo r s c h o o l
a n d u n iv e r s ity a n d s o o n . E x a m p le s o f s u c h r e f e re n c e g r a m m a r s a r e Q u ir k
?t a l. (1 9 8 5 ) fo r E n g lis h , G re v is s e -G o o s s e (1 9 9 3 ) a n d B a u e r (1 9 9 7 ). T h e se c
o n d in th e lis t is e n ti tl e d l e b o n u sa g e (G o o d U sage), b u t in fact c o v e rs p a tt e r n s
a n d Ita p a x le g o m e n a f r o m all s o r ts o f te x ts a n d ta k e s a re la x e d v ie w o f n o r m s .
T h e last in th e list h a s t h e a im o f r e c o r d in g a n d a n a ly s in g c o n s t r u c ti o n s u s e d
b y o ld e r s p e a k e r s o f M a o r i w h o s e u s a g e w a s less a ff e c te d b y E n g lis h t h a n
th e u s a g e o f y o u n g e r s p e a k e rs . G r a m m a tic a l d e s c r ip tio n s m a y f o c u s m o r e
n a rro w ly , n o t o n E n g lis h i n g e n e r a l b u t , say, o n th e la n g u a g e o f J a n e A u s te n s
n o v e ls o r o f leg a l d o c u m e n t s o r c o u r t p ro c e e d in g s .

Theory, D ata and A n alysis

L in g u is ts a ls o p r o d u c e g r a m m a r s fo r n o n - n a t iv e le a r n e r s o f p a r tic u la r
la n g u a g e s. T o d o so , th e y d e c id e w h a t s e t o f le a r n e r s th e y a r e w r i t i n g for,
w h e th e r c o m p l e te b e g in n e r s , le a r n e r s w ith s o m e k n o w le d g e o f th e la n g u a g e o r
le a r n e r s w ith a lo t o f k n o w le d g e , a n d se le c t a c c o rd in g ly th e a re a s o f g r a m m a r
( a n d v o c a b u la r y ) , th e a m o u n t o f d e ta il a n d th e lev e l o f e x p la n a tio n . A th i r d set
c f g r a m m a r s is w r it te n fo r n a tiv e u s e r s o f a la n g u a g e . F o r e x a m p le , s p e e c h
th e r a p is ts t r e a t c h ild r e n a n d a d u lt s w h o h a v e d if f ic u lty p r o d u c i n g la n g u a g e ,
w h e th e r b e c a u s e o l a n a c c id e n t o r s tr o k e , in th e c a s e o l a d u lts , o r b e c a u s e o l
s o m e d e v e lo p m e n ta l p r o b le m , in t h e c a s e o f c h ild r e n . T h e r a p is ts h a v e t o k n o w
w h a t c o n s t r u c ti o n s ( a n d v o c a b u la r y a n d d is c o u rs e o r g a n i z a ti o n ) t h e i r p a tie n ts
n i g h t b e tr y in g to p r o d u c e , a n d th e y m u s t b e a b le t o d e s c r ib e t h e la n g u a g e o f
th e ir p a tie n ts in c lin ic a l r e p o r ts . M u c h fo r e n s ic lin g u is tic w o r k fo r c o u r t c ases
c c a ls w ith th e s o u n d s o f la n g u a g e , b u t s o m e w o r k d e a ls w ith g r a m m a r a n d
d is c o u rs e o r g a n iz a tio n . P e o p le u n d e r t a k in g fo re n sic w o rk h a v e to b e a b le to
a n a ly s e a n d c o m p a r e th e s y n ta x o l d if f e r e n t te x ts , a n d th e y n e e d to b e a b le
to d e s c r ib e t h e i r f i n d in g s a c c u r a te ly a n d c o n s is te n tly .
T h e w o r d 'd e s c r ib e o c c u r s s e v e ra l t i m e s in th e e a r lie r p a r a g r a p h s , a lo n g
w i t h t h e w o r d d e s c r i p t i o n . T h e l i n g u i s t i c s t h a t is u s e d i n r e f e r e n c e g r a m m a r s

a n d in g r a m m a r s f o r s p e e c h th e r a p is t s a n d fo r e n s ic lin g u is ts is k n o w n as
c e s c r ip tiv e lin g u is tic s . O p p o s e d to it, o r a t le a st p re s e n te d b y s o m e lin g u is ts as
o p p o s e d to it, is th e o r e tic a l, e x p la n a to r y lin g u is tic s , a c h o ic e o f title t h a t p r e
s u p p o s e s t h a t d e s c r ip tiv e lin g u is tic s is n o t th e o r e tic a l a n d n o t e x p la n a to r y . W e
w ill s e e th a t , w h a te v e r t h e o p p o s i ti o n b e tw e e n th e tw o a p p r o a c h e s , it is n o t
d e a r - c u t a n d in fa c t is n o t re c o g n iz e d b y a g o o d n u m b e r o f p r a c titio n e r s .
A n d e r s o n (2 0 0 8 ) s e ts o u t c le a rly t h e d is ti n c ti o n b e tw e e n m e r e ly d e s c r ib in g
(C la rk , 2 0 0 5 , p . 2 3 2 ) a n d e x p la in in g . F o r g e n e ra tiv e lin g u is ts , e x p la in in g
m e a n s d e v e lo p in g a sm a ll n u m b e r o f v e ry g e n e ra l p rin c ip le s g o v e rn in g th e
a r r a n g e m e n ts o f s y n ta c tic s tr u c tu r e , th e 'm o v e m e n t o f c o n s titu e n ts , c o -re le re n c e
re la tio n s b e tw e e n a n a p h o r s a n d a n te c e d e n ts a n d th e m a p p i n g o f s y n ta c tic
s t r u c tu r e o n t o s e m a n tic in t e r p r e ta ti o n s . It a ls o m e a n s p r o v id in g a th e o r y
o f h o w c h ild r e n a c q u ir e th e i r n a tiv e la n g u a g e w ith o u t (a c c o r d in g to th e
C h o m s k y a n s ) in s tr u c t io n a n d w ith e x p o s u r e to d e g e n e r a te d a ta . ( F o r a d iffe r
e n t v ie w , se e t h e d is c u s s io n o l firs t la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n in C h a p te r 12.)
A n d e r s o n (2 0 0 8 , p . 7 9 6 ) s e ts o u t t h i s in f lu e n tia l p e rs p e c tiv e v e r y firm ly : th e
o b je c t o f s t u d y is n o t s e ts o f s o u n d s , o r w o rd s , o r s e n te n c e s , o r te x ts fo r th e ir
o w n sa k e s , b u t r a t h e r t h e s y s te m o l k n o w le d g e a n d th e c o g n itiv e c a p a c ity th a t
u n d e rlie s t h e a b ility o f h u m a n b e in g s to p r o d u c e a n d u n d e r s ta n d th e s e th in g s .

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

L in g u is ts a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e n a tu r e a n d s t r u c t u r e o f t h e c o g n itiv e fa c u lty
M at s u p p o r ts L anguage.
It w o u ld h a v e b e e n m o r e a c c u r a te to say th a t o n e o b je c t o f s t u d y is t h e c o g
n itiv e c a p a c ity u n d e r ly in g th e p r o d u c t i o n a n d in t e r p r e ta ti o n o f u tte ra n c e s .
T h e m a j o r i ty o f s c h o la rs e n g a g e d in re s e a rc h o n la n g u a g e a r e p r o b a b l y n o t
d ir e c tly c o n c e r n e d w ith t h e n a tu r e a n d s t r u c t u r e o f t h e c o g n itiv e c a p a c ity . B u t
n e ith e r d o th e y s t u d y w o rd s , s e n te n c e s a n d te x ts fo r th e i r o w n sa k e s b u t to
u n d e r s ta n d w h y s o m e te x t s a r e s u c c e s s lu l a n d o t h e r s a r e n o t, to e lu c id a te la n
g u a g e p ra c tic e s a n d a ttitu d e s in g r o u p s o f u s e r s , to w rite s o f tw a re -e n a b lin g
c o m p u te r s to h a n d le n a tu r a l la n g u a g e a n d , a s m e n t io n e d e a rlie r, to d e s c rib e ,
d ia g n o s e a n d tr e a t th e lin g u is tic p r o b l e m s a ff e c tin g p a ti e n ts in n e e d o f s p e e c h
n e r a p y , to u n d e r t a k e fo re n sic lin g u is tic w o r k a n d e v e n , in a n id e a l w o r ld , to
te a c h la n g u a g e s a t all le v e ls o f e d u c a tio n .
A n d e r s o n d o e s n o t s a y w h a t c o u n t s a s s t u d y in g w o rd s , s e n te n c e s a n d tex ts
fo r t h e i r o w n sa k e , a n d h is s t a te m e n t in v ite s t h e in f e re n c e th a t , w h a te v e r s u c h
s tu d y m i g h t b e , it is n o t r e le v a n t to t h e s t u d y o f c o g n itiv e c a p a c ity . W e w ill
a rg u e in C h a p t e r 12 t h a t th e s t u d y o f la n g u a g e d a ta , in p a r t ic u l a r sp o k e n
d a ta , h a s re v e a le d s e r io u s d e fe c ts in th e C h o m s k y a n th e o r y o f firs t la n g u a g e

a c q u is itio n a n d r a is e d f u n d a m e n ta l q u e s tio n s : W h a t a b o u t fix ed p h r a s e s a n d

d a u s c s ? W h a t a b o u t c la u s e a n d p h r a s e te m p la te s t h a t a llo w s o m e m a n ip u la t.o n o f p a tte r n s ? W h a t a b o u t p h r a s e , c la u s e a n d s e n te n c e s t r u c tu r e s th a t c a n
b e g e n e r a te d b y ru le ( o r c o n tr o lle d b y s im p le c o n s tr a in ts ) ? T h e s e is s u e s le a d to
q u e s tio n s a b o u t t h e r o le o t m e m o r y a n d r o te le a r n in g a n d a b o u t th e r e l a ti o n
s h ip b e tw e e n s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e in , say , in f o r m a l c o n v e rs a tio n ,
p r o d u c e d w ith little o r n o t i m e fo r d e ta ile d p l a n n i n g a n d w r it te n la n g u a g e
p r o d u c e d a n d in t e r p r e te d w i t h tim e fo r p la n n in g , e d it in g a n d re v isin g .
W e c a n q u e s t io n t h e d is ti n c ti o n d r a w n s o c le a rly b y A n d e r s o n . B ria rs
(2 0 0 6 , p . 14) a n d G re e n (2 0 0 5 ) p o i n t o u t t h a t d e s c r ip tio n a n d th e o r y a re
in te r c o n n e c te d a n d in t e r d e p e n d e n t . D e s c r ip tio n o f la n g u a g e r e q u ir e s a s e t o f
c o n c e p ts a n d , c ru c ia lly , g e n e r a liz a tio n a n d a b s t r a c t io n . E v e n o b s e r v a tio n
re q u ire s s o m e th e o r y to e n a b le o b s e r v e rs to p ic k o u t r e le v a n t d a ta . F o r in s ta n c e ,
t i e o b s e r v e r c o m i n g a c r o s s th e e x a m p le in ( I ) w o u ld n o t a p p r e c ia te t h e sig
n if ic a n c e o f t h e p a r t in b o ld u n le s s th e y k n e w t h a t a c c o r d i n g to re fe re n c e
g r a m m a r s o f E n g lis h i n d i r e c t o r e m b e d d e d q u e s t io n s h a v e th e s t r u c t u r e o f
a d e c la ra tiv e s e n te n c e , a d e c la r a tio n t h a t is r e p e a te d in a ll t h e g e n e ra tiv e
g r a m m a r s o f E n g lish . A c c o rd in g to th e s e a c c o u n ts , ( 1 ) s h o u l d h a v e t h e s tr u c ta r e in ( 2 ).

Theory, D ata and A n alysis

(1 ) I ' d lo v e t o k n o w h o w m u c h b e lt e r a p la y e r is T ig e r W o o d s lh a n l o m M o r r is .
T h e H e r a ld , M id w e e k S p o r t , 1 6 A p r il 2 0 0 8 , p . 1 6

(2 ) I ' d lo v e t o k n o w h o w m u c h b e t t e r a p la y e r T ig e r W o o d s is t h a n T o m M o r n s .

In ( 1 ), t h e in d ir e c t o r e m b e d d e d q u e s tio n h a s t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a d ir e c t q u e s
tio n : H o w m u c h b e lte r a p la y e r is T ig e r W o o d s th a n T o m M o r ris? T h e w h p h r a s e
l o w m u c h b e tte r is in firs t p o s i ti o n a n d s u b j e c t- a u x ili a r y in v e r s io n h a s c h a n g e d
Tigers W o o d s is to is T ig er W oods. (2 ) h a s th e c o n s t it u e n t o r d e r o l a d e c la ra tiv e
cla u se . T h e w h p h r a s e is a t t h e f r o n t o f t h e c la u s e , th is b e in g a k e y p r o p e r t y o f
in d ire c t q u e s tio n s , b u t th e s u b je c t N P p re c e d e s t h e a u x ilia r y , T ig e r W oods is.
T h e la tte r o r d e r is a k e y p r o p e r ty o f d e c la ra tiv e c la u se s.
O b s e r v e r s in f o r m e d a b o u t M in im a lis m w o u ld a ls o k n o w t h a t th e e x a m p le
r u n s c o u n t e r t o t h e id e a t h a t s u c h e x a m p le s c a n b e s t r a ig h tf o r w a r d ly ' a n a ly s e d
a s a r is in g f r o m th e lex ical s p e c ific a tio n o f t h e e m b e d d e d C ( c o m p le m e n t) ,
v /h ic h w o u ld h a v e a w e a k f e a tu r e (Q ) ( f o r Q u e s tio n ) r a t h e r t h a n a s t r o n g ( Q |.
F u r th e r m o r e , s in c e th e a n a ly s is o f e m b e d d e d q u e s tio n s a n d th e a n a ly s is o f
w h - q u e s tio n s i s s y n ta c tic a lly p a ra lle l, w e c o rr e c tly p r e d ic t t h a t w e d o n o t fin d
in v e rs io n in e m b e d d e d w h q u e s tio n s ' (A d g e r, 2 0 0 3 , p . 3 5 7 ). ( 1 ) a n d m a n y o t h e r
e x a m p le s f r o m w r it te n a n d s p o k e n E n g lis h s h o w t h a t t h e p r e d i c ti o n is w r o n g
a n d cast d o u b t o n t h e d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n a w e a k a n d s t r o n g fe a tu re [Q J.
It is i m p o r t a n t to h a v e a n u m b e r o f e x a m p le s to s h o w t h a t w h a t th e a n a ly s t
h a s c o m e a c r o s s is n o t a o n e - o f f b u t p e r h a p s a re g u la r fe a tu re o f o n e s p e a k e r s
u tte ra n c e s . E ven b e tt e r is to h a v e a ra n g e o f e x a m p le s f r o m d if f e r e n t te x t ty p e s ,
a s in (3 )(7 ). T h e fa c t t h a t (3 )(7 ) a r e f r o m w r it te n te x ts is i m p o r t a n t , s in c e
th a t in d ic a te s c le a rly t h a t w e a r e n o t d e a lin g w ith p e r f o r m a n c e e rro rs :
(3)

T h e q u e s t io n r e m a in s o l w h a t is t h e g r a n t - g i v i n g b o d y
D e p a r t m e n t M e e t in g , U n iv e r s it y o f E d in b u r g h
( n o t S c o t t is h fc n g lis h , a s t h e s p e a k e r w a s E n g lis h )

(4 ) T h i s is s u e a b o u t h o w a r e w e p r e p a r i n g s t u d e n t s t o f l o w o n s e e m s t o m e
q u it e im p o r t a n t
A s s o c ia t e D e a n s M e e t in g , U n iv e < s ity o f A u c k la n d , u n p la n n e d
(5 ) N o o n e is s u r e h o w l o n g a r e t h e p a s s a g e s l e a d i n g o f f f r o m t h i s c e n t r e .
S c o t la n d a n S u n d a y , 1 3 N o v e m b e r 1 9 8 8

T ra v e l a r t ic le b y D o r e e n Taylor

(6 ) L o g o n a t th e B B C W o r ld S e r v ic e A I D S s it e to f in d o u t h o w m u c h d o y o u
k n o w a b o u t condom s
BBC w ebp age 2006

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

(7 ) Y o u h a v e l o a s k w h y i s i t n e c e s s a r y t o r a i s e t h i s v e r y d e l i c a t e a n d d i f f i
c u lt s u b je c t in t h e f r a u g h t a n d f e b r ile c o n t e x t o f a g e n e r a l c a m p a ig n .
N e w Z e a l a n d H e r a ld , 1 7 F e b r u a r y 2 0 0 5 . w r it t e n

(8 ) T h e l u g g e d u n c e r t a in ly h a n g in g o v e r t h e e c o n o m y is h o w r e d w i l l t h i n g s g e t
i R e f l o m a p s h o w i n g a r e a s o f t io u s e - p r ic e d e c r e a s e s in red]
J b e E c o n o m a t , 1 0 - 1 6 M a y 2 0 0 8 . A m e r ic a n h o u s in g .
M a p o f m is e r y , p 9 7

T h e h is to r y o f a c o n s tr u c tio n m a y b e re le v a n t, g iv e n a p r o p e n s ity a m o n g
m a n y p ro f e s s io n a l lin g u is ts a n d o r d i n a r y u s e r s o l a g iv e n la n g u a g e to d is m iss
c o n s t r u c ti o n s t h a t a r e s u p p o s e d ly c o n f in e d to o n e ( o r m o r e ) n o n - s ta n d a r d
v a rie ty o r to s p o n ta n e o u s s p e e c h o r t h a t a r e (s u p p o s e d ly ) o f r e c e n t o rig in .
W ith re s p e c t to t h e in d ir e c t q u e s t io n c o n s t r u c ti o n e x e m p lif ie d e a rlie r, D e n is o n
(1 9 9 8 , p . 2 4 6 ) , fo llo w in g H e n r y (1 9 9 5 ) , a s s e r ts t h a t th e c o n s t r u c ti o n is n o rm a l
in U ls te r E n g lish , in W e lsh E n g lis h , in r e c e n t A m e r ic a n E n g lis h ( n o t e th e
recent) a n d in th e N e w E n g lish e s. ( 3 ) - ( 8 ) s h o w t h a t D e n is o n d o e s n o t ca st
h is n e t w id e e n o u g h , a n d w e w o u ld a d d t h a t th e c o n s t r u c ti o n h a s b e e n in
e x is te n c e s in c e a t le a st th e f i r s t h a l f o f th e n in e t e e n th c e n tu r y , w itn e s s th e
e x a m p le f r o m E s th e r S u m m e r s o n s n a r r a tiv e in B le a k H o m e . h a d th o u g h t
b e fo reh a n d th a t I k n e w its p u rp o r t, a n d I d id . I t a sk e d m e w o u l d I b e t h e m is tr e s s
c f B le a k H o u s e {B le a k H o u se, P a r t 14, C h a p te r 4 4 ) . (9 ) is a w r itte n e x a m p le o f
t i e c o n s t r u c ti o n f r o m th e e a r ly 1940s.

(9 )

T h e y t h in k t h a t w h a t h a p p e n e d in P o la n d c o u l d n e v e r h a p p e n h e r e , b u t
I s o m e t im e s w o n d e r H a v e j u s t a s k e d o n e m a n d i d h e h e a r t h i s p r o
g r a m m e . a n d h e r e p lie d , 'N o . w e t u r n e d o f f
M a s s - O b s e r v a t io n , B r it a in in t h e S e c o n d W o r ld W a r,
F o l i o S o c i e t y 2 0 0 7 , D o r is M e llin g , p . 2 1

T h e im p o r t a n c e o f g o o d , d e ta i le d d e s c r ip tio n is re c o g n iz e d b y m a n y lin
g u is ts w h o w o u ld d e s c r ib e th e m s e lv e s a s d e a lin g w ith th e o r y a n d n o t d e s c r ip
tio n ; o n e m a j o r e x c e p tio n is C h o m s k y , w h o s t a t e d (C h o m s k y , 1980, p. 11 ) th a t
s u b s ta n tia l c o v e ra g e o f d a ta is n o t s ig n ific a n t a n d d ir e c te d h is p a r tic u la r
e x p la n a to r y t h e o r y to w a r d s 1-la n g u a g e ( in te r n a l a n d a b s tr a c t) a n d a w a y f r o m
E -la n g u a g e ( e x te r n a l a n d o b s e r v a b le ). It w ill b e a r g u e d in C h a p t e r 12 th a t th is
n e g le c t o f E -la n g u a g e h a s i m p o r t a n t n e g a tiv e c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r C h o m s k y s
th e o r y o f firs t la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n .
B o rja rs (2 0 0 6 , p . 1 6 ) d r a w s a t t e n t i o n to d is a g r e e m e n t a m o n g lin g u is ts o v e r
w h a t c o u n t s a s e x p la n a tio n . In t h e C h o m s k y a n a p p r o a c h , a n a ly s e s a r e d e e m e d

Theory, D ata and A n alysis

e x p la n a to r y i f th e y a c c o r d w i t h c e r t a in g e n e r a l a n d u n iv e r s a l p r in c ip le s th a t
a re in n a te ( p a r t o f t h e la n g u a g e fa c u lty ) a n d e n a b le c h il d r e n to a c q u ir e th e ir
n a tiv e la n g u a g e , w h a te v e r it m ig h t b e . Q u ite a p a r t f r o m c u r r e n t c o n tr o v e rs y
e v e r firs t la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n , a v e ry la rg e n u m b e r o f lin g u is ts c o n s id e r a n a ly
ses t o b e e x p la n a to r y o n ly il th e y p ro v id e s e m a n tic o r p r a g m a tic m o tiv a tio n
fa r p a t t e r n s o f s y n ta x . (S e e th e d is c u s s io n o f t h e g e t p a ss iv e in C h a p te r 7 a n d
c ase in C h a p t e r 1 0 .) A s s o c ia tin g s e m a n ti c in t e r p r e ta ti o n s w ith s y n ta c tic s t r u c
tu re s is c ru c ia l to t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o ! a n a d e q u a t e th e o r y o l firs t la n g u a g e
a c q u is itio n . H u m a n s fin d it v e r y d if fic u lt - in fa c t m a n y f i n d it im p o s s ib le - to
r e m e m b e r a n d u s e m e a n in g le s s s e q u e n c e s o l s y m b o ls s u c h a s P IN n u m b e r s
a n d te le p h o n e n u m b e r s . C h ild r e n a r e n o e x c e p tio n .
It is n o t a s im p le m a t t e r to s e t o u t t h e s y n ta c tic a n d m o r p h o s y n ta c tic
p a tte r n s o l a g iv e n la n g u a g e , d e m o n s t r a t e h o w th e y in t e r a c t a n d w h a t th e ir
s e m a n tic i n t e r p r e ta ti o n s a re . F o r in s ta n c e , th e S im p le P re s e n t a n d t h e P ro g r e s
sive P re s e n t in E n g lish in te r a c t in a c o m p le x w ay , a s d o t h e S im p le P a s t, th e
P ro g re ssiv e P a st a n d t h e ( P r e s e n t) P e rfe c t. T h e I m p e rfe c tiv e a s p e c t o f R u ssian
is u s e d in m a in a n d s u b o r d in a te c la u s e s a n d in f in ite a n d in f in itiv e clau ses.
I t h e r e a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e f i n i t e a n d n o n f i n i t e p a t t e r n s ? A n a d e q u a t e

e x p la n a tio n is o n e t h a t o ffe rs a s e m a n ti c - p r a g m a ti c a c c o u n t w h ic h d e m o n
s tra te s c o n v in c in g ly th a t t h e p a t t e r n s a n d u s a g e s a r e n o t a r b i t r a r y b u t a re
ro o te d in s e m a n tic s . A n o th e r ty p e o f e x p la n a tio n is r e q u ir e d fo r, say , th e p a t
te r n s o f re la tiv e c la u s e f o r m a ti o n t h a t a r e f o u n d in h u m a n la n g u a g e s , in p a r
tic u la r w h ic h n o u n s in a c la u s e c a n b e m o d if ie d b y a re la tiv e c la u se . K e e n a n
a n d C o m r ie s (1 9 7 7 ) c la ssic w o r k o n a h ie r a r c h y o f g r a m m a tic a l fu n c tio n s
a n d th e p o s s ib ility o f re la tiv iz a tio n c o n n e c ts t h e c o n c e p ts o f c o m p l e m e n t a n d
a d ju n c t w ith t h e c o n c e p t s o f t h e c o r e o f a c la u s e - s u b j e c t, d ir e c t o b je c t a n d
v e rb - a n d its p e r i p h e r y - o b li q u e o b je c t. L ik e t h e w o r k b y G iv o n a n d o th e r s
e n th e a c c e ss ib ility o f re f e re n c e , th e i r re s e a rc h p r o d u c e d a h ie r a r c h y o t a c c e s
s ib ility to re la tiv iz a tio n a n d a p le a s in g s e t o f im p lic a tio n a l re la tio n s a lo n g th e
l:nes o f I f a la n g u a g e c a n rc la tiv iz e a d ir e c t o b je c t, it c a n a lso r e la tiv iz e s u b je c ts
( b u t n o t n e c e s s a rily o b li q u e o b je c ts ).
It s h o u l d b e e m p h a s iz e d t h a t n o t a ll f o r m a l m o d e l s d e a l w ith th e c o g n itiv e
c a p a c ity u n d e r l y in g la n g u a g e . B rja r s (2 0 0 6 , p . 13) c ite s G a z d a r e t a l. (1 9 8 5 )
s ta tin g p la in ly t h a t i t w o u ld b e ir r e s p o n s ib le to c la im t h a t th e i r f o r m a l g ra m n a r o f F .nglish ( a n d b y in v ite d in f e r e n c e , a n y f o r m a l g r a m m a r o f E n g lis h ) is
a p sy c h o lo g ic a l th e o r y o r a b io lo g ic a l th e o r y o l th e s t r u c t u r e o f a n a s-y c tu n id e n tif ie d m e n ta l o r g a n . G e n e ra liz e d p h r a s e s t r u c t u r e g r a m m a r w a s o v e r
ta k e n b y t h e v e r y s i m i la r h e a d - d r iv e n p h r a s e s t r u c t u r e g r a m m a r , w h ic h h as

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

se rv e d a s a f r a m e w o r k f o r s o m e o f t h e m o s t e x p lic it a c c o u n ts o f p a r tic u la r
are a s o f E n g lis h g r a m m a r - s e e G in z b u r g a n d S ag (2001 ). N o c la im s a r e m a d e
fo r p sy c h o lo g ic a l re a lity th e r e e ith e r , t h o u g h t h e a c c o u n t c o u ld b e th e b a s is fo r
a c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m h a n d li n g s u c h d a ta . A n d o t h e r m o d e ls , s u c h a s D ik 's
F u n c tio n a l G r a m m a r a n d V an V alin s ( o r ig in a lly F o le y a n d V a n V a lin 's) R o le
a n d R e fe re n c e G r a m m a r , m a k e n o c la im to p s y c h o lo g ic a l r e a lity e ith e r.

Data and theory

G o o d , re lia b le d a ta a r e e q u a lly c r u c ia l to d e s c r ip tiv e s y n ta x a n d to f o r m a l s y n
tax . (W e w ill u s e f o r m a l r a t h e r t h a n th e o r e tic a l'; w e h a v e b e e n a r g u in g th a t
d e s c r ip tiv e lin g u is tic s a lso re s ts o n t h e o r y a n d w h a t a ll th e d if f e r e n t s c h o o ls o f
'th e o r e tic a l lin g u is tic s h a v e in c o m m o n is th e a p p lic a tio n o f s o m e f o r m a l
fr a m e w o r k .) W h a t c o u n t s a s g o o d re lia b le d a ta ? N o t ju s t t h e i n t u i t i o n s o f th e
a n a ly s t o r o f n a tiv e s p e a k e r s w h o a r e a s k e d i f th e y fin d p a r t ic u l a r s e n te n c e s
a c c e p ta b le o r n o t. T h e a n a ly s ts i n t u i t i o n s c a n b e le d a s tra y b y p re f e re n c e s fo r
t.iis o r th a t a n a ly s is o r th e o ry .
M u c h o f th e fo llo w in g d is c u s s io n d e a ls w ith E n g lis h s t r u c tu r e s , b u t o n e
g o al o f lin g u is tic s is t o d e v e lo p c o n c e p ts t h a t a p p ly to all la n g u a g e s . It is
e x tre m e ly d if fic u lt to c o lle c t re lia b le d a ta a n d a n a ly s e s f r o m la n g u a g e s th a t
c n e d o e s n o t k n o w w e ll, o r d o e s n o t k n o w a t a ll, a n d fo r w h ic h o n e re lie s o n
e t h e r p e o p le 's d e s c r ip tio n s . F o r e x a m p le , w h e n a n a ly s in g th e c o n c e p t o f
h e a d in c o n n e c tio n w i t h c o g n itiv e /c o n s tr u c tio n g r a m m a r , C ro ft (2 0 0 1 , p. 2 46)
c o m m e n ts t h a t a g r e e m e n t g iv es c o n f lic tin g e v id e n c e f o r h e a d h o o d a c ro s s
la n g u a g e s. In s o m e la n g u a g e s , h e say s t h a t th e h e a d n o u n a g re e s w ith th e
G e n itiv e M o d ifie r ( in itia l c a p ita ls a s in C r o f ts te x t) , w h ile in o th e r s th e
G e n itiv e M o d ifie r a g re e s w ith th e h e a d n o u n . T h is d is ti n c ti o n w ill b e d is c u s s e d
in t h e s e c tio n o n h e a d s a n d d e p e n d e n ts /m o d if ie r s ; w h a t is r e le v a n t h e r e is th e
B u lg a ria n p h r a s e u s e d b y C ro ft t o e x e m p lify a G e n itiv e M o d ifie r a g re e in g w ith
tn e h e a d n o u n . C o n s id e r ( 10).
(1 0 )

S e s t r - in a - t a

kO Sta

s is t e r - g e n ( s g - a r t . f s g

ho use

th e s is te r 's h o u s e

T h e w o r d s e s tr in a to is n o t a G e n itiv e M o d ifie r. It is n o t a n o u n b u t a n
a d je c tiv e , a lb e it a p o ss e ssiv e a d je c tiv e , a n d it is n o t in t h e g e n itiv e c a se . (S u c h
p o sse ssiv e a d je c tiv e s a r e f o u n d in th e S lav ic la n g u a g e s g e n e ra lly . T h e y o c c u r
re g u la rly , t h o u g h n o t fr e q u e n tly , in w r itin g , b u t a r e r a r e in s p o n t a n e o u s sp e e c h .

Theory, D ata and A n alysis

a t le a st i n R u s s ia n a n d B u lg a ria n .) A s a n a d je c tiv e , s e s trin a fo llo w s th e I n d o E u ro p e a n p a tt e r n o f a g re e in g w ith its h e a d n o u n . S c a tto n (1 9 8 4 , p p . 3 1 6 - 1 7 ) ,
th e s o u r c e o f C r o f ts e x a m p le , la b e ls se s lriiu itu a p o ss e ssiv e a d je c tiv e d e riv e d
f r o m a n o u n . A s h e n o te s , a n o t h e r p o ss e ssiv e c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n s is ts o f th e
p o s s e s s e d n o u n fo llo w e d b y a p r e p o s itio n a l p h r a s e c o n ta i n in g th e p o s s e s s o r
r.o u n : k iiita n a sestra ta h o u s e - th e o f s is te r -th e , t h e s is te r 's h o u s e .
S a m p s o n (2 0 0 7 , p p . 1 6 - 1 8 ) h ig h lig h ts t h e w a y in w h ic h e r r o n e o u s i n t u
itio n s c a n b e c o m e d a ta t h a t o t h e r lin g u is ts ta k e a s s o lid . 1 Ie c ite s th e c la im by
R oss t h a t w h e n a v e r b in E n g lis h h a s a p re f ix it c a n n o t ta k e a n o n - n o m in a l
c o m p le m e n t, a c la im t h a t w a s ta k e n u p b y R o e p e r a n d S ieg el a n d th e n b y
A ro n o fT a n d o th e r s . A s e a r c h w i t h G o o g le s h o w e d S a m p s o n th a t R o ss c la im
v,ra s w r o n g ; e x a m p le s s u c h a s o v e rin d u lg e in s o m e th in g a n d re a ffir m th a t such
M id su c h tu r n e d o u t to b e q u ite tr e q u e n t.
P e o p le s i n t u i t i o n s a r e e v e n le s s re lia b le f o r s p o k e n la n g u a g e . L a b o v (1 9 7 5 ,
p p . 3 4 - 6 ) in te rv ie w e d s p e a k e r s o f P h ila d e lp h ia E n g lis h w h o m h e h a d o b s e rv e d
u s in g e x a m p le s s u c h a s J o h n is s m o k in g a lo t a n y m o re , in w h ic h a n y m o r e is
e q u iv a le n t to is c o n ti n u in g to o r 'th e s e d a y s . T h e s p e a k e r s d e n ie d u s in g s u c h
e x a m p l e s a n d d e c l a r e d l h a t t h e y w o u l d h a v e n o i d e a w h a t i h e v m i g h t m e a n il

t i e y h e a r d th e m . R e la tiv e c la u s e s s u c h a s T h e re a r e s o m e p e o p le c a n t sto p ta lk
in g a r c s t a n d a r d in p r e s e n ta tiv e e x is te n tia l c o n s t r u c ti o n s in s p o k e n E n g lis h all
e v e r ih e E n g lis h -s p e a k in g w o rld . T h e y a r e p e c u li a r in th a t th e re la tiv e c la u s e
cant sto p ta lk in g h a s n o re la tiv iz e r, a lth o u g h th e m is s in g w h o w o u ld b e th e
s u b je c t o l t h e re la tiv e c la u s e . T h e s t a n d a r d s t o r y is th a t s u c h re la tiv e c la u s e s
m u s t b e in t r o d u c e d b y a w h w o rd s u c h a s w h o o r w h ich o r b y th a t. T h e a u t h o r
ask e d s e v e ra l tu t o r i a l g r o u p s o f s t u d e n t s in th e 1 980s w h e th e r th e y h a d h e a rd
s u c h e x a m p le s o r t h o u g h t t h e y w e re p o s s ib le s t r u c tu r e s o f E n g lish . A ll th e
s tu d e n ts d e n ie d h a v in g h e a r d t h e m a n d w e r e o f t h e o p in i o n t h a t t h e y w e re n o t
p o s s ib le s t r u c tu r e s o l E n g lish .
T h e p a r t ic u l a r d if fic u lty h e r e is t h a t s p e a k e r s o f E n g lis h ( a n d p re s u m a b ly
t i i s a p p lie s to th e s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s t h a t h a v e s p o k e n a n d w r itte n
v a rie tie s ) d o n o t h a v e re lia b le i n t u i t i o n s a b o u t r e g u la r s y n ta c tic p a t t e r n s in th e
s p o n ta n e o u s s p e e c h o f s p e a k e r s o f s t a n d a r d E n g lis h , n e v e r m i n d n o n - s ta n d a r d
v a rie tie s. A n e x a m p le w h ic h th e a u t h o r h a s d is c u s s e d e ls e w h e re (M ille r. 2 0 1 0 )
c o n c e rn s t h e u s e o f s a t v e rs u s s ittin g a n d s to o d v e rs u s sta n d in g . C o m m e n tin g
c n t h e u tt e r a n c e th e p ilo t w a s s a l in o n e o f th e seats, C a r te r a n d M c C a rth y
(1 9 9 7 , p . 3 4 ) r e m a r k t h a t th e s p e a k e r s p o k e Y o rk sh ire d ia le c t a n d th a t s t a n d a r d
E n g lish re q u ire s w a s sittin g . I n c o n tr a s t, th e re s e a rc h b y C h e s h ir e e t al. (1 9 9 3 ,
p p . 7 0 a n d 71 ) s h o w e d t h a t B E s a t/s to o d w a s w id e s p r e a d a n d c h a r a c te r is tic o f

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

'a g e n e ra l n o n - s t a n d a r d o r s e m i- s ta n d a r d v a r ie ty o f E n g lis h . T h e u n c le a r s t a
tu s o f t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n is re fle c te d in T ra sk 's (2 0 0 1 , p p . 2 5 2 , 2 7 3 ) d e s c r ip tio n
c f w a s s a t a s c o llo q u ia l B ritis h E n g lis h ' a n d o f w a s s to o d a s re g io n a l B ritish
E n g lish .
B u rc h fie ld (1 9 8 1 ) , w r i t i n g l o r th e B B C , d e c la r e d

w a s s a t/s to o d th ere

u n a c c e p ta b le in a n y c ir c u m s ta n c e s ; 2 0 y e a rs o n , th e s t r u c t u r e is w id e ly u s e d by,
fo r e x a m p le , r e p o r te r s o n th e B B C N e w s a t T en ( t h o u g h n o t b y th e p re s e n te rs ,
v /h o re a d firom a u to c u e s ) a n d s e e m s to b e c h a r a c te r is tic o l u n p la n n e d s p e e c h
( in c lu d in g t h a t p r o d u c e d b y s p e a k e r s o f s t a n d a r d E n g lish , c o n tr a r y to th e
o p in i o n o l C h e s h ir e e t a l.) M a n y s t r u c tu r e s c o n s id e r e d n o n - s t a n d a r d m a y b e
n is c la s s ifie d ; r a t h e r t h a n b e in g n o n - s t a n d a r d , th e y m a y b e n o r m a l in th e
s p o n ta n e o u s s p e e c h o f a ll sp e a k e rs.
T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s re a c h e d n e w s p a p e r w r itin g , a s s h o w n b y t h e e x a m p le s
in ( 1 1 ) a n d ( 12 ).
( 1 1 ) S a t b e t w e e n a b e a m in g T o n y B la ir a n d S ir B o b G e ld o f , E th io p ia 's P n m e
M in is t e r , M e le s Z e n a w , p ic t u r e d , c o u l d h a r d ly h a v e w s h e d fo a s t r o n g e r
e n d o rse m e n t
T h e In d e p e n d e n t , 1 7 O c t o b e r 7 0 0 7
{ F r o m W e s t 's f a v o u r it e le a d e r to g r a v e - d i g g e r o f d e m o c r a c y )

(1 2 )

1 h e s a m e c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n s a id fo r J o h n H e c k , s a t a lo n g s id e h im o n th e
b e n ch .
T h e H e r a ld , F r id a y S p o r t , 2 3 M a y 2 0 0 8 , p . S

(1 3 ) is tr o m a d ia lo g u e in a n o v e l s e t in t h e e a r ly 1930s. T h e s p e a k e r is th e
w ife o f a C h u r c h o f E n g la n d v ic a r a n d d e fin ite ly a s p e a k e r o f s t a n d a r d E n g lish .
(As Jim a n d I ^ s l e y M ilro y h a v e re p e a te d ly s a id , th e r e is f a r m o r e v a r i a ti o n in
s ta n d a r d E n g lish t h a n th e a r b i te r s o f u s a g e im a g in e .)
(1 3 )

'M y d e a r H ila ry , h o w k in d o f y o u ! Y e s , in d e e d - 1 c a n d o w it h a ll t h e w h it e
f lo w e r s I c a n g e t . T h e s e a r e b e a u t ifu l a n d w f t a r a d e lic io u s s c e n t ! D e a r
t h in g s ! I t h o u g h t o f h a v i n g s o m e o f o u r p la n t s s t o o d a l o n g t h e r e i n f r o m o f
A b b o t T h o m a s , w it h s o m e t a ll v a s e s a m o n g t h e m
D o r o t h y S a y e r s ( 1 9 3 4 ) , T h e N i n e T a ilo rs , p 5 9
m t h e H o d d e ' a n d S t o u g h t o n e d it io n , f ir s t p u b lis h e d
a s a F o u r S q u a r e e d it io n , 1 9 5 9 , 1 4 t h im p r e s s io n 1 9 8 7

G e ttin g t h e d a ta r i g h t is im p o r t a n t f o r v a r i o u s e n te r p r is e s , n o t ju s t
M in im a lis m . T h e in d ir e c t q u e s tio n c o n s tr u c tio n e x e m p lif ie d in (2 )(8 ) fig u re d
in te s ts g iv e n to n o n - n a t iv e s p e a k e r s o f E n g lish in 2 0 0 3 - 0 4 a s p a r t o f a re s e a rc h

Theory, D ata and A n alysis

p ro je c t in N e w Z e a la n d . T h e p a r t ic i p a n ts in th e e x p e r i m e n t w e r e c o u n t e d as
h a v in g m a d e a m is ta k e i f th e y u s e d t h a t c o n s t r u c ti o n . P a r tic ip a n ts w h o 'm a d e
a m is ta k e m ig h t in f e r t h a t m a n y n a tiv e s p e a k e r s a lso m a d e t h a t m is ta k e o r
w o u ld b e left p u z z li n g o v e r w h y th e y c o u ld n o t u s e in t h e E S O L c la s s ro o m
a c o n s t r u c ti o n th a t th e y re g u la r ly h e a r d a n d saw . A n d th e re s u lts o t t h e e x p e r i
m e n t a n d t h e i r in t e r p r e ta ti o n w o u ld n o t b e o f t h e m o s t re lia b le .

Data and analysis

TH clefts w ithout w h w ords
T h e c o lle c tio n o f g o o d s p o k e n d a ta v ia g o o d r e c o r d in g s a n d re lia b le tr a n s c r i p
tio n s is th e firs t s te p in a n a ly s in g t h e s y n ta x o f s p o n t a n e o u s sp e e c h . T h e s e c
o n d s te p , a c tu a lly a n a ly s in g t h e s y n ta x , is b e s e t w i t h tr a p s . In th is s e c tio n , w e
c o n s id e r th r e e s e ts o f tric k y ' c o n s t r u c ti o n s t h a t o c c u r re g u la rly , e v e n fr e q u e n tly ,
in s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e : T I I c le fts, e x c e p t c la u s e s a n d r e p o r te d sp e e c h .
T o a rr iv e a t a n a n a ly s is b a s e d o n e v id e n c e , it is e s s e n tia l to k n o w th e s y n ta x o f
s p o n ta n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lish in d e ta il a n d to b e a b le t o a p p ly t h e re c o g n iz e d
c rite r ia for, in th e s e c o n d c a s e , s u b o r d i n a t e c la u s e s . E v en a n a n a ly s is p r o d u c e d
u n d e r th e s e c o n d it io n s m a y n o t b e r o c k s o lid . C o n s id e r th e fo llo w in g e x c e rp t
fro m a d ia lo g u e in C a r te r a n d M c C a r th y (1 9 9 7 , p . 7 3 ) . T h e la s t lin e c o n ta i n s a
c o n s t r u c ti o n t h a t w ill b e t r e a te d a s a T H c le ft. T h e T H c le fts s tu d ie d in th e
lite r a tu r e a r e o f th e f o r m T h a ts w h e re A n d r e w w orks, T h a t's w h y y o u sh o u ld
p h o n e h er a n d T h is is w h a t I m is ta lk in g a b o u t. (S e e C a lu d e 2 0 0 8 fo r a n o v e r
v ie w o f re c e n t w o rk o n T H c lefts.)
(1 4 )

A : Is 11 n o t e r n ic e a t a ll?
B : O h s o m e o f th e t h in g s a r e d e lic io u s y e s . B u t it's a l o n g w a y f r o m h e re
A : J u s t g o t to b e c a r e f u l w h a t y o u c h o o s e .
B:

. . . Y o u c a n t c h o o s e . H e ju s t c o o k s t h e m a m e a l. If t h e y r in g u p a n d say
t h e y 'r e g o i n g , h e s e r v e s a m e a l.

A : W h e r e is it t h e n ?
B:

B a tte r s e a .

A : Is t h a t S a l l y l i v e s t h e r e o r s o m e t h i n g ?

C o m m e n t i n g o n t h e la s t lin e . C a r te r a n d M c C a r th y (1 9 9 7 , p . 7 6 ) s t a te th a t
th e c h u n k Is th a t S a lly lives th e r e o r s o m e th in g ! is a c o m b i n a ti o n o f th r e e q u e s
tio n s: (a ) Is t h a t ( w h e re S a lly liv e s)7. - a false s t a r t ; (b ) D o es S a lly liv e there? - n o t
fully fo r m e d a s a r e s u lt o f th e p r e v io u s false s t a r t; (c ) Is ( it) S a lly ( w h o ) lives
th e r i C a r te r a n d M c C a rth y s a n a ly s is is m is ta k e n . N o te first t h a t th e y say

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

n o th i n g a b o u t t h e i n t o n a t i o n a n d r h y t h m . A re th e r e h e s ita tio n s ? H o w d o th e y
k n o w t h e s p e a k e r m a k e s a fa lse s t a r t? W h a t d o th e y m e a n b y t h e i r r e m a r k th a t
(b ) is n o t f u lly fo rm e d ? W h a t e v id e n c e d o th e y h a v e t h a t th e y c s - n o q u e s tio n
is in th e s p e a k e rs m i n d , g iv e n t h a t lives a g re e s in p e r s o n a n d n u m b e r w ith
S a lly a n d t h a t th e u tt e r a n c e c o n ta i n s n o t h i n g c o r r e s p o n d in g to d o e s o r a p a r t
c f does'*.
Is th a t S a lly lives th e re o r so m e th in g ? is a r e g u la r c o n s t r u c ti o n o f s p o k e n
E n g lish . T h a t c o n tr a s ts w ith it, a s illu s tr a te d in (1 5 ) f r o m S w a n (2 0 0 5 ,
Fp. 5 8 4 -8 5 ).
(1 5 )

a.

S o s h e d e c id e d t o p a in t h e r h o u s e p in k . It u p s e t t h e n e ig h b o u r s a b it

S o s h e d e c id e d to p a in t h e r h o u s e p i n k

T h a t u p s e t t h e n e ig h b o u r s

a b it

S w a n c o m m e n ts th a t th a t is m o r e e m p h a t ic t h a n if, n o t s u r p r is in g g iv e n
t i a t it is a d e ic tic f o r p o in t in g a t e n titie s d is ta n t f r o m th e sp e a k e r. It is u s e d to
h ig h lig h t s i t u a t i o n s c o n v e y e d b y a N P p lu s a p a r tic ip le , a s in ( 1 6 )( 1 8 ). W i t h a
p a s t p a r tic ip le , th a t p o i n t s a t th e r e s u lt o l s o m e a c tio n o r p ro c e s s. (S e e th e
d is c u s s io n o f P e rfe c t a n d R e s u lla iiv e s in C h a p t e r 6.)
(1 6 )

A t h a t l it sta rte d n o w ?
B

t h a t l s it t h a t 1 s it g o i n g
M ille r - B r o w n C o r p u s , c o n v e r s a t io n 71

(1 7 )

T h a t 's d i n n e r s o r t e d .
T V a d v e r t is e m e n t , IT V , a u t u m n 2 0 0 9

(1 8 )

S 1 A -0 1 5 (B ):6

Y e a h w h a t w e t h o u g h t w e 'd d o is O x f o r d e n d s o n I t h in k
t h e t e n t h a n d u rn E d in b u r g h u s u a lly s t a r t s a b o u t t w o d a y s
a f t e r O x f o r d s o w h a t I t h o u g h t w e 'd d o is t r a v e l u p a n d
s e e if m a y b e s t a y m a y b e i n o n e p l a c e o n t h e w a y u p to
E d in b u r g h a n d t h e n t a k e a b o u t t h r e e d a y s t o c o m e b a c k
a n d lo o k a t a c o u p le o f p la c e s

S 1 A -0 1 5 (A ) 12

Is t h a t by train

S 1 A -0 1 5 (B ): 1B

N o bus
M a c q u a r ie C o r p u s , A u s t r a lia n IC E ,

S I A p r iv a t e d ia lo g u e , c o n v e r s a t io n 15

Is th a t b y tr a in is a n e m b r y o c le ft, e q u iv a le n t to Is th a t b y tr a in th a t y o u re
g o in g to E d in b u rg h , w ith t h e c lc ft h ig h lig h tin g tr a in s a s o p p o s e d to c a r s , b u se s
a n d p la n e s o r e v e n b ik e s . (1 9 ) c o n ta in s a fu ll c le ft w ith th a t.

Theory, D ata and A n alysis

(1 9 )

S 1 A -0 2 0 (B ).1 4 6

N o I'm n o t t h e o n e th a t 's d e p r iv in g y o u

S 1 A -0 2 0 (B ):1 4 7

X is t h e o n e t h a t 's d e p r iv in g y o u

S 1 A -0 2 0 (A );1 4 9

S h e 's n o t d e p r iv in g m e o f a n y t h in g

S 1A - 0 2 0 ( B ) . 1 5 0

W e ll s o y o u 're g e t t in g it m o r e t h a n a* o n c e o r t w e e a w e e k

S 1 A -0 2 0 C A ) . 1 5 2

O h n o n o ever

S I A -0 2 0 (B ):1 5 4

Ever

S 1A -0 2 0 A ): 1 5 5

Y e a h P r o b le m o t t im in g t h is w e e k

S 1 A -0 2 0 (B ): 1 5 6

O h r ig h t w a s t h a t o n l y l a s t w e e k t h a t s h e c a m e o v e r
fo r d in n e r
M a c q u a r ie C o r p u s . A u s t r a lia n I C E ,
5 1 p r iv a t e d i a lo g u e , c o n v e r s a t io n 2 0

T h e in te r r o g a tiv e cle ft w a s th a t o n ly la s t w ee k t h a t sh e c a m e o v e r f o r d in n e r
is re la te d to t h e d e c la r a tiv e c le ft th a t ivns o n ly la s t w e e k t h a t sh e c a m e o ve r
f i r d in n e r . T h e a n n e x c la u s e , to u s e Q u i r k e t al.s te r m ( Q u ir k e t a l., 1985,
p p . 1 3 8 6 - 7 ) , h a s t h e c o m p l e m e n t iz e r th a t: th a t s h e c a m e o v e r f o r d in n e r . In
c o n tr a s t, t h e th a t c le ft in (2 0 ) h a s a n a n n e x c la u s e w i t h n o c o m p le m e n tiz e r .
(2 0 )

S 1 A -0 8 4 (A ):1 5 I

S t a r t a t t h e b e g in n in g H e r h e r f ir s t h u s b a n d W h o 's X 's

S 1 A -0 8 4 (A ):1 5 4

H e w a s r e a lly u rn r e a lly t ig h t

S 1 A -0 8 4 (B ):I5 5

O h n g h t ie o h

f a t h e r w a s a b it o f a b a s t a r d re a lly

S1 A -0 8 4 (8 ) 15 6

Is t h a t t h e o n e w h o d ie d o r d id h e r h u s b a n d die

S 1 A - 0 8 4 ( A )'1 5 7

Yeah

S1 A -0 8 4 (A ):1 5 8

N o W e il t h a t w a s b o t h o f t h e m d i e d
M a c q u a r ie C o r p u s . A u s t r a lia n I C E ,
S I A p r iv a t e d i a lo g u e , c o n v e r s a t io n 8 4

T h e c h u n k th a t w a s b o th o f th e m d ie d is e q u iv a le n t to I t w a s b o th o f th e m w ho
d ied, w h ic h in th e c o n te x t is to b e in t e r p r e te d a s It w a s n 't t h e c a s e t h a t o n e
h u s b a n d le ft h e r a n d th e o t h e r o n e d ie d - t h e y b o t h d ie d . (C f. T h a t w a s both
c f th e m t h a t d ie d .) G o in g b a c k to C a r te r a n d M c C a rth y s d ia lo g u e , w e c a n n o w
in te r p r e t Is th a t S a lly liv e s th e r e o r s o m e t h i n g a s th e in te r r o g a tiv e o f th a t is
S a lly lives there. T h e re la tiv e c la u s e lives th e re la c k s a re la tiv iz e r, b u t th is is
ty p ic a l o l s p o k e n E n g lish . T h e r e is n o n e e d to a p p e a l to a ta ls e s t a r t a n d a
n i x i n g - u p o f th r e e s tru c tu r e s .

Except clauses: main or subordinate?

T h e s a m e d ia lo g u e c o n ta i n s a n o t h e r s e q u e n c e o l w o r d s w h o s e s y n ta c tic s ta tu s
is n o t s t r a ig h tf o r w a r d . It is in ( 2 1 ).

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

(2 1 )

I s u p p o s e it's a lo n g w a y t o g o f o i d in n e r t h o u g h is n 't it?

B . It is o n a w e e k d w e e k n i g h l
A : E x c e p t h e t a n g o s tr a ig h t fro m w o rk

C a r te r a n d M c C a rth y

1 9 9 7 , p . 7 6 ) t r e a t lix c e p t h e c a n g o s tr a ig h t fr o m w o rk

as a s u b o r d in a te c la u s e s t a n d in g o n i t s o w n b u t d o n o t e x p la in w h y th e y
c o n s id e r it s u b o r d in a te . A t th is p o in t , w e m a k e a n o tic e a b le d e t o u r t o lo o k a t
t i e s y n ta c tic p r o p e r tie s o f s u b o r d in a te c la u s e s a n d t h e n a t th e i r d is c o u rs e
p r o p e r tie s . T h e o u tc o m e o f th e e x a m i n a ti o n w ill b e t h a t E x c e p t h e c a n g o
s tra ig h t fr o m w o rk is to b e a n a ly s e d a s a m a in c la u s e . T h e fin ite s u b o r d in a te
d a u s e s in a g iv e n s e n te n c e a r e to s o m e e x te n t g r a m m a tic a lly in d e p e n d e n t o f
t i e m a in c la u s e ; th e m a in c la u s e d o e s n o t c o n tr o l th e c h o ic e o l v e r b a n d o th e r
c o n s titu e n ts n o r t h e c h o ic e o f p a r t ic i p a n t ro le s , te n s e , a s p e c t a n d m o d a l v erb s.
(T h e c h o ic e s m u s t m a k e s e m a n ti c s e n s e , b u t t h a t is a d if f e r e n t q u e s tio n .)
C o m p a r e th e v a r i a n ts o l t h e c o m p l e m e n t c la u s e in (2 2 ).
(2 2 )

W e h e a r d t h a t t h e ir t e a m w ill w i n t h e le a g u e / is w i n n in g t h e le a g u e / h a s w o n
t h e le a g u e / m ig h t w i n t h e le a g u e / m u s t h a v e w o n t h e le a g u e / h a o b e e n
b e a t e n in t h e fin a l^ w a s d e m o r a liz e d

I n (2 2 ), th e la s t c o m p l e m e n t c la u s e is a c o p u la c o n s t r u c ti o n , t h e p e n u lt i
m a te o n e is p a ss iv e a n d t h e re s t a r e a c tiv e , b u t w ith d if fe re n t te n s e s a n d
a s p e c ts . N o n e o l th is d e p e n d s o n t h e m a in c la u s e . S u b o r d in a te c la u s e s a re
h o w e v e r s u b je c t to a n u m b e r o f c o n s t r a in t s th a t d o n o t a p p ly to m a i n c la u se s.
F o r in s ta n c e , m a in c la u s e s c a n b e d e c la ra tiv e , in te r r o g a tiv e o r im p e r a tiv e , as
s h o w n in (2 3 ).
(2 3 )

a.

T h e s e c r e t a r y s e n t a n e - m a il t o m y c o lle a g u e

D i d t h e s e c r e t a r y s e n t a n e - m a il to m y c o lle a g u e ?

S e n d a n e - m a il to m y c o lle a g u e !

R elativ e c la u s e s , a d v e rb ia l c la u s e s a n d m o s t ty p e s o f c o m p l e m e n t c la u s e
m u s t h a v e d e c la ra tiv e s y n ta x , a s s h o w n in (2 4 ).
(2 4 )

a.

* B e c a u s e d i d t h e s e c r e t a r y s e n d t h a t e - m a i l , m y c o ll e a g u e r e s ig n e d .
IB e c a u s e t h e s e c r e t a r y s e n t

.)

' T h e e - m a il w h i c h d i d t h e s e c r e t a r y s e n d w a s v e r y ab ra sn /e . |.

w h ic h t h e s e c r e t a r y s e n t . . ,|
c.

" I f e a r e d t h a t w o u l d t h e s e c r e t a r y s e n d t h e e - m a i l . (I f e a r e d t h a t th e
s e c r e t a r y w o u l d s e n d t h e e - m a il 1

Theory, D ata and A n alysis

O n e ty p e o f c o m p l e m e n t c la u s e is th e in d ir e c t q u e s t io n . T h e classic
in d ire c t y e s - n o q u e s t io n s o f w r it te n E n g lis h h a v e t h e w o r d o r d e r o f d e c la r a
tive c la u s e s - W e a sk e d i f th e se cre ta ry h a d s e n t th e e -w a il. I n m o r e fo rm a l
te x ts / / c a n b e r e p la c e d b y w h e th e r, a n d th e s u b o r d in a te c la u s e b e c o m e s p a rtly
in te rro g a tiv e in its w o rd o r d e r , h a v in g a w h w o r d a t th e I r o n t. T h e c la ssic in d i
re c t w h q u e s t io n s a lso h a v e d e c la r a tiv e w o r d o r d e r a p a r t f r o m t h e w h w o r d a t
th e f r o n t: W e a s k e d w h o h a d s e n t th e e -m a il. <1 >(8 ) a r e e x a m p le s o f in d ire c t
c u c s t io n s f r o m m o d e r n s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lis h a n d c e r t a in w r it te n tex t
ty p e s. T h e y h a v e t h e w o r d o r d e r o f in te rro g a tiv e c la u s e s . T h is ra ise s th e q u e s
tio n o f h o w s u b o r d in a te th e s e c la u s e s a r e , b u t o u r c o n c e r n h e r e is s im p ly to
sig n a l t h a t c o n s t r u c ti o n a s a n e x c e p tio n to th e r u le t h a t s u b o r d in a te c la u s e s
have d e c la ra tiv e w o r d o rd e r.
S u b o r d i n a te c la u s e s a r e lim ite d in o t h e r re s p e c ts a n d e x c lu d e c e r ta in
c o n s tr u c tio n s . C o n s id e r (2 5 ).
P re p o s itio n a l p h r a s e f r o n tin g

(2 5 )

a.

I n t o t h e r o o m c a m e t h e s e c r e t a r y ( C f . T h e s e c r e t a r y c a m e in to
th e ro o m 1

b . S h e s a t h a t i n t o t h e r o o m c a m e t h e s e c r e ta r y
c

* T h e p e r s o n w h o In to t h e r o o m c a m e w a s t h e s e c re ta ry .

d.

'B e c a u s e i n t o t h e r o o m c a m e t h e s e c re ta ry , e v e r y o n e s t o p p e d t a lk in g .

e.

' W h e n i n t o t h e r o o m c a m e t h e s e c r e ta r y , e v e r y o n e s t o p p e d t a lk in g

T h e c o n s t r u c ti o n h a s a p r e p o s itio n a l p h r a s e in firs t p o s i ti o n fo llo w e d b y

th e m a i n v e r b fo llo w e d b y t h e s u b je c t N P . It c a n o c c u r in d e c la r a tiv e m a in
c la u s e s a s in ( 2 5 a ) , c o m p l e m e n t c la u s e s a s in (2 5 b ) , b u t n o t in re la tiv e c la u s e s
a s in (2 5 c ) n o r in a d v e rb ia l c la u s e s a s in (2 5 d ,e ).

N e g a t iv e f r o n t in g
(2 6 )

a.

N e v e r h a d h e b e e n s o o ffe n d e d . (H e h a d n e v e r b e e n s o o ffe n d e d )

b . T h e y r e a p e d t h a t n e v e r h a d h e b e e n s o o ff e n d e d .
c

T h e p e r s o n w h o n e v e r h a d b e e n s o o ff e n d e d w a s S ir T h o m a s ,

d.

B e c a u s e n e v e r h a d S ir I h o m a s b e e n s o o f f e n d e d , e v e n M r Y a le s le ft.

In (2 6 a ), n e v e r is a t th e f r o n t o f t h e c la u s e , f o llo w e d b y t h e fin ite v e r b h a d

a n d t h e s u b je c t N P h e. T h e c o n s t r u c ti o n is a c c e p ta b le in m a i n c la u s e s a s in
(2 6 a ) a n d c o m p le m e n t c la u s e s a s in (2 6 b ) , b u t n o t in re la tiv e c la u s e s as
in ( 2 6 c ) n o r a d v e rb ia l c la u s e s a s in <2 6 d ) .

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

T a g Q u e s t io n s
(2 7 )

a . T h e C h a i r m a n h a b it u a lly a l e lo o m u c h r ic h f o o d , d i d n ' t h e ?
b.

* W e r e a liz e d t h a t t h e C h a ir m a n h a b it u a lly a t e t o o m u c h r ic h f o o d ,
d id n 't h e ?

c.

T h e p e r s o n w h o a t e t o o m u c h f o o d d i d n ' t h e .v a s th e C h a ir m a n .

d.

" B e c a u s e t h e C h a ir m a n a t e t o o m u c h f o o d d i d n ' t h e . h e w a s d a n g e r o u s ly
o b ese

T h e s t r u c t u r e in ( 2 7 a ) c o n s is ts o f a d e c la ra tiv e c la u s e . W e re a lize d th a t th e
C h a ir m a n h a b itu a lly a te to o m u c h rich fo o d , w ith a q u e s tio n ta g g e d o n a t th e
e n d , d id n 't he? T a g q u e s tio n s d o n o t o c c u r in a n y t y p e o l s u b o r d in a te c la u se .
N o te th a t in a n e x a m p le s u c h a s E d m u n d k n e w t h a t th e C h a ir m a n w a s d a n g e r
o u sly obese, d id n 't h e? t h e ta g q u e s tio n re la te s t o p a r t o f t h e m a in c la u se ,
E d m u n d k n e w , a n d n o t to w a s d a n g e ro u s ly obese. N o te a ls o t h a t t h e e x a m p le s
in (2 7 ) a r e t o b e ta k e n a s w r itte n la n g u a g e a n d t h a t s p o k e n u tte r a n c e s m u s t b e
s u p p o s e d to c a r r y a s in g le i n t o n a t i o n p a tt e r n a n d to h a v e n o b re a k s . T h e la tte r
s tip u l a ti o n is n e c e s s a ry b e c a u s e s p e a k e r s d o p r o d u c e u tt e r a n c e s s u c h a s because
t e w a s d a n g e ro u sly o b ese o r beca u se h e a te to o m u c h fo o d , b r e a k o ff th e u t t e r
a n c e , a s k t h e ta g q u e s t io n is n 't h e o r d id n 't h e a n d th e n , h a v in g re c e iv e d a n
a n sw e r, g o b a c k to th e m a i n c la u s e . T h a t ty p e o f in t e r r u p t e d s y n ta x is n o t r e l
e v a n t fo r p r e s e n t p u rp o s e s .
T h e d a ta in (2 3 )(2 7 ) su g g e s t t h a t th e r e is a h ie r a r c h y o f s u b o r d in a ti o n .
C o m p le m e n t c la u s e s a r e t h e le a st s u b o r d in a te a n d a llo w P r e p o s itio n F ro n tin g ,
N e g a tiv e F r o n t in g a n d , d e p e n d in g o n th e h e a d v e r b , in te r r o g a tiv e s t r u c tu r e s .
R elative c la u s e s a n d a d v e rb ia l c la u s e s a r e m o s t s u b o r d in a te . T h e y e x c lu d e all
t.ic c o n s t r u c ti o n s in (2 3 ) ( 2 7 ) , to g e t h e r w ith in te r r o g a tiv e a n d im p e ra tiv e
s tru c tu r e s .
T h e e x te n t to w h ic h a d v e rb ia l c la u s e s a r e s u b o r d in a te is a ffe c te d b y th e i r
ty p e a n d b y th e i r p o s i ti o n in s e n te n c e s . A s (2 8 ) s h o w s , a d v e rb ia l c la u s e s
c f r e a s o n c a n p re c e d e o r fo llo w t h e m a in c la u s e . W h e n th e y p re c e d e th e
m a in c la u s e , th e y e x c lu d e n e g a tiv e f r o n tin g a n d p r e p o s itio n f r o n tin g b u t n o t
w h e n th e y fo llo w it. T h is s u g g e s ts t h a t in t h e f o r m e r p o s i ti o n t h e y a r e m o r e
s u b o r d in a te .
(2 8 )

a.

E v e r y o n e s t o p p e d t a lk in g b e c a u s e in c a m e t h e s e c r e ta r y

B e c a u s e in c a m e t h e s e c r e t a r y e v e r y o n e s t o p p e d t a lk in g

A d v e rb ia l c la u s e s o f c o n c e s s io n d o n o t b e h a v e th e s a m e w ay : c o m p a r e
'A lth o u g h in c a m e th e secretary, e v e r y o n e c o n tin u e d ta lk in g a n d 'E v e r y o n e

Theory, D ata and A n alysis

c o n tin u a i ta lk in g a lth o u g h in c a m e th e se creta ry. A d v e rb ia l c la u s e s o f lim e
in t r o d u c e d b y w h e n p r e s e n t a d if f e r e n t p r o b le m , a s s h o w n b y (2 9 ) a n d (3 0 ).
(2 9 >

(3 0 )

a.

" W h e n in t o t h e r o o m c a m e th e s e c r e ta r y e v e r y o n e w a s t a lk in g ,

b.

E v e r y o n e w a s t a lk in g w h e n in t o th e r o o m c a m e th e s e cre ta ry .

a.

W h e n in t o t h e r o o m c a m e t h e se cre ta ry , e v e r y o n e h a d ju s t s to p p e d

b.

E v e r y o n e h a d j u s t s t o p p e d t a lk in g w h e n

ta lk in g .
in t o t h e r o o m

cam e

the

s e c re ta ry .

It h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d t h a t s e q u e n c e s o t m a in c la u s e + a d v e rb ia l c la u s e o f
re a s o n o r a d v e rb ia l c la u s e o f tim e ( w h e n ) c o m e c lo s e to b e in g c o n jo in e d
c la u s e s , t h a t is, c la u s e s o f e q u a l s ta tu s . T h i s p ro p o s a l s e e m s o n th e r i g h t lin es,
p a r tic u la r ly w h e n , a s in th e (b ) e x a m p le s , w h e n c a n b e re p la c e d b y a n il th en ,
th a t is, b y a n e x p re s s io n t h a t o v e rtly c o n jo in s t h e tw o c la u s e s a n d fits w ith th e
r o t i o n o t m a in c la u s e + a d v e rb ia l c la u s e a s tw o c o n jo i n e d c la u se s.
W e c a n n o w r e t u r n t o t h e d ia l o g u e in ( 2 1 ) , r e p e a te d b e lo w a s (3 1 ).
(3 1 )

A . I s u p p o s it's ii l o n g w a y t o g o f o r

d in n e r

t h o u g h i s n ' t i t?

B : I t is o n a w e e k d w e e k n ig h t
A : E jic c p t h e c a n g o s t r a ig h t f r o m w o r k .

T o a p p ly th e a b o v e c r ite r ia fo r s u b o r d in a te c la u s e s w e a d a p t t h e la s t lin e
to (32).
(3 2 )

It w o u l d b e t o o f a r f o r a w e e k n i g h t e x c e p t h e c a n g o s t r a ig h t f r o m w o r k

In ( 3 1 ) , t h e e xc e p t c la u s e e x c lu d e s im p e ra tiv e c o n s t r u c ti o n s , a s s h o w n
b y (3 3 ).
(3 3 )

* lt w o u l d b e t o o f a r l o r y o u o n a w e e k n i g h t e x c e p t g o s t r a ig h t f r o m w o r k .

W h e t h e r e x c e p t c la u s e s e x c lu d e in te r r o g a tiv e c la u s e s is n o t c le a r. (3 4 )
s o u n d s a c c e p ta b le i f th e r e is a lo n g p a u s e b e tw e e n e x c e p t a n d t h e fo llo w in g
clau se.
(3 4 )

It w o u ld b e t o o fa r f o r a w e e k n i g h t e x c e p t c a n h e g o

s t r a ig h t f r o m

w o rk?

E x c e p t c la u s e s d o a llo w P re p o s itio n a l P h r a s e F r o n t in g a n d N e g a tiv e F r o n t

in g , b u t n o t T a g Q u e s tio n s . T h is is s h o w n in ( 3 5 a - c ) , d e v is e d fo r th e p u r p o s e

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

c f d e m o n s tr a t io n . (3 5 c ) is a c c e p ta b le o n l y i f th e ta g is a d d r e s s e d to s o m e o n e
d s e a n d t h e s p e a k e r is a p p e a lin g to th a t t h i r d p e r s o n f o r c o n f ir m a tio n .
(3 5 )

a.

I w o u ld h a v e e n jo y e d t h e t rip e x c e p t in t o t h e c a r n a g e c a m e a c r o w d o*

I m ig h t h a v e b o u g h t t h e h o u s e e x c e p t n e v e r h a v e I s e e n s u c h a n e g le c t e d

n o is y r u g b y fa n s

b u ild in g
c

W e h a d a g o o d t im e , e x c e p t t w o b o y s g o t lo st in t h e p a r k , d id n 't t h e y

W h a t t h e e x a m p le s g iv e n in <35) s h o w is t h a t e x c e p t c la u s e s fo llo w in g a
m a in c la u s e a r e n o t e v e n s e m i- s u b o r d in a te , s in c e th e y m e e t m a n y o f th e
c rite r ia f o r m a i n c la u s e s . W h a t a b o u t t h e e x c e p t c la u s e in t h e d ia lo g u e in ( 3 1 ),
w h ic h w a s a b a n d o n e d to a p p ly t h e c r ite r ia t o r s u b o r d in a ti o n to m o r e a m e n a
b le ex a m p le s?
(3 1 )

I s u p p o s e it's a lo n g w a y t o g o t o r d in n e r t h o u g h is n 't it?

B : It is o n a w e e k d w e e k n ig h t
A E x c e p t h e c a n g o s t r a ig h t f r o m w o r k

T h e a b o v e e x c e p t c la u s e b e h a v e s d if f e r e n tly Ti is o n its o w n , n o t i m m e d i
a te ly p r e c e d e d b y a m a i n c la u s e in th e s a m e tu r n . It a llo w s in te rro g a tiv e
c o n s tr u c tio n s , ta g q u e s t io n , p r e p o s iti o n f r o n tin g a n d n e g a tiv e f r o n tin g , as
s h o w n b y (3 6 ) a n d (3 7 ).
(3 6 )

I s u p p o s e it's a lo n g w a y t o g o f o r d in n e r t h o u g h is n 't it?

B : It is o n a w e e k d w e e k n ig h t
A . E x c e p t w h o w o u l d w a n t t o tra v e l in th e r u s h h o u r ?
A , E x c e p t n o w h e ie c a n y o u fin d b e tte r h a g g i s (n e g a t iv e fr o n tin g ).

(3 7 )

I s u p p o s e it's a lo n g w a y t o g o f o r d in n e r t h o u g h is n 't it?

E x c e p t h e lik e s d r iv in g in L o n d o n , d o e s n 't h e ?

G iv e n th e d a ta (r e g re tta b ly , d e v is e d b y JM l o r t h e p u r p o s e ,s o l u r t h e r e x p lo
ra tio n is r e q u i r e d ) , it lo o k s a s t h o u g h th e e x c e p t c la u s e in (2 1 /3 1 ) is a m a in
d a u s e a n d t h a t e x c e p t is n o t a s u b o r d in a ti n g c o n ju n c t io n , b u t a d is c o u rs e
p a rtic le r o u g h ly w ith th e fo r c e Y our e n o t e n tir e ly w r o n g b u t th e r e s a n o th e r
fact t h a t w o r k s a g a in s t y o u r a s s e rtio n .'

Indirect questions and anacoluthon

M a tth e w s (2 0 0 7 , p . 17) d e f in e s a n a c o lu th o n a s 'a s e n te n c e w h ic h s w itc h e s f r o m
c n e c o n s t r u c ti o n to a n o th e r ', a s in (3 8 ).

Theory, D ata and Analysis

(3 8 )

H e t o ld m e t h a t h e w a s d e s p e r a t e a n d c o u l d I p le a s e h e lp .

T h e c la u s e c o u ld I p le a s e h e lp d o e s n o t c o n s t r u e w ith th e c o m p le m e n tiz e r
th a t in H e to ld m e t h a t . . . M a tth e w s ' r e m a r k s a p p ly to t h e c la s sic c o n s tr u c tio n
o f in d ir e c t o r r e p o r te d s p e e c h ty p ic a l o f f o r m a l w r it te n E n g lish , b u t th e
e x a m p le is ty p ic a l o f s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lis h . T h e c la s sic in d ir e c t s p e e c h
c o n s tr u c tio n w o u ld b e a s in {3 9 ).
(3 9 )

H e to ld m e t h a t h e w a s d e s p e r a t e a n d a s k e d i* I c o u l d h e lp

T h e k e y p r o p e r tie s o f in d ir e c t s p e e c h a r e th e s e . I n s ta n c e s o f s o m e o n e s
d ir e c t s p e e c h o r th e c o n te n t s o f a w r it te n o r s p o k e n m e s sa g e - s t a te m e n t, q u e s
tio n o r c o m m a n d - a r e r e p o r te d b y m e a n s o f c o n s t r u c ti o n c o n ta i n in g a v e rb
o f s a y in g o r a s k in g fo llo w e d b y a c o m p le m e n t c la u s e : H e sa id t h a t h e w as
desperate a n d H e a s k e d i f h e c o id d h elp . A d ir e c t s ta te m e n t k e e p s its w o rd o rd e r,
b u t c h a n g e s t h e te n s e o f t h e v e r b f r o m p r e s e n t to p a s t a n d th e p e r s o n o f p r o
n o u n s f r o m firs t o r s e c o n d to th ir d : I a m d e sp e ra te b e c o m e s H e w a s desperate.
A d ir e c t q u e s tio n a c q u ir e s th e w o r d o r d e r o f d e c la ra tiv e c la u s e s a n d m a y also
a c q u ire a c o m p le m e n tiz e r th a t w a s n o t in th e o r ig in a l q u e s tio n : C a n y o u h elp
b e c o m e s i f I c o u ld help.
T h e in d ire c t s p e e c h c o n s t r u c ti o n s a r e r e q u ir e d in f o r m a l w r it te n E n g lish ,
b u t m a n y u s e r s h a v e d if fic u lty m e e tin g th e r e q u ir e m e n t. O n e re a s o n f o r th is
is th a t t h e c la ssic in d ir e c t s p e e c h c o n s t r u c ti o n s o c c u r v e ry in f r e q u e n tly in
s p o n ta n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lish . (4 0 ) is a n e x a m p le o f t h e c la ssic c o n s tr u c tio n .
T n e s p e a k e r is a w o m a n in h e r m id - tw e n tie s .
(4 0 )

h e s a id t h a t t h e y d id n t e v e n s e n d w h it e p o lic e m e n d o w n th e r e a n d h e
w a s n t g o in g t o ta ke m e
M ille r B r o w n C o r p u s , c o n v e r s a t io n 2

In c o n tr a s t, (41 ) is a n e x a m p le o f th e ty p ic a l s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n c o n s t r u c
tio n in w h ic h th e s p e a k e r p u r p o r t s to r e p r o d u c e t h e o r ig in a l s p e a k e r s w o rd s
(s p o k e n o r w r itte n ) . T h is m e a n s t h a t th e v e r b d o c s n o t c h a n g e t o p a s t te n se
n o r t h e p r o n o u n s to t h i r d p e r s o n . M o re o v e r, t h e s p e a k e r ty p ic a lly c h a n g e s
p itc h a n d / o r v o ic e q u a lity to sig n a l w h e r e t h e r e p o r te d s p e e c h b e g in s a n d e n d s .
T n e s p e a k e r in (4 1 ) is a n 1 8 -y e a r-o ld sc h o o lg irl.
(4 1 )

B r e n d a p a s s e d t h e m e s s a g e o v e r t o m e w h e n I k ic k y o u k n o c k th e c u p in to
A n d r e w 's (a c e
M ille r - B r o v v n C o r p u s , c o n v e r s a t io n 12

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

S p e a k e rs p r o d u c e e x a m p le s o f a m ix e d c o n s t r u c ti o n in w h ic h th e y u se,
fo r e x a m p le , X s a id a n d / o r tr a n s p o s e firs t in to th i r d p e r s o n , b u t, th a t a p a rt,
p u r p o r t to r e p r o d u c e Xs e x a c t w o rd s . C f. (4 2 ).
(4 2 )

t h e y s a id if t h e y g e t u s t h e r e a g a i n t h e y 'r e g o i n g t o w r a p t h e a ir - r if le r o u n d
m y n eck
M ille r - B r o w n C o r p u s , c o n v e r s a t io n 8

M ille r a n d W e in c rt (2 0 0 9 ) e x a m in e d a s u b s e t o f 14 c o n v e rs a tio n s f r o m th e
M ille r-B ro w n C o r p u s fo r in s ta n c e s o f d ir e c t a n d in d ir e c t s p e e c h . T h e r e w e re
22 in s ta n c e s o f t h e d ir e c t s p e e c h c o n s t r u c ti o n e x e m p lif ie d in (41 ), 3 in s ta n c e s
c f th e in d ir e c t s p e e c h c o n s t r u c t i o n e x e m p lif ie d in (4 0 ), a n d 1 in s ta n c e o f
n e m ix e d c o n s t r u c t i o n e x e m p lif ie d in ( 4 2 ) . T h e in d ir e c t s p e e c h e x a m p le s
in c lu d e w e th o u g h t h e w a s g o in g a w a y , w h ic h c o u ld h a v e b e e n e x p re s s e d as
w e th o u g h t - h e s g o in g a w a y . T w o o f t h e t h r e e c la ssic in d ir e c t s p e e c h e x a m p le s
a re p r o d u c e d b y a n o ld e r sp e a k e r, t h e w o m a n in h e r m i d - tw e n tie s f r o m w h o se
n a r r a tiv e (4 0 ) c o m e s . (4 3 ) is a g o o d e x a m p le o f a m ix e d c o n s t r u c ti o n .
(4 3 )

t h e r e w a s t h is n o t e p i n n e d o n t h e c o m m o n r o o m n o t ic e b o a r d

a n d it w a s

a m r. c . tyo n h a d p h o n e d a n d w o u l d y o u p h o n e h im b a c k . .

T h e first c la u s e in th e n o te is in t r o d u c e d b y it w as, a n d th e te n s e is c h a n g e d
f r o m P e rfe c t o r S im p le P a st t o P a st P e rfe c t. T h e in d e f in ite a rtic le m ig h t h a v e
b e e n in t h e o r ig in a l o r m ig h t h a v e b e e n a d d e d : t h a t is, M r C L yo n (h a s ) p h o n e il
b e c o m e s a w r c l y o n h a d p h o n e d . T h e s e c o n d c la u s e in th e r e p o r te d m e s sa g e is
as it w a s in th e o r ig in a l: w o u ld y o u p h o n e h i m h a ck, a re q u e s t a d d r e s s e d to
t i e r e c ip ie n t o f th e n o te . The c la s sic in d ir e c t s p e e c h c o n s t r u c t i o n w o u ld be
th e m essage s a id t h a t a m r c ly o it h a d p h o n e d a n d a sk e d h e r i f s h e w o u ld p h o n e
h im hack.
C o n s id e r n o w M a tth e w s e x a m p le H e to ld m e th a t h e w a s d e sp e ra te a n d
could I p le a s e h elp . A n a c o lu th o n is n o t ju s t s w itc h in g f r o m o n e c o n s t r u c ti o n to
a n o th e r , b u t s w itc h in g in c o rre c tly . T h e e x a m p le w o u ld b e c o r r e c tly la b e lle d
A n a c o lu th o n i f th e s p e a k e r in t e n d e d to p r o d u c e tw o c o m p le m e n t c la u s e s , b u t
w as s i d e tr a c k e d in to a d ir e c t q u e s tio n . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i l t h e s p e a k e r w as
fo llo w in g t h e ty p ic a l p a t t e r n o f s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lish a s e x e m p lifie d
a b o v e , t h e in te r r o g a tiv e c la u s e d o e s n o t m o d if y to ld , b u t is a n in d e p e n d e n t
d a u s e c o n v e y in g t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n a n d w o rd s u s e d b y t h e o r ig in a l sp e a k e r,
a p a r t f r o m t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f I fo r y o u : p re s u m a b ly th e o r ig in a l u tte r a n c e
w o u ld b e C o u ld y o u p le a se help'. A s a n e x a m p le o f s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n
g u a g e , M a tth e w s e x a m p le is n o t a n a c o lu th o n .

Theory, D ata and A n alysis

Clause and sentence

C h e s h ir e (2 0 0 5 , p . 8 1 ) o b s e r v e s t h a t d ig ita l c o r p o r a o f tr a n s c r ib e d s p e e c h a re
re a d ily a v a ila b le , a n d a n a ly s ts h a v e n o e x c u s e fo r a v o id in g s p o n ta n e o u s
s p e e c h . S h e a ls o o b s e r v e s t h a t w e c a n n o t e a sily u n d e r s ta n d t h e n a tu r e o f s p o n
ta n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e in te r m s o f t h e s t a n d a r d lin g u is tic d e s c r ip to r s . To
th e s e r e m a r k s m u s t b e a d d e d a t h i r d p o i n t o t c ru c ia l im p o r ta n c e : a g iv e n
tr a n s c r i p ti o n r e p r e s e n ts th e p e r c e p t io n s a n d a n a ly s e s o f a g iv e n tr a n s c r i b e r o r
te a m o f tr a n s c r ib e r s a n d it is q u it e in s u ffic ie n t t o w o rk ju s t w ith t h e tr a n s c r i p
tio n . T h e o r ig in a l a u d io r e c o r d in g m u s t a lso b e lis te n e d to . T h is is w h y M ille r
a n d W e in e r t (2 0 0 9 ) w o r k e d w i t h t h e s m a ll c o r p u s e s c o n ta i n in g M a p T ask
c ia lo g u e s a n d th e M ille r - B r o w n c o n v e rs a tio n s : t h e o r ig in a l a u d io re c o rd in g s
w e re a v a ila b le a n d p o r t io n s h a d b e e n lis te n e d t o in d e p th a n d t h e i r sy n ta x
a n a ly se d .
O c h s (1 9 7 9 ) , v e r y e a rly in th e s t u d y o f s y n ta x a n d d is c o u rs e o r g a n iz a tio n o f
s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e , d r e w a tt e n ti o n to t h e fact t h a t tr a n s c r i p ti o n
b e c o m e s d a ta ; l.e e c h e t a l. (1 9 9 5 ) a d d t h a t n o w a d a y s b o t h t r a n s c r i p ti o n a n d
c o d in g b e c o m e d a ta . I t is v e ry c o n v e n ie n t to h a v e tr a n s c r i p ti o n s o f s p o n t a n e
o u s s p e e c h b u t a ls o d a n g e r o u s , fo r t h e s im p le re a s o n t h a t th e a n a ly s t is
p r is o n e r o l t h e tr a n s c r i b e r s (p o s s ib ly in c o r r e c t) d e c is io n s . T h is is w h y th e
M ille r - B r o w n C o r p u s o f s p o n t a n e o u s c o n v e r s a tio n w a s tr a n s c r ib e d

(in

1 9 7 7 -8 0 ) w ith o u t c a p ita l le tte r s , w i t h o u t p u n c t u a t i o n a n d w ith n o in d ic a tio n

c f le n g th s o f p a u s e s o r o f n o n - l in g u i s ti c n o is e s a n d p r e s u m a b ly w h y th e
W e llin g to n C o r p u s is s im ila r ly tr a n s c r ib e d .
I m p o r ta n tly , t h e c o r p u s e s a r e n o t ju s t tr a n s c r i p ti o n s , b u t tr a n s c r ip tio n s
to g e th e r w ith ta p e r e c o r d in g s . T h is is w h y , in s p ite o f d e ta ile d c o d in g o f lo n g
p a u s e s a n d n o n - lin g u is tic n o is e s s u c h a s g r u n t s , in - b r e a th s , la u g h s a n d s o o n ,
th e W e llin g to n C o r p u s o f S p o k e n N e w Z e a la n d E n g lish a n d th e M a c q u a r ie
C o r p u s o f A u s tr a lia n S p o k e n F .nglish a r e n o t e a s y to w o r k w ith . T h e a u t h o r
w as g iv e n r e c o r d in g s o l in d iv id u a l c o n v e rs a tio n s in t h e M a c q u a r ie C o r p u s
in c o n n e c t io n w ith P e te rs e t a l. (2 0 0 9 ) , t h e e d it o r s b e in g th e c o m p i le r s a n d
m a n a g e rs o f t h e c o r p u s , b u t to lis te n t o th e a u d io r e c o r d in g s o n w h ic h th e
N ew Z e a la n d C o r p u s is b a s e d , re s e a rc h e rs h a v e to tra v e l to W e llin g to n .
C ru c ia lly , th e m o r e i n f o r m a t io n in a tr a n s c r i p ti o n , t h e f u r t h e r a w a y u se rs
a re f r o m t h e o r ig in a l d a ta a n d th e m o r e th e y a r e h e m m e d in b y s o m e o n e elses
a n a ly s is. T h is p o i n t is u n d e r l in e d b y re c e n t m e th o d o lo g ic a l r e f le c tio n s o n th e
ro le o f p r o s o d y in c o n v e rs a tio n . In h e r re v ie w o f re s e a rc h o v e r t h e la st 15 y ears,
S e llin g (2 0 0 7 ) lists m a n y a s p e c ts lo r f u t u r e in v e s tig a tio n , i n c l u d in g th e u s e o l

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

p r o s o d y i n t h e s e g m e n ta t io n o f t u r n c o n s t r u c ti o n a l a n d o t h e r in t e r a c tio n a l
u n its , a s w ell a s its re le v a n c e fo r th e c a te g o r iz a tio n o f g r a m m a tic a l c o n s t r u c l.o n s . S e llin g (2 0 0 7 ) a n d G ille s ( 2 0 0 7 ) c o m m e n t t h a t th e y a n d o t h e r h ig h ly
e x p e rie n c e d a n a ly s ts h a v e q u e s t io n e d t h e a s p e c ts o f t h e G A T s y s te m d e s ig n e d
to m a r k p r o s o d y a n d u n its , a n d th e re lia b ility o f d e c is io n s b a s e d o n t h e sy s
te m . W h ile G A T r e p r e s e n te d a v a s t im p r o v e m e n t in t r a n s c r i p ti o n (e s p e c ia lly
G e r m a n ) a n d o ffe re d a re la tiv e ly u n o b tr u s iv e a n d c o n s is te n t s e t o f tr a n s c r i p I o n c o n v e n tio n s , th e n e x t g e n e r a t io n o l p u b lic s p o k e n c o r p u s e s w ill c o m e
v /ith tr a n s c r i p ti o n s a n d s o u n d a lig n e d . T h is w ill r e n d e r t h e c o r p u s e s m o r e
t r a n s p a r e n t , b y m a k in g v is ib le t h e th e o r y b e h in d t h e m e t h o d o lo g y a n d
e n a b lin g all u s e r s to m a k e u p th e i r o w n m i n d s a b o u t t h e b e s t a n a ly s is o f th e
o rig in a l d a ta . I n t h e m e a n tim e , c a u ti o n is r e q u i r e d w h e n u s in g s t a n d a r d iz e d
a n d a n n o t a t e d tr a n s c r i p ti o n s , w h a te v e r t h e m o d e l.
C h e s h ir e s r e m a r k o n t h e in a p p lic a b ility o f th e s t a n d a r d lin g u is tic d e s c r ip
to r s is p a r tic u la r ly a p t w ith re s p e c t t o 'se n te n c e '. M a n y a n a ly s ts w o r k in g o n
s p o n ta n e o u s s p e e c h h a v e a b a n d o n e d th e s e n te n c e a s a u n i t o f a n a ly s is , a m o v e
t i a t s e e m s to h a v e b e e n firs t p r o p o s e d , a t le a st fo r s p o k e n E n g lis h , b y C ry sta l
(1 9 7 6 ). W c r e v ie w t h e r e a s o n s l o r t h is b e lo w , b u t f irs t w e m u s t d is tin g u is h th e

tw o c o n c e p ts to w h ic h th e la b e l s e n te n c e is a tta c h e d . F o llo w in g L y o n s (1 9 7 7 a ,
p p . 2 9 - 3 1 ) , w e w o r k w ith te x t s e n te n c e s a n d sy s te m s e n te n c e s . S y ste m s e n
ten ces a r e a b s t r a c t , id e a liz e d u n it s o f lin g u is tic a n a ly s is t h a t d e r iv e h is to ric a lly
f 'o m th e w o r k b y G re e k a n d R o m a n p h ilo s o p h e r s o n la n g u a g e c o n c e iv e d a s a
sy s te m l o r e x p re s s in g p r o p o s iti o n s . T e x t s e n te n c e s a r e th e c h u n k s o f u tte ra n c e s
t h a t ty p ic a lly c o r r e s p o n d to s o m e k in d o f s y s te m s e n te n c e . T h e p r o b le m fo r
a n a ly s ts is th a t w h ile m a t u r e w r ite r s u s u a lly sig n a l w h e r e th e i r te x t s e n te n c e s
b e g in a n d e n d , in s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h n o t e v e n m a t u r e s p e a k e r s s ig n a l c o n s is
te n tly , o r e v e n a t a ll, w h e r e p u ta t iv e s e n te n c e s m ig h t b e g in a n d e n d . (A s w e w ill
see in C h a p t e r 12, ih is g a p b e tw e e n w r it in g a n d s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h p o se s
g ra v e p r o b l e m s fo r th e C h o m s k y a n th e o r y o f la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n .)
S e n te n c e s , th e n , a r e o u t b u t o t h e r d e s c r ip to r s s u c h a s w o r d , 'clause',
'h e a d a n d 'm o d i f ie r /d e p e n d e n t a r e a p p lic a b le t o s p o k e n la n g u a g e . I Iow ever,
o th e r p r o b l e m s a r e ly in g in w a it. A fte r th e d is c u s s io n o f s e n te n c e s b e lo w , w e
w ill se e t h a t th e a s s ig n m e n t o f s y n ta c tic s t r u c t u r e to s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h is
fa r f r o m s t r a ig h t f o r w a r d . In d e e d , w e h a v e a lr e a d y s e e n t h e p r o b le m s in c o n
f e c t i o n w i t h T H c le fts a n d e x c e p t c la u s e s . T o ta k e a n e x a m p le t h a t b e a rs o n
t i e a b a n d o n m e n t o l s e n te n c e s , th e c o re s o l c la u s e s c a n b e e s ta b lis h e d b y re c
o g n iz in g a v e rb a n d its c o m p le m e n ts , w h ile t h e p la c e m e n t o f a d ju n c t s is n o t
c b v io u s . S u p p o s e a s p e a k e r p r o d u c e s th e u tt e r a n c e th e g a ra g e is in B ro u g h to n

Theory, D ata and A n alysis

P lace L a n e . . . ju s t r o u n d th e c o rn e r fr o m B ro u g h to n Place. S u p p o s e t h e p h ra s e
j u s t r o u n d th e c o rn e r fr o m B ro u g h to n P lace is s e p a r a te d f r o m B ro u g h to n Place
L a n e b y a lo n g p a u s e , s o lo n g t h a t it h a s c le a rly b e e n a d d e d a s a n a f te r th o u g h t.
D o e s j u s t r o u n d th e c o rn e r f r o m B r o u g h to n P la c e b e lo n g in t h e c la u s e th e garage
is in B ro u g h to n P lace L ane? O r is it o u ts id e t h e c la u s e , a lt h o u g h m o d if y in g
garage?
T o h a n d le t h i s k in d o f d a ta , m a k i n g t h e fe w e s t a s s u m p tio n s a b o u t s t r u c
tu r e , w e n e e d to in v o k e th e n o t i o n o l r h c lo r ic a l re la tio n s h o ld in g a c ro s s
s e n te n c e a n d c la u s e b o u n d a r i e s . In th e a b o v e e x a m p le , t h e a f t e r t h o u g h t j u s t
ro u n d th e c o rn e r f r o m B ro u g h to n P lace is n o t a c o n s t it u e n t o l th e c la u s e , b u t is
c o n n e c te d w ith it b y th e in te r p r e ta tiv e m e c h a n is m s o f r h e to r ic a l re la tio n s
th e o r y a n d d is c o u r s e r e p r e s e n ta tio n th e o r y . A lo n g w ith o t h e r a n a ly s ts o f s p o n
ta n e o u s s p e e c h , w e re c o g n iz e t h a t c la u s e s m a y c o m b i n e in to c la u s e c o m p le x e s
in w h ic h t h e c la u s e s a r e in te r r e la te d , b u t t h i s is n o t a g o o d re a s o n fo r a s s u m in g
th a t s u c h g r o u p s o f c la u s e s a r e o r g a n iz e d in to s e n te n c e s . S e n te n c e s a r e u n its
o f w r it te n la n g u a g e a n d re fle c t ( m o r e o r le ss) c o n s c io u s d e c is io n s ta k e n by
w rite rs .
T h e e a r l i e r e x a m p l e a b o u t t h e g a r a g e i n B r o u g h t o n P l a c e L a n e is t y p i c a l o f ,

b u t a t t h e m o d e s t e n d o f, th e d a t a t h a t le d o t h e r le a d in g a n a ly s ts t o a sim ila r
v ie w o f s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e . In h e r c la s sic w o r k o n s p o k e n Ita lia n ,
S o rn ic o la (1 9 8 1 ) p r e s e n ts d a ta f r o m N e a p o lita n I ta lia n , d e m o n s tr a t in g th a t
s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e m a y h a v e a v e r y f r a g m e n t a r y s y n ta x . ( F o r a
sa m p le , se e M ille r a n d W e in e r t, 2 0 0 9 , p p . 5 8 - 9 .) S h e o p p o s e s a n y a p p r o a c h in
w h ic h s u c h f r a g m e n ta r y s y n ta x is a n a ly s e d in te r m s o f u n d e r ly in g in te g ra te d
c la u s e s a n d p h r a s e s d i s t o r t e d b y p e r f o r m a n c e e r r o r . S o rn ic o la su g g e s ts th a t
m a n y s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n u tte r a n c e s a r e to b e a n a ly s e d , n o t a s c o h e re n tly
o rg a n iz e d p ie c e s o f s y n ta x b u t a s r e s u ltin g f r o m th e ju x t a p o s i ti o n o f in f o r m a
tio n b lo c k s . (S u c h s e q u e n c e s o t i n f o r m a t io n b lo c k s c a n o n ly b e in t e r p r e te d b y
d is c o u rs e in t e r p r e ta ti o n m e c h a n is m s t h a t a r e d e s ig n e d to h a n d le s e p a r a te
c h u n k s o f s y n ta x , b e g in n i n g w ith s e p a r a te s e n te n c e s .) l.in e ll (1 9 8 8 , p . 5 4 ) re a f
firm s th e la c k o f c le a r - c u t s e n te n c e s in s p o k e n la n g u a g e a n d a d d s t h a t talk
c o n s is ts o f p h r a s e s a n d c la u s e s lo o s e ly r e la te d to e a c h o t h e r a n d c o m b in in g
in to s t r u c tu r e s less c le a r a n d h ie r a rc h ic a l t h a n th e s t r u c tu r e s d e a lt w ith in
g r a m m a r b o o k s . S im ila r p o in t s a r e m a d e in B ro w n e t a l. (1 9 8 4 , p . 1 6 - 1 8 ) , fo r
R u ssian in Z e m s k a ja (1 9 7 3 ) a n d f o r F re n c h in B la n c h e -B e n v e n is te (1 9 9 1 ).
(F o r a d e ta i le d d is c u s s io n , s e c M ille r a n d W e in e r t, 2 0 0 9 , p p . 2 2 - 7 1 .)
M ille r a n d W e in e rt (2 0 0 9 , p p . 2 8 - 7 1 ) p ro v id e a d e ta ile d a r g u m e n t fo r w h y
t i e s e n te n c e is in a p p r o p r ia te in th e a n a ly sis o f s p o k e n la n g u a g e . ( T h e y rec o g n ize

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

th a t t h e s e n te n c e is c e n tr a l to th e a n a ly s is o f w r it te n la n g u a g e .) W e s u m m a r iz e
t i e a r g u m e n t, a d d in g n e w p o i n t s a n d n e w d a ta . O n e a r g u m e n t re s ts o n th e
d iffic u lty o f r e c o g n iz in g s e n te n tia l b e g in n in g s a n d e n d in g s , s in c e th e y a r e n o t
sig n a lle d c o n s is te n tly b y p a u s e s a n d s in c e p a u s e s o c c u r in o t h e r p o s i ti o n s to o .
A n o th e r a r g u m e n t is b a s e d o n W a c k e rn a g e l-J o lle s ' ( 1 9 7 0 w o r k o n G e r m a n .
S h e d e m o n s tr a t e d th a t e v e n lis te n in g to te x ts u tte r e d b y s lo w a n d c a re fu l
sp e a k e rs, re g a rd le s s o f w h e th e r t h e te x t s w e re c o n v e rs a tio n o r th e re - te llin g
c l a w e ll- k n o w n ta le , s e n i o r u n iv e r s ity s t u d e n ts in G e r m a n y d is a g re e d a b o u t
h o w to d iv id e tr a n s c r i p ti o n s in to s e n te n c e s . ( T h e tr a n s c r i p ti o n s h a d n o p u n c
tu a t io n a n d n o d iv is io n s in to s e n te n c e s o r in d e e d c la u s e s.)
A t h i r d a r g u m e n t w a s b a s e d o n th e fa c t th a t y o u n g c h ild r e n h a v e t o le a r n
a t s c h o o l h o w to c o m b i n e c la u s e s in to s e n te n c e s , t h e ta s k b e in g e a s ie r th e
g re a te r th e e x p o s u r e o l a g iv e n c h ild to w r it te n m a te ria ls . A n a r g u m e n t tr o m
th e s t u d y o f s y n ta x is t h a t th e c e n tr a l c o n c e p ts o f d e p e n d e n c y re la tio n s a n d
c o n s titu e n t s t r u c t u r e a p p ly m o s t s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d ly in s id e sin g le c la u s e s a n d
th a t t h e d e n s e s t n e tw o r k s o f d e p e n d e n c y r e l a ti o n s a r e to b e f o u n d in s id e sin g le
d a u s e s . ( T h is is n o t to d e n y th a t d e p e n d e n c y re la tio n s c a n o c c u r a c ro s s c la u s e
b o u n d a rie s . S ee th e d is c u s s io n o i d e p e n d e n c ie s a n d c o n s titu e n t s tr u c tu r e o n

p p . 4 1 - 5 7 .) M ille r a n d W e in e r t (2 0 0 9 ) a d o p t H a llid a y s id e a o f c la u s e c o m
plex es, a n id e a t h a t is s u p p o r t e d b y th e w o r k o f S o rn ic o la , L in e ll, B ro w n a n d
e th e r s r e f e r r e d to e a r lie r in c o n n e c t io n w ith f r a g m e n ts o f s y n ta x .
W a c k e rn a g e l-J o lle s w o rk h a s n o t b e e n re p lic a te d , b u t th e p r o b l e m s s h e
re v e a le d a n d e x p lo r e d a r e n e a tly illu s tr a te d b y te x ts i n C a r te r a n d M c C a rth y
(1997). C o n s id e r (4 4 ), a n e x c e rp t f r o m a lo c a l r a d io p r o g r a m m e in B irm in g h a m ,
U K ( C a r t e r a n d M c C a rth y , 1 9 9 7 , p. 1 11 ).
(4 4 )

P r e s e n te r. . .

I'd h a v e t h o u g h t t h e fir s t t h in g y o u d o w h e n it g e t s a s d a rk

a n d a s w e t a n d a s m is e r a b le a s th is . Y o u t u r n y o u r lig h t s o n a n d I d o n t m e a n
th e p a r k e r s . I m e a n t h e lig h t s .

T h e c h u n k tr a n s c r i b e d a s a s e n te n c e e n d in g in th e fi r s t th in g y o u d o w h e n it
g?ts iis d a r k a n d as w e t a n d as m ise ra b le a s th is is n o t a c o m p le te s e n te n c e o f
w r itte n E n g lis h . T h e w r itte n c o n s t r u c ti o n is th e fi r s t th in g y o u d o . . . is to tu r n
y o u r lig h ts o n . I n s p o k e n E n g lish , th e N P th e fi r s t th in g y o u d o w h e n it gels
os d a r k a n d a s w e t a n d a s m ise r a b le as th is is s i m p l y ju x ta p o s e d w ith y o u tu r n
y o u r lig h ts o n . T h e r e is n o c o p u la , t h o u g h th e r e is o n e in t h e c o r r e s p o n d in g
w r itte n c o n s t r u c tio n : T h e f i r s t th in g y o u d o w h e n i t g e ts a s d a r k a n d as w e t a n d
os m ise r a b le as th is is y o u tu r n y o u r lig h ts o n . (S e e t h e d is c u s s io n o n W H c le fts
b e lo w .) If C a r te r a n d M c C a r th y w a n t to in s is t o n s e n te n c e s , a m o r e a c c u ra te

Theory, D ata and A n alysis

tr a n s c r i p ti o n , ta k in g a c c o u n t o f t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n s o f s p o k e n E n g lish , is I'd
have th o u g h t th e fir s t th in g y o u d o w h e n it g e ts a s d a r k a n d a s w e t a n d as m ise r
a b le as th is y o u tu r n y o u r lig h ts o n . A n d / d o n t m e a n th e p a rk e rs. I m e a n th e
lights.
T h e t r a n s c r i p ti o n in C a r te r a n d M c C a r th y is in c o n s is te n t. In c o n tr a s t t o th e
tr e a tm e n t o f (4 4 ), a c h u n k o f te x t 011 p . 142 o f th e i r b o o k is n o t d iv id e d in to
se n te n c e s , a lt h o u g h it e a s ily c o u ld b e . T h e te x t is in (4 5 ):
(4 5 )

B e c a u s e o r ig in a lly w h e n w e t h o u g h t w e w e r e g o i n g I t h o u g h t w e w e r e ju s t
g o i n g to A m s t e r d a m a n d t h a t w a s it w e w e r e j u s t s p e n d i n g o u r w e e k m
A m s t e r d a m c o s th e r e s lo a d s t o d o ( N o fu ll s t o p in t h e o r ig in a l. JM ]

T h e p a u s in g a n d i n t o n a t i o n w o u ld a llo w w e w ere j u s t s p e n d in g o u r w e e k in
A m s te r d a m a n d cos th e r e s lo a d s to d o a s s e p a r a te te x t se n te n c e s .
In c o n s is te n c y in t r a n s c r i p ti o n is o n e th in g , h u t la c k o f a tt e n ti o n to th e
a u d io r e c o r d in g le a d s C a r te r a n d M c C a rth y to m is -a n a ly s e a L IK E c o n s tr u c
tio n . T h e r e le v a n t c h u n k is i n (4 6 ).
( d f il

y o u d

t o h s v e a b u ik t m g A + n > re y o u c o u l d 9 0 y o u se lv p s.

w o u ld y o u ?
B

Y e a h . . . in th e n ig h t s , lik e , w h e n , it's c o ld .

T h e tr a n s c r i p ti o n o f th e u tt e r a n c e f r o m S p e a k e r B fa ils to s h o w t h a t like
g o e s w ith in th e n ig h ts , a s is c le a r f r o m th e i n t o n a ti o n . T h i s in d ic a te s th a t , c o n
tr a C a r te r a n d M c C a r th y (1 9 9 7 , p . 12 6 ) , lik e is n o t e q u iv a le n t t o fo r e x a m p le '.
R a th e r, it is a n in s ta n c e o f t h e u tte r a n c e - f in a l lik e t h a t is a s s o c ia te d w i t h g iv in g
c r a s k in g fo r e x p la n a tio n s (s e e M ille r, 2 0 0 9 ). S p e a k e r B e x p la in s w h y th e y
w o u ld like a b u ild in g w h e r e t h e y c o u ld g o th e m se lv e s; p r e s u m a b ly , a le isu re
c e n tr e w o u ld n o t b e o p e n a t th e r i g h t h o u r s o r w o u ld n o t w e lc o m e te e n a g e rs
w h o j u s t w a n te d to s it a n d c h a t.
M ille r a n d W e in e r t (2 0 0 9 ) c o n s id e r t h e s e n te n c e a lo w -le v e l d is c o u rs e u n it
a n d t h a t id e a is r e ta in e d h e re . T h e y a p p e a l t o t h e fa c t th a t w h a t c o u n t s a s a
w e ll- fo rm e d a n d w e ll- o r g a n iz e d s e n te n c e d iffe rs a c ro s s la n g u a g e s a n d w ith in
a g iv e n la n g u a g e d if fe rs f r o m o n e p e r io d to a n o t h e r o v e r its h is to ry . T h e s e
a r g u m e n ts a r e still v a lid . A n a d d it io n a l a r g u m e n t i s t h a t f o r s ty lis tic re a s o n s ,
a u th o r s c a n p r o d u c e v e ry u n ty p ic a l te x t s e n te n c e s - u n ty p ic a l w ith re s p e c t to
t i e in j u n c tio n s in g r a m m a r s a n d s ty le m a n u a ls . T h e s e s ty lis tic m a n ip u la tio n s
su g g est d is c o u rs e a r r a n g e m e n t s r a t h e r t h a n c la u s e sy n ta x .
D ic k e n s o p e n s B le a k I lo u s e w ith t h e p a r a g r a p h in (-17) c o n ta i n in g te x t s e n
te n c e s w ith n o f i n it e v e r b s a t all. T w o o f t h e te x t s e n te n c e s c o n s is t o f N P s ,

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

L o n d o n a n d Im p la c a b le N o v e m b e r w e a th er. T h e o n e c la u s e w i t h a f i n it e v e r b is
a s u b o r d in a te c la u s e , a s i f th e w a te rs h a d b u t n e w ly re tire d fr o m t h e fa c e o f th e
earth.
(4 7 )

L o n d o n . M ic h a e lm a s T e rm la t e ly o v e r, a n d t h e L o r d C h a n c e l lo r s it t in g in
L in c o ln 's In n H a ll. Im p la c a b le N o v e m b e r w e a t h e r . A s m u c h m u d o n th e
s tr e e t s , a s if t h e w a t e r s h a d b u t n e w ly r e t ir e d f r o m t h e f a c e o f t h e e a rth
S m o k e lo w e r in g d o w n f r o m c h im n e y - p o t s

F o o t p a s s e n g e r s , j o s t li n g o n e

a n o t h e r 's u m b r e lla s , in a g e n e r a l in f e c t io n o f ill-te m p e r. F o g e v e r y w h e r e F o g

u p th e n ve r

F o g d o w n t h e river.

L ee C h ild o p e n s h i s n o v e l O n e S h o t w i t h tw o p a r a g r a p h s in w h ic h s e n te n c e s
c o n sist o l N P s , p r e p o s itio n a l p h r a s e s , p a r tic ip ia l p h r a s e s a n d s u b o r d in a te
d a u s e s , w ith th e o d d m a in c la u s e . C o n s id e r (4 8 ).
(4 8 )

F r id a y . F iv e o 'c lo c k in t h e a f t e r n o o n

M a y b e t h e h a r d e s t t im e t o m o v e

u n o b s e r v e d t h r o u g h a c it y O r , m a y b e t h e e a s ie s t . B e c a u s e a t f iv e o 'c lo c k o n
a F r id a y a f t e r n o o n n o b o d y p a y s a t t e n t io n t o a n y t h in g . E x c e p t th e r o a d
ahead
T h e m a n w i t h t h e r ifle d r o v e n o r t h

W o t f a s t . n o t s lo w

N o t d r a w in g

a t t e n t io n . N o t s t a n d in g o u t . H e w a s in a li g h t - c o lo u r e d m in iv a n t h a t h a d
s e e n b e t t e r d a y s . H e w a s a lo n e b e h i n d t h e w h e e l . . .

T h e te x t h a s te x t s e n te n c e s c o n s is tin g o f N P s, F rid a y , Five o 'clo ck in th e

(ft e r n o o n , a n d M a y b e th e h a rd e s t t i m e to m o v e u n o b se r v e d th r o u g h a c ity . O th e r
te x t s e n te n c e s c o n s is t o f a d v e rb s , N o t fa s t, n o t slow , p a r tic ip ia l p h r a s e s , N o t
sta n d in g o u t, a n d a p r e p o s itio n a l p h r a s e . E x c e p t th e r o a d a h e a d . R o th D ic k e n s
a n d C h ild u s e t h e n o n - c la u s a l te x t s e n te n c e s t o b u ild u p a b a c k g r o u n d d e s c r ip
tio n d e ta il b y s t a ti c d e ta il. A fin ite m a i n c la u s e t u r n s u p o n ly w h e n a c tio n s
b e g in to u n f o ld : T h e m a n w ith th e rifle d r o v e n o rth .

Tricky structures in spontaneous

spoken English
Which: relative pronoun or discourse connective?
Even w ith c lo s e o b s e r v a tio n o f r h y t h m a n d i n t o n a t i o n t h e a s s ig n m e n t o f s y n
ta c tic s t r u c tu r e s to p a r t ic u l a r u tte r a n c e s c a n b e v e ry d if fic u lt. T h e s y n ta x o f
s p o n ta n e o u s sp e e c h , w h e th e r E n g lis h , G e r m a n , R u s s ia n , J a p a n e s e a n d s o o n ,
is n o t w ell u n d e r s to o d . C o n s id e r th e fo llo w in g e x a m p le f r o m B u rc h fie ld

Theory, D ata and A n alysis

(1 9 9 6 , p . 5 0 ). T h e e x a m p le c o m e s in a n e n t r y o n a n a c o l u th o n , d e fin e d as
a c h a n g e o r b r e a k in th e g r a m m a tic a l c o n s t r u c ti o n o f a s e n te n c e o r p h ra s e ,
e.g. a r e c a p i tu l a to r y p r o n o u n in c a s u a l s p e e c h . . . T h e e x a m p le is in (4 9 ).
(4 9 )

p u t lit t le b i t s o f b a c o n o n w h ic h t h e f a t t e r t h e y a r e t h e b e tte r
T h e V ic t o r ia n K it c h e n , B B C 2 . 1 9 8 9 ( c o o k s p e a k in g )

T h e r e c a p i tu l a to r y p r o n o u n is p re s u m a b ly th e y , a n d th e v e r s io n w ith o u t
a n a n a c o l u th o n w o u ld h a v e b e e n p u t little h its o f b a co n o n w h ic h th e fa t te r th e
le tte r , a lt h o u g h JM is d is tin c tly u n c o m f o r ta b le w ith th e c o n s t r u c ti o n . B u t th e
im p o r t a n t p o i n t is t h a t B u rc h fie ld se e s w h ic h a s b e g in n i n g a re la tiv e c la u se ,
w h ic h is a b a n d o n e d in fa v o u r o f a m a in c la u s e th e f a t t e r th e y a re th e better.
A n a lte rn a tiv e a n a ly s is is t h a t w h ic h in (4 9 ) is n o t a re la tiv e p r o n o u n b u t a
c is c o u r s e c o n n e c tiv e a n d th a t (4 9 ) is n o t a n e x a m p le o f a n a c o l u th o n a t all,
s in c e th e r e is n o c h a n g e in c o n s tr u c tio n .
W h a t e v id e n c e is th e r e fo r th is a n a ly sis? W e b e g in w ith th e o b s e r v a tio n th a t
in s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h m o s t re la tiv e c la u s e s a r e in t r o d u c e d b y th a t o r b y zero ,
th a t is, a r e c o n ta c t c la u s e s . ( F o r n u m b e r s , s e c M ille r a n d W e in e r t, 2 0 0 9 , p. 105,
a n d liib e r e t a l., 1 9 9 9 , p p . 6 1 0 - 6 1 5 .) I h e r e la tiv i/e r th a t is n o t a p r o n o u n b u t
a c o n ju n c t io n . I t is in v a r ia b le (c f. th e c o n tr a s ts o l l o r m in t h e w h p r o n o u n
w ho v s w h o m , w h o v s w h ic h , w h o se ) a n d p r e p o s iti o n s m u s t b e a t th e e n d o f th e
clau se: th e b o o k in w h ic h I f o u n d th e q u o te v e rs u s th e b o o k t h a t I f o u n d th e q u o te
i t v e rs u s th e in c o r r e c t ' t h e b o o k in th a t I f o u n d th e q u o te . I Iis to r ic a llv th a t w as
in d e e d a p r o n o u n , b u t h a s b e e n g r a m m a tic a liz e d a s a c o n ju n c t io n ( a n d o f
c o u rs e still f u n c t io n s a s a d e m o n s tr a t iv e p r o n o u n ) . W h ic h lik e w is e w a s o rig i
n a lly a p r o n o u n a n d still f u n c t io n s a s a p r o n o u n (se e t h e d is c u s s io n o f w h
p r o n o u n s a s in d e f in ite d e ic tic s o n p p . 1 7 5 -1 9 0 ). It h a s a ls o fo llo w e d ffa ir a lo n g
th e s a m e r o u t e to th e s t a tu s o f c o n ju n c tio n .
B u rc h fie ld (1 9 9 6 , p . 8 4 4 ) h a s a n e x a m p le o f th e c o n s t r u c ti o n in th e e n t r y
fo r w h ic h , s u b - e n t r y 3 . T h e s u b - e n t r y d e a ls w ith w h ic h r e f e r r in g to p r o p o s i
tio n s o r s ta te s o f a ffa irs b u t a t t h e e n d B u rc h fie ld c o m m e n ts T h e s e e x a m p le s
a r e p e r ilo u s ly c lo s e to t h e t y p e ( 1819 c ) c o n d e m n e d b y t h e O E D a s in v u lg a r
i sc, a s a m e r e c o n n e c tiv e o r i n t r o d u c t o r y p a rtic le . 1 le g iv e s a n e x a m p le fro m
a n is s u e o f th e D a ily C h ro n ic le in 1 9 0 5 : I f a n y th in g a p p e tis to y o u - w h ic h G o d
be b e tw e e n y o u a n d 'a r m - I 'l l lo o k a fte r th e kid s. W h e th e r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n w as
ju s t in v u lg a r u s e o r in g e n e ra l u s e in s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h a m o n g all c la sse s o f
sp e a k e rs , it is n o w w id e s p re a d .
(5 0 ) a n d (51 ) a r e f r o m D ic k e n s ( 1 8 5 3 /1 9 9 6 ). T h e s p e a k e r is M r S n a g sb y , n o t
a la w y e r h im s e l f b u t a n e d u c a te d p e r s o n w h o m a k e s a liv in g a s a la w - s ta tio n e r .

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

a r r a n g in g fo r le g a l d o c u m e n t s to b e c o p ie d a n d in s p e c tin g th e c o p ie s to m a k e
s u r e th e y a r e c o r r e c t a n d u p to t h e e x p e c te d s t a n d a r d .
(5 0 )

'A b o u t a y e a r a n d a h a l l a g o ', s a y s M r S n a g s b y s t r e n g t h e n e d , 'h e c a m e in to

o u r p l a c e o n e m o r n i n g a f t e r b r e a k fa s t , a n d , f in d in g m y little w o m a n i. w h ic h
I n a m e M r s S n a g s b y w h e n I u s e t h a t a p p e lla t io n ) in o u r s h o p , p r o d u c e d a
s p e c im e n o f h i s h a n d w r it in g a n d g a v e h e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t h e w a s in
w a n t s o f c o p y in g w o r k t o d o . .
D ic k e n s . 1 8 5 3 / 1 9 9 6 . p . 1 7 0

(5 1 )

w a s o n ly g o i n g to sa y . it's a c u r io u s f a c t , sir, t h a t . .
a n d liv e h e re , a n d b e o n e o f m y w r it e r s , t o o

t h a t y o u s h o u ld c o m e

W h ic h t h e r e is n o t h in g

d e r o g a t o r y , b u t f a r f r o m i t in t h e a p p e lla t io n / s a y s M r S n a g s b y
D ic k e n s , 1 8 5 3 / 1 9 9 6 , p . 5 0 8

A n e x a m p le f r o m c o n te m p o r a r y S c o ttis h E n g lis h is in (5 2 ).
( 5 2 ) k 1 3 t h is w a s w h a t i w o n d e r e d if it w a s b a s ic a lly t h e s e f a m ilie s t h a t w e r e
s till in t h e d u m b ic d y k e s
s 1 3 n o w e ll a c t u a lly t h e r e 'r e o n e o r t w o t h a t w e n t b a c k in |= r e t u r n e d JM |
w h i c h s o h a p p e n s T h a i I 'm a m e m b e r o f h e k i r k [ - c h u r c h l J u s t
l o c a l l y h e r e th e k ir k o 'f i e i d c h u r c h w h ic h is t h e p a r is h o f d u m b ie d y k e s
a r e a (u h h u h)
M ille r - B r o w n c o n v e r s a t io n s , c o n v e r s a t io n 1
(r e c o r d e d b y K a r e n C u r r i e f o r B r o w n e t al (1 9 8 0 )1

B u rc h fie ld re la te s th e d is c o u rs e c o n n e c tiv e c o n s t r u c t i o n t o s t r u c tu r e s w h e re
v/hich re f e rs t o p r o p o s iti o n s o r s ta te s o f a ffa irs , b u t th e r e is a n o t h e r c o n s t r u c
t io n t h a t is e v e n c lo s e r. It is f r e q u e n tly u s e d in s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lish
a m o n g all ty p e s o f s p e a k e r s a n d is e x e m p lif ie d in (5 3 ), u tt e r e d b y a s e n i o r
a c c o u n t a n t a t t h e U n iv e rs ity o f E d in b u rg h .
(5 3 )

Y o u h a v e a lit t le k e y p a d d o w n h e r e w h i c h y o u c a n u s e y o u r m o u s e to d ick ,
o n th e keys
P r e s e n t a t io n o n F in a n c ia l I n f o r m a t io n S y s te m s .
O l d C o l le g e , U n iv e r s it y o f E d in b u r g h , 1 M a y 1 9 9 6

(5 3 ) is a n e x a m p le o f a n u n in t e g r a t e d re la tiv e c la u s e , t h a t is, a re lativ e

d a u s e th a t h a s n o w h w o r d r e f e r r in g b a c k t o th e a n te c e d e n t o f t h e c la u s e a n d
t o g a p t h a t m ig h t h a v e b e e n filled b y a w h w o r d o r th a t. You c a n u s e y o u r
n o u s e to click o n th e k e y s is a c o m p le te c la u s e w ith s u b je c t N P y o u a n d d ir e c t
c b jc c t N P y o u r m o u se. A n e x a m p le w ith th a t is a fi li n g c a b in e t th a t y o u can o n ly
open o n e d ra w e r a t a tim e ( u tte r e d b y J M 's w ife ). A n in te g r a te d v e r s io n w o u ld

Theory, D ata and A n alysis

b e s o m e th in g lik e a fi li n g c a b in e t th a t o n ly a llo w s y o u to o p e n o n e d r a w e r a t
c, tim e o r a filin g c a b in e t o n ly o n e o f w h o se d ra w e rs y o u c a n o p e n a t a tim e.
(T h e la tte r v e rs io n is q u ite u n ty p ic a l o f s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h , b u t w o u ld b e
in p la c e in a v e ry f o r m a l w r it te n te x t.) A n e x a m p le f r o m N e w Z e a la n d E n g lish
is in (5 4 ).
(5 4 1

e v e n i t w e h a v e a n y m e e t i n g s o v e r h e r e it's s till ju s t a s lo n g a s t h o s e t h a t w e
g o s o m e w h e r e e ls e
W e llin g t o n C o r p u s o f S p o k e n N e w Z e a la n d E n g lis h ,
D P C 0 0 4 0 3 8 S :IB

T h a t lin k s th e c la u s e t o th o se, b u t t h e c la u s e h a s a s u b je c t N F w e a n d a d ir e c
tio n a l p h r a s e so m e w h e re else. A n in te g r a te d v e r s io n w o u ld r e a d a lo n g th e lin es
c f . . . j u s t a s lo n g as th o s e f o r w h ic h /in c o n n e c tio n w ith w h ic h w e g o so m e w h e re
d s e o r th o s e th a t w e a tt e n d elsew here. T h e c r u c ia l e x a m p le is (5 3 ), w ith w hich.
M ille r a n d W e in e r t (2 0 0 9 , p p . 1 1 0 - 1 1 ) t r e a te d it a s a re la tiv e p r o n o u n i n t r o
d u c in g a n u n in t e g r a t e d re la tiv e c la u s e , b u t it m i g h t b e b e t t e r t r e a te d a s a
c is c o u r s e c o n n e c tiv e lin k in g a fo llo w in g c o m p l e te c la u s e to t h e p re c e d in g
c h u n k o f d is c o u rs e .

NP-Clause: one clause or one clause + extraneous N P?

T h e s e q u e n c e o f w o r d s in ( 5 5 ) , ty p ic a l o f s p o k e n E n g lish ( a n d s p o k e n F re n c h ,
R u ssian a n d G e r m a n ) , h a s b e e n g iv e n v a r i o u s a n a ly s e s. W e w ill c a ll it th e N P C la u s e c o n s t r u c ti o n , t h e la b e l re fle c tin g th e v ie w t h a t t h e in itia l N P is n o t p a r t
c f t h e c la u s e . N e w d a ta h a s s h e d li g h t o n its te x tu a l f u n c t io n , a n d th e c o n s tr u c
tio n b e a r s o n a m o o t p o i n t in ty p o lo g y . B e c a u se t h e c la u s e is c o m p le te in its
s y n ta x , d is p la y in g n o g a p s , o u r a n a ly s is a s s u m e s t h a t t h e in itia l N P is o u ts id e
th e c la u s e a n d , in s p ite o f th e r e g u la r ly - u s e d la b e l'le f t d is lo c a tio n , is n o t m o v e d
fro m a p o s i ti o n in s id e t h e c la u s e . T h i s a n a ly s is is s u p p o r t e d b y r e c e n t d e ta ile d
w o rk o n th e F re n c h N P - C la u s e c o n s t r u c ti o n ( d e C a t 2 0 0 7 ), w h ic h d e m o n
s tra te s th a t w e re t h e N P to b e m o v e d , it w o u ld v io la te v a r i o u s s y n ta c tic p r o p
e r tie s t h a t o th e r w is e b lo c k m o v e m e n t.
M ille r a n d W e in e r t (2 0 0 9 , p p . 2 3 7 - 9 - b u t se e a ls o t h e d is c u s s io n o f F re n c h
a n d R u ssia n o n p p . 2 3 9 - 4 2 ) a n a ly s e th e N P -C la u s e c o n s t r u c ti o n a s p r i m a r i ly
a f o c u s s t r u c t u r e h ig h lig h tin g th e N P a n d its re f e re n t. M o r e d a ta , p r e s e n te d in
(5 5 ) (5 8

), in d ic a te t h a t s p e a k e r s u s e th e c o n s t r u c ti o n fo r c o n tr a s tin g o n e N P /

e n tity w ith a n o th e r . ( N o te t h a t (5 5 b ,c )(5 8 ) a r e I r o m n e w s p a p e r a rtic le s , b u t

a re tr a n s c r ib e d d ir e c tly f r o m t h e a u d io r e c o r d in g s m a d e b y t h e jo u r n a lis ts .)
Q u ir k a n d G r e e n b a u m ( 1 9 8 5 , p p . 1 4 1 6 -1 7 ) s a w t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n a s ty p ic a l o t

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

lo o s e a n d in f o r m a l s p e e c h . I n a n u tt e r a n c e s u c h a s T h is m a n I w a s te llin g y o u
f,b o u t - h e u s e d to liv e n e x t d o o r to m e, th e in itia l N P , T h is m a n I w a s te llin g
y o u a b o u t, w a s a n a ly s e d a s s e t ti n g th e p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e f o r th e u tte ra n c e .
I; w a s c o n v e n ie n t fo r s p e a k e r a n d h e a re r, s in c e n e it h e r h a d to p r o c e s s a c la u s e
c o n ta in in g a c o m p le x N P s u b je c t.
It is t r u e t h a t in s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h c o m p le x N P s u b je c ts a r e a v o id e d a n d
th a t c o m p le x N P s a r e m o r e a c c e p ta b le in o b je c t p o s itio n . H o w e v e r, m a n y
lc f t-d is lo c a te d N P s a r e s im p le , a n d m a n y h a v e a c o n tr a s tiv e ( u n c t io n , a s in
(55ac ) .
(5 5 )

a.

t h i s f i l m it d o e s g iv e a r e a l c lo s e - u p o f w h a t g o e s o n b e h in d t h e s c e n e s
T o m B r o o k , T a lk in g M o v ie s , B B C W o r ld , 1 9 A p r il 7 0 0 7

lik e h i s [ K e it h F lo y d 's ) s t y e o f c o o k e r y ,' a d d s F e n t o n 's w i e P a tric ia

'H e

ju s t t h r o w s e v e ry t h in g w R ic k S t e i n - h e 's o n l y c o p y i n g F l o y d , i s n ' t h e ? '

T h e In d e p e n d e n t , 11 O c t o b e r 2 0 0 7 , E x tra , p p 2 - 3

c.

M y y o u n g e s t d a u g h t e r g e t s e m b a r r a s s e d w h e n s h e s e e s m e o n te le
v is io n ,' s a y s S t e w a r t . M y o ld e s t , s h e d o e s n t m in d s o m u c h b e c a u s e it
g iv e s h e r e x tr a s u e e t - c r e a a t sch o o l."
D r la in S t e w a r t b e in g in te n / ie w e d b y S u s a n S w a r b r ic k P r e p a r in g t o r o c k y o u r w o r ld '. T h e H e r a ld (S c o tla n d ).
13 N o ve m b e r 2 0 0 7 , p. 17

B u t th e c o n s t r u c ti o n c a n s i m u lta n e o u s ly ease th e p r o d u c t io n o f c o m p le x
u tte r a n c e s a n d sig n a l a c o n tr a s t, a s in (5 6 )(5 8 ).
(S 6 >

W h a t stru ck m e w a s t h a t p e o p le w h o b e h a v e d t h e w a y m y e x a n d I
d i d . t h e i r c h ild r e n w e r e lin e , b u t t h o s e w h o m a d e m o r e m i s t a k e s , th e ir
c h ild r e n s u f f e r e d m o r e . T h a t c a u s e a n d e f f e c t w a s q u it e d e a r .
'D iv o r c e d o e s n 't h a v e t o b e a d is a s te r ,' T h e H e ra ld .
3 D e ce m b e r 2 0 0 7 , p . 15

(5 7 )

C o n t r a s t i n g t h e f o r t u n e s o f d if f e r e n t s u b - s e c t o r s , h e s a d : 'E le c t r o n ic s is
p e r f o r m in g p a r t ic u la r ly w e ll T h e a r e a s o f i n d u s t r y t h a t w e r e b e i n g h i t
q u it e h a r d

t h e o n e t h a t s t o o d o u t w a s t h e f o o d in d u s try .'
T h e H e r a ld , 2 7 O c t o b e r 2 0 0 7

(5 8 )

'Y o u k n o w , it 's a n a m a z in g b u ild in g . T h e o n e t h a t w a s n e v e r b u i l t , th a t

w o u l d h a v e b e e n e v e n m o r e a m a z in g . It w a s g o i n g t o b e o v e r 5 5 0 f e e t in
h e ig h t , a n u n b e lie v a b le s ig h t .'
S ir T e rr y L e a h y , In t e r v ie w in T h e T a b le t b y C h r i s B la c k h u r s t ,
2 2 2 9 D ecem ber 2 0 07

Theory, D ata and A n alysis

T h r e e i m p o r t a n t p o in t s a ris e . T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n is n o t n e w ; th e fo llo w in g
e x a m p le is f r o m D ic k e n s: Y o u r c o u s in , M r J a rn d yc e. I o w e so m u c h to h im .
W o u ld y o u m i n d d e sc rib in g h i m to m e V ( D ic k e n s , B le a k H o u se , P e n g u in , 1996,
C h a p te r 4 ) . ( T h e s p e a k e r is n o t a d d r e s s in g M r Ja rn d y c e . M r J a rn d y c e is in
a p p o s itio n to Y o u r c o u sin .) I t a p p e a r s to h a v e b e c o m e m u c h m o r e fr e q u e n t
in s p o k e n E n g lis h o v e r t h e p a s t 3 0 y e a rs. T h e c o n s t r u c ti o n is n o t ju s t a m e a n s
fo r d e a lin g w ith h itc h e s in s y n ta c tic p la n n in g . E x a m p le s (5 5 b ,c ) , (5 6 ) a n d (5 8 )
d e m o n s tr a t e t h a t it is u s e d l o r c o n tr a s t: R ic k S te in , in c o n t r a s t w ith K eith
F lo y d , t h e e ld e s t d a u g h te r in c o n tr a s t w i t h th e y o u n g e s t, th e o n e t h a t w as
n e v e r b u il t in c o n tr a s t w i t h t h e o n e t h a t w a s. F in ally , w i t h re s p e c t to ty p o lo g y ,
th e N P - C la u s e c o n s t r u c ti o n b r i n g s in to q u e s t io n t h e p r o p o s e d ty p o lo g ic a l
c if fe re n c e b e tw e e n s u b j e c t- p r o m i n e n t a n d t o p i c - p r o m in e n t la n g u a g e s a n d
raises in te r e s tin g is s u e s c o n c e r n in g th e ty p o lo g y o l s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n
E n g lish a n d th e ty p o lo g y o f f o r m a l w r itte n E n g lis h . (S e e M ille r a n d W e in e rt,
2009, p p . 3 6 3 -6 )

Direct Object N P + Com plem ent Clause

A n o th e r s e q u e n c e o t w o r d s w h o s e c o n s t it u e n t s t r u c t u r e is a m y s te r y is w h a t
w ill b e c alled th e N P - C o m p le m e n t C la u s e c o n s t r u c ti o n . It o c c u r s re g u la r ly in
s p o n ta n e o u s s p e e c h - se e (5 9 ) f r o m S c o ttis h E n g lish , (6 0 ) f r o m N e w Z e a la n d
E n g lish , a n d (6 1 ) f r o m a n o v e l b y a n A m e r ic a n w rite r.
(5 9 )

E v e r y o n e k n o w s H e le n L id d e ll h o w h a r d s h e w o r k s .
D is c u s s io n p r o g r a m m e o n B B C R a d io S c o t la n d

(6 0 )

I c a n n e v e r r e m e m b e r a n y o f m y f a m ily h o w o ld t h e y a re .

N ew Z ealan d ICE, M a cq u arie C orpus

(6 1 )

e v e r y o n e t u r n e d t o (S t o ic h e v ) w it h a s m ile
h e 'd lis t e n e d s o m o d e s t l y

to

: r e m e m b e r e d R o s s i, h o w

th e ch e e rs a n d sp e ech es
E liz a b e t h K o s t o v a , 2 0 0 5 , T h e H is t o r ia n

F r o m a lo g ic a l p o i n t o f v ie w (5 9 ) c o n v e y s t h e p r o p o s iti o n t h a t e v e ry o n e
k n o w s s o m e th in g , n a m e ly h o w h a r d I le le n L id d e ll w o rk s . T h e s p e a k e r w h o
litte re d (5 9 ) c a n b e s e e n a s a c h ie v in g tw o g o a ls. H e - t h e s p e a k e r w a s m a le a v o id s a s u b o r d in a te c la u s e w ith a n e x c la m a tiv e c o n s t r u c t i o n - w h w o r d +
s u b je c t N P + v e r b - a n d a re la tiv e ly c o m p le x s u b je c t N P . T h e c o n s t r u c ti o n also
e n a b le s t h e s p e a k e r t o r e - e s ta b lis h H e le n I.id d e ll a s th e fo c u s o f a tt e n ti o n a n d
th e p r in c ip a l a c to r in th e s itu a tio n s b e in g d is c u s s e d . I la v in g d o n e th a t w ith th e

3 2

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

m a in c la u s e , th e s p e a k e r t h e n m o v e s o n to t h e c o m p le m e n t c la u s e a n d h ig h
lig h ts t h e n e w p r o p e r ty , h e r c a p a c ity f o r w o rk .
T h e r e a s o n s f o r s p e a k e r s u s in g th e d ir e c t o b je c t N P - C o m p l e m e n t C la u s e
s e q u e n c e a r e e a s y to se e ; less e a s y t o s e e is t h e c o n s t it u e n t s t r u c tu r e . T h e N P
is th e d ir e c t o b je c t o l th e m a in v e r b . Is th e c la u s e , w h ic h c o m p l e m e n t s th e
s a m e v e r b , s i m p l y p a r t o f o n e a n d t h e s a m e V P ? W h a t is t h e s y n ta c tic s ig n ifi
ca n c e o f th e c o m m a b e tw e e n t h e N P a n d t h e c la u s e in th e w r itte n e x a m p le in
(6 1 )? T h e s im p le s t s o l u t i o n w o u ld b e to tr e a t th e s e q u e n c e a s a d o u b le - o b je c t
c o n s tr u c tio n .

WH clefts and the 'th in g -is' construction

Finally, w e lo o k a t W H c le fts. T h e c la ssic W H c le ft f r o m w r it te n E n g lish is
e x e m p lifie d in (6 2 ); (6 3 )(6 5 ) e x e m p lify W H c le fts f r o m s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h .
(6 2 )

a.

W h a t y o u n e e d m o s t is a g o o d rest,

W h a t h e 's d o n e is s p o il t h e w h o l e t h in g

T h e c la ssic W H c le ft is in t r o d u c e d b y a w h c la u s e , th e c le ft c la u s e - W h a t
y o u n e e d m o s t a n d W h a t h e 's d o n e . T h e la st c h u n k in t h e s t r u c t u r e is t h e c le ft
c o n s t it u e n t, w h ic h is e ith e r a p h r a s e , s u c h a s a g o o d rest in ( a ) , o r a n o n - f in it e
d a u s e , s u c h a s sp o il th e w h o le th in g in ( b ) . T h e tw o c h u n k s a r e c o n n e c t e d by
s o m e f o r m o f th e c o p u la , is o r w a s o r w ill be. T h e c h u n k o f p a r t ic u l a r in te re s t
h ere is th e n o n - f in it e c la u s e , w h ic h h a s n o s u b je c t N P a n d o n l y a b a r e v e rb
s te m , spoil. T h e la c k o t s u b je c t N P , te n s e a n d a s p e c t s ig n a ls a c la u s e t h a t is
w ell in te g r a te d in to th e m a tr ix m a in c la u s e . T re a tin g w h a t a s a n in d e fin ite
d e ic tic (s e e th e d e ta ile d d is c u s s io n o n p p . 1 7 5 -1 9 0 ) , w e c a n c o n s id e r w h a t as
r o u n m o d if ie d b y a re la tiv e c la u s e y o u n e e d [ 1 o r h e s d o n e I | , w h e r e t h e g a p
c o n ta in s a n e m p t y d ir e c t o b je c t N P c o - in d e x e d w ith w h a t. It p o i n t s f o n v a r d to
th e c le ft c o n s t it u e n t s p e c ify in g t h e re f e r e n t o l w h a t - a g o o d rest in ( 6 2 a ) a n d
sp o il th e w h o le th in g in ( 6 2 b ).
( 6 2 b ) is o f p a r t i c u l a r in t e r e s t h e r e b c c a u s e w h a t re g u la rly o c c u r s in s p o n t a
n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lish is a W I I c le ft c o n ta i n in g a c left c la u s e a n d a c le ft c o n
s t it u e n t b u t in w h ic h t h e c le ft c o n s t i t u e n t is a fu ll c la u s e w ith s u b je c t N P , te n s e
a n d a s p e c t a n d in w h ic h t h e c le ft c la u s e a n d th e cle ft c o n s t it u e n t a r e ty p ic a lly
r.o t lin k e d b y be b u t s im p ly ju x ta p o s e d . E x a m p le s f r o m B ritis h E n g lis h a r e in
(63) a n d ( 6 4 ) , a n d (6 5 ) is a n e x a m p le f r o m N e w Z e a la n d E n g lish .
(6 3 }

W h at yo u do

r ig h t

Theory, D ata and A n alysis

A

y o u d r o p d o w n t h e n y o u g o r ig h t
M a p T a s k D ia lo g u e s

(6 4 )

A n d w h a t y o u r e d o i n g n o w is y o u 'r e g o i n g a l o n g t o t h e r ig h t
M a p T a s k D ia lo g u e s

(65>) b u t I u s e d to lik e w h a t w e 'd d o w h e n I w a s a k id in th e s o u n d s w e u s e d

to s o m e t im e s c a t c h f is h c a t c h b l u e c o d a n d t h ju s t h e a d f o r t h e b e a c h a n d
lig h t a r u e o n t h e b e a c h
W S C , D K 0 7 9 :0 7 0 S .A C

N o te th e c o p u la is in ( 6 ) [ w h a t y o u re g o in g to d o n o w ) I is I [y o u 're g o in g
to g o a lo n g to th e r ig h t}. N o te th e a b s e n c e o f t h e c o p u la in (6 3 ) a n d ( 6 5 ) : [ w h a t
y o u i/o) + I y o u d ro p d o w n ] a n d | w h a t w e d d o . . . | + | w e u se d to . . .). T h e
c o n s t it u e n t s t r u c t u r e o f e a c h c la u s e , w h e th e r fin ite o r n o n - f in it e , is a lo n g
th e u s u a l lin e s , w h a te v e r th e a n a ly s ts u s u a l lin e s a re . H o w a r e th e c la u s e s
c o m b in e d ? T h e d e l I c la u s e d o e s n o t m a k e a c o m p l e te te x t o n its o w n : W h a t
y o u d o , w h a t y o u re d o in g n o w a n d w h a t w e d d o w h e n I w a s a k i d in th e so u n d s
all r e q u ir e s o m e c o n ti n u a ti o n t o r th e lis te n e r to c o n s t r u c t a s a tis f a c to r y i n t e r
p r e ta tio n . W h a t is a n in d e f in ite d e ic tic a n d its re f e re n t h a s t o b e sp e c ifie d
fo r t h e lis te n e r. T h e a n a ly s is p r o p o s e d h e re is t h a t t h e tw o c la u s e s a r e p a r t
c f a la r g e r c o n s t r u c ti o n , w h ic h c a n b e la b e lle d W H c le ft f . ( W H c le ft 2
n i g h t b e t h e la b e l fo r t h e c la ssic W H c le ft o f w r it te n E n g lis h e x e m p lif ie d in
(6 2 )). In fa c t, w e n e e d tw o la b e ls fo r tw o c o n s t r u c ti o n s : W H c le lt la ' lo r th e
c o n s t r u c ti o n in w h ic h t h e c le ft c la u s e a n d th e c le ft c o n s t it u e n t a r e lin k e d
b y h e a n d 'W H c le ft l b f o r th e c o n s t r u c ti o n in w h ic h th e y a r e s im p ly j u x t a
p o se d . ( T h is la s t c o m m e n t a n tic ip a te s t h e d is c u s s io n in C h a p t e r 4 o t w h e n
a f f e r e n t s e q u e n c e s o f w o r d s a r e to b e r e c k o n e d a lte r n a tiv e r e a liz a tio n s o f
c n e a n d th e s a m e g e n e ra l c o n s t r u c ti o n o r r e a liz a tio n s o f tw o d if fe re n t
c o n s tr u c tio n s .)
In th e e a rlie r e x a m p le s , th e r e is c o n t i n u i t y o f s u b je c t re f e re n t, te n s e a n d
a s p e c t ir o m th e c le ft c la u s e to t h e c le f t c o n s t it u e n t, a n d t h i s m ig h t su g g e st
th a t e x a m p le s s u c h a s (6 5 ) b e a n a ly s e d a s h a v in g a c o p u la w h ic h is e m p ty . W e
t i k e t h e v ie w th a t , a lt h o u g h i t s e e m s t o b e m in o r , th e la c k o f a c o p u la is a
s y m p to m o f a s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e . C o n s id e r (6 6 ) f r o m B ritis h E n g lis h a n d
(6 7 ) f r o m N e w Z e a la n d E n g lish

(6 6 )

W h a t I t h o u g h t I d d o C h a i r m a n a s y o u k n o w , t h e m o s t im p o r t a n t is s u e
a t t h e m o m e n t is t h e p o ll-ta x
M e m b e r o f P a r lia m e n t a d d r e s s in g a m e e t in g in E d in b u r g h

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

(6 / )

y e s i'm a s t o n is h e d a n d w o u l d v e r y m u c h h a v e lik e d l o a s k h im t o q u e s t io n
h im m o r e c lo s e ly b u t w h a t w e A R E g o i n g t o d o h e H A S s p o k e n t o o n e o f
o u r jo u r n a lis t s a n d w e 'r e g o i n g t o t e p la r e p la y t h a t l o i y o u in its e n tir e t y so
t h a t y o u c a n h e a r w h a t h e s a id b u t i t d o e s le a v e a l o t o f t h in g s u n a n s w e r e d
W S C . D G B O O S : 0 0 6 0 :H S

W h a t I th o u g h t I ' d d o a n d w h a t w e A R E g o in g to d o a r e n o t o n ly u n c o n r e c t e d b y a c o p u la to t h e f o llo w in g c la u s e , b u t th e r e is a b r e a k in i h e s u b je c t
re f e r e n t a n d in te n s e a n d a s p e c t. I n (6 6 ), t h e s u b je c t N P I is re p la c e d b y th e
m o st im p o r ta n t issu e a n d t h e p a s t te n s e o f th o u g h t is re p la c e d b y t h e p r e s e n t
te n s e o f is. I n (6 7 ), t h e s u b je c t N P w e is r e p la c e d b y he, a lt h o u g h w e r e t u r n s in
t i e n e x t a g a in c la u se . I n th e s e e x a m p le s . W h a t I th o u g h t I d d o a n d w h a t w e
A R E g o in g to d o f u n c tio n a s c o m p le x , h ig h lig h tin g d is c o u rs e p a r tic le s a n d d o
r.o t s e e m to b e p a r t o l a W H c le ft c la u s e c o m p le x . W h a t is still a n in d e f in ite
d e ic tic , b u t p o in t s f o r w a r d to th e e n t i r e f o llo w in g c h u n k o f te x t, n o t n e c e s s a r
ily to a sin g le c la u se .
A tr ic k ie r c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s a p p e a r e d in s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lish .
E x a m p le s f r o m N e w Z e a la n d E n g lis h a r e in (6 8 ) a n d (6 9 ), b u t t h e c o n s tr u c
tio n o c c u r s re g u la rly in B ritis h a n d A m e ric a n E n g lish .
(6 8 )

DN

i c le a n e d o u t t h e c u p b o a r d s w it h th e m ic e o o o h in th e m

AL

y o u 'r e n e s t in g

DN

o h y e s v e ry m u c h s o | u lia t o ld m e a n d s in c e th e n b e e n d o in g it

CH

la u g h s

BT

la u g h s

AL

w h a t n e s t in g

DN

t h is is w h a t y o u 'r e m e a n t t o d o is n e s t
W e llin g t o n C o r p u s o f S p o k e n N e w Z e a la n d E n g lis h .
D P C 0 6 6 .1 1 7 5 1 2 10

(6 9 >

i m e a n k id s A R E re a lly c r u e l a n d r o z t h a t ' s t h e r e a s o n r o z h a d s u c h h a h a d
s u c h a t h i n g a b o u t H E R e a r w a s b e c a u s e s h e ' d h a d s u c h a h a r d t im e
W S C , D P C 0 6 2 :0 3 8 0 A L

T h e s t r u c t u r e b e g in s w ith a T H c le ft: th a t's th e rea so n ro z h a d su c h h a h a d

such a th in g a b o u t H E R e a r a n d th is is w h a t y o u 'r e m e a n t to d o . T h e T H c le ft is
lin k e d b y a s e c o n d o c c u r r e n c e o f is to a fin ite o r n o n - f in it e c la u s e - n e s t in (6 8 )
a n d b e c a u se sh e 'd h a d su c h a h a r d t i m e in (6 9 ). C a lu d e (2 0 0 8 , p . 1 1 3 ), c itin g
R o s s - H a g e b a u m (2 0 0 4 ) , re g a r d s t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n a s a n a m a lg a m o f th e T H
d e f t a n d W H c le lt s t r u c tu r e s , w i t h a n in te r n a l a r r a n g e m e n t o f c o n s t it u e n ts as
i:i F ig u re 1.1. ( C a lu d e u se s t h e t e r m D e m o n s t r a ti v e C le ft, b u t w e k e e p th e
te r m T H C le ft.)

Theory, D ata and A n alysis

C le f t C o m p le x

T H C le f t

B a s i c W H - C le f t

C l e f t c o n s t it

COP

C le f t C l a u s e / C l e f t c o n s t it

CO P

C l e f t c o n s t it

That

's

w h a t y o u 'r e m e a n t to d o

is

nest

F i g u r e 1 .1

P o s s ib le c o n s t it u e n t s t r u c t u r e f o r (6 8 )

T h e a m a lg a m h y p o th e s is is c o m p a tib le w ith a c e n tr a l c h a r a c te r is tic o f

s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e n o te d b y a n u m b e r o f a n a ly s ts . C a lu d e (2 0 0 8 )
cite s B ra z il (1 9 9 5 ) , w h o c o m m e n te d th a t t h e c o n s t it u e n ts o f s p o k e n la n g u a g e
a r c like b e a d s o n a s t r in g , a n d M c C a r th y (1 9 9 8 ) , w h o e m p h a s iz e d th e lin e a r
r a t u r e o f s p o k e n la n g u a g e a s o p p o s e d to t h e h ie r a r c h ic a l o r g a n iz a tio n o f
w r itte n la n g u a g e . B ra z ils a n d M c C a rth y s id e a s a c c o r d w ell w ith t h e v ie w s o l
S o rn ic o la , L in c ll, B la n c h e -B e n v e n is te , Z e m s k a ia , a n d M ille r a n d W e in e rt
re f e rre d to e a rlie r.
T h e g e n e ra l p o i n t is th a t t h e lin e a r a n d d is jo in te d o r g a n iz a tio n o f s p o n t a n e
o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e ( b u t b e w a r e o f e x a g g e ra tin g th e d is jo in te d n e s s ) fa c ilita te s
th e f o r m a tio n o f a m a lg a m s . T h e d o u b le c le fts a r e n o t, h o w e v e r, p e r f o r m a n c e
p h e n o m e n a . L ike a ll c h a n g e s in g r a m m a r , th e d o u b le c le ft c o n s t r u c ti o n h as
a ris e n d u r i n g p e r f o r m a n c e , b u t is n o w a re g u la r ly o c c u r r in g c o n s tr u c tio n in
m a n y v a r ie tie s o l E n g lis h a n d re c o r d e d in t h e u tte r a n c e s o f m a n y sp e a k e rs.
M a s sa m (1 9 9 9 , p . 3 3 6 ) r e p o r ts t h a t M c C o n v e ll (1 9 8 8 ) h a d f o u n d in s ta n c e s in
essays b y s t u d e n ts a n d t h a t E lle n P rin c e h a d f o u n d e x a m p le s in e le c tro n ic
n e w sg ro u p s.
M a s s a m (1 9 9 9 ) d o e s n o t d is c u s s T H c le fts, b u t fo c u s e s o n e x a m p le s o f th e
s o r t in ( 7 0 a - e ) , w h ic h a r e ta k e n f r o m h e r p a p e r. S h e la b e ls t h e s t r u c t u r e th e
th in g -is c o n s tr u c tio n .
(7 0 )

a.
b

T h e p r o b le m is , is t h a t w e c a n 't f in d t h e e v id e n c e
M y f e e lin g w a s . w a s t h a t s h e d o e s n 't h a v e a p r o fe s s v o n a l h o ld o n th e
s itu a tio n

T h e h it c h 15. is t h a t it s e e m s t o b e o c c u r n n g in t h e o p p o s it e d ir e c t io n

T h e o n ly t h in g is , is t h a t I c o u ld n 't m o v e d o w n h e re b e c a u s e I d o n 't d riv e

e.

T h e fa c t o f t h e m a tt e r is , is t h a t th e p o lic y is t o t a lly u n cle a r.

M a s s a m a rg u e s t h a t t h e th in g - is c o n s t r u c t i o n s h a r e s w ith W H c lc fts (s h e
u ses th e t e r m p s e u d o - c le f t) t h e im p o r t a n t p r o p e r ty o f c o n n e c tiv ity : a lth o u g h

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

th e c o n s t r u c ti o n s c o n s is t o f tw o c la u s e s , th e y b e h a v e in c e r ta in re s p e c ts lik e a
sin g le c la u s e . (S e e M a s s a m , 1999, p p . 3 4 0 - 6 .) T h e a r g u m e n t c a n b e s t r e n g th
e n e d . M a s s a m th i n k s t h a t th e th in g - is c o n s t r u c ti o n c a n o c c u r w ith o u t a
lin k in g b e - T h e th in g is w e g o t to h a v e lu n c h to g e th e r, b u t t h a t W H c le fts m u s t
h a v e a lin k in g be. E x a m p le s (6 3 ) a n d (6 5 ) s h o w t h a t M a s s a m w a s c o n s id e r in g
th e w r o n g t y p e o f W H c le ft: W h a t h e s a w m as a n a p p l e t s o p p o s e d t o W h a t h e
d id w a s e a t th e a p p le o r W h a t h e d i d w a s h e a t e th e a pple. T h e la tte r ty p e o f W H
d e l l d o c s n o t in (a c t n e e d a lin k in g be. ( T h is p a r t o l M a s s a m s p a p e r re la te s
to t h e p o i n t m a d e e a rlie r a b o u t c o r r e c t th e o r y d e p e n d in g o n c o r r e c t d a ta .
M a s sa m d e c la re s t h a t in T h e th in g is, is h e c a n 't b e d is m is s e d (IM s e x a m p le ]
th e s e c o n d is c a n b e o m i tt e d - T h e th in g is h e c a n 't b e d is m is s e d - b c c a u s e it is
a f o c u s m a r k e r r a t h e r t h a n a v e rb . In w h a t h e likes is m a r z ip a n , t h e is is a v e rb
a n d c a n n o t b e o m i tt e d . B u t o t c o u r s e it c a n b e o m i tt e d in w h a t h e does is h e
refuses to a n s w e r th e p h o n e . S o m e o t h e r e x p la n a tio n m u s t b e s o u g h t.)
T h e re s t o l M a s s a m 's a n a ly s is n e e d n o t c o n c e r n u s in d e ta il. B riefly, w o rk in g
w ith in a P r in c ip le s a n d P a r a m e te r s f r a m e w o r k , s h e p r o p o s e s a d e r iv a tio n
in v o lv in g a n e m p t y c a te g o r y a n d p a r a lle lin g th e d e r iv a tio n o f W H c le fts. T h e
m o s t b a s i c s t r u c t u r e i s [ [ t h e t h i n g is c c ) i s [ t h a t I l i k e y o u | ] . F r o m t h i s is

d e riv e d [ [ t h a t I lik e y o u 1, ( th e th i n g isj is t j . T h i s th e n y ie ld s th e s t r u c tu r e

[ti t h e th i n g is t h a t I lik e y o u ] is t.. T h e is lin k in g th e tw o c h u n k s in s id e s q u a r e
b ra c k e ts is d e s c r ib e d a s a f o c u s /c o p u la r h e a d a n d th e n o u n s o c c u r r in g in s id e
th e c h u n k ( t h e ___ th in g is] a r e s a i d to b e lo n g to a s m a ll s e t o f a p p o s itio n a l
n o u n s , s u c h a s p ro b le m , th in g , c la im , fee lin g a n d h u n c h . T h e s e c o n d c h u n k in
s q u a r e b ra c k e ts , th a t I lik e y o u , p r o v id e s th e c o n t e n t o f t h e re f e r e n t o f th e
a p p o s itio n a l n o u n . T h e a p p o s itio n a l r e la tio n is s u p p o s e d to e x p la in w h y o n ly
i> c a n lin k th e tw o c h u n k s ; o n l y is c a n s ig n a l a n a p p o s itio n .
M a s s a m s a c c o u n t s h o w s t h a t th e r e is a w a y t o h a n d l e t h e th in g - is c o n
s t r u c ti o n in th e P rin c ip le s a n d P a r a m e te r s m o d e l, b u t d o e s n o t a d d r e s s th e
q u e s tio n o f h o w th e c o n s t r u c t i o n a r o s e , w h e re a s t h e a m a lg a m a n a ly s is p r o
v id e s b o t h a r e a s o n a n d a n a p p e a lin g s u r f a c e s t r u c t u r e fo r th e d o u b le 'is . ( O f
c o u rs e , w h a t c o u n ts a s a p p e a lin g d e p e n d s o n a n in d iv id u a ls th e o r e tic a l p re f
e re n c e s .) T h e r e is a n o t h e r w a y o f lo o k in g a t t h e d a ta . A s M a s s a m p o i n t s o u t , a
lim ite d s e t o t n o u n s o c c u r in t h e 'th i n g - is ' c o n s t r u c tio n : p ro b le m , th in g , claim ,
fe e lin g a n d h u n c h , to w h ic h c a n b e a d d e d f a c t a n d , f r o m M a s s a m s e x a m p le s ,
t i e p h r a s e f a c t o f th e m a tte r . F ro m th e p e rs p e c tiv e o f c o n s t r u c ti o n s a n d fo r
m u la e , th e lim ite d s e t o l n o u n s s u g g e s ts a te m p la te a llo w in g lim ite d m o d ific a t.o n s r a th e r th a n a fre e ly g e n e r a te d c o n s tr u c tio n .

Theory, D ata and A n alysis

T h e c o n s t r u c ti o n s h o w s s ig n s o f b e in g g r a m m a tic a liz e d , p r o b a b ly in to a
c i s c o u r se p a r tic le , b u t t h e e n d - s ta te is n o t y e t in s ig h t. T h e p ro c e s s c a n b e
g lim p s e d in e x a m p le s s u c h a s (7 1 ), w h e r e th e th in g is h a s b e e n r e d u c e d to
th in g is.
(7 1 )

B 1 1 7 : y e a h i m e a n h e d o e s t e n d t o d r o p t h in g s a n a w lu l lo t in fa c t
1115:

y e a h h e s e e m s t o t a k e h is e y e

B 1 1 8 : t h in g is h e 's w a t c h in g th e m a n h e s n o t w a t c h in g t h e b a ll
M ille r - B r o w n C o r p u s , c o n v e r s a t io n 6 0
T h e g a m e b e in g d is c u s s e d is r u g b y

O t h e r r e d u c e d p h ra s e s t h a t th e a u t h o r h a s h e a r d a r e f a c t is a n d p r o b le m is,
b u t n o t in r e c o r d e d sp e e c h .
W e r e t u r n to (6 6 ), W h a t I th o u g h t I d d o C h a ir m a n a s y o u k n o w , th e m o st
im p o r ta n t issue a t th e m o m e n t is th e p o ll-ta x . A s n o te d e a rlie r, t h e w h c la u s e is
in d e p e n d e n t o f w h a t fo llo w s w ith re s p e c t to s u b je c t N F , te n s e a n d a c o h e siv e
I n k fo r do . C o n s id e r n o w (7 2 ). A p r o d u c e s th e w h c la u s e w h a t y o u re g o in g to
do a n d th e c o p u la is a n d t h e n p a u s e s . A fte r th e s h o r t p a u s e A s p e c ifie s th e
c o n te n t o f w h a t y o u re g o in g to d o . M a s s a m tr e a ts s u c h e x a m p le s a s sin g le
se n te n c e s , b u t f r o m t h e p e rs p e c tiv e o f c la u s e c o m p le x e s th e w h c la u s e s in (6 3 )
a n d (6 6 ) a r c q u it e s e p a r a te c la u s e s , w h ic h m ay , a s in ( 6 6 ) , b e s e p a r a te d fro m
th e fo llo w in g c la u s e b y a s h o r te r o r lo n g e r p a u s e . (R e g in a W e in e r t re p o r te d
t h a t th e i n t r o d u c t o r y w h a t I th o u g h t I'd d o w a s fo llo w e d b y a lo n g p a u s e .)
In th e f o llo w in g e x a m p le s ( f r o m M ille r a n d W e in e rt, 2 0 0 9 , p p . 2 9 2 - 3 ) , th e
w h c la u s e s lo o k e v e n m o r e in d e p e n d e n t b e c a u s e o f a c h a n g e in m o o d fro m
d e c la ra tiv e to im p e ra tiv e .
(7 2 )

E h . w h a t y o u 'r e g o i n g t o d o is g o

n b e t w e e n t h e c a m e r a s h o p a n d th e

le f t h a n d s id e o f t h e p a g e , rig h t.

(7 3 )

O k a y . N o w w h a t w e h a v e to d o is s o r t o f v - v e e r t o t h e le f t ju s t a w e e b i t . . . .

(7 4 )

w h a t w e n e e d t o r io is t u r n t u r n r ig h t . . . s t r a ig h t r i g h t . . .
M a p T a s k d ia lo g u e s

T h e d if fic u lty w ith (7 2 ) is t h a t th e r h y t h m a n d p itc h p a tt e r n is c o m p a tib le

w ith g o in b e tw e e n th e c a m e ra s h o p a n d th e le fth a n d s id e o f th e p a g e b e in g a n
i m p e ra tiv e m a i n c la u s e . T h e s e q u e n c e w h a t y o u 'r e g o in g to d o is is s p o k e n w ith
a ta s tis h te m p o . T h e r e is n o d r o p in p itc h a n d a m p l it u d e o n is ( c o n t r a r y to
v /h a t h a p p e n s in o t h e r e x a m p le s ) , b u t b e tw e e n is a n d g o th e r e is a s h o r t p a u se .

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

a n d t h e v ow el o f g o is h e ld s o t h a t it is re a liz e d a s a d o u b le v o w e l w ith a n
in c re a se in a m p litu d e .
In (7 3 ), th e s e q u e n c e w h a t w e h a v e to d o is s o r t o f is s e p a r a te d b y a m e d iu m
p a u s e f r o m v- v eer to th e left. In < 74), t h e s e q u e n c e w h a t w e n e e d to d o is is
s p o k e n w ith a la s t te m p o , w h e re a s t h e fo llo w in g s e q u e n c e t u r n tu r n r ig h t
is s p o k e n o n a s lo w te m p o . T h a t is, in b o t h (7 3 ) a n d (7 4 ), t h e p a u s in g a n d th e
te m p o a ls o su g g e s t a n im p e ra tiv e c la u s e a n a ly s is f o r t h e s e q u e n c e fo llo w in g
Lie h e a d le s s rela tiv e.
M a s s a m (1 9 9 9 , p . 3 4 4 ) p r e s e n ts tw o e x a m p le s o f th e th in g - is c o n s tr u c tio n
w ith d if f e r e n t p a tt e r n s o f p a u s in g a n d in t o n a tio n .
7 5 )

T h e p r o b le m is , w e c a n 't f in d t h e e v id e n c e .

(7 6 )

T h e p o in t is t h a t s h e d o e s n 't w a n t t o r u n f o r m a y o r a n y m o re

In ( 7 5 ) , th e r e is a h ig h /f a llin g /r is in g i n t o n a t i o n ( M s d e s c r ip tio n ) o n is fo l
lo w e d b y a p a u s e . I n ( 7 6 ) , t h e r e is n o v a ry in g i n t o n a t i o n ( M s d e s c r ip ti o n ) a n d
m e r e ly a s lig h t p a u s e a f t e r p o in t. M a s s a m a s s ig n s t h e tw o e x a m p le s t h e s a m e
s t r u c t u r e a n d p r o p o s e s , o n t h e b a s is o f t h e p a u s in g , t h a t , g iv e n th e b a s ic

s e q u e n c e s th e p r o b le m is is a n d th e p o i n t is is, th e s e c o n d is is m is s in g in (7 5 )
a n d t h e f i r s t is is m is s in g in ( 7 6 ) . T h e d if fic u lty h e r e is t h a t p a u s e s a r c n o t a
re lia b le g u id e to s y n ta c tic s t r u c tu r e . A s C ry s ta l (1 9 8 7 , p . 9 4 ) p o in t e d o u t lo n g
ag o , p a u s e s a r e n o t e v e n a g u id e to th e b e g in n i n g a n d e n d o f p u ta tiv e s e n
te n c e s. B ro w n e t a l. (1 9 8 0 ) p r o p o s e d th r e e ty p e s o f p a u s e in th e i r d a ta : lo n g
p a u s e s o f b e tw e e n 1 a n d 1.8 s e c o n d s , w h ic h w e r e a s s o c ia te d w i t h th e e n d o f
to p ic p h r a s e s , a s e t o f m e d i u m p a u s e s , w h ic h th e y (1 9 8 0 , p . 6 8 ) id e n tif ie d as
c o n to u r p a u s e s , a n d a th i r d s e t o f v e ry b r i e f p a u s e s , w h ic h s e e m e d to b e a s s o c i
a te d w ith le x ic a l a n d s y n ta c tic se a rc h e s . T h e d if fe re n c e b e tw e e n (7 5 ) a n d (7 6 )
n i g h t w ell b e t h a t (7 5 ) c o n s is ts o f a s e p a r a te 't o p i c c la u s e p lu s s e c o n d c la u se ,
c o n s titu tin g s e p a r a te u n it s o f s y n ta x a n d n o t p a r t o f a s in g le s e n te n c e . ( O f
c o u rs e , if, a s a r g u e d e a rlie r, t h e s e n te n c e is re je c te d a s a u n i t o f a n a ly sis
lo r s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e , th e n a s e n te n tia l a n a ly s is lo r (7 5 ) is n o t
a v a ila b le .) (7 6 ) a p p e a r s to c o n s is t o f tw o c la u s e s t h a t a r e w e ll- in te g r a te d in to
a c la u s e c o m p le x .
M a n y o f t h e W H c le fts in th e M a p T a s k d ia lo g u e s a r e o r g a n iz e d in to tw o
h its b y p itc h a n d r h y t h m . T h e w h c la u s e s w e re p r o n o u n c e d r a p id ly a n d o n a
lo w p itc h , w ith th e lo llo w in g c la u s e s p r o n o u n c e d o n a h ig h e r p itc h ( p r e s u m
a b ly e a c h s p e a k e rs n o r m a l p itc h ) . S o m e o f t h e w h c la u s e s w e re s e p a r a te d by

Theory, D ata and A n alysis

a p a u s e f r o m t h e fo llo w in g c la u s e ; w e a s s u m e fo r t h e m o m e n t t h a t th e s e w h
c la u s e s f u n c tio n a s to p ic c la u s e s , c a r r y in g g iv e n i n f o r m a t io n ( a t le a st in th e
M a p T a s k d ia lo g u e s ).
W e c o n c lu d e th is p a r t o f t h e d is c u s s io n w ith a n e x a m p le o f t h e th in g - is
c o n s t r u c ti o n , s h o w in g a n o t h e r w e ll- in te g r a te d c la u s e c o m p le x b u t w ith a n
a d je c tiv e m o d if y in g thing.
(7 7 )

a n d i lo o k e d i t u p in t h e s c o t t is h n a t io n a l d ic t io n a r y a n d i t g a v e t h e I
c a n n a e m in d 1= c a n 't r e m e m b e r ] h o w it g a v e it n o w b u t t h e s t r a n g e
t h i n g is t h a t n o w it s m o r e p r e v a le n t in t h e b o r d e r s [a r e a o f S c o t la n d n e x t
to t h e b o r d e r w it h E n g la n d , IM ) t h a n a n y w h e r e e lse
M ille r - B r o w n C o r p u s , c o n v e r s a t io n 3 3

T h e th in g - is c o n s t r u c t i o n c a n b e e x te n d e d e v e n w h e r e it c o n s t it u te s a to p ic
c la u s e , a s in (7 8 ).
(7 8 )

t h e o n l y t h i n g i s w i t h B e t h B e t h 'll n o t s p e n d m o n e y s h e 's m in g y sh e 's

re a y m e a n s h e w o u l d n t g iv e y o u t w o h a lf s f o r a o n e
M ille r - B r o w n C o r p u s , C o n v e r s a t io n 1 ?

F in ally , th e th in g - is c h u n k c a n b e p a r t o f a T H c le ft, a s in ( 7 9 ) , w h ic h
e x te n d s t h e p a ra lle lis m b e tw e e n th e th in g - is a n d W l 1 c le fts a r g u e d fo r b y
M assam .
(7 9 )

t h a t 's t h e b a d t h in g a b o u t t h e h a ll s o f r e s id e n c e

th e r e 's a lw a y s

p e o p le k n o c k i n g o n y o u r d o o r
M ille r B r o w n C o r p u s , c o n v e r s a t io n 5 8

Conclusion: integrated and

unintegrated structures
T h e a b o v e d is c u s s io n d e a ls w ith o n l y a s m a ll n u m b e r o f c o n s t r u c ti o n s , b u t
b r in g s o u t v a r io u s p r o b le m s . O n e is th e d if fic u lty o f d e c id in g w h a t is a re g u la r
c o n s t r u c ti o n a s o p p o s e d t o a p e r f o r m a n c e e r r o r a n d t h e n w h ic h re g u la r
c o n s t r u c ti o n s a r e s t a n d a r d o r n o n - s t a n d a r d a n d e v e n w h ic h a r e s p o k e n - o n ly
a n d w h ic h a ls o o c c u r in w r itin g . A n o th e r p r o b l e m is h o w d if fic u lt it c a n b e to
resist im p o s i n g c o n s t r u c ti o n s o f w r itte n la n g u a g e o n tr a n s c r i p t i o n s o f s p o n t a
n e o u s sp e e c h . I t is o n l y to o te m p ti n g t o c o lle c t p h r a s e s a n d c la u s e s i n t o a sin g le
s e n te n c e , a n d in d e e d s u c h a m o v e m a y b e m a d e u n a v o id a b le b y m o d e ls s u c h

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

as P rin c ip le s a n d P a r a m e te r s o r M in im a lis m o r p e r h a p s a n y f o r m a l m o d e l o f
sy n ta x . W e all lik e to d r a w a c le a n b o u n d a r y b e tw e e n s y n ta x a n d d is c o u r s e fo r
th e p u r p o s e o f e x p o s itio n in te x tb o o k s . In s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h , t h e b o u n d a r y
is v e r y flu id , a n d m a n y s e q u e n c e s o f c o n s t it u e n ts p r o b a b ly re q u ire a m a lg a m s
c f d is c o u r s e m o d e ls a n d m o d e ls o f c la u s e sy n ta x .

Dependency Relations

Chapter Outline
W h a t is a h e a d

41

D e p e n d e n c y a n d c o n s t it u e n t s t r u c t u r e

53

D e p e n d e n c y r e la t io n s a n d s u b o r d in a t e c l a u s e s

57

What is a head?
Heads and m odifiers
O u r d is c u s s io n o f s y n ta x b e g in s w ith tw o c e n tr a l id e a s. T h e firs t is t h a t w o rd s
a r e g r o u p e d in to p h r a s e s ; t h e s e c o n d is th a t in e a c h p h r a s e o n e w o r d , th e
h e a d , c o n tr o ls t h e o t h e r w o rd s , th e m o d i f i e r s . A g iv e n h e a d m a y h a v e m o r e
t h a n o n e m o d if ie r o r m a y n o t h a v e a n y m o d ifie r. I n th e large dog, t h e w o rd d o g
is th e h e a d a n d th e a n d la rg e a r e its m o d if ie r s . In b a r k e d lo u d ly , t h e w o rd b a rk e d
is t h e h e a d a n d lo u d ly th e m o d ifie r. (C r ite r ia fo r r e c o g n iz in g h e a d s a n d m o d i
fiers w ill b e g iv e n b e lo w .) A n o th e r id e a , w h ic h is c e n tr a l fo r m a n y sy n ta x
p e o p le b u t n o t fo r m a n y o th e r s , is th a t a g iv e n c la u s e h a s a v e r b a s its h e a d . In
th e w r it te n v a rie tie s o f m a n y la n g u a g e s , s u c h a s E n g lish , F re n c h , R u s s ia n , e tc .,
h e a d s a n d t h e i r m o d if ie r s o c c u r n e x t to e a c h o th e r , in p h r a s e s . T h e a r r a n g e
m e n t o f w o r d s in to p h r a s e s , o f p h r a s e s i n t o c la u s e s , a n d o f c la u s e s i n t o s e n
te n c e s is th e s u b je c t m a t te r o f c o n s t i t u e n t s t r u c t u r e a n a ly s is . C o n s t i t u e n t is
a c o n v e n ie n t la b e l fo r th e s m a lle r b i t s th a t c o m b i n e to b u ild u p a la rg e r
u n it , w h e th e r p h r a s e , c la u s e o r s e n te n c e . O n p p . 5 3 - 5 7 , w e b rie fly d is c u ss
t i e a n a ly s is o f c o n s t it u e n t s t r u c tu r e ; all in t r o d u c t io n s to s y n ta x c o v e r t h e to p ic .

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

In C h a p te r 3 , h o w e v e r, th is b e in g a c r itic a l i n t r o d u c t io n , w e w ill d is c u s s a
m a jo r p r o b le m o f c o n s t it u e n t s t r u c t u r e a r is in g f r o m t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f
sp lit N Ps.
A p h r a s e t h e n is a g r o u p o f in te r r e la te d w o r d s a n d e v e r y p h r a s e re p r e s e n ts
s o m e ty p e o l c o n s t r u c ti o n . ( S ee t h e d is c u s s io n o f c o n s t r u c ti o n s in C h a p t e r 4.)
T h e h e a d w o r d in a p h r a s e is t h e h e a d o f a c o n s t r u c ti o n . A s w e w ill se c in
C h a p te r 3 , g r o u p s o f in te r r e la te d w o r d s c a n b e m o v e d a r o u n d in s id e c la u s e s
as a s in g le u n it ; h e re , w e c o n c e n t r a te o n th e I a c t th a t in s u c h g ro u p s v a rio u s
lin k s c a n b e re c o g n iz e d a m o n g t h e w o rd s , b e tw e e n h e a d s a n d th e i r m o d ifie rs .
T h is r e la tio n s h ip o l m o d i f i c a t i o n is f u n d a m e n ta l in s y n ta x . It w ill p la y an
im p o r t a n t ro le in th e a c c o u n t o f d if f e r e n t ty p e s o f c la u s e a n d is c r u c i a l to
d is c u s s io n s o f w o r d o r d e r in d if f e r e n t la n g u a g e s.
A lth o u g h th e c o n c e p t o t h e a d is w id e ly u s e d in s y n ta x , b o t h in d e s c rip tiv e '
fr a m e w o rk s a n d in e x p la n a to r y f o r m a l m o d e ls , a n a ly s ts h a v e te n d e d to ta k e it
lo r g r a n te d . T h e c r ite r ia fo r h e a d s w e re d is c u s s e d e x te n s iv e ly in th e 1 9 8 0 s, w ith
L ie e x c h a n g e b e tw e e n Z w ic k y (1 9 8 5 ) a n d 1 iu d s o n (1 9 8 7 ) , t h e w o r k b y A b n e y
a d v o c a tin g d e te r m i n e r s a s t h e h e a d s o f N P s (A b n e y , 1987) a n d th e e x te n d e d
d is c u s s io n b y t h e c o n t r i b u t o r s to C lo rb c tt c t a l. ( 1 9 9 3 ). M a tth e w s (1 9 8 1 ) g e n
e ra lly re c o g n iz e d c r ite r ia a r e liste d in H u d s o n (1 9 9 0 , p p . 1 0 6 -7 ) .

Com plem ents and adjuncts

T h e b a s ic c r ite r ia l o r r e c o g n iz in g t h e h e a d o f a s y n ta c tic c o n s t r u c ti o n a r e th a t
t i e h e a d is o b lig a to r y a n d c o n tr o ls c e r ta in o t h e r p o s s ib le c o n s t it u e n ts (w o rd s )
ca lled m o d ifie rs . T h e m o d ifie rs a r e s a id to m o d if y o r d e p e n d o n th e h e a d , a n d
a d is ti n c ti o n is d r a w n b e tw e e n m o d if ie r s t h a t a r e c o n tr o lle d in s o m e w a y b y
t i e h e a d a n d th o s e t h a t a r e n o t c o n tr o lle d . T h e f o r m e r a r e c o m p le m e n ts , th e
la tte r a d ju n c ts . T h e s e c o n c e p t s a p p ly m o s t c le a rly to m a in v e r b s in c la u s e s ,
w h ic h c o n tr o l th e n u m b e r a n d ty p e o f c o n s t it u e n ts in th e c la u s e . S o m e m a in
v e rb s r e q u ir e o n ly a s u b je c t N P a s in ( l a ) ; o th e r s a ls o r e q u ir e a d ir e c t o b je c t
N P a s in ( l b ) ; a t h i r d s e t r e q u i r e s a s u b je c t N P , a d ir e c t o b je c t N P a n d a d ir e c
tio n a l P P a s in < lc ) a n d a f o u r t h s e t r e q u ir e s a s u b je c t N P a n d a d ir e c tio n a l N P
as in ( I d ) .
(1 ) a . T h e C h e s h ir e C a t la d e d
b

T h e d o g c h a se d so m e p h e a sa n ts,

T h e la w y e r p u t t h e d e e d s in t o h is s a fe

T h e b o y s d iv e d in t o t h e p o o l

D ependency R elation s
M a tth e w s (1 9 8 1 , p p . 1 2 1 -4 5 ) m a k e s t h e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t t h a t c o n tr o l b y
a v e rb o v e r a p a r t ic u l a r t y p e o f c o n s t it u e n t m a n ife s ts its e lf in tw o w a y s,
r e q u i r in g a n d e x c lu d in g . T h e v e r b m a y r e q u ir e a c o n s t it u e n t o l a g iv e n
ty p e ; f o r e x a m p le , p u t m u s t b e a c c o m p a n ie d b y a d ir e c tio n a l p h r a s e a n d
p u t th e d e e d s is n o t a c c e p ta b le . I n c o n tr a s t, d iv e d o e s n o t a c tu a lly re q u ire
a d ir e c tio n a l c o m p le m e n t: D o y o u k n o w h o w to d ive? a n d T h e boys s p e n t te n
n i n u t e s d iv in g a n d sp lo sh in g th e n w e n t h o m e . T h e e s s e n tia l fa c t is n o t so
m u c h t h a t d iv e ty p ic a lly r e q u ir e s a d ir e c tio n a l F F b u t in a few c a se s d o c s n o t,
a s t h a t d iv e p e r m it s d ir e c tio n a l P P s b u t m a n y v e rb s e x c lu d e th e m : discuss,
exclude, p la y ( w it h t h e p o s s ib le e x c e p tio n o l t h e id i o m s p l a y in to so m e b o d y 's
h in d s , p la y to th e g a lle ry), s i t( = b e s ittin g ), lie ( = b e ly in g ), s ta n d ( = b e s ta n d in g )
an d so o n .
D ir e c tio n a l P P s a r e c o m p le m e n ts . L o c a tio n a l P P s a n d te m p o r a l P P s a re
a d ju n c ts . T h e y a r e o p ti o n a l m o d ifie rs a n d a r e n o t re q u ire d o r e x c lu d e d b y a n y
\ e r b s . ( T h e r e a r e e x c e p tio n s . B e r e q u ir e s s o m e k in d o l c o m p l e m e n t , w h ic h c a n
b e a lo c a tio n a l P F - T h e y w e re in France, o r a te m p o r a l F P - T h e c o n c e rt is o n
Friday. S ta n d , s it a n d lie m a y r e q u ir e lo c a tio n a l P P s - T h e lo n g ca se c lo ck sta n d s
i't th e d in in g ro o m , b u t n o t * T h e lon g ca sc c lo ck sta n d s; T h e ca stle sits o n th e
ridge, b u t n o t ' T h e c a stle sits; T h e to w n lies in a sh e lte re d valley, b u t n o t T h e
to w n lies.)
In m a n y la n g u a g e s t h e v e r b d e te r m i n e s th e s h a p e o f its m o d if y in g n o u n s .
In R u s s ia n , t h e v e r b to lk n u l p u s h e d re q u ire s a n a c c u s a tiv e c a se s u f fix o n
i:s d ir e c t o b je c t n o u n , w h ile t h e v e rb p o m o g h e lp e d ' r e q u ir e s a d a tiv e s u llix ,
a s in (2).
(2 ) a . P e t r t o lk n u l Iv a n a .
P e t r p u s h Iv a n - a c c 'P e t r p u s h e d Iv a n .'
b . P e t r p o m o g Iv a n u
P e t r h e lp e d Iv a n - d a t 'P e t r h e lp e d Iv a n .'

In tr a d itio n a l te r m s , t h e v e r b is s a i d to g o v e rn t h e n o u n in a p a r t ic u l a r case:
p o m o g g o v e r n s its o b je c t n o u n in th e d a tiv e e a se . T h e g o v e rn in g c o n s t it u e n t/
w o rd is t h e h e a d o f a g iv e n s t r u c tu r e . T h e v e rb i s a ls o t h e m o r p h o s y n ta c tic
lo c u s o l a c la u s e ; t h a t is, it c a r r ie s t h e m a r k in g th a t in d ic a te s t h e r e la tio n s h ip
b e tw e e n a g iv e n c la u s e a n d a n o t h e r c la u s e , o r in th e c a se o f p h r a s e s , b e tw e e n a
g iv e n p h r a s e a n d a n o t h e r p h r a s e o r a c la u s e . In m a n y la n g u a g e s , th e v e r b ta k e s
o n e o r a n o t h e r s e t o f a lfix e s d e p e n d in g o n w h e th e r it is h e a d o l a m a i n o r a
s u b o r d in a te c la u se . F o r in s ta n c e , in F r e n c h , e s t is is t h e f o r m t h a t ty p ic a lly

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

c c c u r s in m a in c la u s e s , w h e re a s s o it'is', th e s u b ju n c tiv e f o r m , o c c u rs i n c e r ta in
ty p e s o f c o m p l e m e n t c la u s e a n d a d v e rb ia l c la u se .

Number: agreem ent or governm ent?

T w o o t h e r p r o p e r tie s o l h e a d s a r e th a t th e y c o n tr o l a g r e e m e n t a n d a c t as
a r g u m e n ts fo r f u n c to r s . Z w ic k y ( 1 9 8 5 ) c o n c lu d e d th a t in th e b a s ic d e c la ra tiv e
d a u s e c o n s t r u c ti o n o f E n g lish , N P + V P , th e N P c o n tr o ls a g r e e m e n t a n d
a d o p te d th e tr a d it io n a l v ie w o l a g r e e m e n t b e tw e e n s u b je c t n o u n a n d v erb ,
t h a t is, t h e v e rb a g re e s w ith t h e n o u n . T h e r e a r e tw o is s u e s h e re : w h a t is th e
d if fe re n c e b e tw e e n a g r e e m e n t a n d g o v e r n m e n t, a n d w h y r e g a r d th e v e r b as
a g re e in g w ith t h e n o u n ? L y o n s (1 9 6 8 , p p . 2 4 1 - 2 ) p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e t r a d i
tio n a l d is ti n c ti o n b e tw e e n a g r e e m e n t a n d g o v e r n m e n t re la te s to th e s u rfa c e
n a r k i n g o l c o n s titu e n ts . I n in s ta n c e s o l g o v e r n m e n t, th e g o v e rn in g c o n s t it u
e n t d o e s n o t c h a n g e its s h a p e , b u t t h e g o v e rn e d o n e d o e s ; in th e classic I n d o F .u ro p ean la n g u a g e s , v e r b s a n d p r e p o s itio n s im p o s e p a r t ic u l a r c a se a ffix e s o n
n o u n s , b u t a r e n o t th e m s e lv e s m a r k e d fo r c a se . B u t in b o t h g o v e r n m e n t a n d
a g r e e m e n t th e r e is a g o v e r n in g c a te g o ry . In th e N P c o n s t r u c ti o n , t h e N a ss ig n s
v a r io u s fe a tu r e s t o m o d if y in g a d je c tiv e s . I n th e R u s s ia n siro k a ja re k a b r o a d
riv e r, th e n o u n re k a is f e m in in e , s in g u la r a n d in th e n o m in a tiv e c a se . T h e t r a
d itio n a l v ie w is t h a t th e n o u n a s s ig n s th e s e fe a tu re s to t h e a d je c tiv e , w h ic h
a c q u ir e s t h e c o r r e c t s u ffix . C o m p a r e S ir o k o e p o le 'b r o a d fie ld , in w h ic h p o le is
r e u t e r , s in g u la r a n d in t h e n o m in a tiv e c a s e , a n d s iro k ie re k i, in w h ic h rck i
is p lu r a l, f e m in in e a n d in t h e n o m in a tiv e c a se . In t h e P P c o n s t r u c ti o n , t h e P is
n e h e a d : in th e R u ssia n z a rc k o j b e y o n d ( t h e ) r iv e r ' za a s s ig n s in s tr u m e n ta l
c ase t o rekoj. w h ile in iz r c f c i'o u t- o f ( t h e ) riv e r iz a s s ig n s g e n itiv e case.
W h a t is t h e h e a d o f t h e N P + V P c o n s t r u c ti o n ? Is it t h e N o f th e N P o r th e
V o f th e V P th a t g o v e rn s ? I.y o n s ( 1968, p p . 241 - 2 ) s ta te s 'i t w o u ld b e in c o r re c t
to m a i n t a i n (a s s o m e lin g u is ts h a v e m a i n ta i n e d ) th a t t h e p e r s o n a n d n u m b e r
c f t h e s u b je c t is d e te r m i n e d b y th e p e r s o n a n d n u m b e r o f t h e v e rb . H is re a s o n
is th a t n u m b e r a n d p e r s o n a r c n o m i n a l c a te g o rie s , w h ic h m a y o r m a y n o t b e
n a r k e d in th e v e r b o r v e r b p h r a s e . In s e m a n tic te r m s , n u m b e r a n d p e r s o n a re
p r o p e r tie s o f e n titie s , a n d p r o to ty p ic a l e n titie s a r e d e n o te d b y n o u n s , p r o t o
ty p ic a l e n titie s b e in g c o n c r e te o b je c ts s u c h a s c h a ir s , d o g s , s p o o n s , p ra m s ,
sh o e s , c o ts , m ilk , ju ic e , b r e a d a n d th e o t h e r e n ti ti e s t h a t s m a ll c h ild re n e n c o u n
te r in th e firs t p h a s e o f th e i r liv es. M a n y s u c h c o n c r e te e n titie s a r e c o u n ta b le
a n d m a y o c c u r s in g ly o r p lu ra lly .

D ependency R elation s
It is a ls o t r u e t h a t h u m a n e n titie s s u c h a s s p e a k e r , a d d r e s s e e a n d s o m e o n e
e t h e r t h a n s p e a k e r a n d a d d r e s s e e a r e re f e r r e d to b y p r o n o u n s a n d n o u n s , b u t
a lso b y p e r s o n a l affix e s o n v e rb s , a n d in th e s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n v a r ie tie s o f
m a n y la n g u a g e s v e rb s a r e u s e d w ith o u t p r o n o u n s . (B u t r ig o r o u s re s e a rc h o n
th e f r e q u e n c y o l o c c u r r e n c e o i v e r b s a lo n e v s v e r b s p lu s p r o n o u n s u b je c ts is
still to b e d o n e .) m o r e im p o r t a n t p o in t is t h a t t h e s t a tu s o f c e r t a in p r o p e r
ties a s in h e r e n t in n o u n s , o r r a t h e r i n t h e d e n o ta t a o f n o u n s , h a s to d o w ith
s e m a n tic s . P e rs o n a n d n u m b e r c a n b e re c o g n iz e d a s p r o p e r tie s o f e n titie s
i.i th e s e m a n tic c o m p o n e n t o f a m o d e l o r d e s c r ip tio n , a n d th is a t t r i b u t i o n is
r o t c h a n g e d b y m a k i n g t h e v e r b in a c la u s e a ss ig n p e r s o n a n d n u m b e r to its
s u b je c t n o u n . In E n g lis h , in fa c t, p a s t - te n s e v e rb s a n d p r e s e n t- t e n s e v erb s,
a p a r t f r o m th i r d - p e r s o n s in g u la r, a llo w a n y p e r s o n o r n u m b e r , t h o u g h th e
v erb m a y r e q u ir e a s u b je c t n o u n w ith a p a r t ic u l a r ty p e o f d e n o ta t u m ; fo r
e x a m p le . F L O W c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s r e q u i r in g a s u b je c t n o u n d e n o t i n g a liq u id
(in n o n - m e ta p h o r ic a l u sa g e ).
fin a l a n d s t r o n g p ie c e o f e v id e n c e f o r th e c o r e p o s i ti o n o f v e rb s in c la u s e s
c o m e s f r o m la n g u a g e s in w h ic h a c la u s e c a n c o n s is t o f a s in g le v e rb . E x a m p le s
a r c g iv e n in (3 )

(5 ).

(3) L a t in
a . p u gn a tu r.
is - f o u g h t

T h e r e is f ig h t i n g . '

b . to n u it.
th u n d e re d

T h e r e w a s t h u n d e r .'

(4) T u r k i s h
konu$

ul

m az.

lo n e w o r d l

sp o ke n

P a s s iv e

N e g a t iv e

It

is n o t s p o k e n . \ t h a t is N o s p e a k in g '

(5 ) L u g a n d a (A f r ic a - B a n t u la n g u a g e )
a

li

gi goba.

|one w o rd ]

sh e

fu tu re

it

" S h e w ill c h a s e it . ( a c h ic k e n )

ch ase

T h e I-atin c la u s e in (3 ) c o n s is ts o f th e v e rb p u g n a tu r .

T his v e rb is p assiv e;

w h ile i t m ig h t b e t h o u g h t t h a t a s u b je c t N P h a s b e e n c llip te d , it is d if fic u lt to

k n o w w h a t t h a t N P m ig h t b e . T h e s a m e a p p lie s to th e T u rk is h p a ss iv e v e rb in
(4 ). T h e L u g a n d a v e r b in 15) is a c tiv e . N o in d e p e n d e n t N P s a r c n e e d e d b e c a u se
h c o n te x t t h e p e r s o n d o in g t h e c h a s in g a n d t h e b ir d b e in g c h a s e d a r e o b v io u s
to th e h e a re r.

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

Croft on the concept of head

T h e c o n c e p t o t h e a d , a n d in p a r t ic u l a r t h e s t a t u s o f t h e v e rb a s h e a d o f v e rb
p h ra s e o r c la u s e , h a s b e e n c h a lle n g e d b y C r o f t (2 0 0 1 , p p . 2 4 6 - 9 ) . T a k in g u p
t i e w e ll- k n o w n p r o p e r ty o f v e r b s t h a t a n y g iv e n v e r b m a y ta k e o n e o r m o r e
s u b c a te g o r iz a tio n fr a m e s , C ro ft (2 0 0 1 , p . 2 4 8 ) a rg u e s t h a t it is d if fic u lt to
m a i n ta i n th e m a t h e m a t ic a l f u n c t io n r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n a v e rb a n d its s u b
c a te g o riz a tio n f r a m e u n le s s , fo r e x a m p le , a v e rb s u c h a s g iv e is t r e a te d a s tw o
d is tin c t le x ic a l ite m s , o n e w ith t h e f r a m e N P N P , g iv e t h e tlo g a b o n e, a n d th e
e t h e r w ith th e f r a m e N P PP. g iv e a b o n e to th e d og. C ro ft p r o p o s e s t h a t th e r e is
r o d ir e c tio n a lity b e tw e e n v e r b a n d i t s c o m p l e m e n t s b u t a m a n y - to - m a n y
m a p p in g . H o w te llin g is C r o f ts o b je c tio n ? O n e r e s p o n s e w o u ld b e to o rg a n iz e
lexical e n tr ie s in te r m s o f a sin g le a r g u m e n t s t r u c t u r e (w h e re a p p r o p r ia te )
w ith se v e ra l a s s o c ia te d s u b c a te g o r iz a tio n f r a m e s . T h e o n e - o n e m a p p in g
w o u ld t h e n b e b e tw e e n a g iv e n s u b c a te g o r iz a tio n f r a m e a n d a g iv e n s y n ta c tic
s tr u c tu r e . F o r in s ta n c e , G IV E h a s t h e c o n c e p tu a l s t r u c t u r e [C a u s e [X m o v e
f r o m Y to Z )J. Y is t h e S o u rc e a n d p r e v i o u s o w n e r a n d Z is t h e G o a l a n d n e w
c w n e r. (S ee th e d is c u s s io n o f th e m a ti c r o le s in C h a p t e r 10.) T h e a s s o c ia te d
s u b c a te g o r iz a tio n f r a m e s a r e N P P P a n d N P N P . T h e s o r ts o f lin k in g m e c h a r i s m s t h a t a r e r e q u ir e d h a v e b e e n d is c u s s e d by, fo r e x a m p le , G o ld b e r g < 19 95)
a n d L e v in a n d R a p p a p o rt- 1 lo v a v (2 0 0 5 ).
T h is o r g a n iz a tio n o f t h e le x ic o n fits t h e fa c ts o f a g r e e m e n t a n d g o v e r n
m e n t, e s p e c ia lly w ith re s p e c t t o c a s e m a r k in g - in R u s s ia n , fo r in s ta n c e , th e
c o r r e s p o n d in g p h r a s e is d a l so b a k e k o s f ( h e / s h e ) g a v e d o g - d a tiv e b o n e , in
w h ic h t h e v e r b d a l a s s ig n s d a tiv e c a se to s o b a k e a n d a c c u s a tiv e c a s e to k o s f a n d
v a r io u s w o r d o r d e r s a r e p o s s ib le d e p e n d in g o n th e c o n te x t: d a l k o s t so b a ke,
so b a ke d a l k o st a n d ko st' d a l so b a k e .; it fits w ith th e g e n e ra l s e m a n tic r e la tio n
s h ip b e tw e e n h e a d a n d m o d if ie r s d e s c r ib e d b e lo w ; it fits w ith th e la rg e b o d y
o f w o rk o n a r g u m e n t s t r u c tu r e , w h ic h is s u c c e s s fu l b e c a u s e c la s se s o f v e rb s
c m b e e s ta b lis h e d a n d p r o v id e a lin k b e tw e e n s y n ta x a n d v o c a b u la ry , a n d it
f.ts w i t h t h e fa c t t h a t in m a n y la n g u a g e s t h e s o le o b lig a to r y c o n s t i t u e n t o f a
d e c la ra tiv e c la u s e is t h e v erb .
C r o f t p r e s e n ts v a r i o u s o t h e r a r g u m e n ts , th r e e o f w h ic h w e lo o k a t h e re .
U sin g th e L o c a tiv e A lte r n a ti o n a s a n e x a m p le , h e m e n t io n s t h a t s u b c a tc g o r iz a t o n f r a m e s a ffe c t th e m e a n i n g o f c la u s e s . M a r y s p r a y e d p a i n t o n th e w a ll leaves
it o p e n w h e th e r t h e w a ll is e n tir e ly o r p a rtia lly c o v e re d w ith p a in t; M a r y
sprayed th e w a ll w it h p a in d e n o te s a s i t u a t i o n in w h ic h th e w all is e n tire ly
co v e re d . W h a t C r o f t d o e s n o t s a y is t h a t th e k e y to th e d if f e r e n t in t e r p r e ta ti o n s

D ependency R elation s
is t h e d ir e c t o b je c t. U n le ss s ig n a lle d o th e r w is e , it is a s s u m e d t h a t th e a c tio n
re f e rre d to b y a v e r b c o m p le te ly a ffe c ts th e re f e r e n t o f its d ir e c t o b je c t NP.
If th e w a ll is th e d ir e c t o b je c t, it re f e rs to t h e e n ti ty c o m p le te ly a ff e c te d b y th e
sp ra y in g . A d d p a r tia lly a n d th e m e a n i n g c h a n g e s : M a r y p a r tia lly sp ra ye d th e
w all w ith p a in t. It h a s n e v e r b e e n s u g g e s te d in t h e v e r b - d e p e n d e n c v lite r a tu r e
th a t v e rb s d e te r m i n e t h e e n tir e in t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c la u s e s a n d it is n o t cle a r
e x a c tly h o w t h e id e a o f v e r b s a s c la u s e h e a d s is u n d e r m i n e d b y t h e c o n t r i b u
tio n o l s u b c a te g o r iz a tio n I r a m c s to t h e in t e r p r e ta ti o n o l c la u s e s . (S e e th e
c is c u s s io n o f s u c h e x a m p le s in c o n n e c t io n w ith p a r t ic i p a n t/ th e m a tic ro le s
i:i C h a p t e r 10.)
The s e c o n d a r g u m e n t re s ts o n R u s s ia n d a ta , w h ic h C r o f t in t e r p r e ts as
d e m o n s tr a t in g t h a t N P s a r e e q u iv a le n t t o V P s in c o p u la c o n s t r u c ti o n s . H e says
3 u t a n N P c a n a ls o b e t h e d i s tr i b u ti o n a l e q u iv a le n t o t t h e V P , il th e la n g u a g e
u ses N P s in p r e d i c a te n o m i n a l c o n s t r u c ti o n s w ith o u t th e a d d it io n o f c o p u la s
o r v e rb a l in f le c tio n s , a s in R u s s ia n ' ( C r o f t, 2 0 0 1 , p . 2 5 1 >. T h e p a ra lle l d is tr i b u
tio n n o te d b y C ro ft is in t h e e x a m p le s in ( 6 ) , w h e r e c i ta la k n ig u is in t h e sa m e
slo t a s s tu d e n t. (I n ( 6 b ) , s t u d e n t h a s b e e n c h a n g e d [b y IM ] to s tu d e n tk a , th e
f e m in in e f o rm .)

(6 ) a . O n a d ita la k n ig u
S h e re a d a -b o o k
b. O n a stu d e n tk a .
S h e is a s t u d e n t .

T h e d a ta is m o r e c o m p le x t h a n a p p e a r s f r o m C r o f ts a c c o u n t. H e s a y s 'i f th e
la n g u a g e u s e s N P s in p re d ic a te n o m i n a l c o n s t r u c ti o n s w i t h o u t th e a d d it io n o f
c o p u la s o r v e rb a l in f le c tio n s ( C r o f t, 2 0 0 1 , p. 2 5 1 ). T h e fa c ts o f R u ssia n a r e th a t
th e c o p u la is m is s in g o n l y in p r e s e n t- te n s e c la u s e s; n o n - p r e s e n t te n s e c la u s e s
req u ire s o m e p a s t- te n s e lo r m o l t h e c o p u la - h y l, b y la , b ylo , b y li - o r s o m e
f a t u r e - t e n s e f o r m - In id u , b u d e t, e tc . C r o f t m is ta k e n ly tr a n s la te s o n a s tu d e n t
(h is o r ig in a l e x a m p le ) a s 'S h e w a s a s t u d e n t. T h e tr a n s la t io n s h o u l d h a v e b e e n
'S h e is a s t u d e n t '; S h e w a s a s t u d e n t is O n a b yla s tu d e n tk a - b e tt e r , stu d e n tk o j
in th e in s tr u m e n ta l c a se , w h ic h d e n o te s a te m p o r a r y s ta te . I n d e f in itio n s ,
o r w h e r e th e r e is e m p h a s is , t h e in v a r ia b le p r e s e n t- t e n s e lo r m est' is u s e d . T h e
u p s h o t o f all th is is t h a t it is o n l y i n p r e s e n t- t e n s e c la u s e s th a t th e r e is a n a p p a r
e n t p a ra lle l b e tw e e n N P a n d V P , w h ic h re d u c e s th e fo r c e o f C ro ft's a r g u m e n t.
A p o s s ib le tr e a tm e n t o l th e d a ta , th e tr a d it io n a l o n e in (a c t, is to re g a r d p re s
e n t- te n s e c la u s e s a s c o n ta i n in g a c o p u la , w h ic h is re a liz e d a s z e ro .

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

T h e th i r d a r g u m e n t is t h a t th e r e a r e e x o c e n tr ic c o n s t r u c ti o n s , th a t is, c o n
s t r u c tio n s w ith n o h e a d s . C r o f t's e x a m p le s a r e in (7 ).
17) a . [ W h a t r e a lly b o t h e r s m e ) a r e a ll o f t h o s e s q u a r e b r a c k e ts ,
b . I s a id [(t h a t ) I w a s g o i n g to d o it).

U s in g C o g n itiv e G r a m m a r te r m in o lo g y , C r o f t (2 0 0 1 , p . 2 5 6 ) say s t h a t in
(7 a ,b ) n o e le m e n t p r o f ile s th e s a m e t h i n g a s t h e w h o le c o n s t r u c ti o n . F o r (7 a ),
B re sn a n a n d G r im s h a w (1 9 7 8 ) p r o p o s e d a n a lte r n a tiv e a n a ly s is , w h ic h p r o
v id e s t h e s t r u c t u r e w ith a h e a d . T h e y su g g e s t th e a n a ly s is in (8 ), w h ic h is u s e d
in th e d is c u s s io n o f w h w o r d s a s d e ic tic s in C h a p t e r 8.
(8 ) V Y h a t | 0 re a lly b o t h e r s m e ) a r e a ll o f t h o s e s q u a r e b r a c k e t s

G iv e n th is s tr u c tu r e , w e c a n say t h a t w h a t is a d e ic tic p r o n o u n p o in t in g to
c,ll o f th o s e sq u a r e b ra ckets. T h a t is, th e tr a d itio n a lly la b e lle d h e a d le ss re la tiv e
d o e s h a v e a h e a d a n d f r o m a v e r b - d e p e n d e n c y s t a n d p o i n t t h e h e a d o f th e
n a i n c la u s e is are. I f t h e c o p u la d e n o te s a n e q u iv a le n c e , th e e n tir e m a in c la u s e
c o n s t r u c t i o n d e n o t e s , i n H a l l i d a y s t e r m s , a n e q u a t i v c q u i v a l e n c e ( a s o p p o s e d

to a n id e n tif ic a tio n a l o r lo c a tio n a l o n e ) . T h a t is, a r e c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s p r o f il

ing t h e s a m e a b s tr a c t th i n g ' a s t h e w h o le c o n s t r u c ti o n .
T h e c o m p le m e n t c la u s e I w a s g o in g to d o it h a s a c o m p le x s t r u c tu r e , s in c e it
c o n ta in s a n o n - f in it e c la u s e . I f w a s g o in g is t r e a te d a s t h e h e a d , it p ro file s a n
e v e n t o f g o in g , a n d t h e w h o le c la u s e fills in d e ta ils o f th is e v e n t. T h e n o n - f in it e
d a u s e h a s d o a s its h e a d . W a s g o in g a n d d o a r e in te r n a l h e a d s , in s id e th e
c o m p le m e n t c la u s e , w h e re a s C r o f t is p re s u m a b ly ta lk in g a b o u t a n e x te rn a l
h e a d t h a t w o u ld p ro file t h e w h o le c o m p le m e n t c la u s e a s a th in g s a id . I h e g e n
e ra lly a c c e p te d h y p o th e s is is t h a t th e c o m p le m e n tiz e r t h a t w a s o r ig in a lly ju s t
s u c h a n e x te r n a l h e a d , b u t in E n g lis h a n d m a n y o t h e r la n g u a g e s s u b o r d in a te
d a u s e s la c k e x te r n a l h e a d s . T h i s d o e s n o t a ffe c t th e a n a ly s is o f a ll c la u s e s as
h a v in g in te r n a l h e a d s a n d c a n b e s e e n a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f th e p e c u li a r n a tu r e
c f s e n te n c e s a s lo w -le v el d is c o u r s e u n its . (S e e th e d is c u s s io n o l c la u s e s a n d
s e n te n c e s in C h a p t e r I.)

Heads and m eaning

As w ill b e a r g u e d in C h a p te r s 7 - 1 0 , th e r e is a c lo se lin k b e tw e e n g r a m m a r a n d
s e m a n tic s ; in d e e d , w h a t m a n y a n a ly s ts a n d u s e r s o l g r a m m a r s c o u n t a s e x p la
n a ti o n is t h e p r o v is io n o f a s e m a n tic p r o p e r ty fo r a p a r t ic u l a r s e t o f case
su ffix es o r f o r a p a r t ic u l a r a s p e c t o f th e v e r b , a n d s o o n . I t is a p ity t h a t in th e

D ependency R elation s
p r o p o s e d t r e a tm e n t o f a g r e e m e n t th e n o u n is n o t t h e g o v e r n in g c o n s titu e n t,
h u t th is d o e s n o t r e q u ir e u s to d e n y t h a t p e r s o n a n d n u m b e r a r e p r o p e r tie s
o f c o n c r e te e n titie s t h a t a r c d e n o te d b y n o u n s . A n d w e g e l a t r e a t m e n t o f
s y n ta c tic re la tio n s w ith i n t h e c la u s e in w h ic h t h e v e rb c o n tr o ls a ll t h e o th e r
c o n s titu e n ts . W e d o g e t a p le a s in g s e m a n tic p r o p e r ty : in all s t r u c tu r e s , w h e th e r
c la u se , N P, P P o r , w e c a n c o n s id e r t h e h e a d a s c o n v e y in g a c e n tr a l p ie c e
o f i n f o r m a t i o n a n d t h e m o d if ie r s a s c o n v e y in g e x tr a in f o r m a t io n . T h u s in
th e p h r a s e e x p e n s iv e b o o ks t h e h e a d w o r d b o o k s in d ic a te s t h e v e r y la rg e set
o f t h i n g s t h a t c o u n t a s b o o k s , w h ile e x p e n s iv e in d ic a te s t h a t th e s p e a k e r is
d r a w in g a t t e n t i o n n o t to th e w h o le s e t b u t to th e s u b s e t o l b o o k s t h a t a re
e x p e n siv e . In th e lo n g e r p h r a s e th e e x p e n s iv e b o o ks, th e w o r d th e s ig n a ls th a t
th e s p e a k e r is r e f e r r in g to a s e t o f b o o k s w h ic h h a v e a lre a d y b e e n m e n t io n e d
c r a r e o th e r w is e o b v io u s in a p a r t ic u l a r c o n te x t.
T h e s a m e n a r r o w in g d o w n o f m e a n in g a p p lie s to c la u s e s . C o n s id e r th e
e x a m p le s d r o v e a n d d ro v e a V olvo. D ro v e in d ic a te s d r iv in g in g e n e ra l; d ro v e a
Volvo n a r r o w s d o w n th e a c tiv ity to d r i v in g a p a r t ic u l a r m a k e o f c a r. C o n s id e r
f a r th e r th e p h r a s e o n th e p la te . T h e first w o r d o n sig n a ls a r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n
s o m e e n t i t y , a a v a p i e c e o f t o a s t o r a k n i t e , a n d t h e s u r f a c e o f s o m e th i n g ; th e

p la te te lls u s w h a t t h a t s o m e th i n g is, t h a t is, it n a r r o w s d o w n t h e m e a n in g

'b e in g o n ' to b e in g o n a p a r t ic u l a r p la te . M o d ifie r s t h a t a r e a d ju n c t s h a v e th e
s a m e effe c t. T h e c la u s e J u lie t b o u g h t a b o o k f o r J e n n ife r in B e rw ic k la s t T uesday
c o n ta in s f o u r m o d if ie r s o f b o u g h t - a b o o k , f o r Jen n ifer, in B e rw ic k a n d last
Tuesday. A b o o k s ig n a ls w h a t w a s b o u g h t a n d n a r r o w s d o w n t h e a c tiv ity fro m
ju s t b u y in g to b u y in g a b o o k , a s o p p o s e d , say , to b u y in g t h e w e e k ly g ro c e rie s.
For J e n n ife r n a r r o w s th e m e a n i n g f u r t h e r

n o t j u s t b u y a b o o k ' b u t b u y a

L o o k lo r Je n n ifer, a n d s im ila rly fo r th e p h r a s e s in B e r w ic k a n d la s t Tuesday.

Heads of PP and NP
N o th in g h a s b e e n s a id s o fa r a b o u t P P s a n d N P s, t h o u g h th e y h a v e b e e n m e n
tio n e d in p a s s in g . T h e h e a d o f a P P is a p r e p o s itio n . P r e p o s itio n s lin k n o u n s to
r.o u n s ( b o o k s a b o u t a n tiq u e s ), a d je c tiv e s to n o u n s ( ric h in m in e ra ls) a n d v e rb s
to n o u n s ( a im e d a t th e ta rg et). M o s t p r e p o s itio n s m u s t b e fo llo w e d b y a g r o u p
c t w o r d s c o n ta i n in g a n o u n , o r b y a n o u n o n its o w n , a s in I T h e y s a t) r o u n d th e
ta b le, (C la u d e p a in te d ) w ith th is p a in tb r u s h a n d ( I 'v e b o u g h t a p r e s e n t) fo r
Freya. T h a t p r e p o s iti o n s a r e h e a d s a n d c o n tr o l w h a t o c c u r s in p r e p o s itio n a l
p h ra s e s is s h o w n b y t h e la c t t h a t in E n g lis h a sm a ll n u m b e r o l p r e p o s itio n s
a llo w a n o t h e r p r e p o s iti o n b e tw e e n t h e m a n d t h e n o u n : In b e h in d th e w o o d p ile
fw a s a h ed g eh o g ) a n d ( A n o w l sw o o p e d o n th e ra b b it) f r o m u p in th e beech tree.

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

In a llo w s b e h in d a n d f r o m a llo w s u p . A n o th e r a s p e c t o f th is c o n tr o l is t h a t in
s t a n d a r d E n g lis h p r e p o s iti o n s c a n b e fo llo w e d b y p r o n o u n s , b u t t h e y e x c lu d e
I. he, sh e, w e a n d th e y a n d r e q u ir e m e , h im , h er, u s a n d th e m : 'I ' v e b o u g h t u
[.resent fo r sh e a n d I 'v e b o u g h t a p r e s e n t f o r h er. In a n u m b e r o f I n d o - E u r o p e a n
la n g u a g e s, p r e p o s itio n s g o v e rn n o u n s in a p a r t ic u l a r c a se . F o r e x a m p le , in
R u s s ia n , v i n / i n t o a s s ig n s a c c u s a tiv e o r lo c a tiv e c a s e d e p e n d in g o n w h e th e r
ii d e n o te s m o v e m e n t o r lo c a tio n , i z 'o u t o f a s s ig n s th e g e n itiv e c a se a n d p o d
u n d e r a s s ig n s t h e i n s tr u m e n ta l case.
T h e h e a d o f a N P is t h e s u b je c t o f s o m e c o n tro v e rs y . U n til t h e m id - 1 9 8 0 s ,
it w a s g e n e ra lly a s s u m e d t h a t N P s a r e h e a d e d b y n o u n s , a lt h o u g h L y o n s
(1 9 7 5 /1 9 9 1 ) h a d p r o p o s e d d e ic tic s a s th e p r i m a r y c o n s t it u e n ts o f N P s a n d
s u g g e s te d , in a lm o s t th r o w - a w a y r e m a r k s , t h a t th e h e a d s o f N P s w e re n o t
r.o u n s b u t d e te r m in e r s (L y o n s, 1 9 7 7 b , p p . 3 9 1 - 2 ; 1981, p p . 2 2 2 - 3 ) . S in c e th e
p u b lic a tio n o f A b n e y (1 9 8 7 ) it h a s b e e n ta k e n fo r g r a n t e d b y m o s t g e n e ra tiv e
lin g u is ts th a t t h e h e a d s o l N P s a r e d e te r m in e r s , a n d N P s h a v e b e e n re la b e lle d
D P ( d e t e r m in e r p h r a s e ) . O n e p le a s in g c o n s e q u e n c e o f th is re - a n a ly s is is
t i a t D P s a n d V P s h a v e a p a ra lle l s tr u c tu r e : d e te r m i n e r s a r e s e e n a s a n a lo g o u s
to a u x ilia ry v e rb s. T h e la tte r a rc ta k e n to b e th e h e a d o f V P s w h e n th e y o c c u r

b e c a u s e t h e y c a r r y p e r s o n a n d n u m b e r , a n d a ls o in d ic a tiv e o r s u b ju n c tiv e
n o o d in la n g u a g e s f o r w h ic h t h a t d is ti n c ti o n is v a lid .
A n a ly se s ta k e n fo r g r a n t e d u s u a lly b e n e fit f r o m r e - e x a m i n a tio n . M a n y
s u c h a n a ly s e s a r e in tu itiv e ly a p p e a lin g a n d b a s e d o n ir r e p r o a c h a b le d a ta a n d
a r g u m e n ts b u t s o m e , in c lu d in g D P s, a r e o p e n t o c h a lle n g e . (S e e S a m p s o n 's
c o m m e n ts o n th e q u a li ty o f d a ta o n p p . 1 1 8 -1 3 9 .) O n e d r a w b a c k is th e lo ss
o f t h e s e m a n tic p a ra lle l b e tw e e n V P s a n d N P s , w h e re b y th e m o d if ie r s o f a
v e rb n a r r o w d o w n t h e ty p e o f e v e n t d e n o t e d a n d t h e m o d ifie rs o f a n o u n
r.a r ro w d o w n t h e t y p e o f e n t i t y d e n o te d . T h e m o d if ie r s o f a d e t e r m i n e r d o
r o t n a r r o w d o w n its m e a n in g . A p a r t f r o m t h e s y n ta c tic p a ra lle l b e tw e e n V P
a n d D P, w h a t s y n ta c tic a r g u m e n ts a r e g iv e n fo r w o r k in g w ith D Ps?
H u d s o n (1 9 9 0 , p p . 2 7 1 - 2 ) , b u t n o t H u d s o n (2 0 0 7 ) , lis ts th e fo llo w in g
p o in ts . In p h ra s e s s u c h a s a n y s t u d e n t t h e o p ti o n a l w o rd is s tu d e n t, cf. I h a v e n 't
in s u lte d a n y s tu d e n t v e r s u s I h a v e n 't in s u lte d a n y (s tu d e n t, colleague, p o lic e m a n ,
e tc ., u n d e r s to o d f r o m c o n te x t) . T h i s c a n b e c o u n te r e d w ith t h e o b s e r v a tio n
t h a t a n y in a n y s tu d e n t c a n b e a n a ly s e d a s a q u a n ti f i e r - d e t e r m i n e r , b u t in
I h a v e n 't in s u lte d a n y , it c a n b e a n a ly s e d a s a p r o n o u n . S im ila rly , T h is in T h is
project is fa s c in a tin g c a n b e c o n s id e r e d a d e te r m i n e r , w h e re a s in T h is is fa s c i
n a tin g it c a n b e c o n s id e r e d a p r o n o u n . It is w o r th w h ile d r a w in g a tte n tio n
to th e fa c t t h a t th is p o i n t o n ly a p p lie s to N P s c o n ta i n in g s in g u la r c o u n t n o u n s .

D ependency R elation s
In N P s c o n ta i n in g m a s s n o u n s o r p lu r a l n o u n s , f o r e x a m p le , a n y coffee a n d a n y
projects, t h e d e t e r m i n e r is o m is s ib le to o : D id y o u f i n d ( a n y ) c o ffe e in th e k itc h e n ?
a n d H a v e y o u ( a n y ) p ro jects in p re p a r a tio n j u s t n o n *
H u d s o n s s e c o n d p o i n t is t h a t t h e d e t e r m i n e r - in E n g lish , b u t h e is d e a lin g
w ith t h e g r a m m a r o f E n g lis h - is t h e lo c u s o f n u m b e r , n e g a tio n a n d d e f i n it e
ness, w h ic h a r e c r u c ia l fo r t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a n y w h o le p h r a s e c o n ta i n in g a
n o u n . T h e p o i n t is v a lid fo r n e g a tio n a n d d e fin ite n e s s , b u t, w i t h t h e e x c e p tio n
c l a few in v a r ia b le n o u n s , th e d e te r m i n e r is n e v e r t h e s o le lo c u s o f n u m b e r :
i.i th e se books, b o th th e se a n d b o o k s c a r r y n u m b e r . H u d s o n s c o m m e n t o n
n e g a tio n a n d d e fin ite n e s s ra is e s th e p o i n t th a t th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o t th e b o o k is
a f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t o f b o o k b o o k c o m b in e s w i t h th e ; th e b o o k c a n n o t - * th e th e
l o o k is u n a c c e p ta b le .
H u d s o n s t h i r d p o i n t is t h a t d e te r m i n e r s v a r y le x ic a lly a n d a r b i tr a r il y w ith
re s p e c t to w h e th e r a n o u n is o p tio n a l: T h e re w ere se v e r a l h o u se s to choose fr o m ,
e n d each h a d its a ttr a c tio n s b u t n o t ' a n d e v e r y h a d its a ttra c tio n s. T h is p r o p
e rly , h e sa y s , is ty p ic a l o f h e a d s , w h ic h h a v e d if f e r e n t v a le n c ie s. A n o th e r w a y o f
lo o k in g a t th e d a t a is t h a t ea ch c a n b e a d e te r m i n e r o r a p r o n o u n , t h a t is, c a n
c c c u r in a d e te r m in e r p o s itio n o r a p r o n o u n p o s itio n , w h e re a s e v e r y c a n o n ly

fo n c tio n a s a d e te r m i n e r . A t is s u e h e r e is a c e r ta in te n s io n b e tw e e n th e b a sic
lex ical c la s s o f a w o r d a n d t h e s y n ta c tic s lo ts it c a n o c c u p y . A n in s tru c tiv e
e x a m p le is a f f o r d e d b y w o r d s s u c h a s r e m a rk a b le , d elica te a n d sh a rp , w h ic h
a re b a s ic a lly a d je c tiv e s a n d ty p ic a lly o c c u r in a d je c tiv e s lo ts in s y n ta c tic
s t r u c tu r e s . B u t T h e R e m a r k a b le s a r e a m o u n t a i n r a n g e in th e S o u th Is la n d o f
N e w Z e a la n d ; in W e p a s s e d T h e R e m a rk a b le s j u s t b e fo re Q u e e n sto w n , T h e
R em a rk a b le s is a N P a n d its h e a d is R e m a rka b les. T h e w o r d is n o t a n a d je c tiv e
f u n c tio n in g a s t h e h e a d o f a N P ; it h a s a p lu r a l su ffix a n d h a s to b e a n a ly s e d
a s a n o u n . I n W a sh d e lic a tes b y h a n d , d elica te s is th e s o le a n d th e r e f o r e h e a d
w o r d in t h e d ir e c t o b je c t N P . I t t o o h a s a p lu r a l su ffix a n d h a s to b e a n a ly s e d
a s a n o u n , a lt h o u g h d e lic a te is b a sic a lly a n a d je c tiv e a n d ty p ic a lly o c c u rs in
a d je c tiv e s lo ts . ( O t h e r a d je c tiv e s t h a t a r e c o n v e r te d to n o u n s in th e c o n te x t
o f in s tr u c t io n s l o r w a s h in g m a c h in e s a r e w o o lle n a n d c o tto n , a n d in th e
c a y s b e fo r e tig h ts w o m e n w o r e n y lo n s .) S h a rp , lik e w ise , is b a s ic a lly a n a d je c
tive, b u t in N o sh a rp s in th is c o n ta in e r ( n o t ic e i n a h o s p ita l) i t is a n o u n w ith
a p lu r a l su ffix . T h a t is, t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f a f o r m t h a t is b a s ic a lly a n X
b u t f u n c tio n s o c c a s io n a lly o r e v e n f r e q u e n tly a s a Y is n o t u n k n o w n in th e
g r a m m a r o l E n g lish .
H u d s o n 's f o u r th p o i n t is t h a t t h e d e te r m i n e r is a lw a y s o n t h e p e r i p h e r y o f
th e n o u n p h r a s e , w h ic h is e a s y to e x p la in i f i t is t h e h e a d . T h e re s t o f th e N P

52

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s t h e c o m p l e m e n t o f th e d e te r m i n e r ( H u d s o n s f if th p o in t) ,
a n d in E n g lis h c o m p l e m e n t s fo llo w t h e i r h e a d . A s e m a n ti c - p r a g m a ti c e x p la
n a ti o n is th a t, fo r e x a m p le , //it, th is, a n d th a t p ic k o u t a p a r t ic u l a r m e m b e r o f
a p a r t ic u l a r s u b s e t o f e n titie s . F o r in s ta n c e , in th e b lu e ca r w it h a llo y w heels
a n d b a ld tyres, th e p ic k s o u t t h e e n t i t y d e n o te d b y b lu e ca r w ith a llo y w h e els a n d
l a i d tyres. T h e m o d if ie s o r a p p lie s t o th e e n ti r e s e q u e n c e , a n d th is is w h a t is
sig n a lle d b y its p o s i ti o n o n th e e x tr e m e p e rip h e ry .
I lu d s o n s s ix th p o i n t c o n c e r n s t h e p a ra lle ls in r e la tio n b e tw e e n d e te r m i n e r
a n d n o u n a n d b e tw e e n a u x ilia r y v e r b a n d m a i n v e rb . T h e p a ra lle l lie s in th e
fo llo w in g p r o p e r tie s : th e d e t e r m i n e r a n d a u x ilia r y c a r r y m u c h less s e m a n tic
c o n te n t t h a n th e n o u n o r m a i n v e rb ; t h e d e te r m i n e r a n d a u x ilia r y v e rb a re
s o m e tim e s r e q u ir e d fo r p u r e ly s y n ta c tic r e a s o n s ; th e n o u n a n d m a in v e rb
a re g e n e ra lly o p tio n a l; d e te r m i n e r a n d a u x ilia r y v e r b d e f in e d if f e r e n t p a r t s o l
th e m e a n in g o f th e s a m e c o n c e p t. T h e s e p o i n t s a r e c o r r e c t b u t w h a t w e ig h t is
to b e g iv e n to e a c h o f th e s e p o in ts ? T h is d e p e n d s o n t h e a n a ly s ts th e o r e tic a l
p re fe re n c e s ; n o n e o f th e p o in t s is c o m p e llin g b y its e lf a n d n e it h e r is th e ir
u n io n . T h e p h r a s e 'd e fin e d if fe re n t p a r t s o f th e m e a n i n g o f t h e s a m e c o n c e p t'
is d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t . I f i t c a m e t o a c h o i c e b e t w e e n t h e a b o v e p a r a l l e l a n d

t i e s e m a n tic p a ra lle l in th e n a r r o w i n g d o w n o f d e n o t a t a , JM w o u ld c h o o s e th e
latter.
P a y n e (1 9 9 3 ) , w o rk in g w ith d a ta f r o m R u s s ia n , G re e k , F arsi, C h u k c h i,
W a rlb ir i a n d o t h e r la n g u a g e s , p r o v id e s o t h e r r e a s o n s f o r re g a r d in g n o u n s as
h e a d s o l N P s. T h e r e a s o n s a r e th e s e : n o u n s , n o t d e te r m i n e r s ( a n d v e rb s , n o t
a u x ilia r ie s ) , a r e t h e c o n s t it u e n ts t h a t a c c e p t in c o r p o r a t e d m a te ria l; th e s u b c a t
e g o riz a tio n o f v e r b s (i.e ., t h e c o n s t it u e n ts w h o s e o c c u r r e n c e in c la u s e s is c o n
tro lle d b y v e rb s ) is d e te r m i n e d b y n o u n s a n d th e i r m o d ifie rs , n o t b y d e te r m i n e r s
a n d t h e i r m o d ifie rs ; n o u n s c o n tr o l a g r e e m e n t ( a r e t h e g o v e r n o r s ) in N P s;
n o u n s a r e t h e s t r u c tu r a l p iv o ts in a p p o s itio n a l s t r u c tu r e s . ( T h e p o i n t a b o u t
r .o u n s c o n tr o llin g a g r e e m e n t in N P s d o e s n o t c o n tr a d ic t o u r a r g u m e n t e a rlie r
t i a t v e r b s c o n tr o l n u m b e r a g r e e m e n t in c la u s e s . W h a t h a p p e n s in s id e N P s is
in d e e d c o n tr o lle d b y n o u n s .)
I n c o r p o r a ti o n o f n o u n s i n t o v e r b s is illu s tr a te d b y th e e x a m p le fro m
S o u th e r n T iw a in (9 a ,b ).
(9 ) a . W is i
tw o

s e u a n -

b i-m u -b a n

m a n -P I

t S G -s e e -P S T

I sa w tw o m en
b. W

is i

tw o

b i- s e u a n - m u - b a n
l. S G - m a n - s e e - P S I

I sa w tw o m en

D ependency R elation s
S e m in m a n lo s e s th e p lu r a l m a r k e r in a n d th e r o o ts se u a ti m a n a n d m u
see c o m b i n e to f o r m a c o m p le x r o o t w ith a p e r s o n - n u m b e r p r e f ix h i a n d
a te n s e s u f fix b a n . P a y n e p o in t s to a p a ra lle l p ro c e s s in th e P a la e o - S ib e r ia n
la n g u a g e s C h u k c h i a n d K o ry a k b y w h ic h a d je c tiv e s a r e in c o r p o r a t e d in to
r o u n s . H e g iv es th e C h u k c h i e x a m p le in ( 10 a,b ).
( 1 0 ) a . n e -tu r-q m e -te
new -

IN S T

k u p re -te
n e t - IN S T

w ith a n e w n et
b . t u r -k u p r e - t e
n e w - n e t - IN S T
w ith a n e w n et

In ( 1 0 a ) , e a n d q in e m a r k t h e a d je c tiv e r o o t / n r n e w a s a fre e le x ic a l ite m .

B o th th e a d je c tiv e a n d t h e n o u n r o o t k u p r e 'n e t h a v e th e i n s tr u m e n ta l su ffix
-te. In ( 1 0 b ) , f u r n e w is n o lo n g e r a fre e le x ic a l ite m , a s s ig n a lle d b y t h e a b s e n c e
c f n e - a n d - q in e , a n d t h e c o m b i n a ti o n o f t u r a n d k u p r e h a s a s in g le in s tr u m e n
ta l s u tlix - te . T h e p a ra lle l b e tw e e n in c o r p o r a t io n in to v e r b s a n d i n c o r p o r a t io n
in to n o u n s is c le a r. V e rb s a r e t h e h e a d s o f c la u s e s , a n d i f t h e p a ra lle l is to be
e x te n d e d , n o u n s s h o u l d b e t h e h e a d s o f N P s.
P a y n e s p o i n t a b o u t s u b c a te g o r iz a tio n h a r d ly n e e d s to b e a r g u e d h e re .
A ny d is c u s s io n o f t h e s u b c a te g o r iz a tio n o f v e rb s d e a ls w i t h n o u n s a n d N P s,
p r e p o s itio n s a n d p r e p o s itio n a l p h r a s e s , a d je c tiv e s a n d a d je c tiv e p h r a s e s , b u t
r .o t w i t h d if f e r e n t ty p e s o f d e te r m i n e r , s a y e a c h v e rs u s e v e ry , a ll v e r s u s so m e ,
th is v e rs u s th e, th e v e rs u s a.

Dependency and constituent

structure
T h e c e n tr a l id e a in d e p e n d e n c y th e o r y is t h a t e v e r y p h r a s e h a s a h e a d w o r d ,
v /h ic h is o b lig a to r y a n d d e te r m i n e s w h a t o t h e r c o n s t it u e n ts c a n o c c u r in th e
p h ra s e . T h e o t h e r c o n s t it u e n ts a r e t h e m o d if ie r s o f th e h e a d , a n d h e a d s a n d
m o d ifie rs ty p ic a lly o c c u r n e x t to e a c h o t h e r - b u t se e th e d is c u s s io n o f sp lit
N P s o n p p . 7 4 - 9 8 . C o m b i n a ti o n s o f h e a d a n d m o d if ie r ( s ) m o v e a r o u n d
to g e th e r, th a t is, o c c u r to g e t h e r in d if fe re n t c o n s t r u c ti o n s a n d in d if fe re n t
p laces in o n e a n d th e s a m e c o n s t r u c ti o n . T h e y c a n b e re p la c e d b y a s in g le w o rd
a n d c a n b e e llip te d . T h e s e p o i n t s a r e illu s tr a te d in (1 1 ).
(1 1 )

T h e E t h e l t h a t w e k n e w a n d lo v e d h a s le ft - j u s t p a c k e d h e r b a g s a n d
w a lk e d o u t.

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

A s a p r o p e r n o u n . E th e l ty p ic a lly d o e s n o t a llo w th e d e f in ite a rtic le the.
P r o p e r n o u n s d o a llo w d e fin ite a rtic le s , h o w e v e r, p r o v id e d th e y a r e a ls o m o d if c d b y a re la tiv e c la u s e . P re s u m a b ly , t h e s p e a k e r w h o u tt e r s ( 11 ) is t h i n k in g o f
E th e l n o t a s a sin g le in d iv id u a l b u t a s a b u n d le o f in d iv id u a ls o r p e r s o n a e w h o
a p p e a r a n d d is a p p e a r d e p e n d in g o n th e s i tu a t io n . T h e p h ra s e T h e E th e l th a t
v e k n e w a n d lo v e d p ic k s o u t o n e o f th e s e in d iv id u a ls (a s o p p o s e d , say, to th e
E th el th a t a te a d m in is tr a tiv e s t a f f f o r b re a kfa st). In t h e le x ic o n , w e m u s t in c lu d e
in th e s u b c a te g o r iz a tio n o l p r o p e r n o u n s th e i n f o r m a t io n t h a t th e y d o a llo w a
d e fin ite a r tic le b u t o n ly a lo n g w ith a re la tiv e c la u s e . E th e l is th e h e a d o f t h e N P
T h e E th el th a t w e k n e w a n d lo v e d ; in s id e th e N P it c o n tr o ls th e o c c u r r e n c e o f
Lie w o r d th e a n d o f t h e re la tiv e c la u s e th a t w e k n e w a n d loved.
T h a t w h o le s e q u e n c e o f w o r d s c a n b e re p la c e d b y th e s in g le w o r d sh e. T h e
p h e n o m e n o n o f e llip s is is s h o w n in th e s e c o n d c la u s e j u s t p a c k e d h e r b a g s a n d
left. T h i s c la u s e h a s n o s u b je c t; i f th e r e w e re o n e , it w o u ld b e sh e o r T h e E th el
th a t w e k n e w a n d loved. E ith e r th e lo n g s e q u e n c e o l w o r d s is re p la c e d b y a
p r o n o u n o r it is e llip tc d , a s in t h e s e c o n d c la u s e a b o v e .

Verb phrases
T h e m a n i p u la t io n s d e s c r ib e d e a r lie r a p p ly n e a tl y to a d je c tiv e p h r a s e s , p r e p o
sitio n a l p h r a s e s a n d a d v e r b p h ra s e s : v e r y d iffic u lt, in th e g a r d e n a n d a m a z in g ly
q u ic k ly . I n th e d is c u s s io n e a r lie r o f s e m a n tic p a r a lle ls in w h ic h m o d ifie rs n a r
ro w t h e m e a n i n g o f h e a d s , w h e th e r n o u n s , v e rb s , p r e p o s iti o n s o r a d je c tiv e s ,
a c o n n e c tio n w a s m a d e b e tw e e n v e rb s a n d c la u s e s , n o t b e tw e e n v e r b s a n d v e rb
p h ra s e s . M a n y d e s c r ip tio n s o f E n g lis h a n d o t h e r la n g u a g e s u s e a ty p e o f p h ra s e
k n o w n a s t h e V e rb P h ra s e , b u t t h e v ie w a d o p te d h e r e is t h a t v e r b s a r c t h e h e a d s
c f c la u s e s . T h e c o n c e p t o f v e r b p h r a s e is n o t s u p p o r te d b y s o lid e v id e n c e in
E n g lish a n d is in a p p lic a b le m a n y la n g u a g e s , fo r in s ta n c e , th o s e in w h ic h th e
m a jo r a c tiv e d e c la ra tiv e c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s t h e u n m a r k e d o r d e r o t c o n s titu e n ts
V erb - S u b je c t N P - D ir e c t O b je c t NP.
T h e s tr o n g e s t c r ite r ia f o r r e c o g n iz in g a s e q u e n c e o f w o r d s a s h a n g in g
to g e th e r to f o r m a p h r a s e a r c t r a n s p o s i ti o n a n d s u b s tit u ti o n . T h e s e d o n o t
a p p ly s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d ly to p o s s ib le v e r b p h r a s e s . T h e o c c u r r e n c e o f d o so is
c n e o f t h e c r ite r ia , a s in (1 2 ).
(1 2 )

N o r m a n L e m m i n g j u m p e d o f f t h e c l if f a n d W illia m L e m m i n g d i d s o to o .

d id so in d e e d s u b s titu te s fo r ju m p e d o f f th e cliff, b u t tw o w o r d s a r e in v o lv e d
a n d it s e e m s c le a r th a t th e v e rb d id s u b s titu te s f o r ju m p e d a n d t h a t so

D ependency R elation s
s u b s titu te s fo r th e c o m p l e m e n t s o f ju m p e d . ( 1 2 ) is t h e s o r t o f e x a m p le th a t
ta r n s u p in d is c u s s io n s o f A m e ric a n lin g u is ts , b u t it is n o t t h e n o r m a l c o n
s t r u c ti o n in B ritis h E n g lis h , w h e r e (1 3 ) is th e c o m m o n c o n s t r u c ti o n . I n (1 3 ),
th e s e q u e n c e i s so d id , w h ic h is n o t e v e n a s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d s u b s t i t u t i o n o f d id
fo r ju m p e d a n d so f o r o ff th e cliff b e c a u s e th e v e rb a n d its c o m p l e m e n t w o u ld
h a v e to b e tr a n s p o s e d t o y ie ld s o d id .
(1 3 )

G e o r g e L e m m i n g j u m p e d o f f t h e c liff a n d s o d id A n t h o n y L e m m in g

T h e o n e s t r u c t u r e f r o m s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lish th a t m ig h t fit is s h o w n
in (1 4 ).
(1 4 )

C a m e r ig h t in h e d id w it h o u t s o m u c h a s a k n o < k

U n fo rtu n a te ly , t h e s t r u c t u r e o f ( 14) is n o t c le a r. C a m e r ig h t in h e d i d c o u ld
he s e e n a s a r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f H e d id corne r ig h t in , e x c e p t t h a t in t h e la tte r
co m e h a s n o te n s e w h e r e a s in (1 4 ) c a m e is in p a s t te n s e . M o r e o v e r, n e w e le c
tr o n ic b o d ie s o f s p o k e n E n g lis h a r e y ie ld in g e x a m p le s s u c h a s T h e y c o m p la in e d
b o u t it a ll th e tim e th e y d id , w h ic h h a s tw o c la u s e s , T h e y c o m p la in e d a b o u t

j'r a ll th e tim e a n d th e ta g g e d - o n c la u s e th e y d id . S o (1 4 ) c a n b e a n a ly s e d as
h a v in g a tw o - c la u s e s t r u c t u r e in w h ic h th e firs t c la u s e , a s h a p p e n s re g u la rly
in s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h , is la c k in g a s u b je c t. T h a t is, (1 4 ) c a n b e c o n s id e r e d n o t
a b a s ic c o n s t r u c ti o n b u t th e r e s u lt o f e llip sis.
E x a m p le s s u c h a s W a lk in g th e d o g is g o o d exercise a n d B u y in g h is s o n a car
$ a m is ta k e a r e re g u la rly in v o k e d in s u p p o r t o f v e r b p h r a s e s , a lo n g w ith He
I'kes w a lk in g th e d o g a n d H e reg retted b u y in g h is s o n a ca r. T h e a r g u m e n t is
m a t W a lk in g th e d o g a n d B u y in g h is so n a ca r s h o w t h a t a v e rb a n d its c o m p le
m e n ts ( a n d a d ju n c t s ) c a n o c c u r in d if f e r e n t p o s i ti o n s in c la u s e s . T h is a r g u
m e n t is n o t ro c k - s o lid . W a lk in g a n d B u y in g a r e c e r t a in l y d e riv e d f r o m v e rb s ,
b u t th e y a r e n o m in a ls . T h e s u p p o s e d v e r b p h r a s e s c a n b e r e p la c e d b y it, a s u b
s titu te fo r N P s , b u t n o t b y d i d s o o r d o e s so: I t is g o o d exercise, I t w a s a m ista ke,
etc. In f o r m a l w r itte n E n g lish , t h e - m g fo r m s c a n b e p r e c e d e d b y p o sse ssiv e
p r o n o u n s : H is w a lk in g th e d o g f o u r tim e s a d a y is a b it excessive, T h e ir b u y in g
f t e i r s o n a ca r w a s a m is ta k e , etc.
H o w e x a c tly d o e s t h e o p e r a t i o n o f tr a n s p o s i ti o n ap p ly ? I n e x a m p le s s u c h
a s T h e d o c u m e n ts w ere in h is d e s k a n d In h is d e sk w ere th e d o c u m e n ts, th e
s e q u e n c e in h is d e s k o c c u r s in d if f e r e n t p o s itio n s w ith o u t a n y c h a n g e o l lo rm .
S im ila rly , in t h e f o llo w in g e x a m p le s , t h e s e q u e n c e th e la te s t d o c u m e n ts fr o m th e
d evelo p er o c c u rs in d if f e r e n t p o s itio n s in d it le r e n t c o n s t r u c ti o n s w ith n o

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

c h a n g e in f o r m : W e n e e d th e la te s t d o c u m e n ts fr o m th e d evelop er, W h a t w e
r.eed is th e la test d o c u m e n ts fr o m th e d evelo p e r, T h e in fo r m a tio n is in th e la test
d o c u m e n ts fr o m th e d evelo p er, T h e la te s t d o c u m e n ts fr o m th e d e v e lo p e r a r e w h a t
\/e need, e tc . ( S im ila r c o m m e n ts a p p ly to a d je c tiv e p h r a s e s a n d a d v e r b p h r a s e s .)
It t r a n s p o s i ti o n is to a p p ly w ith o u t a n y c h a n g e o l f o r m , t h e g e r u n d s d o n o t
c o u n t a s e v id e n c e f o r v e r b p h ra s e s . ( T h i s lin e o f a r g u m e n t e x te n d s to s e q u e n c e s
w ith in f in itiv e s a n d free p a r tic ip le s .) If m i n o r c h a n g e s o f f o r m w e re a llo w e d ,
g e r u n d s c o u ld c o u n t a s e v id e n c e , b u t t h a t w o u ld le a v e th e e v id e n c e lo r v e rb
p h r a s e s w e a k e r t h a n t h e e v id e n c e fo r N P s , p r e p o s itio n a l p h r a s e s , a d je c tiv e
p h ra s e s a n d a d v e rb p h ra s e s.
O th e r a r g u m e n ts f o r v e rb p h r a s e s t u r n o n e x a m p le s o f t h e s o r t in (1 5 )
a n d ( 1 6 ).
(1 5 )

H a r r ie t c o u ld n 't m a r r y M r K n ig h t l e y b u t E m m a c o u ld .

( 1 6 ) W h a t H a r o e t d id w a s m a r r y M r M a r tin .

T h e a r g u m e n t is t h a t in (1 5 ) t h e s e q u e n c e m a r r y M r K n ig h tle y h a s b e e n
e llip te d - k n i m a c o u ld m a r r y M r K n ig h tle y is r e d u c e d to could, b in c e e llip sis
a p p lie s to p h r a s e s , t h e s e q u e n c e is r e g a r d e d a s a p h r a s e . In ( 1 6 ) , w a s h as
t i e W H c la u s e W h a t H a r r ie t d id a s its s u b je c t a n d m a r r y M r M a r tin a s its
c o m p le m e n t. T h a t is, th e s e q u e n c e s m a r r y M r K n ig h tle y a n d m a r r y M r M a r tin
t a r n u p in d if f e r e n t s lo ts a n d in ( 1 6 ) c a n e v e n b e g e n u in e ly tr a n s p o s e d to th e
f r o n t to g iv e (1 7 ).
(1 7 )

M a r r y M r M a r t in w a s w h a t H a r rie t d id .

T h e tr o u b le is t h a t m a r r y M r M a r tin c a n n o t o c c u r a s a v e rb p h ra s e in th e
b a sic a c tiv e c la u s e : 'H a r r i e t m a r r y M r M a r tin is in c o r r e c t a s a d e c la ra tiv e
d a u s e . In (1 6 ) a n d ( 1 7 ) , m a r r y M r M a r tin is c ro s s -re f e re n c e d b y w h a t n o t by
did. W e e n d u p w ith th e s a m e q u e s t io n t h a t w a s a s k e d a b o u t g e r u n d s : d o e s
tr a n s p o s itio n a llo w c h a n g e s o f fo rm ? D e p e n d in g o n th e a n s w e r to t h a t q u e s
tio n w e h a v e e it h e r n o e v id e n c e f o r v e r b p h ra s e s o r w e a k e r e v id e n c e t h a n fo r
e t h e r ty p e s o f p h ra s e .
In c o n tr a s t, th e e v id e n c e t h a t v e r b s a r e t h e h e a d s o f c la u s e s is m o r e s o lid .
D e s c rip tio n s fo c u s in g o n d e p e n d e n c y re la tio n s d o n o t d e v o te m u c h tim e to
th e a r g u m e n ts fo r a n d a g a in s t v e r b p h r a s e s , b u t in c o r p o r a t e t h e v ie w th a t
e t h e r d iv is io n s o f t h e c la u s e , b a s e d o n d e p e n d e n c ie s , a r e m o r e im p o r t a n t.
C la u s e s a r e a n a ly s e d a s h a v in g a n u c le u s a n d a p e r ip h e r y . T h e n u c le u s c o n ta in s
th e v e r b a n d its c o m p l e m e n t s ( s u b je c t, d ir e c t o b je c t, i n d i r e c t o b je c t a n d

D ependency R elation s
o b liq u e o b je c t s - a d v e r b s o f d i r e c ti o n ) ; t h e p e r i p h e r y c o n s is ts o f o b liq u e
o b je c ts t h a t a r e a d v e r b s o f t i m e o r a d v e r b s o f lo c a tio n , a n d s o m e o t h e r ty p e s
o f a d v e rb . (A d v e rb s a r c a v e ry la r g e a n d h e te r o g e n e o u s class a n d in a t least
o n e c o n s t r u c ti o n - th e m i d d le c o n s t r u c ti o n - a d v e r b s o f m a n n e r s e e m to b e
o b lig a to r y w ith s o m e v e rb s , fo r e x a m p le , H e r n e w b o o k rea d s w ell is q u ite
a c c e p ta b le , b u t 'H e r n e w b o o k rea d s is n o t a c c e p ta b le .)
T h e s p lit b e tw e e n n u c le u s a n d p e r i p h e r y is s o m e ti m e s re p la c e d b y a th r e e v /ay s p lit b e tw e e n c o re , n u c le u s a n d p e r ip h e r y , a s in F o le y a n d v a n V alin ( 1984)
a n d V an V alin a n d L a P o lla <1 9 9 7 ). T h e c o r e o f a c la u s e is th e v e rb , th e n u c le u s
is t h e v e r b p lu s c o m p l e m e n t s a s d e s c r ib e d e a r lie r a n d th e p e r i p h e r y is as
d e s c r ib e d e a rlie r. T h e id e a t h a t th e v e rb is t h e c o r e o f a c la u s e f its w ith th e
a n a ly s is o f v e r b s a s c o n tr o ll in g th e o t h e r c o n s t it u e n ts in c la u se s.

Dependency relations and

subordinate clauses
D e p e n d e n c y re la tio n s a r e im p o r t a n t in a n o t h e r a re a o f s y n ta c tic a n a ly s is, th e
re c o g n itio n o f d if f e r e n t ty p e s o f s u b o r d in a te c la u s e , b o t h fin ite a n d n o n -f in ite .
We b e g in w ith tw o ty p e s o f f i n ite c la u s e in E n g lish , re la tiv e c la u s e s a n d
c o m p le m e n t c la u s e s . R e la tiv e c la u s e s a r e e x e m p lif ie d i n (1 8 ) a n d c o m p le m e n t
c la u s e s in ( 19).
( 1 8 ) a . Ih e c a r s h e d riv e s
b . Ih e c a r t h a s h e d r iv e s
c.

th e c a r w h ic h s h e d r iv e s

d . Ih e c a r t h a s h e d r o v e l o S p a in in
e

t h e c a r in t h a t s h e d r o v e t o S p a in

ih e c a r w h ic h s h e d r o v e l o S p a in in

g . th e c a r in w h ic h s h e d r o v e t o S p a in
h

i h e c a r s h e d r o v e l o S p a in in

' t h e c a r in s h e d r o v e t o S p a in

(1 9 ) a

S h e s a id t h a t s h e d r o v e t o S p a m ,

b . S h e a s k e d w h o d r o v e t o S p a in
c

S h e in q u ir e d w h e t h e r / if w e w e r e d r iv in g t o S p a in

S h e a s k e d w h e n w e w e r e le a v in g

' S h e s a id w h ic h s h e d r o v e l o S p a in .

T h e tw o ty p e s o f s u b o r d in a te c la u s e p o ss e ss d ille r e n t f o r m a l p r o p e r tie s .
R elative c la u s e s a r e in t r o d u c e d

b y th a t, w h o /w h ic h /w h o m , e tc ., a n d

0.

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

C o m p le m e n t c la u s e s a r e in t r o d u c e d b y th a t a n d 0 , b u t a ls o b y w h w o r d s s u c h
as w h o in ( 1 9 b ) a n d w h e th e r in ( 1 9 c ) . C o m p l e m e n t c la u s e s h a v e a c o m p le te
s e t o f c o n s t it u e n ts , s u b je c t, d ir e c t o b je c t, v e rb , o b li q u e o b je c t, e tc . R e la tiv e
d a u s e s h a v e a g a p ; ( 18 b ) c a n b e a n a ly s e d a s th e ca r [ th a t s h e d r iv e s 0 | , th a t
b e in g a s u b o r d in a ti n g c o n ju n c tio n /r e la tiv iz e r b u t n o t a p r o n o u n , a s s h o w n b y
t i e u n a c c e p ta b ility o f ( 1 8 c ). I n re la tiv e c la u s e s , th e re la tiv iz e r th a t c a n n o t b e
p r e c e d e d b y a p r e p o s iti o n , w h e re a s w h ic h a tid w h o (m ) c a n b e . T h e la tte r a re
p r o n o u n s w h ic h a ls o l u n c t i o n a s rc la tiv iz e rs .
R elativ e c la u s e s a r e ty p ic a lly , b u t n o t alw ay s, in s id e N P s , a n d m o s t
c o m p le m e n t c la u s e s a r e th e s u b je c t o r o b je c t o f v e r b s t h a t a r e ty p ic a lly , b u t
n o t n e c e s s a rily , a d ja c e n t to th e m : cf. T h e m a n a g e r a n n o u n c e d y e ste rd a y in a
m e t i n g c o n v e n e d w ith little n o tic e t h a t s h e w a s m a k in g h a l f th e w o rkfo rce r e d u n
d a n t. T h e c o m p l e m e n t c la u s e th a t s h e w a s m a k in g h a l f th e w o rkfo rce r e d u n d a n t
is a t s o m e d is ta n c e f r o m th e v e r b b u t is still its d ir e c t o b je c t. A k e y d is ti n c ti o n
b e tw e e n re la tiv e c la u s e s a n d c o m p l e m e n t c la u s e s is t h a t th e f o r m e r m o d ify
n o u n s , w h e re a s t h e la tte r m o d if y v e rb s . T h is r e la tio n o f m o d if ic a tio n is in d e
p e n d e n t o f o t h e r f o r m a l p r o p e r tie s o r p o s i ti o n in a s e n te n c e . O f c o u rs e , s o m e
c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s m o d i f y n o u n s , a s i n t h e p r o p o s a l t h a t >vc a c c c p t t h e o f f e r ,

th e h y p o th e s is th a t th e te m p e r a tu r e w ill n o t rise m o re th a n 3 d egrees a n d th e idea

th a t s h e is th e r ig h t p e rs o n f o r th e jo b . F o r the.se e x a m p le s , w e h a v e to a s k if
w h ich c a n b e s u b s t i t u t e d f o r th a t o r 0 . I f it c a n n o t, th e c la u s e is a c o m p le m e n t:
cf. th e p ro p o s a l th a t w e a ccep t th e o ffe r v e r s u s th e p ro p o s a l w h ich w e a c c e p t th e
offer. A n o th e r c lu e is t h a t t h e c o m p le m e n t c la u s e c o n v e y s t h e c o n t e n t o f a n
idea, p la n , th e o r y , h y p o th e s is , p ro p o s a l a n d s o o n .
C la u s e s in t r o d u c e d b y w h e n c a n b e re la tiv e c la u s e s , a s in (2 0 a ), c o m p le m e n t
d a u s e s , a s in ( 2 0 b ) , a n d a d v e rb ia l c la u s e s , a s in (2 0 c ).
(2 0 ) a

t h e t im e w h e n y o u le f t y o u r b r ie f c a s e o n t h e t ra in

I a s k e d w h e n s h e w a s le a v in g

W h e n s h e a n n o u n c e d h e r r e s ig n a t io n , t h e r e w a s a l o n g s ile n c e

A d v e rb ia l c la u s e s m o d if y c o m p le te c la u s e s . In ( 2 0 c ) , W h e n s h e a n n o u n c e d
U r re s ig n a tio n m o d if ie s th e re w a s a lo n g silence; t h a t is, it p ro v id e s m o r e in f o r
m a tio n a b o u t t h e s i tu a t io n o t th e r e b e in g a s ile n c e , n a m e ly t h e t i m e a t w h ic h
ii c a m e in to e x is te n c e . C la u s e s in t r o d u c e d b y i f m a y b e c o m p le m e n t c la u s e s Ci? y o u te ll m e i f y o u h a v e re a d th a t b o o k - o r a d v e rb ia l c la u s e s - I f y o u h a ve
read th a t book, p le a se ta k e i t b a c k to th e lib ra ry. A s a c o m p le m e n t c la u s e i f y o u
have re a d th a t b o o k m o d if ie s tell a n d a s a n a d v e rb ia l c la u s e it m o d ifie s th e
e n tir e c la u s e p le a s e ta k e i t b a c k to th e library.

D ependency R elation s
T h e q u e s t io n o f w h a t a c la u s e m o d ifie s is p a r tic u la r ly i m p o r t a n t fo r
r o n - f i n i t e c la u s e s . H u d d le s to n a n d P u llu m < 2002) a b a n d o n t h e d is tin c tio n
b e tw e e n g e r u n d s a n d fre e p a r tic ip le s o n t h e g r o u n d t h a t it is n e x t to im p o s s i
ble to d is tin g u is h th e m fo rm a lly . T h e y re f e r to t h e m a s - i ti g c la u s e s a n d r<>
c la u se s. T h e view ' ta k e n h e r e is t h a t th e s e d if f e r e n t ty p e s o l n o n - f in it e c la u s e
a r e p e rf e c tly d is tin g u is h a b le w h e n a t t e n t i o n is p a i d to w h a t th e y m o d if y a n d
tn a t i t is w o rth w h ile t a k i n g th e tr o u b le to m a k e th e d is ti n c ti o n s b e c a u s e th e
c itf e r c n l n o n - f in it e c la u s e s h a v e d il tc r c n t d is c o u rs e fu n c tio n s .
G e r u n d s m o d if y n o u n s a n d c a n b e th e s u b je c t o r o b je c t o f a v e rb : cf. th e
a b o v e e x a m p le s I lik e w a lk in g th e d o g - w a lk in g th e d o g is th e o b je c t o f like,
a n d w a lk in g th e d o g is g o o d e x e r c is e - w a lk in g th e d o g is t h e s u b je c t o f is (good
exercise). F r e e - p a r tic ip le n o n - f in it e c la u s e s a ls o c o n ta i n v e r b s w ith th e su ffix
-in g , b u t , u n lik e g e r u n d s , t h e y m o d if y w h o le c la u s e s . ( I n t h i s re s p e c t, th e y
re s e m b le f in ite a d v e rb ia l c la u s e s . In D r in k in g h is c o ffee a n d b ra n d y . S ir L o u is
fe lt b etter, D r in k in g h is coffee a n d b r a n d y m o d if ie s S i r L o u is f e l t b etter. It gives
in f o r m a t io n a b o u t w h e n th e s i tu a t io n a r o s e , a s h e w a s d r i n k in g t h e c o ff e e a n d
b r a n d y I n K n o w in g th e c o u n tr y lik e th e b a c k o f h e r h a n d , sh e w a s a b le to f i n d th e
s h o r te s t r o u te . K n o w in g th e c o u n tr y lik e th e b a c k o f h e r h a n d m o d if ie s s h e w a s

d>le to f i n d th e sh o rte st ro u te. It g iv es th e r e a s o n fo r th is a b ility a n d is e q u iv a le n t

to a n a d v e rb ia l c la u s e o f r e a s o n

b e c a u se /a s sh e k n e w th e c o u n tr y lik e th e b a ck

c fh e r hand.
T h e r e is a s e c o n d ty p e o f g e r u n d w h ic h is f o u n d in e x a m p le s lik e th o s e
in (2 1 ).
( 2 1 ) a . I s a w t h e b u r g l a r c l im b i n g in t h e w in d o w .
b . I c a u g h t h im o p e n in g t h e s a le .
c . I f o u n d C o r d e l ia s it t in g o n t h e t e r ra c e
0 . W e h e a r d t h e b o / s d r iv in g o f f in t h e car.

T h e -in g c h u n k s - c lim b in g in th e w in d o w a n d d r iv in g o f f in th e a i r - c o u ld
o n t h e fa c e o f it b e r e d u c e d re la tiv e c la u s e s , b u t th is a n a ly s is d o e s n o t fit
(2 1 c ), w ith th e p r o p e r n o u n , C o rd e lia . T h e b u r g la r c lim b in g in th e w in d o w
g o t s tu c k c o u ld b e a n a ly s e d a s c o n ta i n in g a r e d u c e d re la tiv e c la u s e - I s a w th e
b u rg la r w h o w a s c lim b in g in th e w in d o w . T h e b u r g la r c lim b in g in th e w in d o w
c o u ld b e a s u b je c t N P - T h e b u rg la r c lim b in g in th e w in d o w w a s se en b y e v e r y
body. In c o n tr a s t, C o rd elia s ittin g o n th e terra ce lo o ked w o eb eg o n e is u n a c c e p t
ab le . T h e e x a m p le s c a n , s o m e o l th e m a t le a s t, b e m a d e p a ss iv e b y m o v in g th e
d ir e c t o b je c t n o u n to t h e f r o n t o f th e s e n te n c e a n d le a v in g th e -in g c h u n k
b e h in d , a s in (2 2 ).

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

(2 2 ) a .

I h e b o y s w e r e h e a r d ( b y u s ) d r iv in g o t f i n th e car.

b . C o r d e l ia w a s f o u n d ( b y m e ) s it t in g o n t h e t e r ra c e .
c.

T h e b u r g la r w a s s e e n (b y m e ) o p e n in g th e s a te .

I s a w th e b u rg la r c lim b in g in th e w in d o w c a n b e e x p a n d e d / s a w th e b u r
glar w h o m i s c lim b in g i n t h e w in d o w , w h ic h is a g o o d a n s w e r to t h e q u e s tio n
W h o d id y o u see'. T h e b u r g la r w a s se en ( b y m e ) c lim b in g in th e w in d o w c a n n o t
b e e x p a n d e d i n t o ' T h e b u rg la r w a s see n ( b y m e ) w h o w a s c lim b in g in th e w in
d o w . T h e s e p a s s iv e v e rs io n s s h o w t h a t th e - i n g c h u n k s d o n o t m o d if y a n o u n ,
b u rg la r o r boys, b u t a c la u s e : th e boys w ere h e a rd b y us, th e b u rg la r vrjs seen
by m e a n d C ord elia w a s f o u n d b y m e. T h i s a c c o rd s w i t h t h e fa c t t h a t I s a w th e
b u rg la r c lim b in g in th e w in d o w is a ls o a n a n s w e r to t h e q u e s tio n W h a t w as
/h e b u rg la r d o in g w h e n y o u s a w h im ? T h e f a c t is t h a t ( 2 1 a ) is g ra m m a tic a lly
a m b ig u o u s a n d th e - in g c h u n k c a n b e in t e r p r e te d e it h e r a s a r e d u c e d re lativ e
d a u s e o r a s a n o t h e r c o n s t r u c ti o n , w h ic h w e w ill c a ll a ty p e II g e r u n d . T h is
s e c o n d c o n s t r u c ti o n a llo w s a d if f e r e n t s e t o f p a r a p h r a s e s : W e h e a rd th e boys
i'i th e a c t o f d r iv in g o ff in th e c a r o r IV'e h e a r d th e b o y s a s th e y w ere d r iv in g o ff
h th e car.
S a y in g th e r e is a n o t h e r c o n s t r u c ti o n is o n e th in g ; ju s tif y in g it a s a g e r u n d
is a n o th e r . W e a p p e a l to h is to r ic a l e v id e n c e . T h e c o n s t r u c ti o n in ( 2 1 a ) d e riv e s
h is to ric a lly f r o m I s a w th e b u rg la r a - c lim b in g in th e w in d o w , w h e re a d e riv e s
f r o m o n a n d t h e - i n g c h u n k is a n o m in a l. T h e h e a d m o d i f i e r r e la tio n s h ip
is n o t c ru c ia l to t h e e a r lie r d is c u s s io n , b u t t h e e s s e n tia l p o i n t is t h a t it is q u ite
in a d e q u a te to lu m p a ll t h e - m g s e q u e n c e s to g e th e r . It is i m p o r t a n t to d is ti n
g u is h t h e d if f e r e n t - i n g c o n s t r u c ti o n s , t h e g e r u n d , t h e free p a r tic ip le a n d th e
ty p e II g e r u n d , a n d d e p e n d e n c y r e l a ti o n s s a v e th e day.

Noun Phrases and

Non-configurationality

Chapter Outline
N o n - c o n f i g u r a t io n a lit y : W a r lb ir i, R u s s i a n a n d s p o n t a n e o u s
s p o k e n la n g u a g e

61

S im p l e N P s a n d s u c c e s s f u l r e fe re n c e

64

C o m p l e x N P s in c l a u s e s : a v o i d a n c e t e c h n iq u e s

68

N o n - c o n f i g u r a t io n a l it y i n N a t iv e A u s t r a l ia n la n g u a g e s

74

N o n - c o n f i g u r a t io n a l it y i n R u s s i a n N P s

79

A n a l y s i n g 's p l i t N P s '

85

C o n c lu s io n

98

Non-configurationality: Warlbiri,
Russian and spontaneous
spoken language
In t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p te r, w e lo o k e d a t s o m e e x a m p le s o f h o w m o d if ie r s c lu s te r
r o u n d th e i r h e a d s , f o r m in g a s in g le c o n s t it u e n t w h ic h c a n b e re c o g n iz e d b y
a p p ly in g th e m a j o r c r ite r ia o l tr a n s p o s i ti o n a n d s u b s tit u ti o n a n d t h e m i n o r
c rite r ia o f e llip s is a n d c o n jo in in g . T h e c la ssic p h r a s a l c o n s t it u e n t is t h e N P , b u t
th e r e a r e la n g u a g e s in w h ic h th e w o r d s t h a t c o u ld b e g a th e r e d to g e t h e r i n t o a
s in g le p h r a s e a r e s c a tte r e d t h r o u g h o u t th e c la u s e . L a n g u a g e s d is p la y in g th is
p h e n o m e n o n a r e s a i d to b e n o n - c o n f ig u r a tio n a l; t h e p o te n t ia l c o n s t it u e n ts
o f N P s d o n o t h a v e to c o m e to g e th e r in to t h e c o n f i g u r a t io n o i a N P . W e w ill
see th a t , a lt h o u g h E n g lis h is n o t a n o n - c o n f ig u r a tio n a l la n g u a g e , s p e a k e r s

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

s p e a k in g o f f th e c u f f e it h e r u s e c o n s t r u c ti o n s t h a t e n a b le th e m to a v o id
p ro c e s s in g c o m p le x N P s in s id e c la u s e s o r u s e v e r y s i m p l e N P s. T h e n o n co n f ig u r a tio n a l p h e n o m e n a c a n b e in t e r p r e te d a s m e a n s l o r a c h ie v in g th e
s a m e g o a l, t h e a v o id a n c e o f c o m p l e x N P s.
S in c e t h e 1980s th e to p ic o f n o n - c o n f ig u r a t io n a l la n g u a g e s h a s b e e n r e g u
larly, t h o u g h n o t f r e q u e n tly , d is c u s s e d . (S e e th e re f e re n c e s th r o u g h o u t th e
c h a p te r.) N o n - c o n f i g u r a ti o n a li ty c a m e t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f g e n e ra tiv e lin g u is ts
t i r o u g h t h e w o r k o f K en H a le o n th e N a tiv e A u s tr a lia n la n g u a g e W a rlp iri
i: t h e la te 1 9 7 0 s - se e e sp e c ia lly H a le (1 9 8 3 ). H a le re a liz e d th a t W a r lp ir i a n d
a n u m b e r o f o t h e r N a tiv e A u s tr a lia n la n g u a g e s p o s e d a p r o b le m f o r fo rm a l
m o d e ls o f s y n ta x , w h ic h ta k e h ie r a r c h ic a l c o n s t i t u e n t s t r u c t u r e a s c e n tr a l,
la n g u a g e s s u c h a s E n g lish g a th e r to g e th e r in to o n e g r o u p o f a d ja c e n t c o n
s titu e n ts i t e m s s u c h a s n o u n s , d e m o n s tr a tiv e s , n u m e r a ls a n d a d je c tiv e s ,
w h e re a s la n g u a g e s s u c h a s W a r lp ir i c a n h a v e th e c o n s t it u e n ts c o m b i n e d in to
a sin g le p h r a s e b u t a ls o re g u la rly h a v e t h e m d is tr i b u te d th r o u g h o u t c la u s e s
p r o d u c i n g u n in t e g r a t e d s t r u c tu r e s in w h ic h d e m o n s tr a t iv e s a n d a d je c tiv e s a rc
r o t a d ja c e n t to th e n o u n s t h e y m o d ify . (S e e e x a m p le s ( 1) ( 11 ) b e lo w .) H a le
(1 9 8 3 ) p r o p o s e d th a t th is p r o p e r ty o f n o n c o n fig u ra tio n a lity ( o r th e p ro p e rty

c f h a v in g s y n ta c tic a lly d is c o n ti n u o u s e x p re s s io n s ) g o e s w ith fre e w o r d o r d e r

a n d n u ll a n a p h o r a .
S e v e ra l k e y q u e s t io n s a r e ra is e d b y t h e d a t a f r o m W a r lp ir i a n d o t h e r N a tiv e
A u s tra lia n la n g u a g e s . D o t h e y f o r m a u n iq u e s e t o f n o n - c o n f ig u r a t io n a l l a n
g u a g e s w ith s p lit N P s', th e h e a d n o u n b e in g s e p a r a te d f r o m its m o d ifie rs?
B aker (1 9 9 6 ) d e m o n s tr a t e s t h a t t h e y d o n o t, s in c e M o h a w k a ls o h a s n o n c o n f ig u r a tio n a l s e q u e n c e s . Z e m s k a ja (1 9 7 3 , p . 3 8 3 - 9 3 ) , w h o m a y h a v e b e e n
t i e firs t to c o m m e n t o n t h e p h e n o m e n o n , o b s e r v e d th a t in s p o k e n R u ssia n
h e a d s a n d m o d if ie r s a r e n o t n e c e s s a rily a d ja c e n t, w h e re a s t h e y a r e alw ay s
a d ja c e n t in w h a t s h e c a lle d s c ie n tific R u s s ia n ' (i.e ., th e f o r m a l w r it te n R u ssia n
c f a c a d e m ic m o n o g r a p h s , b u t a ls o o f , fo r e x a m p le , o ffic ia l d o c u m e n t s a n d
s e r io u s n e w s p a p e r d is c u s s io n s ) . S p o k e n ( a n d in d e e d w r it te n ) R u s s ia n te x ts
also d is p la y m u c h n u ll a n a p h o r a a n d fle x ib le w o rd o r d e r . ( T h e w o rd o r d e r
it n o t fre e , b u t g o v e r n e d b y in f o r m a tio n s t r u c tu r e , a n d it is a re a s o n a b le c o n
je c tu re th a t w o rd o r d e r in N a tiv e A u s tr a lia n la n g u a g e s is c o n tr o lle d in th e
s a m e fa s h io n .)
Z e m s k a ja s o b s e r v a tio n le a d s to a v e ry in t e r e s t in g p e rs p e c tiv e . N o t o n ly
a re W a r lp ir i a n d its lik e n o t ty p o lo g ic a lly u n iq u e , t h e tr e a t m e n t of n o u n s

Noun Phrases and N o n -con figu ration ality

a n d th e i r m o d if ie r s ( t o u s e th e s e te r m s f o r c o n v e n ie n c e ) m a y b e d if f e r e n t in
th e s p o k e n v a r ie tie s a n d w r itte n v a rie tie s o f a g iv e n la n g u a g e , p a r tic u la r ly
in t h e s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n v a r ie ty t h a t is fo u n d - fo r e x a m p le , in im p r o m p tu
c o n v e r s a tio n in re la x e d c ir c u m s ta n c e s . T h u s , th e r e a r e s im ila r itie s ( a n d t h a t is
th e s tr o n g e s t s t a te m e n t w e c a n m a k e ) b e tw e e n s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n R u ssian
a n d W a r lp ir i b u t n o t b e tw e e n w r it te n R u ssia n a n d W a rlp iri.
T h e W a r lp ir i a n d R u ssia n d a ta ra ise p r o b l e m s f o r c o n s t it u e n t s t r u c tu r e
an a ly s e s. O n e p r o b le m h a s to d o w ith t h e tre e o r d e r o l v e rb , a g e n t N P a n d
p a ti e n t N P. J e lin e k (1 9 8 4 ) p r o p o s e s t h a t t h e W a r lp ir i a u x ilia r y c o n ta in s fu lly
re fe re n tia l c litic p r o n o u n s w h ic h b e a r th e t a r o le s a n d c a s e a n d t h a t a n y n o u n s
th a t d o o c c u r in W a r lp ir i c la u s e s a r e m e r e ly o p t i o n a l a d ju n c ts lin k e d to th e
p r o n o u n s . (A v e ry s im ila r a n a ly s is w a s a p p lie d b y F.lson a n d P ic k e tt (1 9 6 7 ,
p. 7 2 ) t o a M ix e - Z o q u e la n g u a g e , S ie r ra P o p o lu c a - n o w c a lle d H ig h la n d
P o p o lu c a .) A n o th e r p r o b le m h a s to d o w ith t h e 's p l i t N P s : a r e n o u n s , d e m o n
stra tiv e s , a d je c tiv e s , n u m e r a ls a n d p o s s e s s o r n o u n s to b e t h o u g h t o l a s g e n e r
a te d a d ja c e n t to e a c h o t h e r in s e q u e n c e s to b e la b e lle d 'N P ' a n d t h e n m o v e d
a p a r t - w h a te v e r is m e a n t b y 'm o v e ? O r a r e th e y to b e g e n e r a te d in s itu , a re
d a u s e s to b e a s s ig n e d a h ig h ly u n in te g r a tc d s tr u c tu r e a n d a rc th e n o u n s ,

c e m o n s tr a tiv e s a n d s o o n t o b e c o n n e c te d (i.e. a r e th e i r c o n te n t s to b e c o n r e c t e d ) v ia a f o r m a l s y s te m s u c h a s D is c o u r s e R e p r e s e n ta tio n T h e o r y (D R T )?

I h e d is c u s s io n b e lo w o p ts fo r th e la tte r a p p r o a c h , in c o n tr a s t w ith P e re ltsv a ig
(2 0 0 8 ), w h o o ffe rs a m o v e m e n t a n a ly s is o f R u ssia n 's p l it N P s .
T h e fin a l is s u e is o n e t h a t a ffe c ts t h e s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n v a r ie tie s o t all
la n g u a g e s . T h e s t r u c tu r e s in W a r lp ir i a n d s p o k e n R u ssia n c a n b e s e e n a s o n e
r a m ific a tio n o f a g e n e r a l p r o b l e m , th e p ro c e s s in g o f N P s in s p o n ta n e o u s
sp e e c h . E n g lis h h a s v e ry d if f e r e n t s y n ta x a n d m o r p h o lo g y f r o m W a rlp ir i, b u t
a n e x a m in a tio n o f s p o k e n E n g lis h s h o w s th a t s p e a k e r s a v o id c o m p le x N P s
( a n d l o r m a n y s p e a k e rs , in s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h e v e n a n N P w i t h o n e a d je c tiv e
is c o m p le x - w itn e s s th e sm a ll p e r c e n ta g e o f s u c h N P s in s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h )
a n d u s e la rg e n u m b e r s o f p e r s o n a l a n d o t h e r p r o n o u n s . (S e e ( ) - ( ) .) E n g lish
also h a s c o n s t r u c ti o n s w ith v a r io u s s y n ta c tic a n d d is c o u r s a l f u n c tio n s , b u t
w h ic h s e r v e t o is o la te N P s f r o m c la u s e s ; t h a t is, t h e y a llo w s p e a k e r s t o p ro c e s s
N P s, w h ic h m a y b e s i m p l e o r c o m p le x , s e p a r a te ly f r o m t h e p ro c e s s in g o f c la u s e
s t r u c tu r e s . T h e W a r lp ir i a n d S ie r ra P o p o lu c a c la u s e s w ith c litic p r o n o u n s o n
th e v e r b a n d o p ti o n a l n o u n s c a n b e s e e n a s a w a y o f d e a lin g w ith th e sa m e
p ro b le m .

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

Simple NPs and successful reference

All th e e x a m p le s p r e s e n te d b e lo w a n d b y o t h e r a n a ly s ts a r e , p o te n tia lly o r
ac tu a lly , c o m p o n e n t s o f te x ts . A m o r e g e n e ra l is s u e o n w h ic h t h e e a rlie r q u e s t.o n s b e a r is h o w s p e a k e r s a n d w r it e r s c o n s t r u c t su c c e s sfu l re f e re n tia l d e s c r ip t o n s o f e n titie s . D e p e n d in g o n t h e t y p e o f te x t t h e y a r e c o m p o s in g a n d w h a t
ty p e o t a u d ie n c e th e y a r e a d d re s s in g , w r it e r s p r o d u c e s im p le s t r u c tu r e s o r
v e ry c o m p le x s t r u c tu r e s , e s p e c ia lly v e r y c o m p le x N P s. S p e a k e rs , e sp e c ially
n o s e s p e a k in g i m p r o m p t u a n d p r o d u c i n g s p o n t a n e o u s sp e e c h , ty p ic a lly d o
r o t p r o d u c e c o m p le x N T s. T h i s e x p la in s w h y in th e te x ts o f th e A u s tra lia n
la n g u a g e s D iy a ri a n d N g iy a m b a a in c l u d e d in A u s tin < 1981) a n d D o n a ld s o n
(1 9 8 0 ), re s p e c tiv e ly , it is d if fic u lt to f i n d a N P c o n ta i n in g o n e a d je c tiv e le t
a lo n e th r e e o r fo u r. T h is d is c re p a n c y is m e n t io n e d b y D ix o n (1 9 7 2 , p . 6 0 ), w h o
r o t e s t h a t a N P c a n in p r in c ip le c o n ta i n a n y n u m b e r o f a d je c tiv e s , a lt h o u g h in
a c tu a l te x ts few N P s in v o lv e m o r e t h a n o n e a d je c tiv e . T h e s m a ll n u m b e r o l
a d je c tiv e s is a c tu a lly s u r p r is in g g iv e n th a t t h e te x ts a r e n o t c o n v e r s a tio n b u t
n a r r a tiv e ; s p e c ific ta le s a r e to ld a g a in a n d a g a in a n d b e c o m e s c r ip te d , a n d n e w
tile s c a n b e re h e a r s e d . 1 lo w e v e r, th e s e n a r r a ti v e s d o h a v e o n e s p e c ia l p ro p e r ty ;
n e y w e re a lm o s t lo s t b e fo r e b e in g e lic ite d b y th e a n a ly s ts a n d a r e n o t re g u la rly
re c ite d i n t h e o r ig in a l la n g u a g e . T h i s c ir c u m s t a n c e p re c lu d e s t h e p o lis h in g u p
a n d e la b o r a ti o n o f te x ts a n d w o u ld e x p la in t h e s im p le s y n ta x . It d o e s ra ise th e
q u e s tio n o f w h a t i n t u it io n s th e a n a ly s ts w e r e ta p p i n g in to w h e n th e y fo u n d
e v id e n c e f o r c o m p l e x N P s.

NPs, com plexity and text type

R esearch in to n a tu r a ll y o c c u r r in g d a ta h a s b r o u g h t o u t la rg e d itle r e n c e s in
th e ty p e s o f N P t h a t o c c u r a n d th e i r c o m p le x ity . In t h e la te 1 9 6 0 s, H a w k in s
(1 9 6 9 ) a n d C o u lt h a r d a n d R o b in s o n (1 9 6 8 ) c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e s t r u c tu r e
c f N P s ( 'n o m i n a l g r o u p s in th e i r te r m in o lo g y ) in w r it te n la n g u a g e is m o r e
c o m p le x t h a n th e s t r u c tu r e o f N P s in s p o k e n la n g u a g e , m o d ifie rs o f a ll ty p e s
b e in g r a r e in t h e to r m c r b u t ty p ic a l in th e la tte r. ( T h e y d o n o t d is tin g u is h
d if fe re n t ty p e s o f w r it te n te x t o r d if f e r e n t ty p e s o f s p o k e n te x t, b u t it is c le a r
f r o m t h e c o n te x t t h a t t h e s ig n ific a n t c o n t r a s t is b e tw e e n f o r m a l w r itin g a n d
s p o n ta n e o u s sp e e c h .)
B ib e r (1 9 8 8 , p p . 8 9 , 1 0 4 - 8 ) e s ta b lis h e s v a r i o u s d im e n s i o n s ' f o r t h e r e c o g
n itio n a n d c o m p a r is o n o f d if f e r e n t E n g lis h te x t ty p e s . M e e m p h a s iz e s a p o in t
a c c e p te d b y a ll re s e a rc h e rs o f s p o k e n a n d w r itte n la n g u a g e : it is N O T th e
c ase t h a t all ty p e s o f s p o k e n te x t a r e d if f e r e n t f r o m all ty p e s o f w r it te n te x t.

Noun Phrases and N o n -con figu ration ality

T h e re a r e s t r u c tu r e s t h a t o c c u r in b o t h s p o k e n a n d w r it te n te x ts . N o n e th e le s s ,
i: is c le a r f r o m B ib e rs d is c u s s io n o f t h e s ix d im e n s i o n s t h a t s p o n ta n e o u s
s p o k e n E n g lis h , in p a r t ic u l a r c o n v e r s a tio n , is v e ry d if f e r e n t f r o m o t h e r tex t
ty p e s . F o r in s ta n c e , o n e d im e n s io n h a s to d o w i t h in v o lv e d v e rs u s in f o r m a
tio n a l p r o d u c t io n . In v o lv e d p r o d u c t i o n is d is c o u r s e p r o d u c e d u n d e r re a l-tim e
c o n d itio n s , w h ic h ty p ic a lly e x c lu d e th e t i m e - c o n s u m i n g p ro c e s s e s o f m a k in g
p re c is e le x ic a l c h o ic e s a n d p a c k in g a lo t o f i n f o r m a t io n in to a s m a ll a m o u n t
c f te x t. T h e la tte r ta s k r e q u ir e s t h e u s e o l a d je c tiv e s , p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s
a n d p a r tic ip ia l p h r a s e s , all o f w h ic h h a v e a h ig h n e g a tiv e w e ig h tin g in th is
c im e n s i o n . T h a t is, th e y a r e n o t f o u n d in s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lis h . T h is
is s u p p o r t e d b y th e d a ta in B ib e r e t a l. < 1 9 9 9 ), w h ic h a ls o s h o w s th a t a m o n g
w r itte n te x t ty p e s a c a d e m ic w r itin g is t h e d e n s e s t a n d m o s t c o m p le x ; it o ffe rs
in tric a te s e n te n c e s t r u c tu r e s w ith m u c h e m b e d d in g o l s u b o r d in a te c la u se s,
c o m p le x s u b je c t N P s a n d a n a b u n d a n c e o f G r e c o - L a tin a te v o c a b u la r y w ith
c e n s e d e r iv a tio n a l m o r p h o lo g y . W ith re s p e c t to N P s , th e g e n e r a l p ic t u r e is
th a t th e m o s t c o m p le x s t r u c tu r e s a r e f o u n d in d e n s e te c h n ic a l te x ts (s u c h as
a c a d e m ic m o n o g r a p h s , legal d o c u m e n ts , e n c y c lo p a e d ia a r tic le s a n d b r o a d
s h e e t n e w s p a p e r s ) , w ith th e le a s t c o m p le x s t r u c t u r e s in ta b lo id n e w s p a p e rs ,
c o m ic s a n d b o o k s fo r y o u n g c h ild re n .
O n e s tr ik in g f e a tu r e o f s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e is t h e s im p lic ity o f
N P s in c o m p a r is o n w ith t h e N P s th a t o c c u r in th e a f o r e m e n tio n e d ty p e s
c f w r itte n te x t. W h a t d o w e m e a n b y s im p lic ity ? F o r w r itte n E n g lish ( a n d
w r itte n R u ssia n , w r it te n G e r m a n a n d s o o n ) , a re la tiv e ly s im p le N P c o n s is ts o f
a n o u n m o d if ie d b y o n e o r tw o a d je c tiv e s ( a n im p re ssiv e p e r fo r m a n c e ) , o r a
r u m e r a l / q u a n t i f i c r (s o m e sh o w e rs), o r a p r e p o s itio n a l p h r a s e ( th e b ra n ch es o f
th e free), o r s o m e c o m b i n a ti o n o f th e s e m o d ifie rs (s o m e h e a v y sh o w ers a n d
th e h ig h e s t b ra n c h e s o f th e tre e ). In s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lis h , th e s im p le s t
N P s c o n s is t o f ju s t a n o u n o r p r o n o u n . M ille r a n d W e in e rt (2 0 0 9 , p p . 1 3 3 -7 6 )
e x a m in e d v a r i o u s s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n te x ts a n d f o u n d t h a t t h e y c o n ta in e d
re lativ ely h ig h p r o p o r t i o n s o f N P s c o n s is tin g o f a p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n ; 4 4 .9 p e r
c e n t in E n g lish n a r r a ti v e a n d 4 8 .9 p e r c e n t in E n g lis h c o n v e r s a tio n . In c o n
tr a s t, t h e p r o p o r t i o n in t h e r e a d e r s le tte r s to t h e u p m a r k e t n e w s p a p e r T h e
In d e p e n d e n t w a s 14.1 p e r c e n t. F o r R u ssia n c o n v e r s a tio n th e fig u re w a s o n ly
21.9 p e r c e n t, b u t th is is a lm o s t tw ic e t h e p e r c e n ta g e in R u s s ia n n e w s p a p e r a n d
a c a d e m ic m o n o g r a p h te x ts - 1 1.9 p e r c e n t a n d 1 2 .1 p e r c e n t, re sp e c tiv e ly . It is
r o t h o w e v e r m u c h h ig h e r t h a n t h e fig u re fo r th e e x tr a c ts I r o m a R u ssia n n o v el,
w h e re 16.8 p e r c e n t o f t h e N P s c o n s is te d o f p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s . F o r G e r m a n ,
in te le p h o n e c o n v e rs a tio n , s in g le - p r o n o u n N P s a c c o u n te d fo r 4 3 .9 p e r c e n t o f

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

N P s , 3 8 .7 p e r c e n t i n fa c e - to -f a c e c o n v e r s a tio n a n d 5 2 .4 p e r c e n t in m a p - ta s k
d ia lo g u e . I n a G e r m a n n e w s p a p e r te x t, o n l y 6 .6 p e r c e n t o f t h e N P s w e re sin g le
p r o n o u n s . W h e n N P s c o n s is tin g o f sin g le c o n s t it u e n ts s u c h a s d e m o n s tra tiv e s ,
in te rro g a tiv e p r o n o u n s , q u a n tif ie r s , p r o p e r n o u n s , m a s s n o u n s a n d p lu r a l
r.o u n s a r e ta k e n in to a c c o u n t, t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f N P s w ith ju s t o n e c o n s titu e n t
rose to 6 2 .5 p e r c e n t f o r th e E n g lis h c o n v e rs a tio n s a n d t o 6 4 p e r c e n t f o r th e
E n g lish n a r r a tiv e . ( T h e s e fig u re s c h im e w ith t h e fig u re s f o r e x tr a c ts f r o m
t i e A u s tr a lia n c o m p o n e n t o l IC E to b e d is c u s s e d b e lo w .)
I n b o t h t h e E n g lis h n a r r a tiv e a n d th e E n g lis h c o n v e rs a tio n , th e r e w e re N P s
c o n ta in in g a d je c tiv e s , 5 .6 p e r c e n t in th e f o r m e r a n d 6 p e r c e n t in th e la tte r.
B ut t h e r e w a s o n ly o n e a d je c tiv e p e r N P . I n th e n a r r a tiv e , 3 .2 p e r c e n t o f N P s
c o n ta in e d a re la tiv e c la u s e , 3 .8 p e r c e n t in t h e c o n v e r s a tio n ; th e re la tiv e c la u s e s
w e re m a in ly c o n ta c t o n e s - th e c u p I b ro k e ( c a n b e replaced) - o r o n e s w ith th a t
as c o m p le m e n tiz e r - th e c u p t h a t I b ro ke. ( F o r a m o r e d e ta ile d a c c o u n t, see
M ille r a n d W e in e rt, 2 0 0 9 , p p . 1 4 3 -5 9 .)
T h e E n g lis h n a r r a tiv e a n d c o n v e r s a tio n c o n ta i n e d n o in s ta n c e s a t all o f
c o m p le x N P s s u c h a s th e s e tw o f r o m r e a d e r s ' le tte r s to T h e In d e p e n d e n t, a rig
orous a n d v a lid e x a m in a tio n o n a p p lie d e c o n o m ic s t h a t co n sists o f th re e p a p e rs
a n d th e d e sire o fO ft e l to re ta in th e g e o g ra p h ic sig n ifica n ce o f th e a re a c o d e d e sp ite
th e f a c t th a t th is is a lr e a d y b e in g a tte n u a te d . S u c h N P s o c c u r in , a n d m a y ev en
b e c o n s id e r e d ty p ic a l o f, a c a d e m ic w r itin g , le g a l d o c u m e n t s , lo c a l a u th o r it y
d o c u m e n t s a n d s o o n . S u c h te x t ty p e s a ls o c o n ta i n s m a lle r N P s , w h ic h still
h a v e m o r e t h a n o n e a d je c tiv e o r r e d u c e d re la tiv e c la u s e s a s in th e b e a u tifu l
m a rb le g a te s a n d a w ild a p ric o t tr e e red o n th e b a re slopes, f r o m T h u b r o n ( 1987).
T h e E n g lis h n a r r a ti v e a n d c o n v e r s a tio n e x a m in e d b y M ille r a n d W e in e rt
o ffe re d n o e x a m p le s o f th e s e e ith e r . A n N P w ith ju s t o n e a d je c tiv e c o u n t s as
co m p le x .
O n e o t h e r f e a tu r e o f c o m p le x N P s d e s e r v e s m e n tio n . E v en in w r it te n te x ts
th e y t e n d n o t to o c c u r p r e c e d i n g t h e v e r b in s u b je c t p o s i ti o n , a n d in s p o n t a n e
o u s s p e e c h s u b je c t N P s a r e ty p ic a lly p r o n o u n s , sin g le n o u n s o r a t m o s t D e t- N .
(S ec Q u i r k e t a l., 1985, p p . 1 3 5 0 -2 , Ju c k e r, 1 9 9 2 , a n d T h o m p s o n , 1988.)

NPs in tw o types of spoken text

H o w d o s p e a k e r s g e t a w a y w ith it? F lo w d o th e y c o m m u n ic a t io n su c c e ssfu lly
y e t a v o id w h a t e x p e r ie n c e d r e a d e r s a n d w r ite r s w o u ld c o n s id e r s t r a ig h tf o r
w a rd a n d n e c e s s a ry s tr u c tu r e s ? C lu e s a r e o ffe re d b y th e e x c e rp t o f 1,000 w o rd s
in A p p e n d ix 3 . 1. It c o m e s f r o m th e A u s tr a lia n c o m p o n e n t o f IC E . th e s e c tio n
la b e lle d p r iv a te d ia lo g u e , a n d c o n s is ts o f i m p r o m p t u c o n v e rs a tio n . L ike th e

Noun Phrases and N o n -con figu ration ality

B ritis h E n g lis h c o n v e r s a tio n a n a ly s e d b y M ille r a n d W e in e r t in th e e a rly 1990s,
th is o n e h a s a v e ry la rg e p e r c e n ta g e o f N P s c o n s is tin g o f o n e c o n s titu e n t: p e r
s o n a l p r o n o u n s - 5 2 .3 p e r c e n t, P r o p e r N o u n s - 15 p e r c e n t, s in g le c o m m o n
r .o u n s - 3 .4 p e r c e n t, m a k i n g 7 0 .7 p e r c e n t. N P s c o n s is tin g o f tw o c o n s titu e n ts ,
D e t - N , m a k e u p 16.5 p e r c e n t, ta k in g t h e p e r c e n ta g e fig u re f o r v e ry sim p le
N P s t o 8 7 .2 p e r c e n t. T h e tw o re la tiv e c la u s e s a r e a b o u t th r e e h u n c h e s o f flo w e rs
t h a t w e b o u g h t th e m a n d s o m e little p la s tic c o n ta in e rs to o u t i t in a n d t h e c o m
p o u n d n o u n s a r e a ll m u c h u s e d in e v e ry d a y lile b o t h in A u s tr a lia a n d in th e
U n ite d K in g d o m , t h o u g h h a r b o u r b rid g e m a y b e p e c u lia r to S y d n e y ( a n d a lso
to A u c k la n d ): fo r e x a m p le , fi r e e x tin g u is h e r, fi r e b rig a d e, p e a k h o u r ( ru sh h o u r
in th e U n ite d K in g d o m ) , fr e e z in g c o m p a r tm e n t ( o f f r id g e ) , d e e p fr e e ze , p u m p
k in s o u p (3 e x x ) , n e w s fla s h a n d h a r b o u r b rid g e (2 ex x ).
C o n s id e r th e fo llo w in g s m a ll c h u n k o l c o n v e rs a tio n , a n e x c e r p t f r o m th e
e x c e rp t in A p p e n d ix 3 .2 .
(1) S 1 A -0 5 7 (A ):5 5

So

w t io e ls e

w as ov w ho

who

w as

f ir s t n a m e 6

and

f ir s t n a m e 7 t h e r e w e r e t h e y

S1A-057<B>:57

Yes

S1 A -0 5 7 (A ):B 8

O h a n i l h o w 's f ir s t n a m p l Is h e a l r i g h t t o d a y

S1A -057{B ):60

Y e s H e 's s it t in g o u t o n t h e c h a ir a n d

S1A-0S7<A>:61

H a s h e s till g o t a d n p

S1A-0!>/(B):62

N o H e d i d n 't h a v e t h e d r ip W e ll I d o n ' t t h in k s o

S1 A -0 S /{B ):6 4

I d id n 't s e e a n y d r ip b u t I d id n 't s t a y I j u s t w e n t s o r t o f in
a n d o u t a n d w h e n t h e y w e r e a l l t h e r e I t o o k t h e f lo w e r s
a n d p u t t h e m in w a t e r f o r t h e m

S1A-0S7fA> :68

Oh

S 1 A -0 5 7 (A ).6 9

D id m u m

S1A -0S?(A > :70

I t o w h a t flo w e r s

S1A-057(B ):71

We

got

about

th re e

b u nch es

ot

f lo w e r s

th a t

we

b o u g h t th e m

S1 A -0 5 7(A ):7 3

W h a t d id a h m u m h a v e a d r ip in

S1A-057< B):74

Y e s S h e 's s till g o t it

S1A-057(A>:7

D id t h e y s a y h o w lo n g s h e 's g o n n a b e in h o s p it a l fo r

S1A-057IB1-76

W e ll I r e a lly w a s n ' t t a lk in g

xo

a n y b o d y t h is m o r n in g b u t

s e e t h e y 'v e g o t t a g e t h e r b a c k o n f o o d a n d s e e h o w
th a t g o e s

C h u n k 5 5 is s y n ta c tic a lly b r o k e n u p . T h e s p e a k e r b e g in s tw o w h in te r r o g a
tives b e t r e s e ttlin g t o r th e y e s - n o in te r r o g a tiv e w a s fi r s tn a m e 6 a n d fi r s tn a m e 7
there? T h e n e x t in te rro g a tiv e , a t 5 8 , is a s e q u e n c e o f w h a n d y e s - n o . T h e
p r o p e r n o u n is in t r o d u c e d a s th e s e c o n d p o s t- c o p u la N P , h o w s fir s tn a m e ,
a n d th e y e s - n o q u e s t io n s im p ly h a s a p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n - Is h e a lr ig h t to d a y ?

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

T h is s e q u e n c e k e e p s ( h e s u b je c t N P in t h e s e c o n d c la u s e s im p le , a n a p p a r e n tly
triv ia l re s u lt h e r e b u t in k e e p in g w ith t h e g e n e ra l p a t t e r n s in s p o n ta n e o u s
sp e e c h . A ll th e h u m a n a c to r s in t h i s little n a r r a tiv e a b o u t a h o s p ita l v is it a re
k n o w n t o ( a n d p o s s ib ly a r e r e la te d to ) t h e in te r lo c u to r s , w h o h a v e n o n e e d o f
lu ll N P s to re f e r to th e m . W h e n s o m e re f e re n tia l h e lp is r e q u i r e d , it c o m e s v ia
lex ical n o u n s - ch a ir, d r ip , P o w ers a n d th re e b u n c h e s o f f l o w e r s - b u t a s s o o n as
t i e re f e r e n t is e s ta b lis h e d t h e s p e a k e r s r e v e r t to p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s .
T h e 5 0 0 - w o r d e x c e r p t in A p p e n d ix 3 .2 is f r o m a T V c o m m e n ta r y fo r a p r o
g r a m m e o n s n a k e s . T h e lin g u is tic fe a tu r e s w o r t h c o m m e n t i n g o n a r e t h e b ig
d r o p in t h e p e r c e n ta g e o f N P s th a t c o n s is t o l p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s f r o m 5 2 .3 to
2 2 .5 , a m o d e s t r is e in th e D c t - N N P s f r o m 1 6.5 to 2 4 a n d a la rg e r is e in th e
p e rc e n ta g e o f N P s w ith th e s t r u c tu r e D e t - A d j - N f r o m 2 .3 t o 2 0 .3 . T h e tw o
e x c e rp ts h a v e a b o u t th e s a m e p e r c e n ta g e o t c o m p o u n d n o u n s , b u t t h e c o m
m e n ta r y h a s m o r e c o m p le x o n e s , s u c h a s it s tr ik e a n il release m e th o d o f a tta c k
a n d ta ip a n a n ti- v e n o m . T h e c o m m e n ta r y a ls o h a s a n u m b e r o f c o m p le x N P s:
fo r e x a m p le , o n e o f th e la s t to b e d e v e lo p e d , th e lo n g est o f th e v e n o m o u s snakes,
th e ir p re fe rre d d ie t o f s m a ll ro d e n ts, b ird s a n d th e o c c a sio n a l b a n d ic o o t, th e m o st
d e n s e ly p o p u la te d c o r n e r o f th e c o n tin e n t, th e p ro c e ss o f b r e a k in g d o w n th e fo o d

and so on.
In B ib e r s te r m s (B ib e r, 1988, p p . 1 2 9 6 9 ), t h e c o n v e r s a tio n re s u lts fro m
in v o lv e d p r o d u c t i o n ( b e in g d is c o u rs e w ith in t e r a c t io n a l a n d a ffe c tiv e p u r
p o se s ) a n d e x h ib its s i tu a t io n - d e p e n d e n t re fe re n c e ( o u t s id e r s w ith n o k n o w l
e d g e o f t h e s i tu a t io n w o u ld b e a t a lo s s ) a n d o n - l in e in f o r m a tio n a l e la b o r a tio n
(th e s p e a k e r s p r o d u c e o n e p ie c e o f in f o r m a t io n p e r c la u s e o r c h u n k o f sy n ta x
a n d a d d i n f o r m a t io n b y p r o d u c i n g a s e q u e n c e o f c la u s e s a n d p h r a s e s ) . I n c o n
tra st, t h e c o m m e n ta r y is in f o r m a t io n a l ( b e in g c a re fu lly c o m p o s e d a n d e d ite d ) ,
it e x h ib its e x p lic it r e f e re n c e ( th e s p e a k e r ta k e s n o t h i n g f o r g r a n t e d a b o u t th e
a u d ie n c e s w o rld k n o w le d g e o r m e m o r y o f p r e v io u s ly m e n t io n e d e n titie s ) a n d
it. d o e s n o t in v o lv e o n - l in e in f o r m a t io n a l e la b o r a tio n . T h e i n f o r m a t io n a b o u t
t i e v a r i o u s s n a k e s a n d t h e i r h a b ita t, p re y , p h y s ic a l c h a r a c te r is tic s a n d b e h a v
io u r is p r e s e n te d v ia h ig h ly in te g r a te d a n d d e n s e N P s.

Complex NPs in clauses: avoidance

techniques
S p o k e n E n g lish h a s tw o c o n s t r u c ti o n s t h a t c a n b e c o n s id e r e d a s d e v ic e s fo r
h e lp in g s p e a k e r s a n d lis te n e rs to p r o c e s s N P s. A s w e w ill se e s h o r tly , h o w e v e r,
t i e N P - C la u s e c o n s t r u c ti o n h a s a c q u ir e d s p e c ific d is c o u rs e f u n c t io n s a n d th e

Noun Phrases and N o n -con figu ration ality

e t h e r c o n s t r u c ti o n , D ir e c t O b je c t N P - C o m p l e m e n t C la u s e , a lso s e e m s to h av e
a d is c o u rs e f u n c t io n . W e b e g in w ith t h e N P -C la u s e c o n s t r u c ti o n , w h ic h m a n y
a n a ly s ts h a n d le a s le ft d is lo c a tio n . O u r v ie w is th a t n o t o n ly is n o th i n g d is lo
c a te d to th e le ft ( th e te r m in o lo g y o f tr a n s f o r m a t io n a l g r a m m a r a n d all its
c e s c e n d a n ts is d y n a m ic b u t th e d y n a m is m is m e ta p h o r ic a l) , b u t th e r e is n o
e v id e n c e t h a t th e N P is a c tu a lly p a r t o f th e f o llo w in g c o m p l e te c la u s e , in s p ite
o f t h e ty p ic a l tr a n s c r i p t i o n . A n e x a m p le o f th e c o n s t r u c t i o n is ( 2 ) , w h ic h
Q u ir k e t al. (1 9 8 5 , p p . 1 4 1 6 -1 7 ) a ss ig n lo lo o s e , in f o r m a l s p e e c h .
(2 ) T h is m a n I w a s t e llin g y o u a b o u t

w e ll, h e u s e d liv e n e x t d o o r T o m e

T h e y a n a ly s e T h is m a n I w a s te llin g y o u a b o u t a s s e t ti n g t h e p o i n t o f d e p a r
tu r e ' fo r th e u tt e r a n c e a s a w h o le a n d a s e n a b lin g s p e a k e r s to a v o id th e tr ic k y
p ro c e s s in g o l c la u s e s c o n ta i n in g c o m p le x N P s. S p e a k e rs d o a v o id c o m p le x
s u b je c t N P s in s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h , b u t m a n y le f t-d is lo c a te d N P s a r e sim p le .
T h e k e y p o i n t , w h ic h Q u i r k e t a l. d o n o t m a k e , is th a t th e c o n s t r u c ti o n is u se d
to h ig h lig h t e n ti ti e s o r to c o n t r a s t e n titie s . I n ( 3 a ) , t h e s p e a k e r r e - e s ta b lis h e s
th e to p ic o f t h e d is c u s s io n , th is fi lm , a n d m o v e s o n to th e im p o r t a n t c o m m e n t
i f d o e s g iv e a re a l c lo se-u p o f w h a t goes o n b e h in d th e scenes. I n ( 3 b ) , R ic k S te in
is c o n tr a s te d w ith K e ith F lo y d , a n d in (3 c ) t h e y o u n g e s t a n d th e e ld e s t d a u g h
te rs a r e c o n tr a s te d .
(3 ) a

t h i s f i l m it d o e s g iv e a r e a l c lo s e - u p o f w h a t g o e s o n b e h i n d t h e s c e n e s .
T o m B r o o k . T a lk in g M o v ie s . B B C W o r ld . 1 9 A p r il 2 0 0 7

b . lik e h i s ( K e it h F lo y d 's ) s t y le o f c o o k e r y .' a d d s F e n t o n 's w i f e P a t r ic ia . H e

j u s t t h r o w s e v e r y t h in g in R i c k S t e i n - h e s o n ly c o p y in g F lo y d , i s n ' t h e ?
T h e In d e p e n d e n t . 11 O c t o b e r 2 0 0 7 , E x tr a , p p 2 3

c.

M y y o u n g e s t d a u g h t e r g e ts

e m b a rra sse d w h e n

sh e

se e s m e on

t e le v is io n ,' s a y s S t e w a r t . M y e l d e s t , s h e d o e s n 't m in d s o m u c h . . . '

D r la m S t e w a r t b e in g in t e r v ie w e d b y S u s a n S w a r b r k k
'P r e p a r in g t o r o c k y o u r w o r ld " , T h e H e r a ld . 1 3 N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 7 , p . 1 7

T h e c o n s tru c tio n c a n s im p ly sig n al a c o n tr a s t, a s in (3 b ,c ), o r s im u lta n e o u s ly

ease th e p r o d u c tio n o l c o m p le x u tte ra n c e s a n d sig n al a c o n tra s t, a s in (4 ) a n d (5 ).

(4 ) 'W h a t s t r u c k m e w a s t h a t p e o p l e w h o b e h a v e d t h e w a y m y e x a n d
I d i d , t h e ir c h ild r e n w e > e fin e , b u t t h o s e w h o m a d e m o r e m i s t a k e s , th e ir
c h ild r e n s u f f e r e d m o r e
D iv o r c e d o e s n t h a v e t o b e a D is a s t e r / T h e H e ra ld ,
3 D e ce m b e r 2 0 0 7 , p .15

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

(5 ) Y o u k n o w , it's a n a m a z in g b u ild in g . T h e o n e t h a t w a s n e v e r b u i l t , th a t
w o u l d h a v e b e e n e v e n m o r e a m a z in g . It w a s g o i n g to b e o v e r 5 5 0 f e e t in
h e ig h t , a n u n b e lie v a b le s ig h t .
S ir T e rr y L e a h y , in t e r v ie w in T h e T a b le t b y C h r is
B la c k h u r s t , 2 2 - 9 D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 7

In ( 6 ) , i n f o r m a t i o n id e n tif y in g a s e t o f r e f e r e n ts is s u p p lie d in th r e e c h u n k s
c f s y n ta x , th r e e N P s : th e rest o f th e m , t h e n th e m ill hisses sp e c ify in g th e re fe re n t
c l th e m , t h e n s o m e o f th e m , sp e c ify in g t h a t a s u b s e t o f t h e m i ll la s se s d re s s e d
u p o r c a r r ie d b a llo o n s a n d fo llo w e d th e c o u p le . I n a n e d it e d w r itte n te x t w e
n i g h t f i n d S o m e o f th e o th e r m ill lasses o r s o m e o f th e r e m a in in g m ill lasses.
(6 ) a n d t h e n th e re s t o f t h e m , th e m ill la s s e s , s o m e o f t h e m d r e s s e d u p w i f u n n y
h a t s o r t h e y 'd c a r r y b a llo o n s a n d f o l lo w t h e m , j u s t s in g in .
B e n n e tt. 1 9 9 2 , p . 1 0 8

In ( 7 ) , th e N P p e o p le w h o s a y th e y d o n 't lik e b a ts is u s e d to h ig h lig h t th is

p a r t ic u l a r s e t o f p e o p le a n d to s a y t h a t e v e n th e y fin d th e b a ts a s to n is h in g .
A w r it te n te x t m ig h t h a v e W h e n w e ta k e p e o p le w h o s a y th e y tio n 't lik e h a ts o u t
f j m e e t th e m , e v e n th e y s t a n d th e re w ith g r i n s . . . T h e w r itte n v e rs io n is u n s a t
is fa c to r y b e c a u s e ta k e h a s a v e r y c o m p le x d ir e c t o b je c t N P , p e o p le w h o s a y th e y
d o n 't lik e bats, w h ic h le a v e s th e d ir e c tio n a l p h r a s e a n d t h e in fin itiv e , o u t to
m e e t th e m , s t r a n d e d a t th e e n d o f th e w h e n c la u se .
(7 ) M r T o m lin s o n s a id - 'P o s s ib ly , t h e y o n c e f le w a r o u n d t h e h e a d s o f d in o s a u r s ,
w h ic h is a m in d - b lo w in g t h o u g h t . E v e n p e o p l e w h o s a y t h e y d o n ' t l i k e
b a t s , w h e n w e t a k e t h e m o u t t o m e e ; t h e m , t h e y s t a n d th e r e w it h g r in s t h a t
if t h e y g o t a n y b i g g e r w o u ld s p lit t h e ir h e a d s in t w o .
7 7 ie In d e p e n d e n t , F rid a y , 5 O c t o b e r 2 0 0 7 , p . 2 6

In ( 8 ) , a w r itte n te x t m ig h t h a v e O f th e a re a s o f in d u s tr y th a t w e re b e in g h it
t,u ite h a r d th e o n e t h a t s to o d o u t w a s th e f o o d in d u s tr y . T h is v e rs io n in v o lv e s a
p r e - p o s e d p r e p o s itio n a l p h r a s e , w h ic h is its e lf m a d e c o m p le x b y th e re la tiv e
d a u s c th a t w ere b e in g h i t q u ite hard.
(8 ) C o n t r a s t i n g t h e fo r t u n e s o f d if f e r e n t s u b - s e c t o r s , h e s a id : 'E le c t r o n ic s is p e r
f o r m in g p a r t ic u la r ly w e ll T h e a r e a s o f i n d u s t r y t h a t w e r e b e i n g h i t q u i t e
h a r d - t h e o n e t h a t s t o o d o u t w a s t h e f o o d in d u s t r y '
T h e H e r a ld . 2 7 O c t o b e r 2 0 0 7

A t th is p o in t , t h e r e a d e r is r e m in d e d in p a s s in g o f th e th r e e i m p o r t a n t
p o in t s m e n t io n e d in t h e p r e v i o u s d is c u s s io n o f th e s e e x a m p le s in C h a p t e r 1.

Noun Phrases and N o n -con figu ration ality

T h e c o n s t r u c ti o n is n o t n e w , it h a s a c o n tr a s tiv e d is c o u r s e f u n c t i o n , a n d it
ra ise s in t e r e s t in g q u e s t io n s a b o u t t h e ty p o lo g ic a l d if fe re n c e b e tw e e n su b je c tp r o m in e n t a n d t o p i c - p r o m in c n t la n g u a g e s.
T h e N P - C la u s e c o n s t r u c ti o n h a s p r o c e s s in g a n d d is c o u r s e f u n c t io n s a n d
is w id e s p r e a d in all ty p e s o f s p o k e n te x t e x c e p t c o m p le te ly s c r ip te d o n e s s u c h
a s t h e r e h e a r s e d c o m m e n ta r y a c c o m p a n y in g a p r o g r a m m e o n sn a k e s . T h e
c o n s tr u c tio n d o e s t u r n u p in lite r a r y te x ts to o , a n e x a m p le b e in g th e e x c e rp t
fro m L ittle D o r r it in ( 9 ) . N o t s u r p r is in g ly , g iv e n t h a t th e te x t is lite r a r y a n d
w ritte n a n d t h a t th e a u t h o r is C h a r le s D ic k e n s , t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n is e x p lo ite d
a n d s tr e tc h e d , w i t h e ig h t N P s ( i n b o ld ) p re c e d in g t h e m a in c la u s e in th e
s e c o n d te x t s e n t e n c e a n d p ic k e d u p b y t h e d ir e c t o b je c t th e s e in th e m a in
cla u s e a n d w ith r a t h e r c o m p le x N P s p r e c e d i n g th e m a i n c la u s e s in th e th ird
a n d l o u r t h te x t s e n te n c e s . A n d th e m a in c la u s e s a r c a ll w h in te rro g a tiv e s , w h ic h
is u n u s u a l in s p o n t a n e o u s sp e e c h .

(9 )

E ve ry b o d y

know s

how

lik e

th e

stre e t th e

w h o s t a n d b y th e s tr e e t w ill b e

tw o

d m n e r-ro w s

o f p e o p le

T h e h o u s e s o d r e a r i l y o u t o f r e p a ir ,

t h e o c c a s io n a l b o w -w in d o w . t h e s tu c c o e d h o u s e , t h e n e w ly -fr o n t e d
h o u s e , t h e c o r n e r h o u s e w it h n o t h in g b u t a n g u la r r o o m s , t h e h o u s e
w it h t h e b lin d s a lw a y s d o w n , t h e h o u s e w it h t h e h a t c h m e n t a lw a y s
u p . t h e h o u s e w h e r e t h e c o lle c t o r h a s c a lle d f o r o n e q u a r t e r o f a n
Id e a , a n d f o u n d n o b o d y a t h o m e - w h o h a s n o t d in e d w it h t h e s e T h e
h o u s e t h a t n o b o d y w ill la k e , a n d is to b e h a d a b a r g a i n - w h o d o e s n o t k n o w

l i e r ? T h e s h o w y h o u s e t h a t w a s t a k e n f o r life b y T h e d is a p p o in t e d g e n t le m a n ,
a n d w h ic h d o e s n o t s u it h im a t a ll - w h o is u n a c q u a in t e d w it h t h a t h a u n t e d
h a b ita t io n ?
C h a r le s D ic k e n s , 1 9 6 7 .

Little Dorrit.

P e n g u in e d n .

C h a p te r 2 U p . 2 9 2 )

W e c lo s e th is d is c u s s io n o f t h e N P -C la u s e c o n s t r u c t i o n b y n o ti n g th a t it is
r o t c o n f i n e d to E n g lis h . F re n c h h a s a v e r y s im ila r s t r u c t u r e , a n d in fa c t also
h a s a c o n s t r u c ti o n t h a t w e w ill la b e l C la u s e -N P . T h e f o llo w in g d ia lo g u e is
ti k e n f r o m V a rg a s (2 0 0 8 , p. 114).
( 1 0 ) Il a b o s s , t o n c h ie n
h e h a s w o rk e d -h a rd , y o u r d o g
H e s b e e n w o r k i n g h a r d , y o u r d o g '

L a b a v e d e c h i e n , c e s t a n t i s e p t i q u e

T h e s a l i v a o f d o g , it i s a n t i s e p t i q u e

'D o g s a liv a is a n t is e p t ic '

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

T h e firs t p a r t o f t h e d ia lo g u e s h o w s h o w F re n c h s p e a k e r s h a v e th e o p ti o n o f
k e e p in g fu ll N P s o u t o f a c la u s e b y ta c k in g th e m o n a t t h e e n d o f th e u tte ra n c e .
(10) is f r o m w r it te n d ia lo g u e a n d V a rg a s h a s c h o s e n to p u t a c o m m a b e tw e e n
i.' a boss a n d to n c h ien , in d i c a ti n g th a t s h e h a s p la c e d th e m i n t h e s a m e te x t
se n te n c e . If w e w e re tr a n s c r i b in g s p o k e n d ia lo g u e , th e i n t o n a t i o n p a tte r n
n i g h t s u g g e s t t h a t t h e tw o c h u n k s o f s y n ta x a r e n o t p a r t o f a s in g le s e n te n c e p a r tic u la r ly i f w e a c c e p t t h e id e a t h a t s e n te n c e s a r e n o t a p p r o p r ia t e f o r th e
a n a ly s is o f s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e . In s te a d , w e w o u ld o p t to h a v e ju s t
tw o p ie c e s o f s y n ta x s id e b y s id e , w i t h th e c o n n e c t io n s b e in g m a d e v ia th e s o r t
c f p r o c e d u r e u s e d in D RT.
T h e s e c o n d p a r t o f t h e d ia lo g u e h a s b e e n tr a n s la t e d (b y J M ) a s a n o r d in a r y
d a u s e b e c a u s e th e c o n te x t d o e s n o t ju s tify th e N P -C la u s e c o n s t r u c t i o n in
E n g lish . T h e s p e a k e r is n o t h ig h lig h tin g a n y th i n g o r d r a w in g a c o n tr a s t. H e is
sim p ly m a k i n g a n u n e m p h a t ic s t a te m e n t. T h e F re n c h c o n s t r u c ti o n lo o k s lik e
t i e E n g lis h o n e , b u t f u n c t io n s d if fe re n tly in d is c o u r s e . It is lik e th e E n g lis h o n e
in a llo w in g s p e a k e r s to p r o c e s s N P s, p o s s ib ly c o m p le x , i n d e p e n d e n tly a n d
t i e n to p ro c e s s a m a in c la u s e w i t h a s im p le p r o n o m in a l s u b je c t o r o b je c t. T h e
F r e n c h N P C l a u s e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s q u i t e f r e q u e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o B a ll < 2 0 0 0 ,

p. 1301 ) th e fr e q u e n c y o f d is lo c a te d s e n te n c e s in fa m ilia r a n d p o p u la r F re n c h
can b e a s h ig h a s 5 0 % ' a n d t h e y a r c a n o te w o r th y f e a tu r e o f t h e u s a g e o f
y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s o f w h a te v e r s o c ia l c a te g o ry . C e r ta i n ly 2 2 y e a rs a g o t h e a u t h o r
w as a d d r e s s e d b y a 3 -y e a r - o ld n a tiv e s p e a k e r o f F re n c h w h o s a id , a s h e r b a b y
b r o t h e r la y s c r e a m in g o n th e flo o r: il n a i i n e p a s tr e p a r terre, R a n a ld . T h e u se
c f th e c o n s t r u c t i o n b y a 3 -y e a r -o ld w a s a g o o d in d i c a ti o n th a t it w a s fr e q u e n tly
u s e d b y h e r p a r e n ts .
T h e K in g J a m e s B ible tr a n s la te s M a tth e w V I.2 8 a s C o n s id e r th e lilies o f
t i e fie ld h o w th e y grow . I m ita tin g t h e G re e k (S e e t h e d is c u s s io n in M ille r
a n d W e in e r t, 2 0 0 9 , p . 3 6 2 ), t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s t h e m e r it o f m a k in g c e n tr a l
t i e lilies o f th e Field, a s t h e r e f e r e n t o f t h e d ir e c t o b je c t in a s i m p l e c la u s e , a n d
s la tin g th e i r r e le v a n t p r o p e r ty in a s e p a r a te c o m p le m e n t c la u s e . T h e c o n s t it u
e n t s t r u c t u r e is n o t c le a r, t h o u g h th e lilie s o f th e fie ld a n d H o w t h e y g r o w b o th
m o d if y consider. O th e r tr a n s la to r s h a v e b e e n u n h a p p y w ith t h e c o n s t r u c tio n :
t i e R e v ise d E n g lis h B ib le h a s 'C o n s id e r h o w th e lilies o l th e Field g ro w , w ith
th e lilies o f th e f i e l d a s s u b je c t o f t h e c o m p le m e n t c la u s e . T h is s t r u c t u r e s a n i
tiz e s t h e s y n ta x , b u t re m o v e s t h e lilie s o f t h e fie ld f r o m p r o m in e n c e a n d th e
fo cu s o f a tte n tio n .
T h e c o n s t r u c ti o n h a s b e e n n o tic e a b le in s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lish
fo r s o m e tim e ; (1 1 ) w a s u tt e r e d in 1978 b y a 1 7 -y e a r-o ld S c o ttis h m a le in
E d in b u r g h , w ith n o p a u s e b e tw e e n re lig io n a n d th e d a m a g e . . .

Noun Phrases and N o n -con figu ration ality

(11 )

I w a s b r o u g h t u p a c a t h o li c a n d i h a t e r e lig io n t h e d a m a g e it d o e s t o h u m a n
p e o p le . . .
M ille r - B r o w n C o r p u s , c o n v e r s a t io n 1 3

H e re , th e d ir e c t o b je c t o f h a te is relig io n a n d t h e c o m p l e m e n t c la u s e c o n
v e y in g t h e re le v a n t p r o p e r ty o l relig io n is t h e d a m a g e i t d o e s to h u m a n people.
(1 2 ) is f r o m th e N e w Z e a la n d c o m p o n e n t o f IC E , a g a in w ith n o p a u s e .
(12 )

I c a n n e v e r r e m e m b e r a n y o f m y f a m ily h o w o ld t h e y a re .
N Z I C E , M a c q u a r ie C o r p u s

T h e d ir e c t o b je c t o f r e m e m b e r is a n y o f m y f a m i l y a n d t h e re le v a n t p r o p e r ty
is c o n v e y e d b y h o w o ld th e y are.
(1 3 ) w a s u tt e r e d in N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 8 b y th e p r o s e c u tin g c o u n s e l in a c o u r t
c ase in B r ita in ( T h e t r a n s c r i p ti o n o f th e w o r d s a p p e a r e d o n t h e T V s c r e e n a n d
th e w o r d s w e r e s p o k e n b y a c to rs ).
(1 3 )

D id y o u t h r e a t e n M ic h a e l X a t a n y t im e t h a t y o u w o u l d h a v e h im k il-e d ?

T h e d ir e c t o b je c t o f th r e a te n is M ic h a e l X a n d t h e c la u s e th a t y o n w o u ld h a ve
h im k ille d c o n v e y s, n o t a p r o p e r ty o l M ic h a e l X , b u t t h e c o n t e n t o f th e p u ta tiv e
th re a t. A w r itte n v e rs io n m ig h t b e D id y o u th r e a te n to h a v e M ic h a e l X k il le d . . . ?
(T h e O E D lists a s u p e r fic ia lly s im ila r c o n s t r u c ti o n f r o m th e W y c liffe B ib le o f
1380: A n d h e th r e a te n y d e h e m , th a t th e i s c h u ld e n n o t seie to a n y m a n o f h im .
H o w e v e r, t h e c la u s e th a t t h e i . . . is a c la u s e o f p u r p o s e . T h e p e o p le w e re th r e a t
e n e d s o t h a t t h e y w o u ld n o t s a y a n y th in g .)
T h is s u b - s e c ti o n c lo s e s w ith a n e x a m p le o f t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n f r o m w ritin g .
R e m e m b e r e d h a s R ossi a s its im m e d i a te d ir e c t o b je c t a n d h o w l i e d listen ed
so m o d e s tly to th e cheers a n d sp eech es a s a s e c o n d d ir e c t o b je c t, o r a t le a s t as
a s e c o n d m o d ifie r.
( 1d >

e v e r y o n e t u r n e d t o ( S t o ic h e v ] w i t h a s m ile

I r e m e m b e r e d R o s y , h o w h e 'd

lis t e n e d s o m o d e s t ly to t h e c h e e r s a n d s p e e c h e s
E liz a b e t h K o s t o v a , 7 0 0 5 , T h e H is t o r ia n

T h e c o n s t it u e n t s t r u c t u r e a n d d e p e n d e n c y r e l a ti o n s a r e n o t o b v io u s . T h e
s p o k e n e x a m p le s c o u ld b e a n a ly s e d an c o n s is tin g o f tw o p a r a ta c tic c la u se s:
fo r e x a m p le , in (1 1 ), i c a n n e v e r re m e m b e r a n y o f m y f a m i l y a n d h o w o ld th e y
are. O n th is a n a ly s is , t h e c la u s e s a r e lin k e d b y a d ja c e n c y a n d b y t h e a n a p h o r ic
p r o n o u n t h e y p ic k in g u p th e re f e r e n t o f a n y o f m y f a m i l y . W r ite r s u s in g th e
c o n s tr u c tio n h a v e to d e c id e h o w th e y a r c g o in g to o r g a n iz e th e c la u s e s o n th e
page. I t w o u ld b e p o s s ib le , il u n u s u a l, to w r ite ( 1 4 ) a s (1 5 ); t h i s o r g a n iz a tio n

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

w o u ld fit i n w ith , fo r e x a m p le , th e e x c e rp ts f r o m L ee C h il d s n o v e l q u o te d 011
p. 2 6 . K o s to v a , b e in g a less in v e n tiv e w r it e r t h a n C h ild , h a s c h o s e n n o t t o h av e
a te x t s e n te n c e c o n s is tin g o n ly o f a c o m p l e m e n t c la u s e , b u t in w r i t i n g ( 1 4 ) s h e
in v ite s a n a n a ly s is in w h ic h R o ssi a n d h o w h e d liste n e d so m o d e s tly to th e cheers
c>nd speeches a r e b o t h d ir e c t o b je c ts o f rem em bered", t h a t is, in o n e re p r e s e n ta t.o n , s h e in v ite s t h e c o n s t it u e n t s t r u c t u r e V P [V N P C o m p C la u s e ] .
(1 5 ) I re m e m b e re d R o ssi

H o w h e d lis t e n e d s o m o d e s t ly t o t h e c h e e r s a n d

sp e ech es

Non-configurationality in Native
Australian languages
W e t u r n n o w to th e n o n - c o n f ig u r a t io n a l s t r u c t u r e s o f N a tiv e A u s tr a lia n la n
gu ag es. B o w e ( 1 9 9 0 ) o ffe rs a g o o d a c c o u n t o f th e p h e n o m e n o n in th e N a tiv e
A u s tr a lia n la n g u a g e P it ja n tja tja r a . S h e o b s e r v e s ( 1990. p . 5 3 ) th a t in P itja n tja tja ra n o u n s a n d a tt r i b u ti v e m o d if ie r s c o m b i n e in tw o d if f e r e n t w a y s. F ir s t o f
all, e it h e r a n o u n o r a m o d if ie r c a n b e t h e so le c o n s t it u e n t in a N P , a s in (1 6 ).
( 1 6 ) a . m in y m a - n g k u - m

n y a -n g u .

w o m a n -E rg -1S g A c c

s e e -P a s t

't h e w o m a n s a w m e .'
b . v v a ra -n g k u -n i
t a ll-E r g -1 S g A c c

n y a -n g u .
s e e -P a s t

't h e t a ll o n e s a w m e .'

A f ir s t- p e r s o n s in g u la r d ir e c t o b je c t is sig n a lle d b y th e c litic - n i, w h ic h a tta c h e s

to t h e s u b je c t n o u n . M in y m a a n d w a rn c a n c o m b in e to g iv e t h e N P in ( 17).
(1 7 )

m in y m a

w a ra -n g k u -n i

w om an

t a ll- E r g -1 S g A c c

n y a -n g u .
s e e -P a s t

t h e ta ll w o m a n s a w m e .'

W a r a a n d m in y m a c o n s t it u te a s in g le N P , w itn e s s t h e s in g le c a s e a lf ix o n
v/rtra, b u t b o t h c a n c a r r y a c a se a ffix a n d c a n o c c u r in e it h e r o r d e r , a s in
( 18 a , b ) .
(18)

a . m in y m a - n g k u
w o m a n - E rg

w a ra -n g k u -n i
t a ll- E r g - m e

T h e w o m a n , t h e ta ll o n e , s a w m e .'

n y a -n g u .
s e e -P a s t

Noun Phrases and N o n -con figu ration ality

b . w a ra -n g k u
t a ll- o n e - E r g

m m y m a -n g k u -n i

n y a -n g u

w o m a rv m e

s e e -P a s t

T h e t a ll o n e , t h e w o m a n , s a w m e .'

T h e a p p a r e n t ly d is jo i n te d n a tu r e o f th e P itja n tja tja r a N P is f u r th e r b r o u g h t

c u t b y t h e ty p ic a l re la tiv e c la u s e c o n s t r u c t i o n a s e x e m p lif ie d in (1 9 ).
(1 9 )

w a ti-n g k u

panya

kuka

n g a ly a - k a t i- n g u

m a n -F rg

Anaphor

m eat

b a c k - b r in g - P a s t

t h a t m a n b r o u g h t t h e m e a t b a c k .'

panya

p a lu r u

m u ta ka

Anaph

3sgN om

car

p a ly a - n g u .
fix -P a s t

t h a t o n e f ix e d t h e c a r .

T h is c o n s t r u c ti o n is s t r o n g ly r e m in is c e n t o f t h e u n in t e g r a t e d c la u s e
s t r u c tu r e s d is c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 0 0 w h o s e k e y p r o p e r ty is th a t , in s te a d o f a
c la u s e e m b e d d e d in s id e a n N P , a s in th e re la tiv e c la u s e c o n s t r u c ti o n o f w r itte n
E n g lish , tw o c la u s e s a r e ju x ta p o s e d a n d t h e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e m is
sig n a lle d b y m e a n s o f d e ic tic s . B o w e d e s c r ib e s p a n y a a s a n a n a p h o r i c
d e m o n s tr a tiv e .
In te re s tin g ly , B o w e < 1990, p . 101 ) s a y s t h a t P itja n tja tja r a d o e s h a v e a s t r a t
e g y fo r f o r m in g re la tiv e c la u s e s , b y w h ic h s h e m e a n s a c o n s t r u c ti o n th a t is
m o r e in te g r a te d in h a v in g tw o v e r b s a n d th e r e f o r e tw o c la u s e s b u t o n ly o n e
e v e r t s u b je c t N P . a s in (2 0 ).
(2 0 ) w a t i
m an

panya

w a ru

a t u - n t j a - lu

n g a y u -n y a

Anaphor

w ood

c h o p -in f-E r g

1 S g -A cc

u -n g u .
g iv e -P a s t

t h e m a n w h o c h o p s w o o d g a v e m e s o m e '

T h e c e n tr a l f e a tu r e s o f t h i s c o n s t r u c ti o n a r e t h e la c k o f a c a se m a r k e r o n
'm a n ' a n d t h e p re s e n c e o f a c a se m a r k e r o n th e v e r b a tu ( c h o p ) . T h is
c ase m a r k e r , a c c o r d i n g t o B o w e, in d ic a te s t h a t t h e h e a d o f t h e re la tiv e c la u s e is
th e tr a n s itiv e s u b je c t o f th e m a i n v e r b u n g u (g a v e ). A f u r th e r f e a tu r e is th e
la c k o f a te n s e m a r k e r o n t h e v e r b in t h e re la tiv e c la u se . W e c a n a s s u m e th a t
th e in te g r a te d s t r u c tu r e in (2 0 ) is n o t ty p ic a l o f P it ja n tja tja r a , s in c e Bowe
c e s c r ib e s it a s 'n o t u s e d v e r y o f te n in n a r r a tiv e . A r e a s o n a b le h y p o th e s is (g iv en
th a t c o n v e r s a tio n is ty p ic a lly n o t p r e - p la n n e d w h e re a s n a r r a tiv e is) is t h a t it
is n o t u s e d in c o n v e r s a tio n e it h e r a n d m a y b e a c o n s t r u c ti o n t h a t w a s u s e d in
p la n n e d o r r e h e a r s e d s p e e c h . E ls e w h e re B o w e (1 9 9 0 , p . 3 0 ) c o m m e n ts t h a t a n y
n u m b e r o f a tt r i b u ti v e s m a y m o d i f y a h e a d n o u n , a lt h o u g h in p r a c tic e th e
n u m b e r is lim ite d - a c o m m e n t t h a t ra ise s q u e s tio n s a b o u t th e n a tu r e o f

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

th e d a ta . F r o m t h e w o r k o n N P s m e n t io n e d o n p p . 165, 1 9 3 -1 9 4 , w e e x p e c t
few o r n o a d je c tiv e s in N P s in s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h .
Je lin e k (1 9 8 4 , p . 4 0 ) c ite s t h e d a ta in (2 1 ) a s e x e m p lif y in g n u ll a n a p h o r a .
(2 1 )

a.

N g a rrk a m an

ngku

ka

p a n t i-r n i.

E rg

Aux

s p e a r -N o n - P a s t

T h e m a n is s p e a r in g h im / h e r/it.'
b W a w ir r i
ka n ga ro o

ka

p a n t i-r n i.

AUX

s p e a r -N o n - P a s t

'H e / s h e is s p e a r in g t h e k a n g a r o o .
c.

p a n t i- r n i
s p e a r-N o n -P a s t

ka.
AUX

'H e / s h e is s p e a r in g h im / h e r.'

In (2 1 a ), th e a g e n t n o u n p lu s e rg a tiv e su ffix , n g a rr k a n g k u , is p r e s e n t, b u t
th e r e is n o o v e r t p a ti e n t n o u n . I n (2 1 b ) , th e r e is a n o v e rt p a ti e n t n o u n , w a w irri,
h u t n o A g e n t n o u n . In (2 1 c ), th e r e is n e ith e r a g e n t n o r p a ti e n t n o u n . T h i s is
a v e r y f r e q u e n t p a t t e r n a c ro s s la n g u a g e s , w h e r e b y t h i r d - p e r s o n a g e n ts a n d
p a tie n t h a v e z e r o r e a liz a tio n in s u rfa c e s y n ta x . I n c o n tr a s t, fir s t- a n d s e c o n d p e r s o n a g e n ts a n d p a tie n ts a r e re a liz e d b y o v e r t s u r la c c m o r p h s , a s in
(22)(2 4 ).
(2 2 )

n g a | u lu - r lu
I - Frg

ka-

rn a -

ngku

n y u n tu - 0

n y a -n y i.

P re s-

1s g N o m -

7 sgA cc

y o u -A b s

s e e - N o n -P a s t

see yo u '
(2 3 )

n y u n t u lu - r iu k a you - E rg

ju

n g a ju - 0

n y a -n y i.

P res -2 s g N o m -

npa-

1s g A c c

m e- A b s

se o -N o n -P a st

k a -n p a

p u r la - m i

P res -? s g N o m

sh o u t-N o n -P a s t

'Y o u s e e m e .
(2 4 )

n y u n tu - 0
you- A bs

'Y o u a r e s h o u t in g '

T h e e x a m p le s in (2 2 ) a n d (2 3 ) h a v e in d e p e n d e n t firs t- a n d s e c o n d - p e r s o n
p r o n o u n s , n g a ju lu a n d n y u n tu p lu s e rg a tiv e s u f fix fo r t h e a g e n t a n d a b s o lu tiv e
su ffix f o r t h e p a tie n t. I n a d d itio n , t h e a u x ilia r y k a h a s tw o su ffix e s , n o m in a tiv e
lo r a g e n t a n d a c c u s a tiv e l o r p a ti e n t. ( 2 4 ) , w ith a n in tr a n s itiv e c o n s tr u c tio n ,
h a s o n e in d e p e n d e n t p r o n o u n w ith t h e a b s o lu tiv e s u f fix a n d t h e a u x ilia r y ka
w ith o n e s u ffix , th e n o m in a tiv e .
F re e w o r d o r d e r is e x e m p lif ie d b y ( 2 5 ) . T h e a u x ilia r y k a m u s t b e in s e c o n d
p o s itio n , b u t t h e o t h e r c o n s t it u e n ts c a n o c c u r in a n y o r d e r . ( 2 6 ) s h o w s h o w

Noun Phrases and N o n -con figu ration ality

tw o a p p a r e n t c o n s t it u e n ts o f a n N P a r e n o t o n l y n o t a d ja c e n t b u t a t e i t h e r e n d
o f th e cla u se .
(2 5 )

N g a rrk a -n g k u

ka

m a n -E rg

Aux

w a w ir r i-

p a n t i-r n i.

ka n ga ro o

s p e a r -N o n - P a s t

'T h e r o a n is s p e a r in g t h e k a n g a r o o .'

(2 6 )

W a w ir r i

k a p i-r n i

p a n t i- r n i

y a lu m p u .

K a n g a ro o

F u t u r e -ls g

s p e a r -N o n - P a s t

th at

w ill s p e a r t h a t k a n g a r o o .

A ll th e a t t e m p t s a t a n a ly z in g e x a m p le s lik e (2 6 ) h a v e b e g u n f r o m th e p e r
s p e c tiv e o l a C h o m s k y a n f o r m a l m o d e l. H a le ( 1 9 8 3 ) h a n d le d t h e d a ta w ith in
th e G o v e r n m e n t a n d B in d in g fr a m e w o rk , w h e r e t h e P r o je c tio n P rin c ip le
p r e c lu d e d s tr u c tu r e s w ith m is s in g n o m i n a ls in t h e a n a ly s is o f c la u s e s s u c h as
(21 a - c ) . T o m a k e th e P r o je c tio n P r in c ip le w o r k , G B a n a ly s e s o f E n g lis h a llo w e d
e m p t y N P s t o b e a s s ig n e d t h e t a ro le s a n d t h e c a te g o r y p r o w a s in t r o d u c e d fo r
th e s t r u c tu r e s o f c la u s e s (e .g . in I ta lia n o r R u s s ia n ) w h e r e th e d e ic tic su ffix o n
th e v e r b w a s e n o u g h to e s ta b lis h r e f e re n c e to a n a g e n t a n d m a d e s u b je c t N P s
u n n e c e s s a ry . Pro h a d in d e p e n d e n t d e ic tic re fe re n c e . H a le s u g g e s te d t h a t n o n c o n f ig u r a tio n a lity a ro s e f r o m th e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n p h r a s e s t r u c t u r e a n d
lexical s t r u c t u r e ( p r e d ic a te s a n d th e i r a r g u m e n ts ) . L ex ical v e r b s a s s ig n e d th e ta
ro les a n d c a s e to th e i r a r g u m e n ts . T h e s e s t ip u la te d a r r a y s o ! c a se s sp e c ifie d
v /h a t c a se s o p ti o n a l n o m i n a ls w o u ld c a r r y i f p r e s e n t in th e s u r f a c e sy n ta x .
A p a r t ic u l a r a r g u m e n t m ig h t n o t b e a s s ig n e d to a n y n o m in a l, a s in (21 a - c ) ,
a n d a n a r g u m e n t m ig h t b e a s s ig n e d to m o r e t h a n o n e n o m in a l, a s in ( 2 6 ) . T h e
re a s o n fo r r e c o g n iz in g m o r e t h a n o n e n o m i n a l is e x e m p lif ie d in ( 1 8 ), re p e a te d
b e lo w f o r c o n v e n ie n c e .
(1 3 )

a . m in y m a - n g k u
w o m a n - E rg
b

w a ra -n g k u
t a ll- o n e - E r g

w a ra -n g k u -n i

n y a -n g u

t a ll- E r g - m e

s e e -P a s t

m in y m a - n g k u - n i

n y a -n g u

w ^ m a n -m e

s e e -P a s t

W o r d s s u c h a s w a ra c a n lu n c t io n o n t h e i r o w n a s a n o m in a l, a s in < 1 6 b ), o r
a s th e m o d i f i e r o f a n o u n , a s in ( 1 6 a ) . L ike n o m i n a ls , m i n i c a n o c c u r in a n y
p o s itio n , b u t w h e n it is in s e c o n d p o s i ti o n , it c a r r ie s th e d o u b le su ffix , in d i c a t
in g t h e g r a m m a tic a l p e r s o n a s s ig n e d to e a c h o l th e a g e n t a n d p a tie n t. I n o t h e r
p o s itio n s , it c a r r ie s o n l y o n e . P e n s a lfm i (2 0 0 4 , p . 3 6 4 ) g iv e s t h e e x a m p le in
(2 7 ), f r o m th e N a tiv e A u s tr a lia n la n g u a g e Jiw arli.

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

(2 7 )

K u th a rra -rru
tw o -n o w

ngunha
th a t

n g u r n t a - in h a

jilu r u

lie P r e s

e g g (N o m )

N o w t h o s e t w o e g g s a r e ly in g t h e r e .'

B ak ers ta k e o n e x a m p le s s u c h a s ( 1 6 b ) , (1 8 ) a n d ( 2 7 ) - s e e B a k er (1 9 9 6 ) - is
t i a t th e s e la n g u a g e s c o lla p s e N a n d A i n t o a sin g le d is tr i b u ti o n a l a n d m o r p h o
lo g ic a l class o f n o m i n a ls , c a s e - b e a r in g e le m e n ts w h ic h a p p e a r fre e ly o r d e r e d
w ith re s p e c t to o n e a n o th e r a n d th e v e rb . T h e s e e le m e n ts h a v e t h e s y n ta c tic
d is tr i b u ti o n o l a d je c tiv e s - th e y d o n o t a p p e a r in a r g u m e n t p o s i ti o n a n d
a p p e a r to b e p r e d ic a te d o f t r u e ( n u l l) a r g u m e n ts . A s a r e s u lt, a n y n u m b e r o f
t i e m c a n b e c o n s t r u e d w ith a s in g le n u ll a r g a n d t h e y n e e d n o t b e a d ja c e n t.
(B ak er c o n s id e r s th e p h e n o m e n o n u n u s u a l, b u t it is w id e s p r e a d ; w itn e s s th e
d is c u s s io n o f R u s s ia n b elo w .)
Je lin e k (1 9 8 4 ) a rg u e s t h a t H a le w a s c o r r e c t to p r o p o s e n o e m p t y c a te g o rie s
in h i s a c c o u n t o f W a r lp ir i a n d o p ti o n a l n o m i n a ls , b u t p u ts f o r w a r d a n a lt e r n a
tive a n a ly s is i n c o r p o r a t in g H a le 's k e y in s ig h t a b o u t e m p t y c a te g o rie s w h ile
p r e s e rv in g t h e P r o je c tio n P rin c ip le . H e r s o l u ti o n (1 9 8 4 , p p . 4 3 - 5 ) is to h av e
A u x ilia ry c o n ta i n c a s e - m a r k e d , f u lly re f e re n tia l c litic p r o n o u n s t h a t se rv e as
v e rb a l a r g u m e n ts . N o m in a ls d o n o t b e a r g r a m m a tic a lly re le v a n t c a s e m a r k in g ,
th e y d o n o t re a liz e g r a m m a t ic a l f u n c t io n s a n d t h e y n e v e r o c c u r in a r g u m e n t
p o s itio n s . L ike a n y p r o n o u n s , t h e c litic s in t h e W a r lp ir i A u x ilia r y c a n h av e
a n te c e d e n ts o u ts id e ih e i r g o v e rn in g c a te g o ry . (A n a n a ly s is s im ila r in its e sse n c e
b u t p e rf o rc e d if f e r in g in te c h n ic a l c o n c e p ts a n d v o c a b u la r y w a s p r o p o s e d
in E lso n a n d P ic k e tt (1 9 6 7 , 7 2 ).) In a b r i e l d is c u s s io n o f c la u s e s t r u c t u r e in
S ie rra P o p o lu c a (a M ix e -Z o q u e la n g u a g e o f M e x ic o , c a lle d H ig h la n d P o p o lu c a
a c c o rd in g to th e E lsevier E n cyclo p ed ia o f L a n g u a g e a n d L in g u istic s (S e c o n d
E d itio n ); th e y p r e s e n t e x a m p le s s u c h a s in u tc p a f a k a ta h p i h c - g r a b s - i l c h ic k
h a w k . T h e h a w k g r a b s t h e c h ic k . T h e y say: I n S ie r ra P o p o lu c a t h e n u c le u s o f
t i e c la u s e is t h e v e rb , a n d fre e n o u n s m e r e ly a d d d e ta il. T h e n o u n s a r e n o t
m a n if e s tin g tr u e s u b je c t a n d o b je c t s lo ts , b u t d e ta il slo ts. I h e ir c o m m e n ts
a p p lie d to la n g u a g e s o f C e n tr a l A m e r ic a in w h ic h c la u s e s h a d a n o b lig a to r y
c o re c o n s is tin g o l v e rb s t e m a n d p e r s o n - n u m b e r affix es. T h e y t r e a te d fu ll N P s
as a d ju n c t s , o u ts id e th e c o r e .) , P e n s a lfm i (2 0 0 4 , p . 3 6 0 ) p r o p o s e s t h a t th is
o r g a n iz a tio n i n t o c la u s e c o r e w ith c a s e - m a r k e d c litic p r o n o u n s a ris e s f r o m a
re s tric tio n o n w h ic h p o s i ti o n s in th e c la u s e a r e a b le t o h o s l e n c y c lo p a e d ic
in f o r m a tio n . T h e c o m p u t a ti o n a l s y s te m o f th e la n g u a g e fa c u lty a p p lie s t o th e
c o re o t a c la u s e , d ir e c tly m a n i p u la t in g lu n c t io n a l ite m s , w h ic h h a v e o n l y t o r
m al fe a tu re s , b u t n o t c o m b i n in g t h e f u n c tio n a l ite m s w ith le x ic a l ite m s c a r r y
ing e n c y c lo p a e d ic re f e re n tia l in f o r m a tio n .

Noun Phrases and N o n -con figu ration ality

fin a l c o m m e n t 011 th e s p lit N P s b y P e n s a lfin i (2 0 0 4 , p. 3 7 4 ) is th a t in th e
N ativ e A u s tr a lia n la n g u a g e J in g u lu it is a ls o c o m m o n to f i n d a p r o n o u n w ith
th e s a m e r e f e re n c e a s a n o v e r t n o m in a l, o r to fin d a n o m i n a l r e p e a te d in a
c la u s e , a s in (2 8 ). P e n s a lfin i r e m a r k s t h a t th is m a k e s i t u n lik e ly t h a t th e se
w o rd s w e r e g e n e r a te d to g e t h e r w ith in a s in g le N P a n d s o m e h o w s p lit u p at
a la te r s ta g e in t h e d e r iv a tio n . ( 2 8 ) c o n ta i n s tw o o c c u rr e n c e s o f b ik irra , th e
s e c o n d w ith a f o c u s s u ffix , a n d tw o c o n s t it u e n ts w ith d e m o n s tr a tiv e fo rc e ,
J im in ik i, g lo s s e d a s th is', a n d n y a m b a la , g lo s s e d a s 'D E M ' fo r d e m o n s tr a tiv e .
T h e g e n e r a l p o i n t a b o u t tw o o c c u r r e n c e s o f th e s a m e ite m is c le a r, b u t th e
sy n ta c tic o r g a n is a tio n o l ( 2 8 ), its te x tu a l a n d e x tr a - lin g u is tic c o n te x ts a n d its
i i t o n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a ti o n a n d r h y t h m a r e n o t d e s c r ib e d a t all.

(2 8 )

J im in ik i b ik ir r a

n y a m b a la

k u r d a r ly u r r u

k a - ju b i k i r r a - r n i

Ib is

D E M (n )

g r e e n (n )

3 s g -rfo g r a s s -F O C

gra ss

'T h is g r a s s is g r e e n .

Non-configurationality in
Russian NPs
We tu r n

n o w t o d a ta f r o m R u s s ia n a n d t h e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n c e r ta in

m o d if ie r s a n d t h e n o u n s th e y m o d ify .

T h e r e l a ti o n s h ip is o f in t e r e s t b e c a u se

c f t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f sp lit N P s', t h a t is, N P s in w h ic h th e h e a d n o u n (o r

v /h a t in w r it in g w o u ld b e t h e h e a d n o u n in a n N P ) is s e p a r a te d f r o m its m o d i
fiers b y o t h e r c o n s titu e n ts . W e w ill se e t h a t t h e te r m s p lit N P is a m is n o m e r ,
b e c a u s e it a s s u m e s th a t th e re le v a n t c o n s t it u e n ts a r c in itia lly p a r t o f a n
in te g ra te d N P , w h ic h b e c o m e s s p lit. T h e R u ssia n d a ta c o n s t it u te i m p o r t a n t
e v id e n c e a g a in s t th is v iew , im p o r t a n t b e c a u s e th e s p l i t N P ' c o n s t r u c t i o n is n o t
ty p ic a l o f f o r m a l w r it te n R u s s ia n , is f o u n d in s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n R u ssia n a n d
raises q u e s t io n s a b o u t w h a t c o u n t s a s t h e h e a d o f a NP.
( T h e s e a n d th e o t h e r re le v a n t d a t a a r e ta k e n f r o m Z e m s k a ja (1 9 7 3 ) , L a p te v a
(1 9 7 6 ) a n d M o r o z o v a (1 9 8 4 ), to g e th e r w ith a n a n a ly s is o f t h e s a m p le fro m
K a p a n a d z e a n d Z e m s k a ja ( 1 9 7 9 ). G iv e n t h e c e n s o r io u s a n d in fle x ib le a ttitu d e s
c is p la y e d b y m a n y e d u c a te d R u ssia n s to w a rd s a n y v a r ie ty t h a t c a n b e se e n
to d if f e r f r o m f o r m a l w r it te n R u s s ia n , i t is w o rth w h ile r e m in d i n g o u rs e lv e s
th a t Z e m s k a ja a n d L a p te v a r e c o r d e d a n d tr a n s c r ib e d t h e la n g u a g e s p o k e n b y
e d u c a te d R u s s ia n s in in f o r m a l a n d re la x e d s e ttin g s .)
T h e r e a r e th r e e ty p ic a l c a s e s ; in (2 9 ), a n a d je c tiv e a n d a n o u n a r e b o th
p re c e d e d b y a p r e p o s itio n ; in ( 3 0 ) , a d je c tiv e a n d n o u n a r e a t o p p o s ite e n d s

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

c f th e c la u s e ; i n ( 3 1 ) , a q u a n tif ie r /n u m e r a l/p o s s e s s iv e n o u n a n d a n o u n a re
in a d e p e n d e n c y r e la tio n s h ip , b u t a r e n o t a d ja c e n t. T h e r e la te d a d je c tiv e /
q u a n tif ie r a n d n u m e r a l a r c in b o ld .
(2 9 )

A d je c t iv e a n d n o u n in a p r e p o s it io n a l p h r a s e
2 iv e m

novom

r a jo n o

w e - liv e

in

new

in

q u a r te r

'w e liv e m a n e w q u a r te r.'

(3 0 )

A d je c t iv e a n d n o u n
in t e r e s n u ju

p r in e s i

m ne

in t e r e s t in g

b r in g

to -m e

k n ig u .
book

'b r in g m e a n in t e r e s t in g b o o k . 1
(3 1 )

N u m e ra l a n d no un
t r is t a

ja

th re e -h u n d re d

n a s o b ir a l

znacko v

c o lle c t e d

badges

I n ( 2 9 ) , t h e a d je c tiv e n o v o m m o d ifie s th e n o u n ra jo n e, w ith w h ic h it a g ree s

in c a se , n u m b e r a n d g e n d e r. In w r itte n R u ssia n , w e w o u ld e x p e c t to fin d
1 n o v o m ra jo n e, w ith a s in g le p r e p o s iti o n a s s ig n in g lo c a tiv e c a s e lo t h e n o u n ,

w h ic h in t u r n a s s ig n s lo c a tiv e c a s e to th e a d je c tiv e ( a c c o r d in g t o t h e tr a d itio n a l

a c c o u n t) . In (2 9 ) th e r e a r e tw o o c c u r r e n c e s o f th e p r e p o s iti o n . In (3 0 ) th e
a d je c tiv e in te re sn u ju m o d if ie s th e n o u n k n ig u , w ith w h ic h i t a g re e s in case,
r .u m b e r a n d g e n d e r. K n ig u is t h e d ir e c t o b je c t o f p rin e si, a n d in w ritte n
R u s s ia n , w e w o u ld fin d p rin e si m n e in te r e s n u ju k n ig u o r in te re sn u ju k n ig u
/ rin e si m n e o r k n ig u in te re sn u ju p r in e s i nine; d if f e r e n t w o r d o r d e r s a r e p o s s ib le
in w r itte n R u s s ia n , b u t t h e a d je c tiv e a n d n o u n a r c a lw a y s a d ja c e n t. In (3 1 ) th e
n u m e r a l tr is ta a s s ig n s g e n itiv e c a se t o zn a c k o v , in w r it te n R u s s ia n w e w o u ld
I n d j a n a so b ira l z n a c k o v trista , w ith n u m e r a l a n d n o u n a d ja c e n t.
N o n - a d ja c e n t a d je c tiv e s a n d n o u n s a r e n o t a lw a y s a t o p p o s i te e n d s o f
d a u s e s n o r d o e s th e a d je c tiv e a lw a y s c o m e firs t. C o n s id e r (3 2 ) (3 5 ).
(3 2 )

z d o ro v e n n u ju

om

kanavu

/des"

r o ju l

h u g e -a c c -fe m -s g

th e y

t re n t h -a c c -le m -v g

h e re

d ig - 3 P I- lm p e r f

u k la d y v a ju t

vot

e ti

vot

tru b y

And

la y - 3 P i- lm p e r f

lo o k

t h is - P I- A c c

lo o k

p ip e - P I- A c c

T h e y a r e d i g g i n g a h u g e t r e n c h a n d la y in g - j u s t lo o k a t t h e m -

th ese

p ip e s .

(3 3 )

n e k o to ry e
so m e

d a fe
even

do
to

v o s 'm i

tu ro v

d e la ju t

b a le r in y

e ig h t

tu rn s

d o -3 P I

b a lle n n a -N o m -P I

'S o m e b a lle n n a s e v e n d o u p t o e i g h t t u r n s .'

Noun Phrases and N o n -con figu ration ality

(3 4 )

K u r ic u

na

b o l's u ju

p o lo / i

t a r e lk u

c h k k e n -A c c

on

b ig -A c c -F e m

put

p la t e - A c c - F e m

'P u t t h e c h ic k e n o n t h e a / t h e b i g p la t e .'

(3 5 )

dom a

ne

budu

S tro lt

h o u s e -M a s c -G e n

not

Aux

b u ild - ln f w in t e r - M a s c G e n

z im n e g o

T h e y 'r e n o t g o t n g to b u ild a w i n t e r h o u s e .'

T h e s e c o n d c la u s e o f (3 2 ) a n d th e w o r d o r d e r in (3 0 ) w ill t u r n o u t to b e o f
p a r t ic u l a r in te r e s t in th e d is c u s s io n o f h o w n o n - a d j a c e n t a d je c tiv e a n d n o u n
a r e to b e a n a ly s e d . I lo re , w e s im p ly p r e s e n t th e s a lie n t s t r u c tu r a l d e ta ils . I n th e
first c la u s e o f ( 3 2 ) , th e a d je c tiv e is in in itia l p o s i ti o n , b u t its n o u n is s e p a r a te d
fro m i t o n ly b y t h e s u b je c t o f th e c la u s e , o n t 'th e y '. I n th e s e c o n d c la u s e e ti
th e se a n d t r u l y p ip e s a r e s e p a r a te d b y th e d e ic tic p a r tic le vol. I n w ritte n
R u ssian a n d in m o r e f o r m a l s p o k e n R u s s ia n , w e w o u ld fin d o n ly v o r e ti tru b y ,
w ith th e p a r t ic l e p r e c e d in g th e s e q u e n c e o f d e m o n s tr a tiv e a n d n o u n . T h e
c la u s e -in itia l c o n s t it u e n t in (3 3 ) is a n a d je c tiv e , a lt h o u g h it is tr a n s la te d in to
E n g lish b y a q u a n tif ie r . T h e R u ssia n w o r d n e k o to r y e a g re e s w ith its n o u n in
n u m b e r , g e n d e r a n d c a s e a n d m u s t b e a n a ly s e d a s a n a d je c tiv e . I n (3 4 ), th e
a d je c tiv e is n o t in in itia l p o s i ti o n a n d is s e p a r a te d f r o m its n o u n b y th e v erb .
T arelku, in t h e a c c u s a tiv e c a s e , is th e d ir e c t o b je c t o f p o lo zi. I n ( 3 5 ) , it is
th e n o u n t h a t is in c la u s e -in itia l p o s i ti o n a n d t h e a d je c tiv e in c la u s e -fin a l
p o s itio n .
(3 6 )(3 8 ) a r e e x a m p le s o f n o n - a d j a c e n t n u m e r a l a n d n o u n a n d n o n a d ja c e n t p o sse ssiv e n o u n a n d n o u n . I n (3 6 ), th e n u m e r a l t r i fo llo w s t h e m a in
v e rb p r ix o d ili'c a m e ' a n d its n o u n ( m o d if ie d b y a n a d je c tiv e ) p re c e d e s . I n (3 7 ),
th e p o ss e ssiv e n o u n in t h e g e n itiv e c a s e , Igorja, is in c la u s e - in itia l p o s itio n ,
w h ile t h e h e a d n o u n is in c la u s e -fin a l p o s itio n . T h e re v e rs e h o ld s in (3 8 ), w ith
th e p o ss e ssiv e n o u n T a m a r y a t th e e n d o f th e c la u s e a n d t h e h e a d n o u n
p o d r u z k i in s e c o n d p o s itio n .
(3 6 )

I t a l j a n o c k i
It a lia n - g ir ls

m o lo d e n 'k ie
young

p r ix o d ili t r i

cam e

th re e

nam

go sti

to

us

in t o

g u e sts

'T h r e e n ic e y o u n g It a lia n g ir ls c a m e t o s t a y w i t h u s .'

(3 7 )

Ig o r ja

O f - lg o r

to

nam

s o b ir a la s '

p r ie x a t

m am a

us

w a s - m t e n d in g

to -c o m e

m o th e r

'Ig o r 's m o t h e r w a s in t e n d in g t o v is it u s .'

(3 8 )

kogda
w hen

p o d ru zk i

p r ie d u t

f r ie n d s

w ill- a r r iv e

T a m a ry 7
o f- T a m a r a

W h e n a r e T a m a r a 's f r ie n d s a r r iv in g

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

Non-configurationality and inform ation structure

V a ria tio n s in w o r d o r d e r s e ld o m , il e v e r, c o m e fre e , e v e n in s p o n ta n e o u s
sp e e c h . L a p te v a (1 9 7 6 , p p . 2 1 3 - 2 3 ) su g g e s ts t h a t t h e d if f e r e n t o r d e r s a r e a ss o
c ia te d w ith d if f e r e n t i n t o n a t i o n p a t t e r n s a n d d if f e r e n t in f o r m a t io n s tr u c tu r e .
S h e d is tin g u is h e s tw o p o s t - p o s i n g c o n s t r u c ti o n s - d is ta n t n a ja p o s tp o z ic ija ,
a n d a p r e - p o s in g c o n s t r u c ti o n . (T e r m s s u c h a s p r e - a n d p o s t- p o s in g c a r r y th e
p r e s u p p o s itio n t h a t tw o ite m s a r e o r ig in a lly a d ja c e n t a n d th e n s e p a r a te d o r
th a t th e c o n s t r u c t i o n in w h ic h t h e tw o ite m s a r e a d ja c e n t is m o r e b a s ic t h a n
t i e o t h e r o n e .) A d is ta n t p o s t- p o s e d a d je c tiv e m a y b e a n a f t e r t h o u g h t o r an
i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t o l t h e m e s sa g e . A s a n a l t e r t h o u g h t , it d o e s n o t c a rr y
fo c a l a c c e n t (d y n a m i c s tr e s s ) a n d is s p o k e n a t a q u ic k e r te m p o . A s a n i m p o r
ta n t c o m p o n e n t o f th e m e s s a g e , it c a n c a r r y th e lo c a l a c c e n t a n d re f e rs t o s o m e
p r o p e r ty o f a g iv e n e n t i t y th a t is n o t o b je c tiv e ly n e w b u t g iv e n in a p a r tic u la r
s itu a tio n . L a p te v a r e m a r k s t h a t t h i s is ty p ic a lly th e c a s e in c la u s e s o rg a n iz e d
in a s e q u e n c e o l s tre s s e d a n d u n s tr e s s e d c o n s t it u e n ts in w h ic h th e r h y th m
h e lp s th e lis te n e r to in t e r p r e t t h e d is jo in e d a d je c tiv e a n d n o u n . A s e x a m p le s
c l p o s t - p o s e d a d je c tiv e s L a p te v a g iv e s (3 9 ) - a n a f t e r t h o u g h t, a n d (4 0 ) - an
i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t o f th e m e s sa g e .
(3 9 ) Ja
I

(4 0 )

to 2 e
to o

a
and

p la t o k

v z ja la

s h a w l- n o m - m a s c

to o k

z a m o k -to

t e p ly j.
w a rm -n o m -m a sc

v s t a v ila

lo e k - n o m - m a s e - p a r t ic le

h a s -p u t-m

n o v y j.
n e w -n o m -m a sc

A n d h a s s h e / y o u p u t i n a n e w lo c k ? '

D is ta n t p r e - p o s e d a d je c tiv e s , w h e th e r c la u s e -in itia l o r c la u s e - in te r n a l, a re

e q u a l t o o r m o r e im p o r t a n t t h a n t h e n o u n w i t h re s p e c t t o i n f o r m a t io n lo a d .
L ap tev as e x a m p le is (4 1 ), in w h ic h th e a d je c tiv e c isto j c a r r ie s a fa llin g p itc h ,
th e r e is a s h a r p r is e o n n e t a n d a n o t h e r fa llin g p itc h o n
(4 1 )

And

at you

t e b ja

ii s t o j
c le a n

net
not

th e n o u n ru b a x L

r u b a x i?
s h irt

B u t h a v e n 't y o u g o t a c l e a n s h ir t ? 1

T h e a f t e r t h o u g h t a n a ly s is o l e x a m p le s s u c h a s (3 9 ) h a s o n e d is a d v a n ta g e ;
it d o c s n o t fit w ith th e fa c t t h a t th e s e a n d t h e o t h e r e x a m p le s c it e d b y L a p te v a
w ere p r o d u c e d , a c c o r d in g to th e tr a n s c r i p ti o n , w ith o u t a p a u s e , y e t th e
ty p ic a l a l t e r t h o u g h t , o r a t le a s t t h e s te r e o ty p ic a l a f t e r t h o u g h t, is a d d e d a l t e r a
s h o r t s ile n c e . A lte rn a tiv e ly , a n a f t e r t h o u g h t e x p r e s s io n h a s its o w n i n t o n a ti o n

Noun Phrases and N o n -con figu ration ality

e n v e lo p e . F o r in s ta n c e , th e E n g lis h u tt e r a n c e g e l m e a p iz z a a s m a ll o n e s o u n d s
p e c u lia r w ith o u t a p a u s e (e v e n v e r y s h o r t ) b e tw e e n p i z z a a n d a s m a ll o n e o r
w ith o u t a s e p a r a te i n t o n a ti o n p a t t e r n o v e r a s m a ll one. T h e s a m e h o ld s fo r
R u ssia n , b u t L a p te v a m a r k s o n ly o n e o u t o f t h i r t y o d d e x a m p le s a s h a v in g
a p a u s e (L a p te v a , 1976, p p . 2 1 3 - 1 4 ) . I n a n o t h e r e x a m p le , r e p r o d u c e d h e r e as
(4 2 ), s h e in d ic a te s a c la u s e b r e a k b y a c o m m a , b u t a c la u s e - f in a l p o s t- p o s e d
a d je c tiv e im m e d ia te ly p r e c e d e s th e c o m m a . T h a t is, th e a d je c tiv e is in te n d e d
to b e r e a d a s p a r t o l th e firs t c la u s e b o t h in i n t o n a t i o n a n d in r h y th m .
(4 2 )

p o to m

a n d th o n

d e v io n k i

ta k

p r ip u s t ilis '

g ir ls - p l

so

q u ic k e n e d - p a c e r e a r -p l,

z a d n io , t a k b e 2 a li, u 2 a s
so

ra n ,

honor

A n d t h e n th e g ir ls , t h e o n e s a t t h e b a c k , q u ic k e n e d t h e i r p a c e s o m u c h , r a n
s o f a s t , t h a t i t w a s t e r r if y in g .

In fa c t, L a p te v a s e x a m p le in (3 9 ) is m o r e re v e a lin g ly s e t o u t a s in (4 3 )
(f o llo w in g th e i n f o r m a t io n in L a p te v a (1 9 7 6 , p . 2 1 3 ).
(4 3 )

u
at

ja
I

m e n ja

p ia to k .

me

a -s h a w l

to 2 e

p ia t o k

v z ja la

to o

a -sh a w l

h a v e -b ro u g h t

te p ly j.
w a rm

T h a t is, p ia to k is g iv e n . S p e a k e r B p ic k s u p t h e w o r d s o f S p e a k e r a n d a d d s
th e i n f o r m a t io n th a t h e r s h a w l is a w a r m o n e . T e p ly j c e r ta in ly c o n v e y s n e w
in f o r m a tio n , b u t w h e th e r it is a n a f t e r t h o u g h t is n o t c e r ta in . C le a r ly t h e r e is
m u c h w o r k to b e d o n e o n th e p o s itio n o f a d je c tiv e s in s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n
R u ssia n ; th e c e n tr a l p o i n t fo r o u r p u r p o s e s is th a t t h e w o r d - o r d e r is n o t free,
b u t c o n tr o lle d b y d is c o u r s e fa c to rs.
O n ly tw o o f t h e s p lit N P s h a v e t h e o r d e r n o u n - X - a d je c tiv e , w h e r e X s ta n d s
fa r s o m e c o n s t it u e n t( s ) . T h a t is, m o s t o f th e sp lit N P s w ith a d je c tiv e a n d n o u n
a r e n o t t o b e e x p la in e d a s a f te r th o u g h ts . I n te re s tin g ly , th e r e is o n ly o n e cle a r
e x a m p le o f a n a f t e r t h o u g h t o r a t le a st o f p r o b le m s w ith t h e p a ra lle l p ro c e s s in g
c f la n g u a g e a n d th e a c c e ss in g o l i n f o r m a t io n in m e m o ry .
It is i n t h e c o n v e r s a tio n e x tr a c t in (4 4 )
(4 4 )

kak ra z

popai

na

e to t

s a m y j/

na

fe s tiv a l'/ /

V e n e o a n s k ij

p a r t ic le

fe ll

on

th a t

ve ry

on

fe s t iv a l

V e n e t ia n

W h a t s h o u l d h e d o b u t e n d u p a t t h a t fe s t iv a l - t h e V e n ic e fe s t iv a l '

T h e in d ic a te s a n i n t o n a ti o n c o n t o u r m a r k in g a c o m p le te d s y n ta c tic
s tr u c tu r e . T h e a d je c tiv e V e n e c ia n sk ij c a r r ie s its o w n i n t o n a ti o n c o n t o u r a n d

fe stiv a l
A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax
c o n s titu te s a s e p a r a te c h u n k o f s y n ta x . T h e la n g u a g e - p r o c e s s in g d iffic u ltie s
a re s ig n a lle d b y th e u s e o f th e d u m m y w o r d s a m y j ( e q u iv a le n t h e re to th e u se
c f w h a t's its n a m e b y s p e a k e r s o f E n g lis h , a s in h e w e n t to t h a t e m w h a t's
i's n a m e V enice fe s tiv a l). S a m y j is fo llo w e d b y a sin g le o b liq u e m a r k in g th e
in t o n a ti o n p a tt e r n 'u t t e r a n c e n o t fin is h e d a n d t h e s p e a k e r r e p e a ts t h e p r e p o
sitio n n a a lo n g w ith t h e a p p r o p r ia t e lex ical ite m fe s tiv a l'. T h e s e a r e all sig n s
c f p ro c e s s in g p r o b le m s , a n d th e i n t o n a ti o n s ig n a ls t h a t th e u tt e r a n c e is fin
is h e d w ith th e w o rd festiva l. V en e cia n sk ij re a lly c a n b e in t e r p r e te d h e r e a s a n
a f t e r th o u g h t.
L a p te v a s a n a ly s is o l p r e - p o s e d a d je c tiv e s a s c a r r y in g a la rg e in f o r m a t io n
lo a d a p p lie s to a n e x a m p le o f Z e m k a ja s in w h ic h t h e a d je c tiv e is s e p a r a te d
f r o m th e re s t o f th e c la u s e b y a n i n t o n a ti o n b re a k s ig n a llin g a n u n f in is h e d
p ie c e o l s y n ta x . Z c m s k a ja s e x a m p le is r e p r o d u c e d in ( 4 5 ) . T h e a d je c tiv e
g la z tr o v a n n y x d e lim its t h e s e t o f e n ti ti e s t h a t t h e s p e a k e r is in te r e s te d in ; th e
rest o f t h e u tt e r a n c e s p e c ifie s w h a t t h e s p e a k e r w is h e s to k n o w a b o u t th o s e
e n titie s .
(4 5 )

g la z ir o v a n n y x /

net

vas

sy rk o v ?

And

g la z e d - g e n - p l

not

at

you

c h e e s e -g e n -p l

A n d w h a t a b o u t g la z e d c h e e s e c u r d s ? H a v e y o u g o t a n y ? '

In t h e li g h t o f L a p te v a s c o m m e n ts , i t is te m p ti n g to say t h a t th e c o n s t r u c
tio n s w ith n o n - a d ja c e n t n o u n a n d a d je c tiv e a r e e ith e r th e r e s u lt o f p la n n in g
p r o b le m s , w h ic h le a d to c o n s t it u e n ts b e in g a d d e d a s a f t e r t h o u g h ts , o r s e r v e a
sp e c ia l in f o r m a tio n a l p u r p o s e , n a m e ly h ig h lig h tin g t h e a d je c tiv e . T h e h i g h
lig h tin g is a c h ie v e d b y m o v in g t h e a d je c tiv e o u t o f its o r ig in a l p o s i ti o n in a NP.
N o n e o f th is e x p la in s w h y s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n R u s s ia n h a s th e m a n d n o t
w r itte n R u ssia n ; t h a t is , w h y t h e u n u s u a l c o n s t r u c ti o n w ith n o n - a d j a c e n t h e a d
a n d m o d i f i e r is f o u n d in t h e v a r ie ty t h a t o th e r w is e h a s m u c h s i m p l e r sy n ta x .
T h e a n s w e r p r o p o s e d la te r in t h i s c h a p te r is t h a t t h e a d je c tiv e a n d n o u n a re
lin k e d , a s s ig n a lle d b y t h e in f le c tio n s , b u t t h a t th e a d je c tiv e is m o r e a c c u ra te ly
siren a s a n in d e p e n d e n t N P , th e n o u n c o n s t it u ti n g a n o t h e r s e p a r a te N P . T h a t
is, in (3 2 ), th e firs t c la u s e c a n b e g lo s se d a s I t s a b ig o n e t h e y a r e d ig g in g - a
ditch'.
S ie w e rs k a (1 9 8 4 ) d is c u s s e s a p a r a lle l c o n s t r u c ti o n in P o lish , la b e llin g it
'p h r a s a l d is c o n tin u ity r a t h e r t h a n 's p l it N P . S h e p r o v id e s v a lu a b le i n f o r m a t.o n a b o u t its d is c o u rs e iu n c tio n , b e in g b o t h a lin g u is t a n d a n a tiv e sp e a k e r.
O n e o f h e r e x a m p le s is ( 4 6 ) , w h ic h c a n b e im a g in e d a s a re p ly to th e c o m m e n t
A p p a re n tly th e y h a v e a b e a u tifu l h o u s e .

Noun Phrases and N o n -con figu ration ality

(4 6 )

N ie !

Pekny

m a ja

No!

B e a u t if u l

th e y -h a v e

o gr d

D o rn

g a rd e n . H o u se

m a ja
th e y -h a v e

k ie p s k i.
c/um m y.

'N o ! It's t h e t h e ir g a r d e n t h a t 's b e a u t ifu l. T h e h o u s e is a u m m y ' .

T h e in itia l a n il fin a l a d je c tiv c s p e k n y a n d k ie p s k i a r c c o n tr a s tiv e . P e k n y is

g iv e n , b e in g r e p e a te d f r o m th e in itia l c o m m e n t, a n d k ie p s k i is n e w a n d
h ig h lig h te d in c la u s e -fin a l p o s itio n . T h a t is, a s in t h e R u s s ia n e x a m p le s , th e
o r d e r o f a d je c tiv e a n d n o u n is n o t r a n d o m , b u t c o n s t it u te s a c o n tr a s tiv e
c o n s tr u c tio n .
T h is s e c tio n c a n u se fu lly b e b r o u g h t to a d o s e w ith m o r e fig u re s , sin c e
Z e m s k a ja a n d L a p te v a d o n o t q u a n ti f y th e o c c u r r e n c e s o f s p lit N P s. In a n
e x tr a c t o f c o n v e r s a tio n c o n ta i n in g 2 ,3 1 0 N P s th e r e w e re 3 6 sp lit N P s, c o n s t i
tu tin g a m e r e 1.6 p e r c e n t o f t h e to ta l. P rim a fa c ie th is is a m i n u te p r o p o r tio n
c f th e to ta l n u m b e r o f N P s , w h ic h m ig h t b e t h o u g h t n o t w o r t h b o th e r in g
a b o u t. T h e s e firs t im p r e s s io n s a r e m is le a d in g b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e o n ly 2 8 5 c a n
d id a te s f o r s p littin g , t h a t is 2 8 5 N P s c o n s is tin g o f a n a d je c tiv e a n d n o u n . T h a t
is, 12.6 p e r c e n t o f th e c a n d id a te s w e r e a c tu a lly s p lit. T h i s p e r c e n ta g e is h a rd ly
o v e rw h e lm in g , b u t it d o e s in d ic a te a c o n s t r u c ti o n t h a t h a s to b e ta k e n s e r i
ou sly . lo p u t i t in p e rs p e c tiv e , th e n u m b e r o t s p lit N P s w a s g r e a te r t h a n th e
n u m b e r o f N P s c o n ta i n in g a re la tiv e c la u s e a n d h a lf th e n u m b e r o t N P s c o n u i n i n g a p r e p o s itio n a l p h r a s e .

Analysing 'split NPs'

T h is s e c tio n d e a ls e x c lu s iv e ly w i t h R u ssia n d a ta , p a r tly b e c a u s e JM u n d e r
s ta n d s it m u c h b e tt e r th a n th e W a r lb ir i o r P itja n tja tja ra , p a r t l y b e c a u s e th e re
is m o r e R u s s ia n d a ta a v a ila b le a n d p a r t l y b e c a u s e it is p o s s ib le , a s s h o w n ea rl.cr, lo g le a n c o m m e n t s o n s p lit N P s a n d i n f o r m a t io n s t r u c tu r e . N o n e th e le s s ,
JM b e lie v e s t h a t th e fo llo w in g d is c u s s io n a p p lie s e q u a lly w ell t o th e N a tiv e
A u s tr a lia n d a ta , w h ic h a r e lik e t h e R u s s ia n d a ta in r e p r e s e n tin g s p o n ta n e o u s
s p o k e n la n g u a g e .
H o w s h o u l d 's p l it N P s b e a n a ly s e d ? T h e te r m in o lo g y u s e d b y L a p te v a ,
p o s t- p o s in g a n d p rc - p o s in g , s u g g e s ts a n a n a ly s is in w h ic h , say, th e a d je c tiv e
(o r q u a n ti f i e r /n u m e r a l ) a n d n o u n a r e in itia lly c o m b i n e d in to a sin g le N P , w ith
th e a d je c tiv e s u b s e q u e n tly b e in g m o v e d o u t o t th e N P to f o r m a s e p a r a te c o n
s titu e n t. E x a c tly th is v ie w is ta k e n b y P c rc ltsv a ig (2 0 0 8 ) , w h o c r itic iz e s th e
c ir e c t e x tr a c ti o n o f c o n s t it u e n ts f r o m N P s a n d p r o p o s e s in s te a d to c o p y e n tir e
N P s, b u t in t e r p r e t o n ly a p a r t o f th e m . S h e p o i n t s o u t t h a t d i r e c t e x tr a c tio n
v io la te s a n u m b e r o f c o n s t r a in t s o n m o v e m e n t. It a p p lie s t o n o n - c o n s titu e n ts ,

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

as in (4 7 ), to o n e c o n ju n c t in a p a ir o f c o n jo in e d c o n s t it u e n ts , a s in ( 4 8 ) , a n d
to is la n d s , s u c h a s c a s e - m a r k e d n o u n s , w h ic h o th e r w is e p r e v e n t e x tr a c tio n ,
as in (4 9 ).
(4 7 )

P r o t iv

so v e tsk o j

on

v y stu p a l

v la s ti

A g a in s t

S o v ie t - f e m - g e n

he

d e m o n stra te d

p o w e r-fe m -g e n

H e s p o k e o u t a g a i n s t S o v ie t p o w e r '
(4 8 )

Ja

tv o i

v y s t ir a la

c h u lk i

ru b a sh k u

y o u r-p l

w a shed

s t o c k in g s

and

s h irt

w a s h e d y o u r s t o c k in g s a n d s h ir t .
(4 9 )

Po

s in t a k s is u

ona

b y la

sta rsh e

ol

sy n ta x

she

w as

o ld e r

p ro fe sso ra
p ro fe s s o r-g e n

S h e w a s o ld e r t h a n t h e p r o f e s s o r o f s y n t a x '

P e re lts v a ig c o m m e n ts th a t t h e m o v e d c h u n k c a n b e a m o r e c o m p le x n o n
c o n s titu e n t s t r in g t h a n in (4 7 ) a n d g iv e s (5 0 ) a s a n e x a m p le .
(5 0 )

p ro sto

p r o b o v a la

s im p ly

t rie d

vot

eti

ie is k ie s

s u p in a t o r a m i

k u p it

tu fli.

see

th e se

C ze ch

a rc h -s u p p o rts

to -b u y

sh o es

w ith

s im p ly t r ie d t o b u y t h e s e C z e c h s h o e s w i t h a r c h -s u p p o r t s .

W h a t is m o v e d b y d ir e c t e x tr a c tio n is t h e c h u n k e ti cesskie s s u p in a to r a m i
th e se C z e c h w ith a r c h - s u p p o r t s , to w h ic h P e re ltsv a ig p r e s u m a b ly a s s ig n s a
s t r u c tu r e a lo n g t h e lin e s o f D e t PP. ( I t is n o t q u ite c le a r h o w C ro ft w o u ld
a n a ly s e s p lit N P s. I le o b s e r v e s (2 0 0 1 , p p . 1 8 6 -7 ) t h a t in m o s t c a se s s y n ta c tic
c o n tig u ity re ile c is s e m a n tic r e la tio n s b u t t h a t m is m a tc h e s c a n o c c u r. H e says
(d is c u s s in g a n e x a m p le f r o m W a r d a m a n , a N a tiv e A u s tr a lia n la n g u a g e , b u t h is
c o m m e n ts a p p ly to th e P o lis h e x a m p le in ( 4 6 ) ) t h a t th e o n ly r e a s o n th a t th e
e le m e n ts in b o ld in (4 6 ) a r e tr e a te d a s c o n s t it u e n ts is b e c a u s e o f t h e s e m a n tic
r e la tio n h o ld in g b e tw e e n th e g a r d e n a n d its p r o p e r ty o l b e in g b e a u tif u l a n d
t i e h o u s e a n d its p r o p e r t y o f b e in g c r u m m y . Is th is th e s a m e a p p r o a c h as
F ereltsv aig s o r t h e o n e s e t o u t b e lo w ? W h a t w e c a n s a y w ith c e r t a in t y is th a t
C ro ft d o e s n o t c o n n e c t t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n w ith s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e .)
A n a lte rn a tiv e a p p r o a c h , o n e t h a t o c c u rs v e r y re a d ily to a n a ly s ts o f th e s y n
ta x o l s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h , is to tr e a t t h e a d je c tiv e ( o r q u a n tif ie r o r n u m e r a l)
a n d n o u n a s in d e p e n d e n t c o n s t it u e n ts , w h ic h w e re n e v e r c o m b i n e d i n t o a
s in g le N P. W e s a w a t t h e b e g in n in g o f th is c h a p te r t h a t in s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n
L n g lish a n d R u ssia n ( a n d in th e c o r r e s p o n d in g v a rie tie s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s )

Noun Phrases and N o n -con figu ration ality

N P s a r e v e r y s im p le , ty p ic a lly c o n s is tin g o f a s in g le c o n s t it u e n t s u c h a s a
p r o n o u n o r n o u n , o r o f a D e te r m in e r a n d N o u n . D e p e n d in g o n th e c o n te x t,
s u c h s im p le N P s m a y n o t c a r r y e n o u g h i n f o r m a t io n t o e n a b le th e a d d re s s e e to
id e n tify t h e s p e a k e rs in t e n d e d re f e re n t. M o r e i n f o r m a t io n c a n b e p ro v id e d ,
b u t a s in th e e x tr a c ts e x a m in e d e a r lie r , s p e a k e r s s p r e a d t h e i n f o r m a t io n o v e r
s e p a r a te c la u s e s o r , i f t h e y d o p r o d u c e a re la tiv e ly c o m p le x N P , p r o d u c e it o n
i:s o w n a n d n o t a s th e s u b je c t o r o b je c t o f a c la u s e . A n a ly se s th a t h a n d le th e
sp lit N P s a s in te g ra l N P s th a t h a v e b e e n s p lit u p d o n o t a c c o r d w ith th e e v i
d e n c e f r o m s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h , b u t d o fit n ic e ly w ith Z e m s k a ia s o b s e r v a
tio n s c ite d a t th e b e g in n in g o f t h e c h a p te r to t h e e ffe c t t h a t s p o k e n R u ssia n
is n o n - c o n f ig u r a t io n a l . T h i s is a g o o d p la c e to p o i n t o u t th a t th e N a tiv e
A u s tra lia n la n g u a g e s a r e s p o k e n - o n ly . A p la u s ib le h y p o th e s is is t h a t t h e c o m
b in in g o l d e m o n s tr a tiv e s , q u a n tif ie r s , a d je c tiv e s a n d n o u n s in to N P s h a p p e n s
a s g r o u p s o f la n g u a g e u s e r s d e v e lo p re h e a r s e d o r s c r ip te d te x ts , s u c h a s n a r r a
tives, m y th s a n d te x ts f o r u s e in p u b lic ( o r p riv a te } c e re m o n ie s . T h e r is e o f
c o m p le x N P s a ls o h a p p e n s w h e n w r itte n te x ts a p p e a r a n d a r e e la b o r a te d .
T h e r e a r e a lr e a d y tw o m a j o r a n a ly s e s o f N P s in E n g lish . F o llo w in g th e
p u b lic a tio n o t A b n e y (1 9 8 7 ), it is g e n e ra lly a c c e p te d th a t a s e q u e n c e s u c h as

th e q u ic k b r o w n f o x h a s th e a s its h e a d a n d is a D e te r m in e r P h ra s e , n o t a NP.
(See f o r in s ta n c e , C a n n , 1993, b u t s e e a lso th e d is c u s s io n o n p p . 5 0 - 5 3 .)
T h e d is c u s s io n b e lo w s u g g e s ts th a t t h e d e te r m i n e r - a s - h e a d a n a ly s is h a s to b e
tik e n s e r io u s ly in s y n ta x ( w it h th e e m p h a s is o n s y n ta x , s in c e a d is ti n c ti o n h as
to b e d r a w n b e tw e e n t h e c o n s t it u e n t w ith t h e g r e a te s t s e m a n tic l o a d in a n NP,
ty p ic a lly t h e n o u n , a n d th e c o n s t it u e n t th a t d e te r m in e s th e fin e s y n ta c tic class
c f th e p h r a s e , ty p ic a lly th e d e te r m i n e r ) .

Russian long adjectives: nom inal and deictic

T h e s p lit N P s in R u s s ia n h a v e a s t r a ig h t f o r w a r d e x p la n a tio n : lo n g a d je c tiv e s
a re v e ry n o u n - lik e a n d c a n f u n c tio n a s th e s o le c o n s t it u e n t in N P s . A w o r d first
a b o u t R u s s ia n a d je c tiv e s . T h e y la ll i n t o tw o c la s se s, k n o w n a s lo n g a d je c tiv e s
a n d s h o r t a d je c tiv e s ; l o n g a d je c tiv e s a r e b o t h a ttr ib u tiv e a n d p re d ic a tiv e , b u t
s h o r t a d je c tiv e s a r e o n ly p re d ic a tiv e .
T h e s h o r t f o r m s o f in te r e s n y jin te r e s tin g a r c e x e m p lif ie d in (5 1 ).
(5 1 )

a . O d m p r o e k t b y l in t e r e s e n

O ne

schem e

b . O d n a m y s l b y la in t e r e s n a

O ne

id e a

c.

T h is

d e s c r ip t io n

E t o o p is a n ie b y lo in t e r e s n o

d . E ti t e o r ii b y li in t e r e s n y

w as

in t e r e s t in g .'

w as

'T h e s e t h e o r ie s

in t e r e s t in g .
w as

in t e r e s t in g .'

w e re

in t e r e s t in g .

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

T h e s h o r t a d je c tiv e f o r m s - in teresett, in teresn a , in te re sn o a n d in te r e s n y have t h e s a m e g e n d e r a n d n u m b e r a s t h e s u b je c t n o u n , b u t h a v e n o c a se in flect.o n s . T h e y o c c u r o n ly a s th e c o m p l e m e n t o f b y f 'b e '; t h a t is, th e y n e v e r o c c u r
in s id e N P s , n o r d o th e y o c c u r a s c o m p l e m e n t s o f v e rb s , s u c h a s k a z a ts ja 'seem ',
w h ic h r e q u ir e t h e i r c o m p l e m e n t to b e in t h e i n s tr u m e n ta l c a se , t h a t is , t o h av e
a n i n s tr u m e n ta l c a se s u f fix a n d th e r e f o r e to b e a lo n g a d je c tiv e .
T h e lo n g a d je c tiv e f o r m s a r e e x e m p lif ie d in (5 2 ).
(5 2 )

a . in te re s n y ) p r o e k t (a n / t h e ) in t e r e s t in g - p r o je c t
b.
c.
d

m te re s n a ja m y s l ( a r V t h e ) in t e r e s t in g - i d e a
m t e r e s n o e o p is a n ie (a n / t h e ) in t e r e s t in g - d e s c r ip t io n '
m t e r e s n y e id e i

e . v in t e r e s n o m p r o e k t e

'( t h e ) in t e r e s t in g id e a s '
in - ( t h e ) in t e r e s t in g - p r o je c t

f. a v t o r m t e r e s n o g o p r o e k t a
( t h e ) a u t h o r o f ( t h e ) in t e r e s t in g o f ( t h e ) p r o je c t '

T h e a d je c tiv e f o r m s in (5 2 ) a r e c a lle d lo n g b e c a u s e th e y c o n s is t o f t h e s te m
p lu s a n affix : -y j, -ja , -oe, -o g o , - y e a n d -o u t. T h e lo n g f o r m s ta k e t h e s a m e
n u m b e r , g e n d e r a n d c a se a s t h e n o u n th e y c o m b i n e w ith a n d o c c u r b o th
in N P s , a s in ( 5 2 ) , a n d a s th e c o m p l e m e n t o f v e rb s , i n c l u d in g b y f b e . (T h e
c h o ic e o f lo n g o r s h o r t p re d ic a tiv e a d je c tiv e s is a c o n tr o v e rs ia l to p ic in R u ssia n
g r a m m a r , b u t is n o t r e le v a n t f o r p r e s e n t p u rp o s e s .)
T h e k e y fa c t is t h a t t h e lo n g a ffix e s d e riv e h is to ric a lly f r o m d e ic tic p r o n o u n s
a n d a r e still d e ic tic in M o d e r n R u s s ia n . T h e q u e s tio n T y k a k o e p la t'e k u p ila ?
Y ou w h ic h d re s s b o u g h t? . W h ic h d re s s d i d y o u b u y ? c a n b e g iv e n a o n e - w o r d
re p ly : z e le tw e ( t h e ) g re e n ( o n e ) ', s e r s tja n o e '[ th e ) w o o lle n (o n e ) '. T h e s e o n e v /o rd re p lie s a r e a ls o a p p r o p r ia t e a n s w e rs lo th e q u e s tio n ( t o z a p la t'e t y k u p ila ?
'W h a t k i n d o f d re s s d i d y o u b u y ? . T h e a d je c tiv e f o r m s c a n a lso f u n c tio n as
r e f e r r in g ite m s a n d a s s u b je c t, d ir e c t o b je c t o r o b liq u e o b je c t. I n , fo r e x a m p le ,
a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e a n u m b e r o f d re s s e s a r e o n d isp la y , t h e s p e a k e r c a n say
Z e le tw e tio ro g o ( T h e ) g r e e n ( o n e ) - (is ) - to o d e a r ' w ith o u t h a v in g p re v io u s ly
u s e d t h e w o r d p la te d re ss'. A t th is p o i n t , w e c a n u s e f u lly re c a ll B a k e r's v ie w
c f e x a m p le s s u c h a s ( 1 6 b ) , (1 8 ) a n d ( 2 7 ) , t h a t th e s e la n g u a g e s c o lla p s e N a n d
A in to a s in g le d i s tr i b u ti o n a l a n d m o r p h o lo g ic a l cla ss o l n o m in a ls , caseb e a r in g e le m e n ts , w h ic h a p p e a r f r e e ly o r d e r e d w ith r e s p e c t to o n e a n o th e r ,
a n d t h e v e rb . H is c o m m e n t m ig h t h a v e b e e n w r itte n w ith re s p e c t t o s p o n t a n e
o u s s p o k e n R u ssia n .
(T h is a n a ly s is b a s e d o n d e ix is is in d ir e c tly s u p p o r te d b y h is to r ic a l c h a n g e s
in B u lg a ria n , a n o t h e r S lav la n g u a g e . B u lg a ria n lo s t th e d is ti n c ti o n b e tw e e n

Noun Phrases and N o n -con figu ration ality

lo n g a n d s h o r t a d je c tiv e s ; c o m p a r e ro k lja ta e ze le n a th e - d r e s s is g re e n w ith
2e le n a ro klja 'a - g r e e n d re ss'. B u lg a ria n d e v e lo p e d a d e fin ite a r tic le f r o m a

c e ic tic . T h e d e ic tic is re a liz e d b y a s u f fix o n th e firs t c o n s t it u e n t in a g iv e n

NP, w h e th e r th a t c o n s t it u e n t is a n o u n o r a d je c tiv e ; c o m p a r e r o k lja ta 'th e
c r e s s a n d z e le n a ta r o k lja 'th e - g r e e n d re s s . In s t r u c tu r e , z e le n a + ta is a n a lo g o u s
to th e R u s s ia n ze le n a + j a ( f e m in in e , t o m a t c h th e B u lg a ria n a d je c tiv e ) a n d
zelen o + to is a n a lo g o u s t o t h e R u ssia n lo n g n e u te r a d je c tiv e ze le n o + je ) .
T h e d a ta g iv e r is e to a n im p o r t a n t q u e s tio n : i n th e a b o v e e x a m p le s , a re
th e lo n g a d je c tiv e s a d je c tiv e s a s w e u n d e r s t a n d th e c a te g o r y in E n g lish
e x a m p le s s u c h a s th e g reen ilress, o r a r e t h e y n o u n s , w ith t h e fo llo w in g n o u n
in a p p o s itio n ? T h a t is, s h o u l d th e s t r u c t u r e o f, fo r e x a m p le , z e le n o c p la t'e
(th e ) - g re e n - d r e s s ' b e g lo s se d a s 't h e g re e n o n e - d r e s s , w h e re p l a t e
d re ss p r o v id e s a n in t e n s io n l o r t h e d e ic tic e le m e n t -oe? It w ill b e a r g u e d th a t
th e a n s w e r to th e s e tw o q u e s tio n s i s y es.
C o n s id e r n o w th e s e c o n d c la u s e in ( 3 2 ) , r e p e a te d b e lo w a s (5 3 ).

(5 3 ) I
And

u k la d y v a ju t

vot

e ti

vot

tru b y

la y -3 P I- im p e r t

lo o k

t h is - P I- A c c

lo o k

D ip e - P I-A c c

'T h e y a r e d i g g i n g a h u g e t r e n c h a n d la y m g - j u s t lo o k a t t h e m - t h e s e p ip e s '

T h e d e m o n s tr a tiv e e ti th e s e is b o t h p r e c e d e d b y a d e ic tic p a r tic le v o t a n d

s e p a r a te d f r o m its n o u n b y a n o t h e r o c c u r r e n c e o f vot. ( T h is p a r t ic l e is tre a te d
a s d e ic tic , b e c a u s e v o t is in g e n e r a l e q u iv a le n t to th e E n g lis h L o o k !. ) It is p o s
s ib le to s p e a k o r w r ite th e c o r r e s p o n d in g p h r a s e v o t e ti tr u b y , in w h ic h e ti is
s a id to b e a d e m o n s tr a tiv e a d je c tiv e m o d if y in g tr u b y . W e c o u ld se e e t i tr u b y
a s t h e s o u r c e fo r e t i v o t tr u b y in ( 3 2 /5 3 ) , a s a n N P t h a t is b r o k e n u p b y vol.
H o w e v e r, a n a lte r n a tiv e v ie w , w h ic h fits b e t t e r w ith th e p r o n o m i n a l n a tu r e o f
eti a n d w ith p r e v io u s e x a m p le s , is t h a t e ti a n d tr u b y a r e s e p a r a te N P s a n d th a t
vor d o e s n o t b r e a k u p a n N P , b u t o c c u rs b e fo r e e a c h o f t h e in d e p e n d e n t N P s.
In c o n te x t, t h e u tt e r a n c e is q u i t e a p p r o p r ia te . T h e s p e a k e r p o i n t s v e rb a lly a n d p o s s ib ly p h y s ic a lly - a n d say s v o l e t i lo o k - th e s e o n e s a n d th e n a d d s
in f o r m a tio n to m a k e a b s o lu te ly c le a r th e re fe re n c e o f t h e d e ic tic : v o t tr u b y
lo o k - ( t h e ) p ip e s . (S in c e n o u n s in R u ssia n la c k a d e f in ite a rtic le , a sin g le
r o u n c a n b e in te r p r e te d a s d e f in ite o r in d e f in ite d e p e n d in g o n c o n te x t a n d / o r
sy n ta x .)
In th e i r a b ility to b e th e s o le c o n s t it u e n t o f N P s a n d to f u n c t io n a s re f e rrin g
e x p re s s io n s , lo n g a d je c tiv e s in R u s s ia n a r c n o t u n u s u a l. D e m o n s tr a tiv e s (s u c h
a s e ti in th e a b o v e p a r a g r a p h a n d to t t h a t o n e ), q u a n ti f i e r s (s u c h a s vse a ll

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

a n d k a id y j e a c h ) a n d n u m e r a ls ( p a r tic u la r l y c o lle c tiv e n u m e r a ls ) c a n all
c c c u r a s t h e s o le c o n s t i t u e n t in N P s. T h e y also f u n c tio n a s r e f e r r i n g e x p re s
sio n s , a lt h o u g h t h e y a r c r c f c re n tia lly m o r e d e p e n d e n t o n th e im m e d i a te
c o n te x t o f u tt e r a n c e t h a n a r c l o n g a d je c tiv e s . S in c e t h e d e ta ils o f t h e re le v a n t
c o n s t r u c ti o n s w o u ld ta k e u s l o o t a r f r o m t h e d is c u s s io n o f a d je c tiv e s , th e
in te r e s te d r e a d e r is le ft to re a d th e e x c e lle n t d is c u s s io n o f n u m e r a ls i n C o r b e tt
(1993).
P erc ltsv a ig s e x a m p le s ( 4 7 ) - ( 5 0 ) , r e p e a te d b e lo w , c a n b e a n a ly s e d in s im ila r
fa s h io n . O n e d r a w b a c k is th a t P e re ltsv a ig s u p p lie s n o te x tu a l c o n te x t, a lth o u g h
it is u n d o u b te d l y t h e c o n te x t th a t d e te r m i n e d th e c o n s t it u e n t o rd e r.
(4 7 )

P ro b v

s o v e tsk o j

on

vy stu p a l

v la sti.

A g a in s t

S o v ie t - f e m - g e n

he

d e m o n stra te d

p o v v e r -f e m - g e n

H e sp o fc e o u t a g a i n s t S o v ie t p o w e r
(4 8 )

la
I

tv o i

v y s t ira la

c h u lk i

ru b a sh k u .

y o u r -p l

w a shed

s t o c k in g s

and

s h irt

w a s h e d y o u r s t o c k in g s a n d s h irt.'
(9 )

Po

s in t a k s is u

ona

b y la

s ta rsh e

p r o fe sso ra

of

sy n ta *

she

w as

o ld e r

p ro fe sso r-g e n

'S h e w a s o ld e r t h a n t h e p r o f e s s o r o f s y n t a x '
(5 0 )

ja

p ro sto

p r o b o v a la

s im p ly

trie d

vot

e ti

e S s k ie

s u p in a t o r a m i

k u p it '

see

th e se

C ze ch

w ith

a r c h -s u p p o rts

to -b u y

tu fli
sho es

s im p ly t r ie d t o b u y t h e s e C z e c h s h o e s w it h a r c h -s u p p o r t s .'

(4 6 ) c a n b e g lo s se d A g a in s t t h e S o v ie t o n e h e d e m o n s tr a t e d - t h e / th e i r
p o w e r; (4 7 ) a s I w a s h e d y o u r o n e s / th i n g s - s to c k in g s a n d s h ir t; (4 8 ) a s 'th e
c n e o f s y n ta x - s h e w a s o l d e r t h a n th e p ro f e s s o r, w h ic h w o u ld l o o k m o r e
p la u s ib le in t h e c o n te x t o f a d is c u s s io n a b o u t w h ic h p r o f e s s o r s h e w a s o r w as
r.o t o l d e r th a n . (5 0 ) is v e ry n a tu r a ll y i n t e r p r e t e d a s I s im p ly tr ie d , se e , th e se
C z e c h o n e s w ith a r c h s u p p o r t s , to b u y t h e sh o e s . In c o n te x t, t h e c h u n k e ti
cesskie s s u p in a to r a m i is a p e rfe c tly g o o d N P .

Repeated prepositions in Russian

F inally, w e g o b a c k to e x a m p le (2 9 ), r e p e a te d b e lo w a s (5 4 ).
(5 4 )

J iv e m

novom

r a jo n e

w e -!iv e

in

new

in

q u a rte r

'W e liv e i n a n e w q u a r t e r .

Noun Phrases and N o n -con figu ration ality

W h a t s y n ta c tic s t r u c t u r e s h o u l d b e a s s ig n e d to (2 9 /5 4 )? W e c o u ld s a y th a t
th e re is a sin g le p r e p o s itio n a l p h r a s e , w h ic h h a p p e n s to h a v e t w o o c c u rr e n c e s
c f v. T o e x p la in th e tw o o c c u r r e n c e s , a ( h i t h e r t o u n k n o w n ) p ro c e s s o f p r e
p o s itio n s p r e a d in g c o u ld b e in v o k e d . T h e a lte r n a tiv e s o lu tio n is to ta k e th e
s y n ta c tic fa c ts a t la c e v a lu e a n d tr e a t (2 9 /5 4 ) a s c o n ta i n in g tw o P P s, t h e first
b e in g v n o v o m a n d th e s e c o n d b e in g v rajone. v ra jo n e is i n a p p o s itio n to
i n o v o m , a n d t h e g lo s s is W e liv e in a n e w o n e in a q u a r te r . P re p o s itio n
s p r e a d in g s o u n d s a n a ttr a c tiv e t r a n s lo r m a t io n a l s o l u ti o n , b u t ra is e s s e r io u s
c u e s tio n s . W h a t o t h e r la n g u a g e s h a v e p r e p o s iti o n s p r e a d i n g - o r p o s tp o s itio n
s p re a d in g ? C a s e s p r e a d in g is a fa m ilia r p h e n o m e n o n , n o t le a st in R u s s ia n ; in a
p h r a s e s u c h a s v n o v o m ra jo n e, th e n o u n a n d t h e a d je c tiv e a g re e in c a se , a n d
th e tr a d it io n a l v ie w is th a t th e c a s e m a r k in g s p r e a d s fr o m , o r is a s s ig n e d by,
th e n o u n to th e a d je c tiv e . A g a in re c a llin g B a k e r's c o m m e n ts , w e c a n se e th e
R u ssia n d a ta a s n o t p o s in g a n y p r o b l e m , s in c e n o u n s a n d lo n g a d je c tiv e s a re
b o th n o u n - lik e . ( T h is is o f c o u r s e a v e r y tr a d itio n a l a n a ly s is in th e lin g u is tic s
c f I n d o - E u r o p e a n la n g u a g e s .)
P re p o s itio n s p r e a d in g w o u ld n o t o n ly b e v e r y u n u s u a l , b u t w o u ld re q u ire
e m p ty p r e p o s itio n a l n o d e s f o r th e p r e p o s itio n c o p y to a tta c h to . T h e u s e o f

e m p ty n o d e s is fa m ilia r, b u t in r e la tio n to N P s a n d th e v a r i o u s a r r a n g e m e n t s
c f N P s r o u n d t h e c e n tr a l v e r b . In t h e P r in c ip le s a n d P a r a m e te r s a n a ly s is o f
a c tiv e a n d p a ss iv e c la u s e s , th e v e rb a n d a ll i t s c o m p le m e n t N P s a r e g e n e r a te d
u n d e r o n e n o d e in th e in itia l s t r u c tu r e . H ig h e r u p t h e tre e th e r e is a n e m p t y
N P n o d e . E ith e r o l th e c o m p l e m e n t N P s c a n b e m o v e d in to th is e m p t y N P
r o d e ; i f t h e o r ig in a l s u b je c t N P m o v e s , th e r e s u lti n g c la u s e is a c tiv e ; i f th e
o r ig in a l d ir e c t o b je c t N P m o v e s , th e r e s u ltin g c la u s e is p a ss iv e .
T h e r e is n o s u c h r a t io n a l e f o r e m p t y p r e p o s iti o n n o d e s . In a n y c a se , h a v in g
e m p t y p r e p o s iti o n n o d e s m e a n s h a v in g tw o p r e p o s itio n a l p h r a s e s , e a c h c o n
ta in in g a N P . I n o t h e r w o rd s , a p u ta t iv e p r e p o s iti o n - s p r e a d in g r u le le a d s u s to
th e s e c o n d a n a ly s is p r o p o s e d b e lo w , t h a t n o v o m a n d ra jo n e a r e in tw o ju x t a
p o s e d P P s a n d t h a t t h e y th e m s e lv e s a r e N P s. A t h i r d d is a d v a n ta g e o f p r e p o s i
tio n s p r e a d in g is t h a t w e p o s t u la t e m o r e c o m p le x s t r u c t u r e to h a n d le a v a rie ty
c f la n g u a g e in w h ic h t h e s y n ta c tic s t r u c tu r e s a r e re la tiv e ly s im p le . T o s u m u p ,
th e s p l i t N P c o n s t r u c ti o n a n d th e d o u b le - p r e p o s i ti o n c o n s t r u c ti o n p ro v id e
in d e p e n d e n t r e a s o n s f o r tr e a ti n g t h e lo n g a d je c tiv e s a s n o u n s .
T h e a n a ly s is o f s p l i t N P s a s c o n s is tin g o f s e p a r a te c o n s titu e n ts , w h ic h a re
in a p p o s i ti o n , a s in th e c a s e o l th e p r e p o s itio n a l p h r a s e s , o r o n e o l w h ic h e la b
o ra te s t h e r e f e re n c e o f a n o th e r , is in t u n e w ith E ls o n a n d P ic k e tts c o m m e n t
c u o t e d o n p . 7 8 t h a t th e n o u n s in S ie r ra P o p o lu c a c la u s e s m e r e ly a d d d e ta il to
th e p r o n o m i n a l affix e s o n th e v e r b (E ls o n a n d P ic k e tt, 1 9 6 7 , p . 7 2 ) . It is a ls o in

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

U n e w ith L y o n s h y p o th e s is o n t h e o n to g e n e s is o f r e f e r r in g e x p re s s io n s c o n
sis tin g o f d e ic tic d e t e r m i n e r a n d n o u n . (S e e L y o n s, 1975, r e p r i n t e d 1991.) W e
w ill ig n o r e th e p a r t o f L y o n s a r g u m e n t b a s e d o n t h e g e n e r a t io n o f re f e rrin g
e x p re s s io n s s u c h a s th a t d o g a n d th e d o g in th e s t a n d a r d m o d e l o f t r a n s f o r m a
tio n a l g r a m m a r , b u t o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e a r g u m e n t a r e still v a lid . F o r in s ta n c e ,
L y o n s p o in t s o u t t h a t in th e E n g lis h p h r a s e s th a t d o g a n d th e d o g th e h e a d
c a n n o t b e d o g b e c a u s e s i n g u la r c o u n t n o u n s c a n n o t b e u s e d a s re f e rrin g
e x p re s s io n s w ith o u t s o m e k in d o l d e t e r m i n e r o r q u a n tifie r. L y o n s p r o p o s e s to
a n a ly s e d o g a s in a p p o s itio n to th a t o r the.

Split N P s and reference in spontaneous speech

T h e re le v a n c e o f t h e N P d a ta f r o m s p o k e n R u ssia n ( a n d s p o k e n E n g lis h ) is
th is . T h e h ig h in c id e n c e o f r e f e r r in g e x p re s s io n s w ith o n e c o n s t it u e n t, p a r t ic
u la rly p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s , d e ic tic d e te r m i n e r s a n d q u a n tif ie r s , re fle c ts th e u se
c f la n g u a g e in c o n te x t. S p e a k e rs m a k e , u s u a lly ju s tifia b ly , g e n e r o u s a s s u m p
tio n s a b o u t w h a t t h e i r a d d re s s e e s c a n p ic k o u t f r o m t h e im m e d i a te c o n te x t o f
u tte r a n c e . T h e s e a s s u m p ti o n s le a d to t h e e x te n s iv e u s e o f r e f e r r i n g e x p re s s io n s
t i a t a r e s y n ta c tic a lly s i m p l e a n d lig h t in i n f o r m a t io n . I f s p e a k e r s w a n t to
s u p p ly e x tr a in f o r m a t io n , t h e y c a n a d d a n o u n - t h a t is, if th e y a r e s p e a k in g
R u ssian th e y c a n a d d a n o u n , b u t i f th e y a r e s p e a k in g E n g lish th e y h a v e lo a d d
a c o m b i n a ti o n o f d e fin ite a r tic le a n d n o u n . T h e p o i n t is t h a t h is to ric a lly th e
c o n s tr u c tio n o f d e f in ite a r tic le p lu s n o u n a r o s e f r o m a c o m b i n a ti o n o l d e ic tic
d e te r m i n e r p lu s n o u n , th e d e f in ite a r tic le b e in g a r e d u c e d d e ic tic d e te r m in e r .
In s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h , w e c a n still se e th e ty p e o f s i tu a t io n in w h ic h a c o m b i
n a tio n o f d e ic t ic a n d n o u n a ro s e a n d w e c a n s e e th e s i tu a tio n a l ju s tif ic a tio n fo r
re g a r d in g th e n o u n a s in a p p o s i ti o n t o t h e d e ic tic .
A n a ly s ts w h o d e a l e x c lu s iv e ly o r m a in ly w ith w r it te n la n g u a g e m a y fin d th e
fo r e g o in g d is c u s s io n v a g u e a n d e v e n tire s o m e , w ith its in s is te n c e o n u n in t e
g r a te d s y n ta x . W h y r e s is t a n a n a ly s is b a s e d o n d ir e c t e x tr a c ti o n o r m o v e m e n t/
c o p y in g w h e n t h a t y ie ld s in c o m p le te N P s w h ic h c a n b e h a n d le d in a c o m p o s it.o n a l a p p r o a c h to m e a n in g ? O f c o u r s e , c o m p o s itio n a lity is r e le v a n t to th e
a n a ly s is o f s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e ; it is j u s t a p r o p e r ty o f m u c h s m a lle r
c h u n k s o f s y n ta x t h a n is u s u a l in w r it te n la n g u a g e . E v e n in w r it te n la n g u a g e
s o m e m e c h a n is m is r e q u ir e d in a d d it io n t o c o m p o s itio n o f m e a n in g , f o r th e
sim p le r e a s o n th a t d e s c r ip ti o n s o l in d iv id u a ls c a n b e b u i l t u p o v e r se v e ra l
(te x t) s e n te n c e s a n d a g iv e n te x t w ill c o n ta i n m a n y re fe re n c e s to w h a te v e r in d i
v id u a ls p a r t ic i p a te in t h e s i tu a t io n s it d e s c r ib e s . D R T is o n e m e c h a n is m th a t

Noun Phrases and N o n -con figu ration ality

h a s b e e n d e v e lo p e d o v e r t h e p a s t 3 0 y e a rs to h a n d le re f e re n c e s to in d iv id u a ls
h s e q u e n c e s o f c la u s e s , w h e th e r th e in d i v id u a ls a r e g iv e n o r n e w . I n f o r m a tio n
a b o u t in d i v id u a ls c a n b e t h o u g h t o f a s s t o r e d in file -c a rd s , to w h ic h p ie c e s o f
in f o r m a t io n a r e a d d e d a s th e y a r e s u p p lie d in th e te x t. A g o o d e x a m p le is in
(5 5 ), f r o m th e o p e n in g p a r a g r a p h s o f L ee C h ild s n o v e l O n e S h o t.
(5 5 )

T h e m a n w it h t h e r ifle d r o v e n o r t h . N o t f a s t , n o t s lo w
a t t e n t io n

N o t d r a w in g

N o t s t a n d in g o u t H e w a s in a li g h t - c o lo u r e d m in iv a n t h a t h a d

s e e n b e tte r d a y s

H e w a s a lo n e b e h in d t h e w h e e l H e w a s w e a r in g a g h t-

c o lo u r e d r a in c o a t a n d t h e k in d o f s h a p e le s s lig h t - c o i o u e d b e a n ie h a t th a t
o l d g u y s w e a r o n t h e g o l t c o u r s e w h e n t h e s u n is o u t o r t h e r a in is f a llin g
T h e h a t h a d a t w o - t o n e r e d b a n d a ll r o u n d it It w a s p u lle d d o w n lo w .

T h e r e a d e r o p e n s a file fo r t h e in d iv id u a l a n d e n te r s [m a n ] [h a s rifle ]. Five

text s e n te n c e s la te r t h e r e a d e r a d d s [is a lo n e in m i n iv a n ] , t h e n | is w e a rin g
r a in c o a t ( r a in c o a t is lig h t- c o lo u r e d ) ) a n d (is w e a r in g b e a n ie h a t) , t h e n a ll th e
in f o r m a t io n a b o u t th e b e a n ie h a t, s in c e t h a t is a lso p a r t o f th e d e s c r ip ti o n o f
th e m a n . T h is is a w r itte n te x t, a n d th e i n f o r m a t io n is in t r o d u c e d in d r i b s a n d
c r a b s . (S ee t h e d is c u s s io n o l te x t s e n te n c e s in C h a p t e r 1.)
T h e file m e t a p h o r a p p lie s s lig h tly d iffe re n tly , b u t n o n e th e le s s s t r a ig h t
fo rw a rd ly to e x a m p le s s u c h a s (5 0 ), r e p r o d u c e d b e lo w a s (5 6 ).
(5 6 )

ja

p ro sto

p 'o b o v a la

s im p ly

trie d

vol

eti

d e S s k ie

s u p in a t o r a m i

k u p it '

see

th e se

C ze ch

w it h

a r c h -s u p p o rts

to -b u y

tu fli.
sho es

s im p ly t r i e d t o b u y t h e s e C z e c h s h o e s w it h a r c h - s u p p o it s .'

W e d o n o t k n o w i f (5 6 ) is r ig h t a t t h e b e g in n i n g o f a c o n v e r s a tio n o r in th e
m id d le . S h o e s m a y h a v e b e e n m e n t io n e d a lr e a d y o r t h e s p e a k e r m a y s im p ly
h a v e m e n t i o n e d g o in g s h o p p i n g . I f s h o e s h a v e a lr e a d y b e e n m e n t i o n e d , th e
lis te n e r w ill h a v e o p e n e d a file fo r th e s e t o f s h o e s a n d m a y b e r e a d y to o p e n
s u b - file s fo r p a r t ic u l a r p a ir s o l s h o e s . II th e s p e a k e r h a s m e r e ly m e n tio n e d
s h o p p in g , a file w ill n o t h a v e b e e n o p e n e d . E ti h a s n o c o n t e n t , b u t it f u n c t io n s
a s a sig n a l t o receiv e u p c o m i n g i n f o r m a t io n . T h e s p e a k e r c a n a d d a r e C z e c h
to t h e file, a n d a s s o o n a s th e y h e a r s s u p in a to r a m i w ith a r c h - s u p p o r t s th ey
a d d 'a r e s h o e s to t h e file w i t h o u t w a itin g fo r th e s p e a k e r to u t t e r tu fli. (P e re lts vaig g iv es n o i n f o r m a t io n a b o u t i n t o n a t i o n a n d r h y t h m . I s tu fli to b e a n a ly s e d
a s a n a f t e r t h o u g h t, p e r h a p s s e p a r a te d b y a p a u s e f r o m k u p it' a n d o u ts id e th e
b o d y o f th e clau se?)

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

T h e e x a m p le s c ite d b y Z e m s k a ja a r e re le v a n t to re c e n t a tt e m p t s t o f o r m u
late c o n s t r a in t s o n t h e p o s i ti o n in g o f h e a d s a n d m o d if ie r s . H u d s o n (1 9 9 0 ,
p. 117) p r o p o s e s a re la x e d A d ja c e n c y P r i n c ip le ': D is a d ja c e n t to I I [c a n b e
c o u n te d a s a d ja c e n t to H ] p r o v id e d th a t e v e ry w o rd b e tw e e n D a n d H is a
s u b o r d in a te e it h e r o f H , o r o f a m u t u a l h e a d o f D a n d H .' C o n s id e r (5 7 ).
(5 7 )

K u r ic u

n a b o l's u ju

c h ic k e n - A c c

o n b ig -A c c -F e m

p o lo 2 i
p u t - lm p e r

t a r e lk u
p la t e - A c c - F e m

p u t t h e c h ic k e n o n t h e a / th e b i g plate"

D is b o l'su ju a n d ta r e lk u is H . T h e s e c a n b e c o u n te d a s a d ja c e n t i f th e w o rd
th a t c o m e s b e tw e e n t h e m is a s u b o r d in a te o f b o liu ju , a s u b o r d in a te o f ta relku
c r a s u b o r d in a te o f s o m e w o r d o n w h ic h th e y a r e b o t h d e p e n d e n t . T h e s e
c o n d itio n s a r e n o t m e t , b e c a u s e t h e in t e r v e n i n g w o r d , p o lo zi, is th e h e a d o f
th e c la u s e ( i n t h e lo n g - s ta n d in g v e r b - d e p e n d e n c y tr a d it io n w ith i n w h ic h
H u d s o n w o rk s ). T h a t is, b o ls u ju a n d ta re lk u a r e b o t h d e p e n d e n t s o f p o lo zi,
a n d p o lo z i its e lf d o e s n o t d e p e n d o n a n y o t h e r w o rd . W e o f f e r th e h y p o th e s is
t i a t c o n s t r a i n t s o n a d ja c e n c y a n d h e a d - m o d if ie r r e la tio n s h ip s c a n b e f o r m u
la te d fo r w r it te n la n g u a g e b u t t h a t t h e c h o p p y n a tu r e o i s y n ta c tic s t r u c t u r e in
s p o n ta n e o u s s p e e c h m a k e s it u n lik e ly t h a t g e n e ra l c o n s t r a i n t s c a n b e e s ta b
lish ed f o r all la n g u a g e s.
S e c o n d ly , th e r e is t h e q u e s tio n o f c o m p le x ity . A n a n a ly s is w ith S c ra m b lin g
is m o r e c o m p le x t h a n o n e w ith o u t S c ra m b lin g , a n d w e m i g h t e x p e c t a n
e x a m p le a n a ly s e d b y m e a n s o f S c r a m b lin g t o b e m o r e c o m p le x t h a n o n e
a n a ly s e d w ith o u t S c ra m b lin g . T h e d if fic u lty is t h a t R u s s ia n s p lit N P s o c c u r in
s p o n ta n e o u s s p o k e n R u s s ia n , w h ic h is p re c is e ly w h e r e s y n ta c tic s t r u c tu r e s a re
a t t h e i r s im p le s t b e c a u s e o f la c k o f p la n n i n g tim e . F ro m t h i s v ie w p o in t, th e
a p p lic a tio n o f a m o r e c o m p le x a n a ly s is t o a s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e is u n a p p e a lin g .
M o re o v e r, it ig n o r e s th e d e ic tic f u n c tio n o f lo n g a d je c tiv e s in R u ssia n a n d th e
a v a ila b ility o f a n a p h o r ic tr e a tm e n ts .
H o w th e n c a n g r a m m a r s h a n d le e x a m p le s s u c h a s (5 7 ), K u ricu n a b o l's u ju
f o l o z i ta r e lk u th e - c h ic k e n o n a /t h e - b i g - o n e p la c e a /t h e - p l a tc ? b o l'su ju b ig
a n d ta r e lk u p la te a r e s y n ta c tic a lly lin k e d b u t n o n - a d j a c e n t. T h e f i r s t s te p
to w a r d s a s o l u ti o n is t o n o t e t h a t th e p r o b l e m is n o t c o n f in e d to R u s s ia n lo n g
a d je c tiv e s . P o lla r d a n d S ag (1 9 9 4 ) a s k h o w F re n c h s p e a k e r s k n o w to s a y elle est
belle, p o i n t i n g to a ta b le o r a c a r a n d u s in g th e f e m in in e s in g u la r p r o n o u n
ra th e r t h a n t h e m a s c u lin e s in g u la r p r o n o u n i l a n d t h e ie m in i n c s in g u la r a d je c
tive belle r a t h e r th a n t h e m a s c u lin e s i n g u la r b e a u . T h e re le v a n t F re n c h n o u n s

Noun Phrases and N o n -con figu ration ality

have fe m in in e g e n d e r - ta b le a n d v o itu r e o r b a g n o le - b u t th e e x a m p le c o n ta in s
t o o v e r t fu ll n o u n s .
P o lla rd a n d S a g ( 19 9 4 , p . 6 0 ) , w o rk in g w ith i n a u n if ic a tio n c o n s tr a in t- b a s e d
fr a m e w o rk , s u g g e s t t h a t th e f e a tu r e s t r u c t u r e fo r n o m i n a ls in c lu d e s in d ic e s
re la tin g to th r e e ty p e s o f a g re e m e n t: s y n ta c tic a g r e e m e n t, in v o lv in g s y n ta c tic
o b je c ts s u c h a s c a s e v a lu e s ; in d e x a g r e e m e n t, w h ic h a ris e s w h e n in d ic e s a re
to b e to k e n - id e n tic a l; p r a g m a ti c a g r e e m e n t, w h ic h a ris e s w h e n c o n te x tu a l
b a c k g r o u n d a s s u m p ti o n s a r c r e q u ir e d to b e c o n s is te n t. F u r t h e r m o r e , th e in d i
ces a r e n o t s p e c ifie d a s p a r t o f s y n ta c tic c a te g o rie s b u t in th e i n t e r n a l s t r u c tu r e
c f r e f e r e n tia l in d ic e s. I n d ic e s a r e a b s tr a c t o b je c ts w h o s e d is c o u rs e f u n c t io n is
to k e e p tr a c k o f t h e e n titie s b e in g ta lk e d a b o u t; fo r e x a m p le , in M y n e ig h b o u r
th in k s sh ei is a g e n iu s t h e s u b s c r ip t Y is a t h i r d - p e r s o n s in g u la r f e m in in e in d e x
(P o lla rd a n d S ag, 1994, p p . 6 6 - 7 ) . W it h r e s p e c t to t h e F r e n c h e x a m p le g iv e n
e a rlie r, th e y p r o p o s e t h a t t h e in d e x o f th e p r o n o u n m u s t c o in c id e w ith th e
h d e x o f a F re n c h c o m m o n n o u n d e n o t i n g t h e s e t o f e n titie s c o n ta i n in g th e
e n tity re f e r r e d lo b y th e p r o n o u n ( P o lla r d a n d S a g , 199-1, p . 7 9 ).
All t h i s is re le v a n t to R u s s ia n lo n g a d je c tiv e s in s p lit N P s . T h e a d je c tiv e s
ag re e in

g e n d e r a n d n u m b e r w ith a n o u n . A s d is c u s s e d e a rlie r, th e lo n g

a d je c tiv e s c o n s is t o f a s t e m a n d a n e n d in g th a t h is to ric a lly d e riv e s f r o m a d e ic

tic, a n d t h e y still f u n c tio n a s d e ic tic s in M o d e r n R u s s ia n . T a k in g a d v a n ta g e o f
th e p r o p o s a ls in P o lla rd a n d S a g (1 9 9 4 ) , w e c a n s a y t h a t t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f
p r o n o u n s in R u s s ia n , in c lu d in g lo n g a d je c tiv e s , m u s t m a k e r e f e re n c e to th e
re le v a n t lex ical ite m .
T h is a p p r o a c h t o t h e p r o b le m is p a r tic u la r ly p le a s in g , a s it is c o m p a tib le
w ith th e v iew , o u tl in e d in a t t h e e n d o f C h a p te r I , t h a t th e d is ti n c ti o n b e tw e e n
c o m p e te n c e a n d la n g u a g e p r o d u c t i o n s h o u l d n o t b e ta k e n to b e c le a r - c u t,
esp e c ia lly w i t h re g a r d t o t h e s y n ta c tic s t r u c t u r e o f s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n
g u a g e . W i t h re s p e c t to ( 5 7 ) , t h e s p e a k e r c a n b e t h o u g h t o f a s firs t fix in g o n
th e s i t u a t i o n to b e ta lk e d a b o u t a n d t h e n d e c id in g o n w h a t i s to b e re f e r r e d to
first - in th is c a s e a p r o p e r ty o f a p a r t ic u l a r e n tity , t h e p la te . T h e r e f e re n c e is
p e r f o r m e d b y m e a n s o f a lo n g a d je c tiv e , b o is u ju , b u t a s P o lla rd a n d S ag p u t it,
th e r e f e re n c e o f b o li u j u is m e d i a te d b y t h e le x ic a l e n t r y fo r ta r e lk u , w h ic h
s u p p lie s t h e i n l o r m a t i o n t h a t t h e n o u n a n d th e r e lo r e a n y p r o n o u n m u s t b e
fe m in in e . S in c e th e r e is o n ly o n e e n t i t y a n d s in c e ta r e lk u is n o t in th e c la s s o f
p lu r a lia t a n t u m n o u n s , th e n u m b e r is s in g u la r.
T h e s p lit N P c o n s t r u c ti o n s in s p o k e n R u s s ia n b e a r o n re c e n t w o r k in w h ic h
m i n o r g r a m m a t ic a l ite m s , a n d n o t m a jo r le x ic a l ite m s , a r e g iv e n th e s ta tu s o f

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

h e a d s o f c o n s t r u c ti o n s . T h e y a r e re le v a n t b e c a u s e a n a r g u m e n t c a n b e m a d e
(w ith re s p e c t t o b o t h s p o k e n a n d w r it te n R u s s ia n ) fo r ta k in g a d je c tiv e s to b e
th e s y n ta c tic h e a d s o f a d je c tiv e - n o u n s e q u e n c e s . T h e f a c t (le t u s la k e it to b e a
fa c t) t h a t a d je c tiv e s a n d n o u n s in s p o k e n R u s s ia n c a n o c c u r a s in d e p e n d e n t,
r .o n - a d ja c e n t N P s le n d s s u p p o r t to t h e a r g u m e n t t h a t a d je c tiv e s p la y j u s t as
i m p o r t a n t a r o le a s n o u n s in in te g r a te d N P s.
W h ile n o t a g re e in g w i t h th e e n tir e a n a ly s is o f p a r t ic u l a r c o n s tr u c tio n s ,
H u d s o n (1 9 8 7 ) in v o k e s t h e c r i te r ia la id o u t in Z w ic k y (1 9 8 5 ) . T h e h e a d o f a
c o n s t r u c ti o n is t h e c o n s t it u e n t t h a t c a r r ie s a n y in f le x io n s in la n g u a g e s w ith
in fle c tio n a l m o r p h o lo g y ( th e n io r p h o s y n ta c t ic lo c u s ); th e c o n s t it u e n t th a t
d e n o te s th e k in d o f e n ti ty d e n o te d b y th e c o n s t r u c ti o n (p la n t e d p o ta to e s
d e n o te s a k in d o f p la n t in g r a t h e r th a n a k in d o f p o t a t o a n d p la n t e d is th e
h e a d ); th e c o n s t it u e n t t h a t is s u b c a te g o riz e d w ith re s p e c t t o its s i s te r c o n s t it u
e n ts i n th e c o n s t r u c ti o n ( th e s u b c a te g o r iz a n d ) ; t h e c o n s t it u e n t t h a t d e te r
m in e s th e n io r p h o s y n ta c tic f o r m o l s o m e s is te r ( th e g o v e r n o r ) ; t h e c o n s titu e n t
t h a t is o b lig a to r y a n d t h e c o n s t it u e n t w h o s e d is t r i b u t i o n is s im ila r to t h a t o f
t i e m o th e r . H u d s o n re je c ts o n e o f Z w ic k y s c r ite r ia , c o n c lu d in g th a t th e d ire c t.o n o l a g r e e m e n t b e tw e e n c o n s titu e n ts is irre le v a n t. L o n g a d je c tiv e s in N P s,

's p lit o r in te g r a te d , m e e t m o s t o f t h e o t h e r c r i te r ia . T h e y c a r r y in fle x io n a l

m o r p h o lo g y (a s d o n o u n s ) ; in tr a d it io n a l a c c o u n ts , t h e y a r e s u b c a te g o riz e d
w ith re s p e c t to ih e g e n d e r, n u m b e r a n d c a se o f ih e n o u n ; t h e y h a v e s im ila r
d is tr i b u ti o n to n o u n s , a s d e m o n s tr a t e d e a rlie r. T h e s e m a n tic c r i te r io n h a s to
d o w ith d e n o ta t io n ; t h e h e a d o l a c o n s t r u c ti o n d e n o te s t h e k in d o l e n ti ty
d e n o te d b y t h e e n t i r e c o n s t r u c ti o n . T h is c r i te r io n is in s ig h tf u lly a p p lie d to
v e rb p h r a s e s b y H u d s o n ( 1 9 8 7 ), w h o a n a ly s e s p la n tin g p o ta to e s a s d e n o t i n g a
k in d o f p la n t in g r a t h e r t h a n a k i n d o f p o ta to . It d o e s n o t a p p ly u n a m b ig u o u s ly
to c o m b i n a ti o n s o f a d je c tiv e a n d n o u n , b u t t h e a m b ig u ity its e lf is s ig n ific a n t.
T h e c r u c ia l q u e s t io n is th is : d o e s a p h r a s e s u c h a s b o l'su jit ta re lk u 'b ig p la te
d e n o te a k i n d o f b ig th i n g o r a k i n d o f p la te ? T h e a n s w e r m u s t b e t h a t b o th
d e n o ta t io n s a r e p o s s ib le d e p e n d in g o n c o n te x t; in r a t h e r c r u d e te r m s , it
d e p e n d s o n w h e th e r th e p h r a s e t u r n s u p in a r e p ly to t h e q u e s t io n k a k a ja
to l'S a ja veSc? 'w h a t b ig th in g ? o r e to z a ta re lk a ? 'w h a t f o r a - p l a te , t h a t i s ,'w h a t
k in d o l p la te ? T h a t is, in R u s s ia n , n o u n s a n d lo n g a d je c tiv e s m e e t th e s a m e
c rite r ia a n d b o t h h a v e a n e q u a l r i g h t t o b e c o n s id e r e d th e h e a d o f a 'N o u n
P h ra se .
W e h a v e a r g u e d th a t s p lit N P s, in c lu d in g lo n g a d je c tiv e a n d n o u n , s h o u ld
r o t b e d e riv e d b y s c r a m b lin g f r o m a s o lid a r y N P b u t t h a t th e tw o c o n s titu e n ts
s h o u ld b e g e n e r a te d in s itu . W h a t a b o u t th e c o m b i n a ti o n s in w h ic h lo n g

Noun Phrases and N o n -con figu ration ality

a d je c tiv e a n d n o u n a r e a d ja c e n t? L ei u s r e m in d o u rs e lv e s firs t t h a t t h e lo n g
a d je c tiv e s a r e d e ic tic , th a t , fo r e x a m p le , th e a d je c tiv e x o r o i ij ( 'g o o d ) c o n sists
o f th e s t e m xo ro s- a n d th e d e ic tic s u f fix - ij. In g r a m m a r s o f R u s s ia n , th e s e
su ffix es a r e d e s c r ib e d a s c a se affix es, b u t g iv e n t h a t t h e y d e riv e h is to ric a lly
fro m d e ic tic s a n d g iv e n t h a t t h e lo n g a d je c tiv e s a r e re g u la r ly u s e d d e ictica lly ,
i: is re a s o n a b le to a s s u m e t h a t t h e a ffix e s h a v e n o t lo s t th e i r d e ic tic n a tu r e , lu s t
a s L y o n s s u g g e s te d t h a t t h e d e te r m i n e r p lu s n o u n s t r u c t u r e in E n g lis h a n d
e t h e r la n g u a g e s b e g a n w ith n o u n s b e in g p u t in a p p o s itio n to d e ic tic s , s o w e
su g g e s t th a t t h e R u ssia n a d je c tiv e - n o u n c o n s t r u c ti o n a r o s e o u t o f n o u n s b e in g
p u t in a p p o s itio n t o lo n g a d je c tiv e s , w h ic h a r e d e ic tic . T h a t is, e x a m p le s su c h
a s x o r o iij m e c a /t h c - g o o d s w o r d a r o s e o u t o f a s t r u c t u r e t h a t c a n b e g lo sse d
a s g o o d - t h a t- o n e a /t h e s w o rd '. T h e m o d e r n R u s s ia n p h r a s e is tr a n s la te d in to
E n g lis h s im p ly a s 'a / t h e g o o d s w o r d .
C a te g o r ia l g r a m m a r s h e d s f u r th e r li g h t o n th is a n a ly s is. Let u s b e g in w ith a
s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d e x a m p le . C a te g o ria l g r a m m a r tr e a ts a V P a s a c a te g o r y th a t
re q u ire s a N P to y ie ld a s e n te n c e ; fo r e x a m p le , s w a m in th e lo ch is m e r e ly a v e rb
p h r a s e , b u t it c a n b e c o n v e r te d in to a s e n te n c e b y t h e a d d it io n o f a N P s u c h as
th e ch ild ren , th e m o n s te r a n d s o o n . I n M o n ta g u e te r m s , a V P b e lo n g s to th e
c a te g o ry t/e, t h a t is, it re q u ire s a n e le m e n t b e lo n g in g to t h e c a te g o r y < - th a t
is, a n e le m e n t r e f e r r i n g to a n e n t i t y - t o p r o d u c e a n e le m e n t b e lo n g in g to th e
c a te g o ry /, th e c a te g o r y o f e le m e n ts r e f e r r in g to t r u t h v a lu e s . S e n te n c e s a re
h e ld to re fe r to t r u t h v a lu e s , t r u t h v a lu e s b e in g a s s ig n e d to p r o p o s itio n s .
W e a r e c o n c e r n e d h e r e w ith th e v a r i o u s c a te g o rie s o l e le m e n ts in s id e
e le m e n ts o f c a te g o r y e, t h a t is, in s id e N P s . T h e s t a r ti n g p o i n t is th e g e n e ra lly
a c c e p te d a n a ly s is , w h ic h ta k e s d e te r m i n e r s to a p p ly to s in g le n o u n s o r to c o m
b in a t io n s o f a d je c tiv e a n d n o u n . I n th e red c u p , th e d e t e r m i n e r th e p ic k s o u t a
s p e c ific e n ti ty t h a t is in t h e s e t o f r e d th i n g s a n d in t h e s e t o f c u p s . A s a lre a d y
o b s e r v e d , E n g lish c o m m o n c o u n t n o u n s d o n o t b e c o m e r e le r e n tia l u n til
th e y h a v e a d e te r m in e r . A s i n g u la r c o m m o n c o u n t n o u n c a n b e t r e a te d c a te g o rially a s a n e le m e n t t h a t r e q u ir e s a d e te r m i n e r to b e c o m e a m e m b e r o f th e
c a te g o ry e. In p u r e ly s y n ta c tic te r m s , s u c h a n o u n a llo w s th e a d d it io n o f a
c e te r m i n e r o r a n u m e r a l o r a q u a n ti f i e r , b u t o n c e th e a d d i t i o n h a s b e e n m a d e
r.o f u r th e r d e te r m i n e r s , n u m e r a ls o r q u a n tif ie r s c a n b e a d d e d .
H o w d o a d je c tiv e s a p p e a r in th is p e rs p e c tiv e ? I n E n g lis h , t h e a d d i t i o n o f a n
a d je c tiv e to a s in g u la r c o m m o n c o u n t n o u n y ie ld s a n e le m e n t still b e lo n g in g
to th e c a te g o r y o l e le m e n ts t h a t r e q u ir e a d e te r m in e r , e tc ., to b e c o m e a m e m
b e r o f t h e c a te g o r y e. T h a t is, t h e c a te g o r ia l p e rs p e c tiv e p r e s e n ts th e n o u n as
th e h e a d o t t h e a d je c tiv e - n o u n s tr u c tu r e . T h e R u s s ia n s i tu a t io n is d iffe re n t.

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

A s in g u la r c o m m o n c o u n t n o u n in R u s s ia n , s a y c a ik a ( c u p ) , m a y b e re f e re n tia l
c r n o n - r e f e r e n tia l d e p e n d in g o n t h e s y n ta c tic c o n s t r u c ti o n . T h e a d d it io n o f a
lo n g a d je c tiv e y ie ld s a n e x p re s s io n th a t is a ls o r e f e r e n tia l o r n o n - r e f e r e n tia l
d e p e n d in g o n t h e s y n ta c tic c o n s t r u c ti o n . T h e m a jo r d if fe re n c e b e tw e e n
E n g lish a n d R u ssia n is th a t w h ile red o n its o w n c a n n o t b e lo n g to c a te g o r y e,
t i e R u s s ia n a d je c tiv e kra sn a ja c a n b e lo n g to c a te g o r y e o n its o w n . I n fact,
like c a ik a , it is r e f e r e n tia l o r n o n - r e f e r e n tia l d e p e n d in g o n th e s y n ta c tic
c o n s tr u c tio n .

Conclusion
To s u m u p , t h e c a te g o ria l p e rs p e c tiv e b r in g s o u t th e d if fe re n c e b e tw e e n
R u ssia n a n d E n g lis h a d je c tiv e s . T h e c r u c ia l e v id e n c e fo r R u s s ia n is t h e d e ic tic
s o u r c e a n d n a tu r e o f t h e lo n g a d je c tiv e . O n th e e v id e n c e t h a t a d je c tiv e s a r e a t
le a st e q u a l in s t a tu s to n o u n s in t h e a d je c tiv e - n o u n c o n s t r u c ti o n , w e p r o p o s e
L ie a d je c tiv e a s p o te n t ia l h e a d o f N P s. T h e a p p o s itio n a l s t r u c t u r e r e f e r r e d to
e a rlie r h a s n o t d i e d o u t, b u t is a liv e a n d w ell in m o d e r n R u s s ia n ( a n d , t o p ic k
u p th e c o m m e n t m a d e r ig h t a t th e b e g in n in g o f th is s e c tio n ) in W a rlb iri a n d

P itja n tja tja ra .

Constructions

Chapter Outline
C l a u s e c o n s t r u c t io n s a s a n e t w o r k

99

C o n s t r u c t io n s , s p e e c h a c t s a n d d is c o u r s e f u n c t io n s

101

S p lit t i n g o r l u m p i n g : f ix in g t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n c o n s t r u c t io n s

102

C o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d first l a n g u a g e a c q u is it io n

104

C o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d s y n t a c t ic p r o p e r t ie s

106

C o n c lu s io n

117

Clause constructions as a network

W h a t is a c o n s tr u c tio n ? W h e n w e a n a ly s e a c o n s t r u c ti o n , w e a r e in te r e s te d in
th e s m a lle r b lo c k s t h a t h a v e b e e n c o m b i n e d t o b u ild u p a b ig g e r b lo c k . W e
lo o k a t w h a t s o r t o f s m a lle r b lo c k s h a v e b e e n u s e d a n d th e o r d e r in w h ic h th e y
a r e s e t o u t: f o r e x a m p le , c ru sh + e d a n d n o t e d + c ru s h , in to th e h o u se a n d n o t
t i e h o u se in to . W e lo o k a t h o w th e s m a lle r b lo c k s a r e lin k e d : b y o r d e r , a s in th e
e x a m p le s in t h e p r e v i o u s s e n te n c e , o r b y s o m e s y n ta c tic lin k a g e , s u c h a s a g re e
m e n t in n u m b e r , a s in T h e girls w e re s w im m in g a n d n o t ' T h e g irls is s w im m in g
( to r s t a n d a r d E n g lis h ), o r b y a g r e e m e n t in p e r s o n a n d n u m b e r , a s in R u ssia n
;.? s lu ia ju 7 o b e y v e rs u s o n s lu k ije t h e o b e y s v e rs u s O n i slu S a ju t T h e y o b e y
C o n s tr u c tio n is u n d e r s to o d t h i s w a y in i n t r o d u c t o r y te x tb o o k s s u c h as
H u d d le s to n (1 9 8 8 - p p . 7 - 8 ) a n d C o llin s a n d H o llo (2 0 0 0 , p . 1 0 ), b u t is n o t
m e n t io n e d a t all in H u d s o n (1 9 9 8 ) . It is m e n t io n e d in C u lic o v e r (2 0 0 9 , p . 3 3 ),
b u t C u lic o v e rs d e f i n it io n is id io s y n c r a tic a n d m u c h n a r r o w e r . H e re g a r d s a
c o n s tr u c tio n a s a s y n ta c tic a lly c o m p le x e x p re s s io n w h o s e m e a n i n g is n o t
e n tire ly p r e d ic ta b le f r o m t h e m e a n in g s o f its p a r t s a n d t h e w a y t h a t th e y a rc

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

c o m b in e d in t h e s t r u c t u r e (C u lic o v e r, 2 0 0 9 , p . 3 3 ). T h is p la c e s c o n s t r u c ti o n s
at o n e e n d o f th e s p e c t r u m o f s y n ta c tic u n it s r e c o g n iz e d b y C ro ft a n d C ru s e
(2 0 0 4 ) a n d G o ld b e r g (1 9 9 5 ).
W e f o c u s h e r e o n c o n s t r u c ti o n s in c la u s e s . T h r e e id e a s a r e c e n tr a l. T h e first
is t h a t w e c a n re c o g n iz e b a s ic s im p le c la u s e s a n d m o r e c o m p le x c la u s e s a n d
c a n w o r k o u t t h e r e la tio n s h ip s b e tw e e n th e m . T h a t is, c o n s t r u c ti o n s a r e n o t
is o la te d s t r u c tu r e s , b u t ti t in to a g e n e ra l n e tw o r k . T h e s e c o n d id e a is th a t
d if fe re n t c o n s t r u c ti o n s e n a b le s p e a k e r s a n d w r ite r s to sig n a l w h a l th e y a rc
d o in g w i t h a p a r t ic u l a r u tt e r a n c e a n d to p e r f o r m d if f e r e n t lin g u is tic acts.
(T h e s e a r e k n o w n a s s p e e c h a c ts , b u t th e y a r e p e r f o r m e d b o th in s p e e c h a n d
in w r itin g .) T h e y m a k e s ta te m e n ts , a s k q u e s t io n s a n d is s u e c o m m a n d s o r
re q u e s ts . T h e y a s k d if f e r e n t ty p e s o f q u e s tio n a n d p r e s e n t s i tu a t io n s in d iffe r
e n t w a y s. A t h i r d id e a , w h ic h a ris e s f r o m th e p r e v i o u s o n e , is t h a t s p e a k e r s a n d
w rite rs n e e d d if f e r e n t c o n s t r u c ti o n s w ith d if f e r e n t f u n c t io n s to c re a te te x ts c o n v e rs a tio n s , le c tu re s , s p o r t s c o m m e n ta r ie s , n o v e ls , p o e m s , n e w s p a p e r
re p o r ts a n d s o o n . D if f e r e n t c o n s t r u c ti o n s e n a b le s p e a k e r s a n d w r ite r s to
in tr o d u c e n e w e n ti ti e s in to th e c o n te n t o f a c o n v e rs a tio n , to h a n d le e c o n o m i
cally a lr e a d y m e n t io n e d e n titie s , to h ig h lig h t b its o f i n f o r m a t io n a n d t o k e e p
tr a c k o f t h e p e o p le a n d th in g s in t h e c o n te n t o f a c o n v e r s a tio n , s to ry , e tc . T h e
e x is te n c e o f d if f e r e n t c o n s t r u c ti o n s is e s s e n tia l f o r su c c e s s fu l c o m m u n ic a t io n .
T h e id e a o f a b a s ic c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d p a th s g o in g o u t to o t h e r c o n s tr u c tio n s
can b e il lu s tr a t e d w ith th e e x a m p le s in (1 ). P o s s ib le la b e ls f o r e a c h c o n s t r u c tio n a r e in s m a ll c a p ita ls in s id e s q u a r e b ra c k e ts . T h e la b e ls a r e f o r illu s tr a tio n
c n ly . A s y s te m a tic s e t o f l a b e l s w o u ld b e fa r m o r e c o m p le x t h a n is r e q u ir e d fo r
th is d is c u s s io n .

(1 ) [ D f c C lA R A IIV f c J

a. t r a n k b o u g h t t h e p i a n o fo r Jane.

Io b u c u l c e i i t r ]

b . F r a n k b o u g h t J a n e t h e p ia n o .

(C O U SU

c.

I b u s m , o b u q u s O B J C C tj

T h e p i a n o w a s b o u g h t fo r J a n e b y F r a n k

UBilCll

(2 ) I IN T E R R O G A T IV E I
a . D id F r a n k b u y th e p i a n o f o r J a n e ?

l O B U Q O C OBJECT]

b . D id F r a n k b u y J a n e t h e p ia n o ?

Ic o u b i e o e i f d l

c.

Ip a s s m ,

W a s t h e p ia n o b o u g h t f o r J a n e b y F r a n k ?

o b i* * *

o s it c t l

T h e b a sic c o n s t r u c ti o n in ( l a ) is re la te d to t h e o t h e r c o n s t r u c ti o n s in ( l b ,c )
a n d a lso to th e in te r r o g a tiv e c o n s t r u c ti o n s in ( 2 a - c ) . P a th s d o n o t g o d ir e c t

Constructions
fro m t h e b a s ic c o n s t r u c t i o n to e v e r y o t h e r o n e , s a y f r o m th e c o n s t r u c ti o n in
( l a ) t o th e c o n s t r u c ti o n s in ( l b ) , (2 a ) a n d ( 2 c ) ; in s te a d p a th s g o f r o m t h e b a sic
[d e c u ra tiv e ]

c o n s t r u c t i o n to th e o t h e r

fro m e a c h o f t h e
uvh]

(d e c la ra tiv e )

(d e c la ra tiv e ]

c o n s t r u c ti o n s a n d th e n

c o n s t r u c ti o n s t o th e c o r r e s p o n d in g

o n e . T h u s , a p a t h g o e s f r o m ( l a ) to th e

[d o u b le o b ie c t]

( l b ) a n d a n o t h e r p a t h g o e s f r o m ( l b ) to t h e

(in te rro g a -

c o n s t r u c ti o n in

(d o u b le o b je c t in te rro g a tiv e ]

c o n s tr u c tio n in ( 2 b ) . A n o th e r p a th g o e s f r o m t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n in ( l a ) t o th e
( d e c u r a t i v e , p a s s iv e , o b l i q u e o b i e c t ]

g o e s to th e

c o n s t r u c t i o n in ( l c ) . F r o m ( l c ) a p a th

( i n t e r r o g a t i v e , p a s s iv e , o b l i q u e o n iE c r ]

c o n s t r u c ti o n in ( 2 c ) . T h e

p a th s a r e n o t to b e in te r p r e te d a s r u le s b u il d in g o n e s t r u c t u r e o u t o f a n o th e r
a s d id t r a n s f o r m a t io n s in t h e s t a n d a r d m o d e l o f tr a n s f o r m a t io n a l g ra m m a r .
R a th e r, th e y a r e lik e t h e im p lic a tio n a l r u le s o f G e n e r a liz e d P h r a s e S tr u c tu r e
G r a m m a r : it la n g u a g e X h a s c o n s t r u c t i o n Y, t h e n it a ls o h a s c o n s t r u c ti o n Z.

Constructions, speech acts and

discourse functions
D iffe re n t c o n s t r u c ti o n s a r e r e q u ir e d fo r d if f e r e n t s p e e c h a c ts . D e c la ra tiv e
c la u s e s c o n v e y s ta te m e n ts , in te r r o g a tiv e c la u s e s c o n v e y q u e s tio n s a n d im p e r a
tive c la u s e s c o n v e y c o m m a n d s ( i n th e b r o a d e s t s e n s e o f t h a t w o r d ) . T h e re
a r e d if le r e n t c o n s t r u c ti o n s l o r d if f e r e n t ty p e s o l q u e s tio n : il t h e s p e a k e r is
e n q u ir in g w h e th e r s o m e th i n g h a p p e n e d , a c o n s t r u c t i o n is u s e d - D i d th e p a r
cel fr o m J e n n ife r a r r iv e yesterd a y* . I f th e s p e a k e r k n o w s t h a t a p a rc e l a r r iv e d b u t
is s e e k in g d e ta ils a s to p a r t ic u l a r a s p e c t s o l th e e v e n t, a

[ w h IN T E R R O G A T IV E ]

c o n s t r u c ti o n is u s e d - W h ic h p a rc el a r r iv e d y e ste rd a y ?, W h e n d i d th e p arcel
fr o m J e n n ife r a rriv e ? a n d s o o n . II t h e s p e a k e r is fa irly c e r ta in t h a t t h e p a rc e l
fro m J e n n if e r a r r iv e d y e s te rd a y b u t is s e e k in g c o n f i r m a tio n f r o m t h e a d d re s se e ,
a

( ta g in te rro g a tiv e ]

c o n s t r u c ti o n is u s e d - T h e p a rc e l fr o m J e n n ife r a rr iv e d

yesterday, d id n 't it'.

T h e r e a r e d if f e r e n t c o n s t r u c ti o n s fo r d if f e r e n t d is c o u r s e p u r p o s e s . T h e
s p e a k e r m a y w ish to p r e s e n t a s i tu a t io n a n d o m i t t h e a g e n t. A

[p a s s iv e ]

con

s t r u c ti o n is c h o s e n - T h e ca r w a s b e in g d riv e n b a d ly . T h e s p e a k e r m a y w ish
to p r e s e n t a p a ti e n t a s c o n tr o llin g a s itu a tio n . A

[m id d le ]

c o n s t r u c ti o n is

c h o s e n - T h is ca r d riv e s b e a u tifu lly o n tw is ty ro a d s. T h e s p e a k e r m a y w is h to

c o n tr a s t o n e e n t i t y w ith a n o th e r , fo r w h ic h p u r p o s e a n
It w a s Juliet's ca r th a t b ro k e d o w n ( n o t a n y b o d y else's).

[it c if it]

is s u ita b le -

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

Splitting or lumping: fixing the

boundaries between constructions
A n y la n g u a g e h a s a v e ry la rg e n u m b e r o f c o n s t r u c ti o n s . In la n g u a g e s w ith
b o th s p o k e n a n d w r itte n v a rie tie s , s o m e c o n s t r u c ti o n s a r e ty p ic a l o f s p o n t a n e
o u s s p e e c h , o th e r s a r e ty p ic a l o f w r i t i n g a n d a th i r d s e t is u s e d in b o th . S o m e
c o n s t r u c ti o n s w ill b e a rc h a ic , o t h e r s w ill b e c u r r e n t a n d a th i r d s e t w ill b e
c o n fin e d t o p a r t ic u l a r g e n re s . A n d c o n s t r u c ti o n s w ill r a n g e I r o m

fix ed

s e q u e n c e s s u c h a s L et w e ll a lo n e th r o u g h te m p la te s t h a t a llo w a lim ite d a m o u n t

o l v a r ia tio n , s u c h a s a s fa r a s I c a n s e e /m a k e o u t/k n o w ( th e h a n k s w o n 't le n d
a n y b o d y a n y m o n e y ) to s t r u c tu r e s t h a t a llo w u n li m i te d v a r ia tio n , s u c h as
d e c la ra tiv e c la u s e s . M a n y c o n s t r u c ti o n s c o n s is t o f o n e c la u s e , b u t s o m e c o n s is t
o f tw o c la u s e s , l o r in s ta n c e IT C le fts, W H C le fts a n d T ag Q u e s tio n s .
(3 ) a . It w a s o n ly o n M o n d a y t h a t w e r e a liz e d t h e d o g w a s m is s in g
b

W h a t w e 'r e g o i n g t o d is c u s s t o d a y is r e n e w a b le e n e r g y

c.

Y o u 'r e g o i n g to t h e b a ll a r e n 't y o u

In th e IT C le ft in (3 a ) th a t w e re a lize d th e d o g w a s m is s in g is o n e c la u s e ; th e
o th e r c la u s e is It w a s o n ly o n M o n d a y . In th e W H C le ft in ( 3 b ) , t h e tw o c la u s e s
a re W h a t w e're g o in g to d iscu ss to d a y a n d W h a t w e 're g o in g to d iscu ss to d a y is
re n ew a b le en erg y. ( I f w e a d o p t t h e n e a t a n a ly s is p r o p o s e d b y B re s n a n a n d
G r im s h a w ( 1 9 7 8 ), t h e s e c o n d c la u s e is w e 're g o in g to d iscu ss 0 to d a y .) In (3 c ),
t i e s p e a k e r m a k e s a s ta te m e n t b y m e a n s o f th e d e c la ra tiv e c la u s e Y o u re g o in g
ty th e b a ll a n d a s k s th e q u e s tio n b y m e a n s o f th e c la u s e a r e n t y o u ?
A n i m p o r t a n t is s u e c o n c e r n in g c o n s t r u c ti o n s is h o w fin e ly to s p lit u p d a ta
fro m a g iv e n la n g u a g e . I n t r o d u c to r y te x tb o o k s s u c h a s M ille r (2 0 0 8 ) u su a lly
m e n t io n t h e e x is te n tia l- p r e s e n ta tiv e c o n s t r u c ti o n e x e m p lif ie d b y T h e re 's a f o x
i'i th e g a rd en . T h e s i m p l e la b el 'e x is te n tia l c o n s t r u c ti o n ' s ig n a ls t h a t th e a n a ly s t
c o n s id e rs th e r e is o n ly o n e ( g e n e r a l) c o n s t r u c ti o n . T h e la b e l e x is te n tia lI're s e n ta t iv e' s ig n a ls t h a t th e c o n s t r u c ti o n h a s tw o f u n c tio n s , w h ic h a r e o fte n ,
b u t n o t alw ay s, c o n c u r r e n t. C ro ft a n d C r u s e (2 0 0 4 , p . 2 4 1 ), o n t h e b a s is o f
d a ta in L a k o ff (1 9 8 7 ) , p r o p o s e a s e t o f f o u r e x is te n tia l c o n s tr u c tio n s . T h e ir list
is in (4 ).
(4 ) a . T h e r e 's a t o x in t h e g a < d e n

C E N T R A L E X IS T E N T IA L

T h e r e 's a m a n b e e n s h o t

ST R A N G E EVENT

T h e r e is a S a n t a C l a u s e

O N T O L O G IC A L

S u d d e n ly t h e r e b u r s t in to t h e r o o m a n S S o f f ic e r h o ld in g a m a c h i n e g u n
P R E S E N T A T IO N A L

C onstructions
(4 a ) is t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t c o n s t r u c ti o n . I n s p e e c h , it is ty p ic a lly in t r o d u c e d
b y (here's w h e th e r th e f o llo w in g n o u n is s in g u la r o r p lu r a l. O n e v ie w is t h a t
there is h a s b e e n r e d u c e d a n d g r a m m a tic a liz c d i n t o a m a r k e r. T h e firs t N P is
ty p ic a lly in d e f in ite , s in c e th e c o n s t r u c ti o n is u s e d to i n t r o d u c e e n titie s n o t
p re v io u s ly m e n t io n e d in a n in te r c h a n g e . (4 a ) c o n ta i n s a lo c a tiv e p h r a s e , in th e
g arden. I n th e c e n tr a l e x is te n tia l c o n s t r u c ti o n , s u c h a lo c a tiv e p h ra s e is o b lig a
to ry , c e r ta in ly w h e n e x a m p le s o f th e c o n s t r u c ti o n o c c u r a s th e firs t c o n t r i b u
tio n to a te x t o r s e c tio n o l te x t. T h e o n to lo g ic a l c o n s t r u c t i o n in (4 c ) a ls o h as
a n in d e f in ite N P , b u t d o e s n o t c o n t a i n a lo c a tiv e p h ra s e , p r e s u m a b ly b e c a u s e it
is u s e d to a s s e rt th e e x is te n c e in g e n e r a l o f s o m e th in g , w h e r e a s t h e c e n tr a l
e x is te n tia l c o n s t r u c t i o n is u s e d to a s s e rt t h e e x is te n c e o r p r e s e n c e o f s o m e
th in g in s o m e p lace .
(4 b ) p r e s e n ts a n e n tity a n d a n e v e n t, w h ile < 4 d ) p r e s e n ts a n e v e n t. It so
h a p p e n s th a t t h e a g e n t in (4 d ) is re f e r r e d to b y a n in d e f in ite N P b e c a u s e in
th e p u ta tiv e c o n te x t t h i s is t h e firs t m e n t io n o f t h e SS o ffic e r. A n e x a m p le
s u c h a s S u d d e n ly th e re b u r s t in to th e ro o m th e tw o p o lic e m e n w e h a d n o tic e d in
t i e sq u a r e is e q u a lly u n m a r k e d ; th e d e f in ite N P th e tw o p o lic e m e n is u se d
b e c a u s e it m a y b e a s s u m e d th a t th e y h a v e b e e n m e n tio n e d b e fo re . T h e v e rb s

th a t o c c u r in th is c o n s t r u c ti o n a r e ty p ic a lly v e r b s o f m o v e m e n t o r a p p e a ra n c e
(w h ic h c a n b e in t e r p r e te d a s m o v e m e n t f r o m a b s e n c e to p re s e n c e ): T h e re
a p p ea red big b la c k c lo u d s. T h e re a r r iv e d a c a r a t th e d o o r, T h e re stro lle d in to
vieyv a la d y w ith a little d o g , T h e re sa ile d in to t h e h a r b o u r a very eleg a n t y a c h t
an d so on.
T h e lab el 's t r a n g e e v e n t a s s ig n e d t o (4 b ) b y C ro ft a n d C r u s e is n o t e n tire ly
a p p r o p r ia te , a s e v e n ts re f e r r e d to b y m e a n s o f th is c o n s t r u c ti o n a r c n o t
r.e c e ssa rily s t r a n g e ( d e p e n d i n g o n o n e s e x p e c ta tio n s o f g a ra g e s a n d s o o n ):
T h e re s a m e c h a n ic w o r k in g o n y o u r ca r r ig h t n o w . T h e r e s se v e r a l p o lic e m e n
ju s t b e e n s e n t to c o n tr o l th e tra ffic a n d s o o n . T h e e x a m p le w ith th e P e rfe c t
been s e n t lo o k s lik e a re s u lta tiv e ; p e r h a p s C r o f t a n d C r u s e s s tr a n g e e v e n t
c o n s t r u c ti o n s h o u l d b e s p lit i n t o re s u lta tiv e a n d 'e v e n t'. O n e n o te w o rth y
p r o p e r ty o f th e p r o p o s e d e v e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n is t h a t it c o n ta i n s a re la tiv e
cla u se . T h e p r e c e d in g tw o e x a m p le s c o n ta i n r e d u c e d re la tiv e c la u s e s b u t
c o n s id e r ( 5 ) , n o ti n g t h a t (5 a ) is a n e x a m p le o f th e c e n tr a l e x is te n tia l c o n s tr u c
tio n ; it h a s a lo c a tiv e p h r a s e , in o u r street, a n d a n o p t i o n a l re la tiv e c la u s e , o w n s
tw o R o ttw eilers. (5 b ) is a n e x a m p le o f t h e p r o p o s e d e x is te n tia l re s u lta tiv e
c o n s tr u c tio n .
(S ) a .

1 h e re 's a g u y in o u r s t r e e t |0| o w n s t w o R o t tw e ile r s ,

b . T h e r e 's a tre e |0 | h a s f a lle n o n a v e r y e x p e n s iv e ca r.

103

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

If th e z e ro s w e r e re p la c e d b y w h o a n d w h ic h , th e s e re la tiv e p r o n o u n s w o u ld
b e t h e s u b je c ts o f t h e re la tiv e c la u s e s . In E n g lis h n o n - e x is te n tia l c o n s tr u c tio n s
c n l y d ir e c t o b je c t re la tiv e p r o n o u n s c a n b e o m i tt e d , b u t in s p o k e n E n g lish
s u b je c ts c a n b e o m i t t e d f r o m re la tiv e c la u s e s in t h e e x is te n tia l- p r e s e n ta tiv e
c o n s tr u c tio n . T h is is in ta c t a m a jo r p r o p e r t y o f t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n . T h e re v is e d
list o f e x is te n tia l c o n s t r u c ti o n s is in ( 6 ) . T h e la b e ls h a v e b e e n a lte r e d to c a p tu r e
t i e fa c t t h a t t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n s a r e all e x is te n tia l.
(6 ) a . E x is t e n t ia l p r e s e n t in g a n e n tity
T h e r e 's a f o x in t h e g a r d e n
T h e r e 's a g u y in o u r s t r e e t [ 0 ) o w n s t w o R o t tw e ile r s
b

E x is t e n t ia l O N T O L O G I C A L
T h e r e is a S a n t a C la u s e

E x is t e n t ia l p r e s e n t in g a n e v e n t

E x is t e n t ia L p r e s e n t in g a n e v e n t r e s u lta tiv e

S u d d e n ly t h e r e b u r s t in t o t h e r o o m a n S S o f f ic e r h o ld in g a m a c h i n e g u n

T h e r e 's a m a n b e e n s h o t

A d e s c r ip ti o n o l E n g lis h o r o t h e r la n g u a g e s th a t tr e a ts c o n s t r u c ti o n s as
tn e o re lic a l p r im itiv e s h a s lo e s ta b lis h m a n y d if f e r e n t c o n s t r u c ti o n s lo h a n d le
t i e d if fe re n c e s in in t e r p r e ta ti o n a n d s y n ta x . T h e s a m e a p p lie s to m o d e ls o f
g r a m m a r s u c h a s C o n s tr u c ti o n G r a m m a r . In H a llid a y s m o d e ls o f th e la te
1960s a n d t h e 1 9 7 0 s, a n d in S y ste m ic G r a m m a r t o w h ic h th e y g av e ris e , lo ts
c f d il te r e n t c o n s t r u c ti o n s a r e re c o g n iz e d , a lt h o u g h th e y a r e th e e n d p o i n t o l
d if fe re n t se ts o f c h o ic e s . F o r e x a m p le , a c h o ic e o f [in d ic a tiv e m o o d |, [fin ite ],
[d e c la ra tiv e I, [a c tiv e ], [ d itra n s itiv e ) a n d ( u n m a r k e d | w o u ld r e s u lt in , fo r
e x a m p le . W e s e n t B a r n a b a s a b o o k o n e n to m o lo g y . T h e s a m e c h o ic e s a p a r t Iro m
(m a rk e d ] in s te a d o f [ u n m a r k e d ] w o u ld re s u lt in A b o o k o n e n to m o lo g y w e se n t
B a rn a b a s ( a n o r d e r o i w o r d s t h a t lo o k s p e c u lia r o u t o f c o n te x t) .

Constructions and first language

acquisition
T h e q u e s tio n o f h o w fin e to d r a w d is tin c tio n s b e tw e e n c o n s t r u c ti o n s is re le
v a n t to m o r e t h a n j u s t f o r m a l m o d e l s o f g r a m m a r o r d e s c r ip tiv e g r a m m a r s o f
t nis o r t h a t la n g u a g e . I t b e a rs d ir e c tly o n re s e a rc h i n t o c h ild r e n a c q u ir in g th e ir
n a tiv e la n g u a g e . T h e d if fic u ltie s a r e n ic e ly illu s tr a te d in C r a in a n d N a k a v a m a
(1 9 8 7 ). T h e y r a n a n e x p e r i m e n t in w h ic h c h ild r e n w e re in v ite d to c o n v e rt
d e c la ra tiv e s e n te n c e s c o n ta i n in g s u b je c t re la tiv e c la u s e s in to in te rro g a tiv e

C onstructions
se n te n c e s . T h e m e t h o d u s e d w a s to g e t th e c h ild r e n to p u t a q u e s t io n to a
p u p p e t c h a ra c te r. T h e s p o k e n in s tr u c t io n g iv e n w a s, f o r e x a m p le , A s k J a b b a i f
Ith e b o y w h o is w a tc h in g M ic k e y M o u s e is h a p p y ] . T h e s ix s e n te n c e s u s e d in th e
e x p e r i m e n t a r e s e t o u t in (7 ).
(7 ) a . T h e b o y v v tio is u n h a p p y is w a t c h in g M ic k e y M o u s e
b

T h e d o g t h a t is s le e p in g is o n th e b l u e b e n c h

c.

T h e b a ll t h a t t h e g u l is s it t in g o n is b ig

d . T h e b o y w h o is w a t c h in g M ic k e y M o u s e is h a p p y .
e.

I h e b o y w t io is b e in g k is s e d b y h is m o t h e r is h a p p y ,

I h e b o y w h o w a s h o ld in g t h e p la t e is c r y in g .

In C h a p t e r 12 o n firs t la n g u a g e a c q u is it io n , w e w ill p ic k u p tw o q u e s tio n s .

W h e n c a n it le g itim a te ly b e c la im e d t h a t a g r o u p o f c h ild r e n h a v e m a s te r e d a
p a r tic u la r c o n s tr u c tio n ? W h e n c a n th e re s u lts o b ta i n e d f r o m o n e g r o u p o f
c h ild re n b e g e n e ra liz e d to all c h ild r e n a c q u ir in g a p a r t i c u l a r la n g u a g e a s th e ir
n a tiv e o n e ? H e re , w e q u e s tio n C r a in a n d N a k a y a m a s a s s e r tio n t h a t t h e c h il
d r e n w h o t o o k p a r t in t h e i r e x p e r i m e n t h a d a c q u ir e d t h e w h re la tiv e c la u s e
c o n s t r u c ti o n . T h e e x a m p le s in (7 ) c o n ta i n tw o ty p e s o f w h re la tiv e c la u s e . In
b o th , w h o is th e s u b je c t, b u t th e re la tiv e c la u s e in (7 e ) is p a ss iv e a n d th e o th e r s
a r e a c tiv e , a n d th e re la tiv e c la u s e in (7 a ) c o n ta i n s a c o p u la c o n s t r u c ti o n , w h o
is u n h a p p y , w h ile t h e o t h e r a c tiv e o n e s a r e tr a n s itiv e . T h e 'tw o ty p e s o f w h
rela tiv e c la u s e re f e r r e d to h e r e a r e th e a c tiv e a n d p a ss iv e o n e s , b u t c le a rly
f a r th e r d is ti n c ti o n s c a n b e d r a w n w ith r e s p e c t to w h e th e r t h e a c tiv e re lativ e
cla u s e s h a v e a c o p u la c o n s t r u c ti o n o r a n o n - c o p u l a o n e , a n d i f it is th e la tte r,
th e n a g a in d is tin c tio n s h a v e to b e d r a w n w ith re s p e c t to w h e th e r th e y a r e t r a n
sitiv e o r in tra n s itiv e .
M o r e im p o r ta n tly , t h e e x a m p le s in (7 ) c o n ta in n o n e o t t h e m o r e c o m p le x
v/h re la tiv e c la u s e s p r e s e n te d in { 1 2 )( 1 4 ) in C h a p t e r 5 o n g r a m m a t i c a l l y a n d
C h a p te r 11 o n c o m p le x ity : N o re la tiv e c la u s e s w ith w h o m o r w hose; n o re la tiv e
c la u s e s in t r o d u c e d b y a p r e p o s iti o n + w h w o r d , a s in th e s h o p in w h ic h we
b o u g h t th is ca rp e t, th e g u y to w h o m y o u w ere ta lk in g , n o t to m e n tio n th e m a n b y
w hose dog w e h a d b e e n chased; c e r ta in ly n o e x a m p le s s u c h a s f o r a ll o f w h o m
th is w a s th e best tr e a tm e n t o r m o v e d to L o n d o n , in w h ic h c ity h e sp e n t th e rest o f
h is life a n d s o o n . T h e c h ild r e n w h o in te r p r e te d t h e w h c la u s e s c o r r e c tly in
C r a in a n d N a k a y a m a s e x p e r i m e n t u n d e r s t o o d tw o o t th e s im p le s t ty p e s o t
v /h re la tiv e c la u s e c o n s tr u c tio n s . T h e y h a d n o t m a s te re d T H E w h re la tiv e c o n
s tr u c tio n , a n d t h e y h a d o n ly m a s te r e d a fr a c tio n o f th e SF.T o f w h re la tiv e c lau se
c o n s tr u c tio n s . A s B a v in (2 0 0 5 , p . 3 8 9 ) sa y s , H o w c h ild r e n s s p o n ta n e o u s

105

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

p r o d u c t io n s a n d h o w th e i r p e r f o r m a n c e o n e x p e r im e n ta l ta s k s a r e in t e r p r e te d
is v e ry m u c h d e p e n d e n t o n t h e th e o r e tic a l a s s u m p tio n s m a d e .

Constructions and syntactic properties

The Classical Greek conditional construction
C o n s tr u c ti o n s o f f e r a s o l u ti o n to tr ic k y p h e n o m e n a s u c h a s t h e s e q u e n c e s
o f te n s e s in c o m b i n a ti o n s o f c o n d it io n a l c la u s e ( p r o ta s i s ) a n d m a in c la u s e
( a p o d o s is ) . A g o o d e x a m p le is th e C la ss ic a l G re e k c o n d it io n a l c o n s t r u c ti o n ,
as in (8 ).
(8 ) a . e i t o u t o e p o io u n ,
i< t h is t h e y - w e r e - d o m g ,
b

e d ik o u n
th e y -w e re -w ro n g

e i t o u to e p ra x e n .

e d ik e s a n a n

if t h is t h e y - h a d - d o n e ,

t h e y - w o u ld - h a v e - b e e n - w r o n g

T h e c o m b i n a ti o n o f a d v e r b ia l c la u s e a n d m a in c la u s e a p p e a r s l o in v o lv e
c ro s s -c la u s e d e p e n d e n c ie s , a lt h o u g h d e p e n d e n c ie s ty p ic a lly d o n o t c ro ss
d a u s e b o u n d a r i e s in to a d v e rb ia l c la u se s. I n (8 a ), t h e E n g lis h c o p u la + a d je c
tive s t r u c t u r e w e re w ro n g c o r r e s p o n d s to a sin g le v e r b in G re e k , e p o io u n . T h is
v e rb is in t h e Im p e r f e c t te n s e , w h ic h is w h a t is r e q u ir e d b y th e g r a m m a r o f
classical G r e e k fo r a fu lfille d c o n d it io n ; t h e c o n d it io n a l c la u s e c o n ta in s a n
Im p e rfe c t v e r b , e p o io u n . (8 b ) e x p re s se s a r e m o te , u n f u lf ille d c o n d itio n . T h e
c o n d itio n a l c la u s e c o n ta i n s a n A o ris t te n s e fo r m , e p ra x e n , a n d t h e m a i n c la u s e
c o n ta in s a n A o ris t f o r m a n d th e p a r tic le a n . S u c h e x a m p le s , h o w e v e r ( b o t h th e
C la ssic a l G r e e k o n e s a n d ih e i r E n g lis h e q u iv a le n ts ) , a r e n o t in s ta n c e s o f d e p e n
d e n c ie s c ro s s in g f r o m c la u s e t o a n o th e r . T h e s y n ta c tic c o n s t r a in t s a ffe c t b o th
t.ie m a in a n d a d v e rb ia l c la u s e s , a n d t h e d e p e n d e n c ie s a p p e a r t o b e a s s o c ia te d
w ith t h e e n t i r e tw o - c la u s e c o n s t r u c ti o n , r a t h e r t h a n flo w in g f r o m t h e m a in
d a u s e t o th e a d v e rb ia l c la u s e , o r e v e n v ic e v ersa.

The category-of-state construction in Russian

T h e re h a s b e e n m u c h d is c u s s io n b y R u s s ia n is ts o f e x a m p le s s u c h a s th o s e
9 )-(1 4 ).
(9 ) V
In

g o ro d e

b y lo

t e p lo ,

sy ro

to w n

w as

w a rm

h u m id

and

I t w a s w a r m , h u m id a n d s t u f f y in t o w n .'

duSno.
s tu ffy

C onstructions
(10 )

Iv a n u b y lo g o r 'k o i d o s a d n o .
fv a n - D A T w a s b itte a n d a n n o y e d
Iv a n w a s g r ie v e d a n d a n n o y e d .

(1 1 )

M no

nu2no

e x a t

M oskvu.

I- O A T

n e ce ssary

t o -tr a v e l

to

M o sco w

h a v e t o g o t o M o s c o w .

(1 2 )

Ja sn o ,
C le a r

cto

Z e n it l u c i a j a

th a t

Z e n it

kom anda.

b e tte r

team

'it is c le a r t h a t Z e n it is t h e b e t t e r t e a m .

(1 3 )

V sem
A ll-D A I

p o n ja t n a

n o v a ja

p o lit ik a .

new

p o lic y

u n d e r s t a n d a b le

'E v e r y o n e u n d e r s t a n d s t h e n e w p o lic y .

(1 4 )

N am
W e -D A T

b y la
w as

s ly i n a

g r o m k a ja

m u?yka

a u d i b le

lo u d

m u s ic

'W e c o u l d h e a r l o u d m u s ic .

T h e s e e x a m p le s h a v e c e r t a in p r o p e r tie s o l s y n ta x a n d m o r p h o s y n ta x th a t
c a n b e n e a tly h a n d le d b y a t t r i b u t i n g th e m to th e c o n s t r u c ti o n . (9 ){ 1 4 ) a re
sta tiv e c o n s tr u c tio n s ; in p a r tic u la r , (1 3 ) a n d (1 4 ) a r e th e R u s s ia n a n a lo g u e s o f
th e s ta tiv e s t r u c tu r e s n o te d in L a k o f f (1 9 7 0 ). T h e la tte r f o r m o n e s u b t y p e o f
sla tiv e c o n s t r u c ti o n a n d t h e o t h e r e x a m p le s b e lo n g to a s e c o n d s u b t y p e . L et us
call th e m s im p ly S ta tiv e 1 - e x a m p le s ( 13) a n d ( 14) - a n d S ta tiv e 2. In S ta tiv e
1, th e in itia l n o u n is a n i m a t e (ty p ic a lly h u m a n ) a n d in th e d a tiv e c a se . In
S tativ e 2, th e in itia l n o u n is n o n - a n i m a t e a n d ty p ic a lly d e n o te s a p la c e . It is in
th e p r e p o s itio n a l (lo c a tiv e ) c a se . B o th S ta tiv e 1 a n d S ta tiv e 2 e x c lu d e a d v e rb s
c f m a n n e r s u c h a s b y stro q u ic k ly , s n tu z ia s m o m e n th u s ia s tic a lly a n d lo v ko
sk ilfu lly a n d a d v e r b s o f in s tr u m e n t s u c h a s n io lo to n i 'w i th a h a m m e r a n d
v u w m w ith o n e s b r a in /in te llig e n c e . T h e y b o t h a llo w d u r a tiv e a n d h a b itu a l
tim e a d v e r b s a n d a d v e r b s o f c a u s e : V g o ro d e te p lo o t ju z n o g o verra I n to w n
w a r m f r o m s o u t h e r ly w in d . I t s w a r m in t h e to w n b e c a u s e o f t h e s o u th e r ly
w in d , I v a n u g o r 'k o o t n e u iia c i T o -Iv a n b it te r f r o m fa ilu re , Iv a n is b itte r ly d is
a p p o in t e d b y h is f a ilu r e ' a n d s o o n .
E a rlie r R u s s ia n s c h o la rs s u c h a s S c e r b a (1 9 2 8 ) a n d V in o g ra d o v (1 9 3 8 ) a sk e d
w h a t w o r d c la s s te p lo , syro, d u s n o , g o r'k o , d o sa d n o , n u i n o a n d ja s n o b e lo n g e d
t:>. F r o m th e i r m o r p h o lo g y t h e y c o u ld b e a d v e rb s , s in c e R u s s ia n a d v e rb s e n d
in - o o r -e , a s in th e a d je c tiv e S u m n y j n o is y a n d th e a d v e r b S u m n o n o is ily ,
c r th e a d je c tiv e lu c s ij b e t t e r ' a n d t h e a d v e r b lu c s e b e tt e r . T h e y c o u ld a ls o b e

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

s h o r t n e u t e r f o r m s o f a d je c tiv e s . R u s s ia n a d je c tiv e s , lik e a d je c tiv e s in m a n y
e t h e r la n g u a g e s , o c c u r a s m o d ifie rs o f n o u n s in N P s ( a t tr ib u tiv e a d je c tiv e s ) o r
c o m p le m e n ts o f b y t' 'b e ' in c o p u la c la u s e s (p r e d ic a tiv e a d je c tiv e s ). A d je c tiv e s
c o m e in tw o p a r a d i g m s , th e s h o r t fo r m s , c o n s is tin g o f t h e a d je c tiv e s t e m ( p o s
sib ly p lu s o n e o l th r e e su ffix e s: - a - f e m in in e s in g u la r; - o - n e u te r s i n g u la r ; - i
c r - y - p lu r a l) , a n d t h e l o n g fo r m s , c o n s is tin g o f t h e s t e m p lu s a lo n g su ffix
re a liz in g c a se , n u m b e r a n d g e n d e r: f o r e x a m p le , u m n y j c le v e r, m a s c u lin e ,
n o m in a tiv e , s i n g u la r ; u n m o g o m a s c u lin e , g e n itiv e , s in g u la r; u m n y x g e n itiv e ,
p lu r a l. T h e s h o r t f o r m s o n l y o c c u r a s c o m p l e m e n t s o f b y f b e . T h e s h o r t fo r m s
c n l y f u n c tio n a s p re d ic a tiv e a d je c tiv e s , b u t t h e lo n g f o r m s c a n o c c u r a s e ith e r
p re d ic a tiv e o r a tt r i b u ti v e a d je c tiv e s .
F in d in g it im p o s s ib le to d e c id e w h a t lep lo , e tc ., m ig h t b e , S c e r b a in t r o d u c e d
a n o th e r w o rd c la s s, w h ic h h e la b e lle d c a te g o r y o l s t a te , a s o l u ti o n w h ic h
r e m a in e d c o n tr o v e rs ia l b u t w a s a d o p t e d b y s o m e lin g u is ts , fo r e x a m p le , b y
T ix o n o v (1 9 6 0 ) . M o r e re c e n t g r a m m a r s s u c h a s S v e d o v a (1 9 7 0 ) d e s c rib e
e x a m p le s s u c h a s (9 )( 14) a s v a r io u s s t r u c t u r a l s c h e m a s b e lo n g in g to a n
a d v e rb ia l c la s s ( n a r e c n y j k la ss). T h e h e a d o f th e s e s t r u c tu r a l s c h e m a s is a
p re d ic a tiv e . T h e te r m

p r e d i c a t i v e ' i s a c o n v e n i e n t c o v e r t e r m

t h a t e n a b le s

a n a ly s ts to s id e s te p th e q u e s tio n o f w o r d c la s s, a n d th e te r m a d v e rb ia l is m y s
te r io u s , s in c e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n is re a liz e d in a ll ty p e s o f c la u s e , m a i n a n d
s u b o r d in a te .
I n fa c t, s y n ta x p ro v id e s a n a n s w e r to t h e p r o b le m . T ep lo , syro , d u s n o , g o r ko,
d o siid n o a n d ja s n o c a n o c c u r in th e c o m p a r a tiv e f o r m : esce bolee d o sa d n o
e v e n - m o r e - a n n o y e d , v g o ro d e b y lo ie p le e in to w n w a s w a r m e r a n d s o o n .
A d je c tiv e s o c c u r in th e c o m p a r a tiv e f o r m a n d t h i s is s u f fic ie n t re a s o n to class
/:/>/{>, e tc ., a s a d je c tiv e s . W h a t a b o u t th e f a c t t h a t it is th e s h o r l - o f o r m th a t
ty p ic a lly o c c u rs ? N o te f i r s t t h a t in S ta tiv e 1 it is n o t ju s t t h e - o f o r m t h a t t u r n s
u p . In (1 3 ) a n d (1 4 ), p o n jo ln a a n d sly sn a a r e le m in i n e to r m s , a g r e e in g w ith
tn e f e m in in e n o u n s p o litik a a n d tn u z y k a . T h e - o f o r m s o c c u r w h e r e th e r e is
r o n o u n fo r t h e a d je c tiv e to a g r e e w ith .
N o t h a v in g a n o u n to a g r e e w ith is a p e r m a n e n t p r o p e r t y o f S ta tiv e 2 a n d is
a ty p ic a l b u t n o t n e c e s s a ry p r o p e r ty o f S ta tiv e I. T h e t y p e o f in itia l n o u n , its
c ase a n d w h e th e r it is g o v e r n e d b y a p r e p o s iti o n a r e lik e w ise p r o p e r tie s o l
S tativ e 1 a n d S ta tiv e 2. T h a t is, t h e v a r i o u s r e s tr ic tio n s o n ty p e s o f a d v e r b a n d
c a u s e p h r a s e a n d th e o c c u r r e n c e o f th e s h o r t - o f o r m s c a n b e c o n s id e r e d p r o p
e r tie s o l a g e n e ra l S ta tiv e c o n s t r u c ti o n o l w h ic h ih e o t h e r tw o a r e s u b - ty p e s .
In s te a d o f e la b o r a ti n g d e f a u lt r u le s fo r w h ic h f o r m a p p e a r s w h e n t h e r e is n o
r .o u n t o r it t o a g re e w ith , th e o c c u r r e n c e o f th e *o f o r m c a n b e s p e c ifie d as

C onstructions
a p r o p e r ty o f t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n . I n a n e a r ly p a p e r, JM s u g g e s te d t h a t th e -o
fo r m s w e r e th e tr a d i t i o n a l c a te g o r y o f a d je c tiv e p la y in g a ro le in a sp e c ia l ty p e
c f c o n s t r u c ti o n a n d t h a t r a t h e r t h a n h a v in g o n e la rg e s e t o f b a s e r u le s (ty p ic a l
c f t h a t s ta g e in t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f g e n e ra tiv e m o d e ls ) it w o u ld b e m o r e u s e fu l
to h a v e d ille r e n t s e ts o f r u le s fo r d if f e r e n t ty p e s o f s e n te n c e [s ic ]. (M ille r, 1973,
p p . 3 5 8 - 9 ) . T h e in s p ir a t io n fo r th e s e c o m m e n ts w a s th e w o r k o f H a llid a y a n d
A n d e rs o n ( 1971 ) , b u t it is p le a s in g to se e th a t th e c o n c e p t o f c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s
i.s r i g h t l u l p la c e in a t le a s t o n e m a j o r c u r r e n t o l t h o u g h t in c o n te m p o r a r y
g r a m m a r , C o n s tr u c ti o n G r a m m a r a n d C o g n itiv e L in g u istic s.

Num ber agreem ent and the existential construction

W e r e t u r n to t h e e x is te n tia l c o n s t r u c ti o n a n d t o IT clefts. H e n r y ( 2 0 0 5 ) e x a m
in e s v a r i a ti o n in B e lfa st E n g lish , a v a rie ty th a t is s p o k e n b u t n o t w r itte n . S h e
fo c u s e s o n t h e f o llo w in g e x a m p le s:
(1 5 )

a . t h e r e 's t h r e e b o o k s o n th e ta b le .
b . T h e r e is th r e e b o o k s o n t h e ta b le
c . T h e r e w a s th r e e b o o k s o n t h e ta b le .

H e n r y (2 0 0 5 , p . I l l ) w o rk e d w ith a s e t o f s p e a k e rs w h o u s e d th e n u m b e r
a g re e m e n t s y s te m o f s t a n d a r d E n g lish , th a t is, th e y u s e d (1 6 a ,b ) b u t n o t ( 17a,b).
(1 6 )

a . T h e e g g s a re cra ck e d .
b .T h e d o o rs w e re o p e n e d .

(1 7 )

a T h e e g g s is c r a c k e d
b. T h e d o o rs w a s opened

T h e e x is te n tia l c o n s t r u c t i o n in ( 15ac ) re v e a le d in t r i g u in g v a r i a ti o n in
u sage. S o m e o l H e n ry 's s p e a k e r s u s e d o n ly there's. O th e r s u s e d th ere's a n d th ere
is b u t n o t th e r e w a s, a n d a th i r d g r o u p u s e d th e re a r e a n d th e re w a s b u t n o t
th e r e is. T h e r e w a s f u r t h e r v a r i a ti o n d e p e n d in g o n w h e th e r th e s p e a k e r s u se d
there w a s lo ts o f b o o k s o r th e r e w ere lo ts o f b o o ks. S o m e s p e a k e r s a lw ay s h a d
n u m b e r a g r e e m e n t in t h e n e g a tiv e e x is te n tia l c o n s t r u c t i o n T h e re w e re n 't a n y
books, w h ile o th e r s a lw a y s h a d a g r e e m e n t in t h e p o s itiv e c o n s t r u c ti o n th ere
w ere b o o ks b u t d i d n o t h a v e a g r e e m e n t i n th e n e g a tiv e o n e th e re w a s n 't a n y
books. S o m e s p e a k e r s a llo w th e r e se e m s to b e m a n y s tu d e n ts in th e ro o m b u t n o t
'T h e r e a p p e a rs to b e m a n y s tu d e n ts in th e ro o m .
H e n r y (2 0 0 2 , p . 2 6 7 ) c o m m e n ts t h a t th e c e n tr a l g o a l o f s y n ta c tic th e o r y h as
t e e n to d e v e lo p a th e o r y o f th e r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f la n g u a g e in th e m i n d /b r a in

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c f in d i v id u a l s p e a k e r s a n d t h a t th is g o a l is n o t c o m p a tib le w ith t h e t r e a tm e n t
c f t h e e x is te n tia l c o n s t r u c t i o n in C h o m s k y 1 1995, C h a p te r 4 ) , w h e r e h e a rg u e s
t h a t there's is a lo w -le v e l s u b s tit u ti o n fo r th e re a r e a n d t h a t t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n
w ith o u t a g r e e m e n t is n o t p r o d u c t iv e s in c e i t d o c s n o t o c c u r in th e u n c o n
tr a c te d lo r m in q u e s t io n s o r in th e p a s t te n s e . ( C h o m s k y is w ro n g : th e r e a re
m a n y s p e a k e r s w h o s a y Is th e re a n y b isc u its le ft a n d also , a s H e n r y s h o w s . T h e re
v/as three b o o ks o n th e table. As H e n r y a ls o s h o w s , th e r e a r e s p e a k e r s w h o h av e
t i c p a tt e r n o! u s a g e r e p o r te d b y C h o m s k y .) C h o m s k y s a c c o u n t w ill n o t d o ;
fo r m a n y s p e a k e rs , th e r e s is n o t a s u b s tit u ti o n fo r a n y th in g , b e c a u s e th e y d o
n o t u s e th e re are.
I Ic n r y s s o l u ti o n (2 0 0 5 , p . 1 2 0 ) is t o p r o p o s e a r e t u r n to t h e c o n c e p t o f ru le s
a n d a re s e a rc h p r o g r a m m e t h a t s e e k s to id e n tif y a n d c o n s t r a in t h e i r n a tu r e .
A n o th e r s o l u ti o n is t o p u r s u e th e id e a o f in d e p e n d e n t c o n s t r u c ti o n s w ith th e ir
c w n p a t t e r n s a n d to tr e a t t h e e x is te n tia l a s a c o n s t r u c t i o n w ith s p e c ific p r o p
e rtie s, a m o n g th e m t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f th ere's in e v e ry p r e s e n t- te n s e e x is te n tia l
c la u s e re g a r d le s s o f w h e th e r t h e f o llo w in g n o u n is s in g u la r o r p lu r a l. F o r o th e r
s p e a k e rs, t h e sp e c ific p r o p e r tie s w ill in c lu d e t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f b o t h is a n d w as
v .'h ilc f o r a t h i r d s e t t h e y i n c l u d e t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f w a s b u t n o t is o r 's . A n o t h e r

c o n s tr u c tio n - s p e c if ic p r o p e r ty w ill b e t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f th e r e w e re b o o k s b u t
there w a s n 't a n y books, a n d s o o n . N u m b e r a g r e e m e n t in t h e e x is te n tia l c o n
s t r u c ti o n is d if f e r e n t f r o m n u m b e r a g r e e m e n t in th e o r d i n a r y d e c la ra tiv e
c o n s tr u c tio n .

The IT Cleft in spoken and w ritten English

T h e fin a l c o n s t r u c t i o n w e lo o k a t is th e E n g lish IT c le ft. T w o g e n e ra l p o in ts
a rise f r o m t h e a c c o u n t in Q u ir k a n d G r c c n b a u m

(1 9 8 5 , S e c tio n s 18.28

a n d 18.48) a n d t h e c r itiq u e b e lo w : o n e is t h a t th e r e a r e m a j o r d iffe re n c e s

b e tw e e n s p o k e n a n d w r i t t e n E n g lis h a n d t h e o t h e r is t h a t th e d iffe re n c e s arcb e st h a n d le d b y r e c o g n iz in g d if f e r e n t c o n s t r u c ti o n s a n d a t t r i b u t i n g p r o p e r tie s
to th e m . C o n s id e r th e IT c le ft in (1 8 ).
1 1 8 ) It's t h e g ir l t h a t I w a s c o m p 'a im n g a b o u t

Q u i r k a n d G r c c n b a u m p o n d e r o v e r t h e c la u s e th a t I w a s c o m p la in in g
Cibout. O n th e su rfa c e , th is lo o k s lik e a re la tiv e c la u s e , a s t h a t c a n b e r e p la c e d b y
w h o I t s th e g ir l w h o I

iv is

c o m p la in in g a b o u t - a n d w h o c a n , a t a p in c h , b e

r e p la c e d b y th e v e ry f o r m a l a n d s tilte d a b o u t w h o m - It's th e g ir l a b o u t w h o m
I u w c o m p la in in g . T h e r e w o u ld a p p e a r to b e n o d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n t h e fin a l

Constructions
d a u s e i n th e I T c le ft a n d re la tiv e c la u s e s , b u t Q u i r k a n d G r e e n b a u m t u r n to
th e e x a m p le s in (1 9 ) a n d (2 0 ).
(1 9 )

It w a s b e c a u s e h e w a s ill ( t h a t ) w e d e c id e d t o r e tu rn .

(2 0 )

It w a s in S e p t e m b e r ( t h a t ) I f u s t n o t ic e d it.

T h e fin a l c la u s e s in ( 19) a n d ( 2 0 ) a r e t h a t w e d e c id e d to re tu rn a n d t h a t I fir s t

r o tic e d it. Q u i r k a n d G r e e n b a u m (1 9 8 5 , p . 1 3 8 7 ) o b s e r v e t h a t s u c h a c o n
s tr u c tio n , w h e r e th e r e is n o n o u n - p h r a s e a n te c e d e n t, m a k e s i n a p p r o p r ia te th e
u se o l th e te r m 'p r o n o u n ' fo r t h e lin k in g w o rd th a t.' ( T h a t c o m m e n t a p p lie s
to o r d i n a r y re la tiv e c la u s e s to o . - s e e p. 2 7 .) T h e y p o i n t to t h e im p o s s ib ility
c f r e p la c in g th a t b y w h ic h - ' I t m as b e c a u se h e w a s ill w h ic h w e d e c id e d to
re tu rn . T h e fin a l c la u s e in (1 9 ) m o d if ie s t h e a d v e r b ia l c la u s e o f re a s o n because
he w a s ill a n d th e fin a l c la u s e in ( 2 0 ) m o d ifie s th e p r e p o s itio n a l p h r a s e in
S e p tem b er. ( T h e la c k o f a N P a n te c e d e n t d o e s n o t a u to m a tic a lly d is q u a lify a
s e q u e n c e a s a re la tiv e c la u s e , s in c e re la tiv e c la u s e s c a n a ls o h a v e p r o p o r t i o n a l
a n te c e d e n ts , a s in H e s h o w e d u s ro u n d , w h ic h w e th o u g h t w a s v e r y nice a n d
b e y o n d t h e c a ll o f d u t y . I n t h i s e x a m p l e , t h e a n t e c e d e n t o f w h ic h is t h e p r o p o s i

tio n , o r e v e n t, S H O W R O U N D (H E , U S ).)
As m e n t io n e d e a rlie r, in (1 9 ) a n d (2 0 ) th a t c a n n o t b e r e p la c e d b y w hich.
T h is r u n s c o u n t e r to re la tiv e c la u s e s w ith p r o p o s iti o n o r e v e n t a n te c e d e n ts ;
th e y M U S T b e in t r o d u c e d b y w h ic h . P e r h a p s t h e p r o b le m lies in th e c h o ic e o f
v /h w o r d . T im e n o u n s c a n b e m o d if ie d b y re la tiv e c la u s e s in t r o d u c e d b y w h e n ,
a s in ( 2 1 ).
(2 1 )

a . I r e m e m b e r t h e S e p t e m b e r w h e n it r a in e d t h e w h o l e m o n th ,
b . Y o u 'v e f o r g o t t e n t h e h o lid a y w h e n w e n e a r ly c r a s h e d th e car.

In s te a d o f (2 0 ), s p e a k e r s - a n d w r ite r s , d e p e n d in g o n t h e ty p e o f te x t u se th e c o n s t r u c t i o n in ( 2 1 ) , in w h ic h th e s e c o n d c la u s e is in t r o d u c e d b y
w hen.
( 2 0 a ) It w a s in S e p t e m b e r w h e n I fir s t n o t ic e d it.

S im ila rly , p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s d e n o t i n g p la c e s c a n b e m o d if ie d b y th e

f:nal c la u s e in a n IT c le ft a n d p la c e n o u n s c a n b e m o d if ie d b y re la tiv e c la u s e s
in tr o d u c e d b y w h e re , a s in ( 2 2 ).
( 2 2 ) a . I I w a s in t h e r e s t a u r a n t t h a t h e p r o p o s e d to her.
b . I r e m e m b e r t h e r e s t a u r a n t w h e r e h e p r o p o s e d t o her

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( 2 1 ) a n d ( 2 2 b ) a r e i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e th e y h o l d t h e c lu e a s to h o w s p e a k e rs
c f E n g lis h ( e m p h a s is o n 's p e a k e rs ) s o lv e th e p r o b le m e x e rc is in g Q u i r k a n d
G r e c n b a u m . T h e c o n s t r u c ti o n w ill b e d is c u s s e d b e lo w . In c o n tr a s t, t h e d iffi
c u ltie s p o s e d b y (1 9 ) a r e n o t e a s ily d is p o s e d o f. O th e r ty p e s o f c la u s e c a n o c c u r
in fo c u s p o s i ti o n in IT c le fts, a s in (2 3 ). T h e c la u s e s a r e h o w e v e r c o n f i n e d to
d a u s e s o f r e a s o n , a s in ( 1 9 ) , a n d c la u s e s o f tim e a n d p la c e , a s in (2 3 ):
(2 3 )

a . I l w a s w h e n t h e y a r r iv e d t h a t t h e m o o d c h a n g e d
b . It w a s a s t h e y w e r e le a v in g t h a t t h e y n o t ic e d Ih e fire .
c . I I w a s a f t e r t h e y le f t t h a t t h e f ir e b r o k e o u i .
d

I t w a s w h e e s h e h e ld t h e p a r ly t h a t b o t h e r e d m e .

It is t h e a d v e rb ia l c la u s e s in fo c u s p o s i ti o n t h a t ra is e a n a ly tic a l p ro b le m s ,
r o t th e p r e p o s itio n a l p h r a s e s a n d . a s w ill b e a r g u e d b e lo w , th e u n re s o lv a b le
p ro b le m s e e m s t o a tta c h to c la u s e s o f re a s o n .
T h e firs t s e t o f d if f ic u ltie s p r o p o s e d b y Q u i r k a n d G r e c n b a u m , th e n , c a n b e
d e a lt w ith . T h e y g o o n t o ra is e o t h e r d iffic u ltie s , o n e s re la te d d ir e c tly to th e
la c k o f a d is ti n c ti o n b e tw e e n w r itte n m a g n a s y n ta x a n d t h e re g u la r s t r u c tu r e s
c f s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lish . T h e y p o i n t o u t t h a t in re la tiv e c la u s e s th a t
c a n n o t b e o m i tt e d u n le s s th e a n te c e d e n t n o u n is, a s it w e re , a ls o t h e s u b je c t o f
l i e re la tiv e c la u se . C o m p a r e (2 4 a ,b ) a n d (2 5 a ,b ).
(2 4 )

a . le n d y o u t h e b o o k < e p t m e a w a k e
b I'll le n d y o u t h e b o o k t h a t k e p t m e a w a k e

(2 5 >

a . I'll le n d y o u t h e b o o k I h a t e d
b I'll le n d y o u t h e b o o k t h a t I h a t e d

In ( 2 4 ) , b o o k is t h e s u b je c t o f k e p t m e a w a k e , w h ile it is t h e d ir e c t o b je c t o f
h a te d in ( 2 5 ) . T h a t is o m is s ib le in (2 5 ) b u t n o t in (2 4 ). B u t, a s Q u i r k a n d
G r e c n b a u m r e m a r k , t h a t c a n b e o m i t t e d in I T c le fts t h a t a p p e a r to b e p a ra lle l
to ( 2 4 ) , a s in (2 6 ).
(2 6 )

It w a s t h e P r e s id e n t h im s e lf s p o k e to m e .

H o w p e c u lia r is < 2 6 )? Q u irk a n d G r e e n b a u m th e m s e lv e s p r o v id e e x a m p le s

c f t h e e x is tc n tia l- p r e s c n ta tiv c c o n s t r u c t i o n i n w h ic h t h a t is a b s e n t , a lth o u g h
s o m e th in g is b o t h t h e a n te c e d e n t o f th e fin a l c la u s e ( th a t) keep s u p s e ttin g h im
a n d its s u b je c t. A n e x a m p le is i n (2 7 ).
(2 7 )

T h e r e 's s o m e t h in g ( t h a t ) k e e p s u p s e t t i n g h im .

C onstructions
Q u i r k a n d G r c c n b a u m u s e t h e o m is s ib ility o f I lu l l in (2 7 ) to a n a ly s e th e
s e q u e n c e ke e p s u p s e ttin g h i m a s a ls o n o t a re la tiv e c la u s e . T h e y c o n tr a s t (2 7 )
v /ith ( 2 8 ) , w h ic h th e y c la im is in c o r re c t.
(28)

*1 k n o w a m a n l i v e s i n C h i n a .

In f o r m a l w r it te n E n g lis h , (2 8 ) m a y w e ll b e u n a c c e p ta b le . (J M s in t u it io n s
a r e u n c le a r.) I n s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lis h , h o w e v e r, (2 8 ) is n o t ju s t a c c e p t
a b le b u t is t h e n o r m a l s t r u c tu r e . In te re s tin g ly , it is lik e (2 6 ) in h a v in g a n
e x is te n tia l- p r e s e n ta tiv e fu n c tio n , a n d th e IT c le lt in (2 6 ) a lso h a s a p re s e n ta tive f u n c t io n . O t h e r e x is te n tia l- p r e s e n ta tiv e s t r u c tu r e s a ls o a llo w th e c o m p le n e n t i z e r to b e o m i tt e d , s u c h a s (2 9 ), u tte r e d in th e c o u r s e o f a te le v is io n
p r o g r a m m e b y a t h e a t r e m a n a g e r, a n d ( 3 0 ) , u tt e r e d b y a te a c h e r b u t n o t
re c o rd e d o n ta p e .
(2 9 )

I h a d a w it c h d is a p p e a r e d d o w n a t r a p ( = t r a p d o o r in t h e s ta g e )

(3 0 )

w e 'v e g o t p le n t y o f k id s k n o w v e r y little a b o u t E n g lis h .

T h e e x is te n tia l- p r e s e n ta tiv e s t r u c t u r e in (2 6 ) is n o t o n ly t h e n o r m in
s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lish b u t o c c u rs in w r it te n E n g lis h to o . (31 ) is f r o m a
s u rv e y o f a p r o p e r ty p r e p a r e d fo r S c o ttis h C o a l b y th e P e rth (S c o tla n d ) o ffic e
c f a f ir m o f n a t i o n a l s u r v e y o rs . I t h a s tw o e x is te n tia l- p r e s e n ta tiv e s tr u c tu r e s ;
th e re le v a n t o n e is in b o l d a n d t h e re la tiv e c la u s e w ith m is s in g c o m p le m e n tiz e r
a n d m is s in g s u b je c t N P is in b o ld ita lic s.
(3 1 )

T h e r e is a p o 'c h o f s o lid c o n s t r u c t io n w h ic h h a s b e e n r e n d e r e d , u n d e r a
p it c h e d s la t e r o o f . T h e r e i s a s a s h

a n d c a s e w in d o w

in

th e p o rch

r e q u ir e s re p a in t in g .

T h e u p s h o t o f th e e a rlie r d is c u s s io n is th is . Q u i r k a n d G r e e n b a u m e x a m in e
w h a t w e r e tr a d itio n a lly t h o u g h t o l a s re la tiv e c la u s e s in I T c le fts a n d e x is te n tia l
s t r u c tu r e s a n d re a n a ly s e t h e m a s a n n e x c la u s e s . T h e ir a n a ly s is c a n b e c o u n
te r e d , a lb e it s u b tly , f o r w r it te n E n g lish . T h e ir a n a ly s is d o e s n o t a p p ly a t a ll to
( s p o n ta n e o u s ) s p o k e n E n g lish .
T h e r e is o n e m o r e im p o r t a n t c o m m e n t to b e m a d e o n ( s p o n ta n e o u s )
s p o k e n E n g lish . A n e w c o n s t r u c ti o n is a p p e a r in g , w h ic h b y p a s s e s t h e p ro b le m
p e rc e iv e d b y Q u i r k a n d G r e e n b a u m . It is n o t y e t m e n t io n e d in g r a m m a r s o f
E n g lish , b u t is th e r e g u la r c o n s t r u c ti o n n o t ju s t in in f o r m a l c o n v e r s a tio n b u t
in r a d i o d is c u s s io n s a n d in te le v is io n p r o g r a m m e s . ( W h e n JM m e n t io n e d th e

113

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

n e w c o n s l r u c i i o n lo a c o lle a g u e in M e l b o u r n e , t h e la tte r re p lie d t h a t h e h a d
alw ay s i h o u g h t t h a t w a s w h a t s p e a k e r s s a id a n y w a y . JM h a s c le a rly n o tic e d
t i c c o n s t r u c ti o n la te in t h e d a y , b u t a t a tim e w h e n it is s p r e a d in g . I n te r e s t
ingly, i t is n o t m e n t io n e d in B ib e r e t a l. < 1 9 9 9 ).) E x a m p le s a r e g iv e n in (3 2 )
a n d (3 3 ).
(3 2 )

I I w a s in S e p t e m b e r w h e n I fir s t n o t ic e d it.

(3 3 )

I I w a s in E d in b u r g h w h e r e -e f o u n d th e p ic t u r e .

T h e n e w s t r u c t u r e c o n ta i n s a W H s e q u e n c e th a t c o u ld b e a n a ly s e d a s a
re la tiv e c la u s e , b u t a h e a d le s s re la tiv e c la u s e , o n e w ith n o a n te c e d e n t. I n o th e r
w o rd s , in (3 2 ), w h e n I fi r s t n o tic e d it is n o t a re la tiv e c la u s e m o d if y in g in
S e p te m b e r b u t a f r e e - s ta n d in g h e a d le s s re la tiv e c la u s e . T h e s e q u e n c e I t w as
i'i S e p te m b e r e s ta b lis h e s t h e te m p o r a l r e f e r e n t, s o m e p o i n t o f tim e in th e
p e r io d o f tim e la b e lle d S e p te m b e r . T h e c la u s e w h e n I fi r s t n o tic e d it p ic k s u p
th e r e f e r e n t, a d d s i n f o r m a t io n to it a n d c a n b e g lo s s e d a s a t w h ic h t i m e 1 first
n o tic e d it o r e v e n 't h a t s w h e n I firs t n o tic e d it'. W ith t h e s u b s tit u ti o n o f
'l o c a t i o n a l ' f o r 't e m p o r a l a n d w h e r e f o r w h e n t h e s a m e a n a l y s i s c a n b e a p p l i e d

to (3 3 ). N o t o n l y d o Q u i r k a n d G r e e n b a u m s o b je c tio n s n o t a p p ly t o ( s p o n ta
n eo u s) sp o k e n

E n g lish , b u t t h i s n e w s t r u c t u r e b y p a s s e s th e i r a n a ly sis

a lto g e th e r.
A n o th e r a d v a n ta g e o f c o n s t r u c ti o n s e m e rg e s f r o m t h e a b o v e a c c o u n t o f
tn e p r o p e r tie s o f IT c le fts a n d th e s y n ta c tic p r o p e r tie s a n d la rg e v a r ie ty of
rela tiv e c la u s e s . M a n y c o n s t r u c ti o n s a r e u s e d in a ll te x t ty p e s , f r o m s p o n t a n e c u s s p e e c h t o f o r m a l w r it te n d o c u m e n t s . O t h e r c o n s t r u c ti o n s a r c ty p ic a lly
u s e d in f o r m a l w r itin g , fo r e x a m p le , th e m o r e c o m p le x re la tiv e c la u s e s . T h ey
a re n o t a b s o lu te ly c o n f in e d to f o r m a l w r it in g , b u t p e o p le w h o u s e th e m in
sp e e c h a r e g e n e ra lly v ie w e d a s s p e a k in g lik e a b o o k . A t h i r d s e t o l c o n s tr u c t.o n s is ty p ic a l o f s p o n t a n e o u s sp e e c h . (S e e M ille r a n d W e in e r t, 2 0 0 9 , fo r a n
e x te n d e d d is c u s s io n .) A n e x a m p le is t h e be s a t a n d b e s to o d c o n s t r u c ti o n ,
w h ic h is n o t n o n - s t a n d a r d b u t is w id e s p r e a d in s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h (se e
p p . 9 - 1 0 ) . T h e c o n c e p t o f a c o n s t r u c t i o n is e s s e n tia l fo r a w e ll- fo u n d e d
c o n tr a s tiv e g r a m m a r o f s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h a n d f o r m a l w r i t i n g ( w h e th e r
c f E n g lis h , F r e n c h , T u rk is h , C h in e s e o r a n y o t h e r la n g u a g e w ith s p o k e n a n d
w r itte n v a rie tie s ). It is a ls o e s s e n tia l fo r a n u n d e r s ta n d in g o f d if fe re n t te x t
ty p e s ; l o r in s ta n c e , c o n s t r u c ti o n s a r c a t t h e h e a r t o l B i b e r s c o r p u s - b a s e d w o rk
c n d if f e r e n t g r a m m a t ic a l d im e n s io n s o f te x t.

C onstructions

Lone i f clauses
F inally, w e e x a m in e tw o c o n s t r u c ti o n s t h a t d e m o n s t r a t e t h e a d v a n ta g e s o t
c o n s t r u c ti o n s fo r d e a lin g w i t h s y n ta c tic s t r u c tu r e s ty p ic a l o f s p o n ta n e o u s
s p e e c h a n d w i t h t h e i r d is c o u r s e f u n c tio n s . T h e firs t s t r u c t u r e is t h e is o la te d i f
c la u se , n o te d in ta s k - r e la te d d ia lo g u e s b y M ille r a n d W e in e rt (2 0 0 9 , p p . 1 0 0 -1 ).
A n e x a m p le is in (3 4 ).
(3 4 )

R ig h t if y o u g o r ig h t a l o n g t h e r e u n t il y o u 'r e a t t h e r ig h t h a n d e d g e o f th e
g r a n i t e q u a rry .

T h e i/ c la u s e c o n v e y s a n in s tr u c t io n . T h e s p e a k e r is in s tr u c t in g t h e liste n e r
w h e re to d r a w a lin e o n th e i r m a p r e p r e s e n tin g t h e n e x t s ta g e in a r o u t e th r o u g h
a s e t o f la n d m a r k s . T h e u s a g e p r o b a b l y o r ig in a te d in a c o n d itio n a l c o n s tr u c
tio n , say, I f y o u d o th is, y o u 'll b e d o in g th e c o rrect th in g o r If y o u d o th is, we
can g e t o n w ith w h a t w e n e e d to d o . I n s o m e c o n te x ts , s u c h a s m e d ic a l o n e s , it
n a y b e p o s s ib le to in v e n t a p la u s ib le a p o d o s i s - i f y o u j u s t roll u p y o u r sleeve,
I'll ta k e y o u r b lo o d p re s su re /I'll g iv e y o u th e f l u j a b a n d s o o n . I n o t h e r c o n te x ts ,
s u c h a s t h e r o u te - d r a w in g o n e . a sin g le p la u s ib le a p o d o s is is d if f ic u lt to fin d .
T h e i f c la u s e s c a n b e h a n d le d a s a s p e c ia l c o n s t r u c ti o n , a llo w in g lo r t h e i f
c la u s e t o c o n ta i n c o m p l e m e n t o r re la tiv e c la u s e s o r t o b e m o d if ie d b y a d v e r
bial c la u s e s , a s in ( 3 5 ) . (I n M ille r a n d W c in c rts d ia lo g u e d a ta , 5 9 o u t o f
9 0 c o n d it io n a l c la u s e s w e re o n th e i r o w n a n d c o n v e y e d in s tr u c tio n s .)
(3 5 )

a . 11 y o u j u s t li e b a c k a n d r e la x u n t il t h e a n a e s t h e t ic is w o r k in g .
b . I I y o u j u s t b r i n g b a c k t h e b o o k s t h a t y o u d o n 't n e e d .
c . It y o u c o u l d ju s t t e ll F io n a t h a t h e r p a r c e l lia s c o m e .

T h e i f c la u s e c a n b e tr e a te d a s a sp e c ia l k in d o f m a i n , im p e r a tiv e c la u se .
T h e s u b je c t in ( 3 5 a - c ) is y o u , b u t it c a n b e a n y p r o n o u n a n d e v e n a n N P , as
show n b y (3 6 a -c ).
(3 6 )

a . If t h e y c o u l d ju s t h a v e a lo o k a t y o u r p r o p o s a l,
b . I I I c o u l d ju s t t a lk to y o u r b o s s .
c I I t h e g u y w h o r e p a ir e d t h e c a r c o u l d j u s t e x p la in to m e w h a t th e
p r o b le m w a s .

A s s o c ia te d w ith th e c o n s t r u c t i o n is t h e d is c o u r s e i n f o r m a t io n t h a t s t r u c
tu re s re a liz in g it se rv e to c o n v e y in s tr u c t io n s in a p o lite a n d in f o r m a l m a n n e r .
H o w a p a r t ic u l a r s p e a k e r c h o o s e s b e tw e e n th is c o n s t r u c ti o n a n d m o r e d ir e c t

115

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

im p e ra tiv e s d e p e n d s o n lo c a tio n , t y p e o f in te r a c tio n , ty p e s o f p a r t ic i p a n t a n d
e v e n o n f a c to r s s u c h a s t h e s p e a k e r s p h y s ic a l a n d p s y c h o lo g ic a l s t a te a n d th e
b e h a v io u r o f t h e o t h e r p a r l ic i p a n t( s ) in th e e x c h a n g e .

Lone when clauses

C h e s h ir e (2 0 0 5 , p p . 9 0 - 4 ) g iv es a n a c c o u n t o f lo n e w h e n c la u s e s in
R e a d in g c o r p u s . <37) a n d (3 8 ) a r e ty p ic a l e x tr a c ts f r o m t h e c o n v e rs a tio n s
(3 7 )

(3 8 )

Nobby

y e a h M is s t h r e a d g o ld s h e a in 't b a d

Rob

y e a h s h e . s h e w e n t c a m p i n g w it h u s

Je n n y

y e s h e t o ld m e s h e 'd b e e n c a m p in g

Nobby

w h e n w e w e n t c a m p in g

Rob

s h e 's a g o o d la u g h

Je n n y

is s h e

Nobby

yeah

Je n n y

h a v e y o u e v e i b e e n in h o s p it a l?

V a le rie

1 have

C h r is t in e

o h y e a h 1 have

V a le rie

1 g o t ru n o v e i b y a car

C h r is t in e

1 f e ll o f f a g a t e b a c k w a r d s < L A U G H S > a n d I w a s u n c o n s c io u s

Tom m y

oi w hen 1

V a le rie

sshh

Tom m y

c o s m y s is t e r a n d m y c o u s in t h e y b e n t m y a r m . t h e y t w is t e d it

w h e n I w e n t in h o s p it a l j u s t f o r a lit t le w h il e .

n g h t ro u n d

C h e s h ir e a n a ly s e s m o s t o f t h e l o n e w h e n c la u s e s in h e r d a ta a s p iv o ta l in th e
d e v e lo p m e n t o f ta lk a n d s ig n a llin g t h a t t h e s p e a k e r is b e g in n in g a sto ry . (T h e
sshh u tte r e d b y V a le rie is a d d r e s s e d to C h r is tin e , te llin g h e r to le t T o m m y h av e
h is say.) T h e n a r r a tiv e t h a t fo llo w e d th e c la u s e s w a s fa m ilia r t o t h e o t h e r p a r t.c ip a n ts ( t h o u g h n o t to t h e r e s e a r c h e r ) b e c a u s e t h e y h a d ta k e n p a r t in th e
e v e n ts o r h a d h e a r d t h e s t o r y b e fo re . A s w i t h t h e i f c la u s e s d is c u s s e d e a rlie r,
t i e lo n e w h e n c la u s e s c a n b e tr e a te d a s a sp e c ia l m a i n c la u s e c o n s t r u c ti o n .
I n f o r m a tio n a b o u t its d is c o u r s e I u n c ti o n c a n b e a s s o c ia te d w ith th e c o n s t r u c t.o n a n d a ls o i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t i t s s e m a n ti c s a n d p ra g m a tic s . F o r in s ta n c e , it
is q u i t e p la u s ib le t o s e e t h i s u s e o t w h e n a s re la te d to th e d e ic tic u s e d is c u s s e d
c n p p . 1 7 5 -1 9 0 . T h a t is, it c a n b e tr e a te d a s e q u iv a le n t to th e t i m e t h a t { su c h a n d - s u c h h a p p e n e d ) ' a n d in d is c o u r s e te r m s it c a n b e ta k e n a s e q u iv a le n t
to Y ou k n o w th e tim e t h a t s u c h - a n d - s u c h h a p p e n e d , w h ic h is a ls o a g o o d
s to ry -o p e n e r .

C onstructions

Conclusion
L in g u ists w o rk in g in t h e fie ld o f g e n e ra tiv e g r a m m a r t h o u g h t t h e d e v e lo p
m e n t o f g e n e r a l c o n s tr a in ts , e a c h a p p ly in g to a n u m b e r o f c o n s t r u c ti o n s , w as
a n e x c itin g a n d w o rth w h ile m o v e . (J M w a s o n e o f th e m .) W ith h in d s ig h t,
w e c a n see t h a t t h e m o v e w a s p e r h a p s n o t e v e n w o r th w h ile fo r g e n e ra tiv e
g r a m m a r b e c a u s e it o b s c u r e d fo r a c o n s id e r a b le t i m e t h e v a r i a ti o n in th e c o m
p le x ity o f s p e a k e r s c o m p e te n c e . A tte n t io n w a s fo c u s e d o n m a j o r th e o r e tic a l
g e n e r a liz a tio n s a n d a c tu a l u s a g e w a s o v e rlo o k e d . T h e b u s in e s s o f c o n s tr u c
tio n s fo r p a r t ic u l a r s p e e c h a c ts a n d d is c o u r s e m o v e s w a s d o w n g r a d e d , a n d th e
le s s o n s o f w o rk o n s p o k e n a n d s t a n d a r d a n d n o n - s t a n d a r d v a rie tie s r e m a in e d
in v isib le u n ti l th e w o r k o l A lis o n H e n r y p u lle d to g e t h e r C h o m s k y a n g e n e r a
tive g r a m m a r a n d t h e d e ta i ls o f v a r i a ti o n in c e n tr a l s y n ta c tic s t r u c tu r e s in
B elfast E n g lish . C o n s tr u c ti o n s a n d r u le s a r e aliv e a n d w ell.

117

Grammaticality

Chapter Outline
O v e rv ie w

118

G r a m m a t ic a lit y , m a g n a s y n t a x a n d c o n s t r u c t io n s o f E n g lis h

122

H o w r e lia b le a r e in t u it io n s a b o u t g r a m m a t ic a l it y ?

128

G r a m m a t ic a l it y a n d lin g u is t ic p o w e r

134

L im it a t io n s o n s p e a k e r s ' g r a m m a t ic a l k n o w l e d g e a n d in t u it io n s

136

Overview
c e n tr a l c o n c e p t in t h e p r a c tic e o f s y n ta x is g ra m m a tic a lity . T h e w o rd its e lf
c a te s f r o m th e e a r ly d a y s o f g e n e ra tiv e g r a m m a r , b u t it la b e ls a n id e a t h a t h as
in f o r m e d th e a n a ly s is o f la n g u a g e fo r 2 ,0 0 0 y e a rs o r m o r e : s o m e s e q u e n c e s o f
w o rd s a r e c o r r e c t o r g r a m m a tic a l w h ile o th e r s a r e in c o r re c t o r u n g r a m m a tic a l.
T h is id e a in f o r m s re fe re n c e g r a m m a r s a n d te x tb o o k s o f t h e g r a m m a r o f la n
g u a g e s fo r n a tiv e a n d n o n - n a t iv e s p e a k e r s a n d a t all lev e ls f r o m e le m e n ta r y
to a d v a n c e d , th e o r e tic a l w o r k o n s y n ta x , in c lu d in g g e n e ra tiv e g r a m m a r a n d
t.ne d e v e lo p m e n t o f s o f tw a re l o r th e h a n d li n g o f te x t b y c o m p u t e r a n d th e
c o n s tr u c tio n o f g r a m m a r c h e c k e rs . n u m b e r o f lin g u is ts p re f e r t h e te r m
'a c s c e p ta b le ' to g r a m m a tic a l'; t h e u s e o f th e te r m im p lic itly re c o g n iz e s th a t
s e q u e n c e s o f w o r d s in a g iv e n la n g u a g e a r c a c c e p ta b le o r u n a c c e p ta b le to
p a r t ic u l a r g r o u p s o f u s e r s , t h a t is, it a d m i ts v a r ia tio n in la n g u a g e . I n p ra c tic e ,
m an y , il n o t m o s t, a c c o u n t s o f , say , E n g lis h f o c u s o n t h e s t a n d a r d w r it te n v a r i
e ty a n d o n w h a t is a c c e p ta b le to u s e r s o f t h a t v arie ty .
C h o m s k y (1 9 5 7 ) d e c la r e d th e g o a l o f g e n e ra tiv e g r a m m a r a s g e n e r a tin g all
a n d o n l y t h e c o r r e c t s e n te n c e s o l a g iv e n la n g u a g e . W h e th e r th is g o a l c a n b e

G ram m aticality
a c h ie v e d is d o u b tf u l; e v e n h u g e r e f e re n c e g r a m m a r s w i t h v e r y la rg e c o v e ra g e,
s u c h a s Q u i r k a n d G r e e n b a u m (1 9 8 5 ) , d o n o t m e n t i o n a ll t h e s y n ta c tic
c o n s t r u c ti o n s in a ll th e v a r ie tie s o f E n g lis h ( n o t e v e n i f w e li m i t o u rs e lv e s to
th e s e t o f v a rie tie s t h a t is g r o u p e d u n d e r th e la b e l s t a n d a r d B ritis h E n g lish ).
T h in g s g o lr o m b a d to w o rs e w h e n th e k n o w le d g e o f n a tiv e s p e a k e r s is ta k e n
in to a c c o u n t. A m a j o r m is ta k e in t h e C h o m s k y a n a p p r o a c h t o firs t la n g u a g e
a c q u is itio n is t o p ro je c t o n to a c tu a l s p e a k e r s th e a n a ly s e s p r o d u c e d b y
lin g u is ts o v e r m a n y y e a rs. T h e p r o b le m w a s e x c e lle n tly d e s c r ib e d b y O n g , w h o
c e a lt w ith v o c a b u la r y a n d p r o p o s e d t h e te r m m a g n a v o c a b u la ry . M ille r a n d
W e in e rt (2 0 0 9 ) p r o p o s e d b y a n a lo g y t h e te r m m a g n a s y n ta x , a n d it m a y ev en
l:c n e c e s s a ry to in v e n t a t e r m s u c h a s 'm a g n a d i s c o u r s c ' t o c o v e r t h e k i n d o f
v a r ia tio n d e s c r ib e d b y B ib e r (1 9 8 8 ) a n d B ib e r e t a l. (1 9 9 9 ).
W h a t is O n g s c o n c e p t o f m a g n a v o c a b u la ry ? O n g ( 1 9 8 2 , p p . 1 0 3 - 8 ) p o in t s
c u t t h a t E n g lish , lik e a ll n a ti o n a l w r itte n la n g u a g e s , h a s b e e n w o r k e d o v e r fo r
c e n tu r ie s . O n g su g g e s ts th a t th e e la b o r a ti o n o l m o d e r n w r it te n E n g lish b e g a n
in th e c h a n c e r y o f I le n r y V in th e fif te e n th c e n tu r y a n d h a s b e e n c o n ti n u e d u p
to th e p r e s e n t b y d ic t io n a r y m a k e r s , w r it e r s d e v e lo p in g n e w g e n re s a n d n e w
sty le s , n o r m a tiv e g r a m m a r i a n s a n d s o o n . T h e r e a r c m a s s iv e c o lle c tio n s o l

p r i n te d te x ts ( a n d n o w a d a y s e le c tr o n ic te x ts a n d , b e t t e r la te t h a n n ever,
s p o k e n te x ts ). T h e te x ts c o v e r c e n tu r ie s o f o u t p u t a n d th o u s a n d s o f a u th o r s
(in th e b r o a d e s t s e n s e ). T h e re s e a rc h e s b y d i c t i o n a r y m a k e r s o v e r t h e la s t tw o
a n d h a l f c e n tu r ie s a r e e m b o d i e d in m o d e r n d ic t io n a r ie s s u c h a s th e O x fo rd
E n g lish D ic ti o n a r y (O E D ) a n d W e b s te rs T h ir d N e w I n t e r n a t io n a l D ic tio n a ry .
T h e c o n te n t s o f th e s e d ic tio n a r ie s a r e w h a t O n g c a lls a m a g n a v o c a b u la ry .
T h is m a g n a v o c a b u la r y o f E n g lis h is n o t th e p r o p e r t y o f a n y o n e s p e a k e r th e m o s t e r u d i t e s c h o la r w o u ld b e h a r d p u t to it to h a v e e v e n a p a ss iv e c o m
m a n d o f 2 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e c o n te n t s o f t h e O E D . T h e O E D c o n ta i n s a la rg e
a m o u n t o l G r e c o - L a tin a te v o c a b u la ry , a n d it is k n o w n f r o m p r i m a r y a n d
in d e e d s e c o n d a r y s c h o o ls t h a t s c h o o l p u p ils c o m m a n d v e r y little o f it. G r o p e n
e t a l. (1 9 8 9 ) r e p o r t t h a t in t h e i r e x p e r im e n ts n o L a tin a te d a tiv e v e r b s w e re
u se d in th e s p e e c h o f th e p a r e n t s ta lk in g to th e i r c h ild r e n , n o t e v e n v e r b s s u c h
a s d o n a te , e x p la in a n d d e m o n s tr a te , w h ic h s e e m p r e tty ta m e t o h ig h ly e d u c a te d
s p e a k e rs o l E n g lish . T h e la c t is t h a t a sm a ll m i n o r i t y o l s p e a k e r s o f E n g lish
c o n tr o l t h e G r e c o - L a tin a te p a r t o f its v o c a b u la ry , a n d t h a t p a r t in c lu d e s ju s t
th e m o r e c o m m o n w o rd s . A s m a lle r n u m b e r , sp e c ia lis ts in fie ld s s u c h a s s c i
e n c e , e n g in e e r in g , m e d ic in e , th e h u m a n i ti e s a n d s o c ia l s c ie n c e s , law , d iv in ity
a n d s o f o r th , a ls o c o n tr o l t h e G r e c o - L a tin a te te c h n ic a l te r m s in th e i r s p e c ia l
ism . A n tic ip a tin g o n e o l t h e a r g u m e n ts a g a in s t t h e C h o m s k y a n th e o r y o l first

119

120

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n , w e e m p h a s iz e t h a t i h e G r e c o - L a tin a te v o c a b u la r y is
ty p ic a lly le a r n e d f r o m w r itte n te x ts , is le a r n e d o v e r m a n y y e a rs a n d is ta u g h t
at s c h o o l a n d u n iv e rsity .
M ille r a n d W e in e rt < 2009, p p . 3 7 6 - 8 3 ) su g g e s t th a t a n a lo g o u s t o m a g n a v o c a b u la ry is m a g n a s y n ta x . O v e r t h e c e n tu r ie s , w r it te n E n g lis h h a s b e e n c o d i
fied a n d d o c u m e n t e d a n d h a n d b o o k s o f E n g lis h g r a m m a r h a v e b e e n p u b lis h e d .
T h e s e g r a m m a r s s e t o u t th e m o r p h o lo g y a n d s y n ta x o f w r itte n E n g lis h a n d
in c lu d e w o r d , c la u s e a n d p h r a s e c o n s t r u c ti o n s l r o m te x ts p r o d u c e d la s t c e n
t u r y a n d th is c e n tu r y . T h e la te s t c o m p r e h e n s iv e g r a m m a r , Q u i r k e t a l. <1985),
d e s c rib e s c o n s t r u c ti o n s t h a t a r e c u r r e n t in s p e e c h a n d w r itin g , c o n s tr u c tio n s
f ia t a r e c u r r e n t o n ly in f o r m a l w r it in g a n d c o n s t r u c ti o n s t h a t a r e r a r e e v e n in
f o r m a l w r it in g . W h e n lin g u is ts s e t th e m s e lv e s th e ta s k o f w r i t i n g r u le s th a t
g e n e ra te all a n d o n ly t h e c o rr e c t s e n te n c e s o l a la n g u a g e , w h a t th e y a r e ta c k
lin g is th is m a g n a s y n ta x , w h ic h is n o t t h e s y n ta x o f a n y p a r t ic u l a r s p e a k e r o f
E n g lish o r o f a n y p a r t ic u l a r g e n r e o f c u r r e n t E n g lis h o r e v e n o f th e E n g lis h o f
a n y p a r t ic u l a r p e r i o d , b u t th e s e t o f a ll s y n ta c tic c o n s t r u c ti o n s r e c o r d e d in
w r itte n ( a n d s p o k e n ) E n g lis h s in c e 1800 o r 1 6 0 0 , d e p e n d in g o n t h e g ra m m a r .
T h i s is d e a r f r o m t h e a r g u m e n t s i n , s a y , R a d i o r d ( 1 9 8 8 ) , w h i c h d r a w s o n a

ra n g e o f q u it e d is p a r a te c o n s t r u c ti o n s to e s ta b lis h t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s t r u c t u r e o f
N P s; e v e ry d a y n e u tr a l e x a m p le s s u c h a s y o u r r e d p e n c il a n d h is a r e s id c -b y -s id e
w ith h ig h ly f o r m a l, r a r e e x a m p le s s u c h a s h o n e s t p o litic ia n th o u g h h e is.
I t w ill a lr e a d y b e e v id e n t th a t t h e c o n c e p t o f g r a m m a tic a l } ' is e x tre m e ly
c o m p lic a te d , r e f le c tin g , fo r a n y g iv e n la n g u a g e , a n a la r m in g ly in tr ic a te s e t o f
la n g u a g e c o d e s a n d p ra c tic e s . F o r E n g lis h a n d m a n y o t h e r la n g u a g e s (s u c h as
C h in e s e , Ja p a n e s e , F r e n c h , T u r k is h , G re e k a n d s o o n ) , t h e te r m l a n g u a g e c o v
ers a v e ry la rg e r a n g e o f v a r ia tio n : s t a n d a r d a n d n o n - s t a n d a r d v a rie tie s ; w ith in
t i e s t a n d a r d , s p o k e n a n d w r it te n g e n re s f r o m in f o r m a l c o n v e r s a tio n a b o u t
fa m ilia r to p ic s in re la x e d s e ttin g s th r o u g h m a n y o t h e r s p o k e n g e n re s t o fo rm a l
w r itin g a b o u t c o m p le x to p ic s fo r p u b lic a tio n in b o o k s , jo u r n a ls , n e w s p a p e rs ;
to r e p o r ts f o r lo c a l a u th o r it ie s o r n a tio n a l g o v e r n m e n t; t o p a p e r s f o r b u s in e s s
m e e tin g s in c o m m e r c ia l, f in a n c ia l, le g a l a n d e d u c a tio n a l i n s ti tu t io n s a n d s o
fo r th . M o r e o v e r, th e u s e r s o f la n g u a g e s s u c h a s th o s e m e n t io n e d e a r lie r a r e n o t
c n l y fa c e d w ith a h u g e n u m b e r o f d if f e r e n t g e n re s s y n c h r o n ic a lly b u t p o te n t.a lly h a v e to d e a l w ith d ia c h r o n ic v a r ia tio n , d e a lin g w i t h te x t s w r i t t e n in th e
p a s t a s w ell a s w ith te x ts w r it te n in p r e s e n t t i m e . F o r e x a m p le , in s e c o n d a r y
sc h o o l in th e 1950s, JM s t u d i e d te x tb o o k s w r it te n b e lo r e t h e S e c o n d W o rld
W a r ( h is G e r m a n g r a m m a r b o o k a n d r e a d e r w e re in G o th ic s c r ip t) a n d th e
E n g lish c la s se s d e a lt w ith n o v e ls w r it te n a c e n tu r y e a rlie r. A g a th a C h r is ti e s

G ram m aticality
c e te c tiv e n o v e ls still se ll v e ry w e ll, b u t m a n y o f th e m a r e n o w 6 0 y e a rs o ld
a n d s o m e a r e 8 0 y e a rs o l d a n d c o n ta i n a g o o d c o lle c tio n o f a r c h a ic w o r d s a n d
p h rases.
A s w e w ill s e e la te r in t h e c h a p te r , s p e a k e r s in t u it io n s a b o u t th e i r n a tiv e
la n g u a g e m a y b e q u i t e fu z z y b e y o n d a c e r t a in c o re o f f r e q u e n tly u s e d s y n ta c tic
p a tte r n s a n d fix e d p h ra s e s . ( T h e c la s sic e x a m p le is L a b o v s o n e m e n t io n e d o n
p. 9, b u t M ilro y (1 9 8 7 , p. 1 49) ta lk s o f th e m is m a tc h b e tw e e n w h a t s p e a k e rs
c la im th e y s a y a n d w h a t th e y a c tu a lly s a y in n a tu r a lly o c c u r r in g in te r a c tio n s .
M ilro y re f e rs t o t h e d if fic u ltie s in a c c e s s in g t h e i n t u i t i o n s o f lin g u is tic a lly n a iv e
s p e a k e rs, w h ic h s h e e x p e r ie n c e d in B elfast a n d w h ic h h a d a ls o b e e n r e p o r te d
fro m a r a n g e o f c o u n tr ie s , in c lu d in g th e S o v ie t U n io n , a s i t w a s th e n , a n d
A u s tra lia .) I n t u i t i o n s a b o u t s p o k e n la n g u a g e a r e e it h e r la c k in g a lt o g e th e r o r
a r e n o to r io u s l y u n r e lia b le . I n t u i t i o n s a b o u t t h e m o r e c o m p le x o r u n u s u a l
c o n s t r u c ti o n s o f f o r m a l w r itin g a r e e q u a lly u n re lia b le , o r n o tic e a b le b y th e ir
a b se n c e .
A n y d is c u s s io n o f g r a m m a tic a lity a n d a c c e p ta b ility m u s t r e c k o n w ith th e
ro le o f g a te k e e p e rs w h o k e e p u n d e s ir a b le w o r d s a n d g r a m m a r o u t o f p u b
lis h e d te x ts . (S e e th e d e ta ile d a c c o u n t in C a m e r o n (1 9 9 5 ) .) T h e s e g a te k e e p e rs
a r e c o p y e d ito r s fo r p u b lis h e r s , e s p e c ia lly p u b lis h e r s o f a c a d e m ic m o n o g r a p h s
a n d s e r io u s lite r a tu r e ; te a c h in g s t a f f in u n iv e r s itie s a n d s c h o o ls , e s p e c ia lly
s e c o n d a r y s c h o o ls ; la rg e c o m m e r c ia l o r g a n iz a tio n s s u c h a s b a n k s , w h o h av e
set f o r m a ts f o r lite r a tu r e th a t is s e n t o u t to c u s to m e r s ; a n d e v e n o rg a n iz a tio n s
s u c h a s th e F e d e r a tio n o f P lu m b in g E m p lo y e rs o f S c o tla n d a n d N o r th e r n
Ir e la n d , w h o issu e s t a n d a r d le tte r s to all p lu m b in g firm s , g u id in g th e m in
c r a w in g u p e s tim a te s , in v o ic e s , le tte r s d e m a n d i n g p a y m e n ts th a t a r c la te ,
le tte rs o f a p o lo g y a n d s o o n . M a n y w r it te n d o c u m e n t s a r e p r o d u c e d b y c o o p
e r a tio n b e tw e e n tw o o r m o r e p e o p le ; t h a t is, m a n y s p e a k e r s a n d w r ite r s d o n o t
r.eed to h a v e c le a r - c u t i n t u i t i o n s o r in d e e d a n y i n t u i t i o n s a b o u t c e r ta in ty p e s
c f te x t a n d t h e a p p r o p r ia t e g r a m m a r a n d v o c a b u la r y b e c a u s e t h e la tte r in f o r
m a tio n is s u p p lie d o r th e i r d r a f t te x ts a r e c h e c k e d a n d re v ise d .
S a m p s o n (2 0 0 7 , p p . 910) is e x e rc is e d b y t h e v e r y lo w f r e q u e n c y o f m a n y
g r a m m a tic a l c o n s tr u c tio n s . T h e lo w fr e q u e n c ie s a r e n o t s u r p r is in g w h e n w e
r e m e m b e r th a t la rg e c o r p u s e s o f d a ta a r e c o lle c tio n s o t m a g n a s y n ta x . (S ee th e
d is c u s s io n o f O n g b e lo w .) T h e y in c l u d e all s o r ts o f w r it te n te x ts a n d n o w a d a y s
also in c lu d e tr a n s c r i p ts o f all s o r ts o f s p o k e n te x ts . T h e r e a r e c o n s tr u c tio n s
th a t o n ly t u r n u p in c e r t a in ty p e s o l te x t, a n d o n ly t h e r e g u la r p r o d u c e r s o r
c o n s u m e r s o f a g iv e n ty p e o f te x t h a v e its p e c u li a r fe a tu re s a t th e i r fin g e rtip s .
(See, fo r in s ta n c e , th e te x t in (2 4 ) b e lo w .) M a n y s p e a k e r s a n d w r it e r s o f

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

E n g lish w o r k w ith a lim ite d r a n g e o f te x ts - in s o m e c a se s v e r y lim ite d , as
s h o w n h y P h il p o tt s re s e a rc h r e p o r te d in C h a p te r 11. T h e y d o n o t n e c e s s a rily
h a v e i n t u i t i o n s a b o u t c o m p le x p ie c e s o f g r a m m a r th a t o c c u r in o t h e r te x t
ty p e s . A n d n o o n e s p e a k e r h a s re lia b le i n t u i t i o n s a b o u t all t h e g r a m m a tic a l
c o n s t r u c ti o n s t h a t o c c u r in a la rg e d a ta b a s e o l m a g n a s y n ta x .
W e h a v e n o t to u c h e d o n th e p r o b l e m s p o s e d b y n o n - s t a n d a r d v a r ie tie s o f
E n g lish a n d o t h e r la n g u a g e s . M a n y y e a rs a g o , w h e n h e w a s a t t h e U n iv e rs ity
c l R e a d in g , T ru d g ill ( p e r s o n a l c o m m u n ic a t io n ) a s k e d h i s c o lle a g u e s , all
E n g lish , to fill in a q u e s t io n n a i r e . T h e y w e re a sk e d to g o th r o u g h a s e t o f
s e n te n c e s , s a y w h ic h w e re a c c e p ta b le a n d w h ic h w e r e n o t, a n d to specify w h ic h
c f th e la tte r s e t w e re p o s s ib le c o n s t r u c ti o n s o f E n g lis h a n d w h ic h c o u ld n o t
p o s s ib ly b e c o n s t r u c ti o n s o f E n g lish . O n e o f t h e e x a m p le s w a s a lo n g t h e lin es
c l T h e se w in d o w s n e e d p a in t e d a n d w a s ju d g e d b y all th e r e s p o n d e n ts n o t
even t o b e a p o s s ib le s t r u c t u r e o f E n g lish . IM h a p p e n s t o u s e th is s tr u c tu r e ,
w h ic h is th e n o r m a l c o n s t r u c ti o n f o r h im a n d m a n y o t h e r s p e a k e r s o f S c o ttis h
E n g lish . I le d o e s n o t u s e it in w r it in g , h o w e v e r.

Grammaticality, magnasyntax and

constructions of English
Relative clauses
R elative c la u s e s p r o v i d e a n e x c e lle n t illu s tr a tio n o f th e r a n g e o f s t r u c tu r e s
a v a ila b le t o r w h a t m a n y a n a ly s ts c o u n t a s o n e c o n s t r u c ti o n . T h e v ie w ta k e n
h e re is t h a t t h e r e a r e m a n y d if fe re n t re la tiv e c la u s e s , all s h a r in g t h e p r o p e r ty
c f m o d if y in g n o u n s b u t r a n g in g f r o m th e ty p ic a lly s im p le s t r u c t u r e s o f s p o n U n e o u s s p e e c h to t h e v e ry c o m p le x s t r u c tu r e s f o u n d o n ly in f o r m a l w r itte n
la n g u a g e . T h e s im p le s t s t r u c tu r e s a r e in (1 ), a n d a s c o m p le m e n tiz e r s th e y
h a v e z e ro , th a t o r w h . T h e re la tiv e p r o n o u n s w h ic h in ( l c ) a n d w h o in ( I d ) a re
t i e d ir e c t o b je c ts o f th e i r re la tiv e c la u s e s . In ( l b ) , th a t is a re la liv iz e r, n o t a
p r o n o u n . It is in v a r ia b le , in c o n tr a s t w ith t h e o p p o s i ti o n s b e tw e e n w h o
a n d w h o m a n d b e tw e e n w h o /w h o m a n d w h ic h ; a n d it c a n n o t b e p r e c e d e d by
a p r e p o s iti o n - ' t h e h o u se in th a t w e liv e v e rs u s th e h o u se th a t w e liv e in.
W e a s s u m e t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h a t re la tiv e c la u s e s is, fo r e x a m p le , th e h o u se
H ia [ th a t w e liv e in [ 0 1 ], t h a t is, t h a t in t h e re la tiv e c la u s e t h e r e is a g a p
c o r r e s p o n d in g to th e N P m o d if ie d b y th e re la tiv e c la u s e , ( l a ) is t h e re la tiv e
c la u s e c o n s t r u c ti o n ty p ic a l o l s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lish , la c k in g b o t h a
r d a t iv i z in g c o n ju n c t io n a n d a re la tiv e p r o n o u n .

G ram m aticality
( 1 ) a . ih e h o u se w e re n o v a te d
b . t h e h o u s e t h a t w e re n o v a te d
c.

t h e h o u s e w h ic h w e r e n o v a t e d

d . t h e b o y s w h o w e d is lik e d

W r itte n E n g lish h a s a c o n tr a s t b e tw e e n w h o a n d w h o m , a n d t h e p o sse ssiv e

rela tiv e p r o n o u n w h o se still o c c u rs . W h o m is r a r e in s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n
E n g lis h a n d w h o se is e v e n ra re r. ( I t d o e s n o t o c c u r a t all in th e M ille r - B r o w n
c o n v e rs a tio n s , fo r in s ta n c e . )
( 2 ) a . t h e b o y s w h o m w e d is lik e d
b . t h e b o y s w h o s e b e h a v io u r w a s o u t r a g e o u s

In ( 3 ) , w h o is th e s u b je c t o f th e re la tiv e c la u se . (( 3 ) a n d ( 5 ) a r e f r o m T ru d g ill
(1 9 8 3 ).)
(3 ) H e 's a m a n w h o lik e s h i s b e e r.

A c c o rd in g to th e c o n v e n tio n s o f f o r m a l w r it te n E n g lish , w h o c a n n o t b e
e m i t t e d in t h i s s t r u c t u r e n o r c a n th e re la tiv iz e r I h a I: *H e's a m a n / 0 / likes h is
beer. In c o n tr a s t, in s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lish , in p r e s e n ta tiv e - e x is te n tia l
c o n s tr u c tio n s , t h e w h p r o n o u n a n d th e re la tiv iz e r t h a c a n b e o m i tt e d , a s in
(4 ). (4 b ,c ) a r e f r o m t h e M i lle r - B r o w n c o n v e rs a tio n s .
(4 ) a .

T h e r e 's a m a n in t h is p u b [ O J lik e s h i s b e e r.

b . w e h a d t h is F r e n c h g i r l [ O l c a m e t o stay.
c

m y fr ie n d 's g o t a b r o t h e r [ O l j s e d t o b e i n th e s c h o o l

T ru d g ill p ro v id e s in a d d it io n t h e fo llo w in g n o n - s t a n d a r d re la tiv e c la u s e

s t r u c tu r e s . T h e r e a r e d if f e r e n t rc la tiv iz in g c o n ju n c tio n s , w h a t, u s a n d a t, in
(5 d ), th e re la tiv e c la u s e is n o t p a r t o f a p r e s e n ta tiv e - e x is te n tia l c o n s tr u c tio n ,
b u t h a s a m is s in g s u b je c t N P . In ( 5 e ) , th e re la tiv e c la u s e h a s a n o r d i n a r y
p r o n o u n , he, a s its s u b je c t, b u t n o rc la tiv iz in g c o n ju n c tio n .
(5 ) a . H e s a m a n w h a t lik e s h i s b e e r.
b . H e s a m a n a s lik e s h is b e e r.
c.

H e s a m a n a t lik e s h i s beer.

d . H e s a m a n [ 1 lik e s h i s beer.
e . H e 's a m a n [ 1 h e lik e s h is b e e r

A lm o s t b y d e f in itio n th e c o n s t r u c ti o n s in ( 5 a - e ) d o n o t o c c u r in fo rm a l
w ritte n E n g lis h o r in d e e d in w r it te n E n g lish , e x c lu d in g d ia lo g u e in p la y s a n d
ro v e ls . O th e r c o n s t r u c ti o n s t h a t d o n o t o c c u r in f o r m a l w r it te n E n g lis h a re

123

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

e x e m p lifie d i n (6 a -c > a n d ( 7 b ,c ) . ( 6 a - c ) a r e n a tu r a lly o c c u r r in g e x a m p le s o f
re la tiv e c la u s e s c o n ta i n in g s h a d o w o r r e s u m p tiv e p r o n o u n s . ( 7 a ) a n d (8 a ,b )
a re e x a m p le s o f re la tiv e c la u s e s c o n ta i n in g p r e p o s itio n s . I n s p o n ta n e o u s
s p o k e n E n g lis h , p r e p o s iti o n s o c c u r a t th e e n d o f t h e re la tiv e c la u s e , a s in (7 a )
a n d ( 8 a , b ) , o r a r e o m i tt e d , a s in ( 7 b ,c ) . S tr u c tu r e s s u c h a s ( 8 a ', b ') a r e J o u n d in
fo r m a l w r it te n E n g lish .
(6 ) a . t h e s p ik e s t h a t y o u s t ic k in t h e g r o u n d a n d t h r o w n n g s o v e < t h e m
b

a n a d d r e s s w h i c h I h a d n 't s t a y e d t h e r e f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s .

W e 'v e j u s t h e a r d a b o u t a d iv e r s io n o n t h e 8 0 , w h e r e

t h e r e s r o a d

w o rk s th e re .

(7 ) a . t h e s h o p I b o u g h t it in
b

o f c o u r s e th e r e 's a ' o p e t h a t y o u c a n p u ll t h e s e a t b a c k u p 11

I h a v e n 't b e e n t o a p a r t y y e t t h a t i h a v e n 't g o t h o m e | I t h e s a m e n ig h t
(in f o r m a lly r e c o r d e d - r a d io d is c u s s io n )

(8 ) a . o f c o u r s e th e r e 's a r o p e t h a t y o u c a n p u ll t h e s e a t b a c k u p w i t h
a ', o f c o u r s e t h e r e s a r o p e w i t h w h ic h y o u c a n p u ll t h e s e a t b a c k u p .
b

I h a v e n 't b e e n t o a p a r t y v e t t h a t i h a v e n t q o t n o m e f r o m

th e sam e

n ig h t
b ' I h a v e n 't b e e n t o a p a r t y y e t fr o m w h ic h I h a v e n 't g o t h o m e t h e s a m e
n ig h t .

A lso ty p ic a l o f f o r m a l w r it te n E n g lis h a r e n o n - r e s tr ic tiv e re la tiv e c la u se s,

t.ia t is, re la tiv e c la u s e s t h a t a r e u s e d to p r o v id e e x tr a , in c i d e n ta l in f o r m a t io n
b u t n o t t o h e lp th e lis te n e r p ic k o u t w h a t th e s p e a k e r is r e f e r r in g to . (8 ) is a
ty p ic a l e x a m p le . In w r itin g , t h e re la tiv e c la u s e is s e p a r a te d f r o m t h e m o d if ie d
r o u n b y a c o m m a , a n d in sp e e c h , th e r e is a p a u s e b e tw e e n t h e m o d if ie d n o u n
a n d t h e re la tiv e c la u s e a n d b e tw e e n th e re la tiv e c la u s e a n d w h a te v e r m a te ria l
fo llo w s it. N o n - r e s tr ic tiv e re la tiv e c la u s e s a r e r a r e in s p o n t a n e o u s sp o k e n
E n g lish , b u t d o o c c u r in w r itte n te x ts t h a t a r e re a d a lo u d .
( 8 ') M y s is te r, w h o s a la w y e r , h e lp e d m e t o s o n o u t t h e p r o b le m

In s te a d o f n o n - r e s tr ic t iv e

re la tiv e s, s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n

E n g lis h h a s

c o o r d i n a te s t r u c tu r e s , a s in (9 ).
(9 ) T h e b o y I w a s t a lk in g t o la s t n i g h t a n d h e a c t u a lly w o r k s i n t h e y a r d w a s
s a y in g it's g o i n g to b e c lo s e d d o w n .

G r a m m a r s o l E n g lis h list W I I in f in itiv a l re la tiv e s s u c h a s u h o u se in w hich

I) live. T h e m a p - ta s k d ia lo g u e s a n d t h e M i lle r - B r o w n c o n v e r s a tio n s c o n ta i n

G ram m aticality
r.o w h in f in itiv a l re la tiv e s, b u t th e y d o h a v e in f in itiv a l re la tiv e s w ith o u t w h
p r o n o u n s , a s in < 10 ) a n d ( 11 ).
(JO )

e h L a u n n e - q u e s t io n l o te ll y o u - e h i f y o u h a v e n 't g o t t h e v o l c a n o - w h e r e
d o y o u g o if y o u h a v e n 't g o l th e v o lc a n o

(Primary

(1 1 )

class)

Iv e g o t a p l a c e t o s ta r t

( P r i m a r y 6 class)

( 1 0 ) a n d ( 11 ) e x e m p lify t\v*o p r o p e r tie s s h a r e d b y a ll th e in f in itiv a l re la tiv e s

in t h e d a ta . n u m b e r o f in s ta n c e s a p p e a r id io m - lik e a n d a r e p o s s ib ly le a r n e d
a n d u s e d a s e n tir e c h u n k s : q u e stio n to te ll y o u c a n b e a n a ly s e d th u s , e s p e c ia lly
a s i t is s im p ly a p h r a s e a n d n o t p a r t o l a c la u s e . Q u e stio n to a s k a n d s o m e th in g
to te ll a r e re la tiv e ly f r e q u e n t p h r a s e s in a p r i m a r y c la s s r o o m . N o te a g a in th e
lack o f p r e p o s itio n s : w e m ig h t e x p e c t I'v e g o t a p la c e to s t a r t a t/fr o m , w h ic h fits
th e c o n te x t. O t h e r e x a m p le s w ith t h e m is s in g p r e p o s iti o n in s q u a r e b ra c k e ts
are: I t s n o t th e id e a l p la c e to g o [to ] f o r te e n a g e d r in k in g , . . . b ec a u se th ere's v a n
dals a n d it's a h o rrib le p la c e to liv e I in ] .
T h e M i lle r - B r o w n c o n v e r s a tio n s c o n ta i n 5 2 in f in itiv a l re la tiv e s. T w o a d u lt
in f o r m a n ts p r o d u c e d s ix a p ie c e , w h ile o n e sp e a k e r, w h o p r o d u c e d a la rg e
n u m b e r o f re s tric tiv e W l 1 re la tiv e c la u s e s , p r o d u c e d 5. T h e r e m a in in g 3 5 w e re
d is tr i b u te d o v e r 1 5 s p e a k e rs . I n g e n e ra l, in f in itiv a l re la tiv e s d o n o t s e e m p r o b
le m a tic in t h e free c o n v e rs a tio n s . T h e y o c c u r re g u la rly b u t n o t f r e q u e n tly ; th e y
c o n o t c o n ta i n p r e p o s itio n s ; s o m e o f t h e m c o u ld b e a n a ly s e d a s fix e d p h ra s e s
a n d th e r e a r e n o w h in f in itiv a l re la tiv e s.
F o r m a l w r itte n F n g lish h a s re la tiv e c la u s e s t r u c tu r e s fa r m o r e c o m p le x th a n
a re f o u n d in s p o n t a n e o u s sp e e c h . C o n s id e r ( 1 2 )( 14).
(1 2 )

The

hospital

admitted

several patients

that m o n t h ,

fo r

a ll o f w h o m

c h e m o t h e r a p y w a s the appropriate treatment

(1 3 ) W e re a d se ve ra l g o v e rn m e n t re p o rts t h e g o l d l e t t e r i n g o n t h e c o v e r s o f
w h i c h w a s a d m ire d b y a ll th e o ffic ia ls.

(1 4 )

T h e y m o v e d t o L o n d o n , i n w h i c h c i t y t h e y e s t a b lis h e d a la r g e a n d s u c c e s s f u l
le g a l o f lic e .

( 1 2 ) , f r o m Q u i r k a n d G r e e n b a u m (1 9 8 5 ) , h a s a w h p r o n o u n in s id e a
q u a n tif ie r p h r a s e , a ll o f w h o m , w h ic h in t u r n is in s id e a p r e p o s iti o n a l p h ra s e ,
f o r a ll o f w h o m . In ( 1 3 ) , a la m o u s e x a m p le f r o m R o s s (1 9 6 7 ) , t h e w h p r o n o u n
is in s id e a p r e p o s itio n a l p h r a s e , o f w h ic h . T h is p h r a s e is in s id e a N P , th e covers

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c f w h ic h , a n d t h e w h o le is in s id e a p r e p o s itio n a l p h r a s e , o n th e co vers o f w h ich .
T h e la tte r p h r a s e is in s id e a la r g e r N P , th e g o ld le tte r in g o n th e co vers o f w hich.
In (1 4 ), f r o m Q u i r k a n d G r c c n b a u m (1 9 8 5 ) , th e w h p r o n o u n m o d if ie s th e
h e a d n o u n , c ity , o f t h e p h r a s e w h ic h c ity, w h ic h i s p a r t o f th e p r e p o s itio n a l
I-'hrase in w h ich city.
A t th is p o in t , it is t i m e to r e p e a t t h a t t h e e x a m p le s in ( 6 a - c ) a n d (7 b ,c ) a re
r o t m is ta k e s . T h e y a r e t h e n o r m in s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lis h a n d n o t
s p o r a d ic . T h e r e a r c p a ra lle l s t r u c tu r e s in o t h e r la n g u a g e s o f E u ro p e , s u c h as
F re n c h a n d R u s s ia n . (S e e M ille r a n d W e in e r t, 2 0 0 9 , p p . 1 1 1 -3 .) T h e y s h o u l d
h e c o n s id e r e d a s c o n s t r u c ti o n s d e s ig n e d fo r u s e in t h e c ir c u m s ta n c e s in w h ic h
s p e a k e rs p r o d u c e a n d h e a r e r s in t e r p r e t s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lis h , E re n c h ,
etc. B la c k m a n (1 9 0 8 ) p r e s e n ts a v ie w o f t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n s t h a t is all to o
f r e q u e n t. H e d is s e c ts e x a m p le s o t th e s p o k e n la n g u a g e c o n s t r u c ti o n s a n d
a rg u e s t h a t e v e n t h e c la ssic w r ite r s o f E n g lis h lite r a tu r e m a k e m ista k e s'. T h e
v iew ta k e n h e r e is t h a t th e e x a m p le s s h o w t h a t th e s p o k e n la n g u a g e s t r u c tu r e s
a re n o t n e w , b u t h a v e b e e n in u s e lo r tw o o r th r e e h u n d r e d y e a rs. B la c k m a n s
e x a m p le s o f 'i n c o r r e c t ' re la tiv e c la u s e s a r e in { 15 ) - ( 1 8 ).
( 15 ) V V h o is t h e p o e t b u t la t e ly a r r iv e d in E ly s iu m w h o m I s a w S p e n s e r le a d in a n d
p r e s e n t h im t o V e r g il.
[L y tt e lto n 's D ia lo g u e s o f t h e D e a d ]

(1 6 )

T h is is t h e t im e t h a t t h e u n ju s t m a n d o t h th riv e .

(Shakespearel

( 1 7 ) V V h o r is e t h fr o m a f e a s t w it h t h a t k e e n e a p p e t it e t h a t h e s it s d o w n e ?
(S h a k e sp e a re ]

(1 8 )

H e s p o k e w it h t h e s a m e g o o d - h u m o u r e d e a s e t h a t h e h a d e v e r d o n e
IJa n e A u ste n ]

< 15) h a s a s h a d o w p r o n o u n ; B la c k m a n r e q u ir e s w h o m I s a w S p e n se r le a d in
a n d p re s e n t to Vergil. T h e o t h e r th r e e a ll s h o w t h e n o n - u s e o f p re p o s itio n s .
B la c k m a n r e q u ir e s a t w h ic h th e u n ju s t m a n d o th th r iv e , w ith w h ic h h e sits
d o w n a n d w ith w h ich h e h a d e v e r d o n e.
T h e s e t o f re la tiv e c la u s e s t r u c tu r e s is c o m p le te d b y o n e s lik e (1 9 ),
f r o m Q u i r k a n d G r e e n b a u m (1 9 8 5 ) , w h ic h is a r c h a ic e v e n b y B la c k m a n s
sta n d a rd s .
(1 9 )

a c o n t in e n t , o n t h e s o u t h - s id e w h e r e o f w a s a s m a ll n e c k o f la n d

G ram m aticality
Q u i r k a n d G r e e n b a u m s a y t h a t s u c h s t r u c t u r e s s tr ik e r e a d e r s a s s t if f a n d
p e d a n tic , b u t th e s t r u c t u r e is n o m o r e c o m p le x th a n th e i r e x a m p le s in ( 1 2 )
a n d (1 4 ). W h a t w o u ld b o t h e r m o d e r n r e a d e r s is th e s in g le w o rd w h ereo f,;
i; is n o t u s e d e v e n in f o r m a l w r itte n te x ts - w e h a v e t o m a k e a n e x c e p tio n fo r
legal te x ts , b u t t h e la tte r a r e n o to r io u s l y o b s c u r e in th e i r s y n ta x a n d v o c a b u
lary - a n d its s t r u c tu r e , w h w o r d fo llo w e d b y 'p r e p o s itio n ', is c o m p le te ly
o u tm o d e d .
W ith re s p e c t to re la tiv e c la u s e s , t h e n o ti o n o l g r a m m a t ic a l it y r u n s in to tw o
s o r ts o f p r o b l e m . O n e is t h a t m o s t s p e a k e r s ju d g e ( 4 a - c ) , (5 ) a n d ( 6 a - c ) t o be
u n g r a m m a tic a l. S o m e s p e a k e r s a r e a w a re o f n o n - s t a n d a r d re la tiv iz e rs s u c h as
w h a t a n d as, b u t m o s t s p e a k e r s a r e u n a w a r e o f t h e s t r u c tu r e s in ( 4 a - c ) , ( 6 a - c )
a n d ( 7 b ,c ) . T h e y a r e t o a g r e a te r o r le s se r e x te n t a w a r e o f t h e c o n v e n tio n s o f
f j r m a l w r it te n E n g lis h a s t a u g h t in s c h o o l a n d r e q u i r e d in f o r m a l w r it in g in
s e c o n d a r y a n d h i g h e r e d u c a tio n a n d i n d u s t r y a n d c o m m e rc e , b y le g al firm s
a n d s o o n . S c h o o lin g a p p e a r s to b e th e s o u r c e o f m o s t p e o p le s i n t u i t i o n s a b o u t
w h a t is g r a m m a tic a l a n d w h a t is n o t.
T h e s e c o n d p r o b le m is th a t a v e ry la rg e n u m b e r o f s p e a k e r s h a v e n o
d e a r i n t u i t i o n s a b o u t s t r u c tu r e s s u c h a s th o s e i n (1 2 ) a n d ( 1 4 ) . T h e y d o n o t
u se th e m a n d m a y h a v e d if f ic u lty u n d e r s ta n d in g th e m w h e n fa ce d w ith
w r itte n te x ts . [S ee D a b ro w s k a (1 9 9 7 ) a n d C h ip e r e ( 2 0 0 9 ) o n la c k o f in t u itio n s
and

u n d e r s ta n d in g

and

H e a th

(1 9 8 3 )

on

how

g r o u p s o f n e ig h b o u r s

c o m b in e to in t e r p r e t c o m p le x m issiv e s f r o m lo c a l a u th o r it ie s , w ith s o m e
c f t h e in t e r p r e ta ti o n c o m i n g f r o m

th e e x p e r ie n c e o f p e o p le w h o h ave

a lr e a d y g o n e th r o u g h t h e s a m e s i tu a t io n . T h e a u t h o r h a s lo n g p e r s o n a l e x p e ri
e n c e o f t r y i n g to e lic it i n t u it io n s f r o m s t u d e n t s s t u d y in g g e n e ra tiv e g r a m m a r
a n d c o n c lu d e d t h a t m a n y in t u it io n s a r e in d ir e c tly ta u g h t a s p a r t o f s u c h
c o u rse s.]
It is n o t ju s t re la tiv e c la u s e s t h a t c a u s e p r o b l e m s l o r t h e c o n c e p t o f
g ra m m a tic a lity . A t o n e p o i n t in h is c a re e r, th e w rite r t a u g h t s y n ta x to a
l u m b e r o f p o s tg r a d u a te s t u d e n ts , a ll te a c h e rs o f E S O L s t u d y in g f o r a n M A .
S incc c e n tr a l A u c k la n d w as litte r e d w ith b a n n e r s a n n o u n c in g N o w ren tin g ,
i s e e m e d a g o o d id e a lo ta lk a b o u t t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n , p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t it is
a m id d le a n d t h a t a l t e r a p e r i o d o l r e t r e n c h m e n t th e m id d le c o n s tr u c tio n
is s p r e a d in g . O n e s t u d e n t d e c la r e d t h a t re a l e x a m p le s s u c h a s N o th in g d rives
lik e a F ord F alcon a n d . . . sk y la rk s s o o n e sta b lish e d th r o u g h o u t th e c o u n tr y
w ere e r r o r s a n d d id n o t w a n t to k n o w a b o u t e x a m p le s o l m id d le s f r o m Ja n e
A u sten .

127

128

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

Indirect questions
In d ire c t q u e s t io n s s u c h a s (2 0 ), f r o m a BBC- w e b p a g e in 2 0 0 5 , w e r e tr e a te d
as e r r o r s b y a re s e a rc h p r o je c t in to th e te a c h in g o f E n g lis h a s a n a d d itio n a l
lan g u ag e .
(2 0 )

L o g o n a t t h e B B C W o r ld S e r v ic e A I D S s it e t o f i n d o u t h o w m u t h d o y o u
k n o w a b o u t condom s

T h e m a r k in g p r o to c o l in t h e re s e a rc h p r o je c t r e q u ir e d t h e s t r u c t u r e . . .
f i n d o u t h o w m u c h y o u k n o w a b o u t c o n d o m s. ( T h e e x a m p le in (2 0 ) w a s n o t
u s e d in t h e p r o je c t b u t w a s c o lle c te d b y JM .)

Gerund non-finite clauses

E ven t h e h u m b l e g e r u n d c a n p ro v o k e d is s e n s io n . C o n s id e r t h e e x a m p le s in
(21) u s e d b y JM in a le c tu r e o n n o n - f in it e clau ses.
(2 1 ) a .

F a n n y r e g r e t t e d t a lk in g t o M ary.

b.

F a n n y r o g r o t t o d E d m u n d t a l k i n g t o M a ry .

c.

F a n n y r e g r e t t e d E d m u n d 's h a v in g a g r e e d to t a k e p a r t in t h e play.

( 2 1 a ,b ) w e r e re c o g n iz e d a n d a c c e p te d b y t h e v a r i o u s s e ts o f s t u d e n ts
w h o h e a r d th e le c tu re . ( 2 1 c) w a s n o t re c o g n iz e d , a n d in d e e d s o m e s t u d e n ts
w o n d e r e d i f th e w r it e r w a s p la y in g a tr ic k o n t h e m a n d a s k e d i f th e c o n s t r u c t.o n re a lly e x is te d . N o t o n ly d o e s it e x is t, b u t th e r e a r e m a n y u s e r s o f f o r m a l
w r itte n E n g lis h w h o w o u ld d e c la r e it th e c o r r e c t o n e .

How reliable are intuitions about

grammaticality?
G e n e ra tiv e g r a m m a r d e a ls w ith m a g n a s y n ta x . T h e d a ta ta k e n i n t o a c c o u n t
ra n g e s f r o m (d e v is e d ) s p o k e n d a ta ( i n c lu d i n g n o n - s t a n d a r d s t r u c tu r e s , w h ic h
s o m e a n a ly s ts h a n d le s y s te m a tic a lly a n d s o m e d o n o t) th r o u g h d a ta th a t is
n e u tr a l b e tw e e n s p o k e n a n d w r itte n to d a ta th a t is lite r a r y a n d e v e n a rc h a ic .
W e w ill n o t d e v e lo p th is th e m e h e r e s in c e i t is p r e s e n te d in m o r e d e ta il in th e
fo llo w in g s e c tio n s , b u t it is im p o r t a n t to p o i n t o u t t h a t g e n e r a tiv is ts d o n o t see
tn e m s e lv e s a s d e a lin g w ith m a g n a s y n ta x . A c e n tr a l r o le in g e n e ra tiv e w o r k h as
a lw ay s b e e n p la y e d b y th e i n t u i t i o n s o f in d iv id u a l s p e a k e r s , b u t a m a jo r d iffi
c u lty is t h a t t h e s p e a k e r s w h o s e i n t u i t i o n s h a v e b e e n c o n s u lte d a r c ty p ic a lly

G ram m aticality
p ro fe s s io n a l lin g u is ts , o r p o s t g r a d u a le s s tu d y in g lin g u is tic s , o r u n d e r g r a d u a te
s tu d e n ts . T h e s e a r e all c la s se s o f p e o p le w h o w o r k c o n s ta n tly w ith c o m p le x
w r itte n la n g u a g e , w h o a r e u s e d to p la y in g la n g u a g e g a m e s a n d w h o s e i n t u
itio n s a r e b a s e d o n w r itte n la n g u a g e . It is a ls o th e c a se , a s m e n t io n e d e a rlie r,
t h a t th e sk ill o f ju d g in g g r a m m a tic a lity is, to s o m e e x te n t, p o s s ib ly e v e n a large
e x te n t, t a u g h t t o s t u d e n ts o f lin g u is tic s.
S u p p o s e s o m e o n e o b je c ts (a s d i d a c o lle a g u e o f J M 's ) t h a t a n a tiv e s p e a k e r
c a n a n d d o e s j u d g e e x a m p le s lik e h o n e s t p o litic ia n th o u g h h e i s . . . to b e g r a m
m a tic a l. H o w s t r o n g is t h i s o b je c tio n ? It is t r u e t h a t s o m e n a tiv e s p e a k e r s o f
E n g lish , th o s e w ith a g o o d c o m m a n d o f t h e w r it te n la n g u a g e , w ill re c o g n iz e
th e c o n s t r u c ti o n a n d in t e r p r e t th e e x a m p le , b u t it is a n o p e n q u e s tio n w h e th e r
e t h e r n a tiv e s p e a k e r s w o u ld d o t h e s a m e . (S e e th e d is c u s s io n o f P e re ra s w o rk
c-n c h ild r e n s r e a d in g a n d w r it in g a n d t h e w o r k b y P h il p o tt o n th e w o rk fo rc e
in a B ritis h fa c to ry ( p p . 2 4 1 - 2 4 2 a n d p p . 2 3 0 - 2 3 2 ) ) . Even i f t h e y d id , w h a t
in te r p r e ta tio n c o u ld b e p la c e d o n th e i r ju d g e m e n t: t h a t th e y re c k o n e d o n
b a la n c e th a t t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n w a s c o r r e c t?; t h a t th e y m a n a g e d to in t e r p r e t th e
e x a m p le f r o m t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f th o u g h ?; t h a t th e y s im p ly m a d e a g u e ss? M o st
p r e s e n ta tio n s o f g r a m m a tic a lity ju d g e m e n ts in th e g e n e r a tiv e lite ra tu r e in c lu d e

r o d is c u s s io n o f h o w th e ju d g e m e n ts w e r e c o lle c te d ; w h e th e r t h e e x a m p le s
w e re p re s e n te d in d if f e r e n t o r d e r s ; w h e th e r th e y w e r e in c o r p o r a t e d in a te x t o r
p r e s e n te d s in g ly ; w h e th e r th e g r a m m a tic a l ju d g e m e n t te s t w as p r e c e d e d by
e t h e r te s ts r e q u i r in g th e s u b je c ts , say , t o fill in g a p s , to c o m p l e te s e n te n c e fr a g
m e n ts , o r t o ta k e t h e five w o r d s is, p o litic ia n , th o u g h , h o n e s t a n d h e a n d a rr a n g e
th e m i n t o a c la u se .
T h e r e is a t h i r d p r o b le m in th e c o lle c tin g o f g r a m m a tic a lity ju d g e m e n ts :
sp e a k e rs r e a c tio n s a r e a ffe c te d b y lin g u is tic a n d n o n - l in g u i s ti c c o n te x t. B a rd
e t a l. (1 9 9 6 ) is in s tr u c tiv e . T h e y a d d r e s s t h e p r o b le m o f e lic itin g a c c e p ta b ility
ju d g e m e n ts , d r a w in g a c a re f u l d is ti n c ti o n b e tw e e n g r a m m a tic a lity a n d a c c e p t
a b ility a n d e x te n d i n g th e i r n e t to ta k e in re la tiv e g r a m m a t ic a l it y a n d re la tiv e
a c c e p ta b ility . T h e y e m p h a s iz e th e n e e d to c o lle c t ju d g e m e n ts f r o m d if fe re n t
g r o u p s o f s u b je c ts , to v a lid a te re s u lts b y c r o s s - m o d a l m a t c h i n g a n d to c o lle c t
ju d g e m e n ts f r o m th e s a m e g r o u p o f s u b je c ts o n d if fe re n t o c c a s io n s , c h a n g in g
th e o r d e r o f t h e e lic ita tio n ite m s . F in a lly , t h e re s u lts a r e s u b je c te d t o s ta tis tic a l
tests o f s ig n ific a n c e . V e ry little , i f a n y , o f t h e p u b lis h e d w o r k in g e n e ra tiv e
g r a m m a r m e e ts th e s e c r ite r ia ; th e o n l y e x c e p tio n is t h e b o d y o f w o r k in th e
P rin c ip le s a n d P a r a m e te r s I r a m e w o r k o n t h e a c q u is itio n o l la n g u a g e b y c h il
d r e n . A f i n a l in te r e s tin g p o i n t in r e la tio n to B a rd e t al. (1 9 9 6 ) is t h a t a lth o u g h
th e y u s e d d if f e r e n t g r o u p s o f s u b je c ts , th e la tte r w e r e e i t h e r u n d e r g r a d u a te s o r

129

1 30

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

e x p e rie n c e d lin g u is ts ; ( h a t is, a ll th e s u b je c ts w e re p e o p le w i t h a g o o d c o m
m a n d o f w r itte n la n g u a g e .
D o th e s e p r o b le m s w ith g r a m m a t i c a l l y m e a n t h a t w e s h o u l d a b a n d o n th e
c o n c e p t? S a m p s o n a rg u e s th a t th e c o n c e p t o f u n g r a m m a t ic a l o r ill- f o r m e d
w o rd s e q u e n c e s is a d e lu s io n , b a s e d o n a false c o n c e p tio n o f t h e k in d o t th in g
a h u m a n la n g u a g e is ( S a m p s o n , 2 0 0 7 , p . 1). S a m p s o n w a s b r o u g h t to th i n k
a b o u t g r a m m a t i c a l l y b y c o m i n g a c r o s s a s e n te n c e in J o h n M o r t i m e r s no v el
D unster.

122)

D u n s t e r s e e m e d to a c h ie v e , in t h e c e n t r e o f t h is f r e n z ie d u n iv e r s e , a n
a b s e n c e o f a n x ie t y w h ic h I h a d n e v e r k n o w n B u t t h e n , a s I h a v e m a d e it c le a r
t o '/OU. I w o rry .

W h a t S a m p s o n f in d s p e c u lia r, a s d o e s JM , is th e s e q u e n c e

/ h a v e m a d e it

d e a r to y o u . S a m p s o n , a n d J M , w o u ld h a v e w r it te n as I h a v e m a d e clea r to y o u .
S a m p s o n (2 0 0 7 , p . 6 ) s ta te s t h a t it is d if fic u lt to f i n d sp e c ific w o rd s e q u e n c e s
t n a t o n e c a n c o n f id e n tly p r e d ic t to b e u n u s a b le ; S a m p s o n (2 0 0 7 , p . 11) a lso
s ta te s th a t it is im p o s s ib le to s p e c ify th e b o u n d a r y b e tw e e n th o s e w o r d
s e q u e n c e s t h a t a r e d e s tin e d n e v e r to h a v e a u s e a n d th o s e t h a t h a v e n o t f o u n d
a u s e s o fa r b u t w ill d o s o a t s o m e tim e i n th e f u t u r e ( w h e th e r w e a r e d is c u s s in g
t i e la n g u a g e o f a c o m m u n it y o r t h a t o f a n in d iv id u a l sp e a k e r).

Gram m aticality judgem ents and variation in language

1: is n o t in fa c t n e c e s s a ry t o t h r o w o u t th e n o ti o n o f g ra m m a tic a lity , b u t it
is e s s e n tia l to re c o g n iz c th e p r o b le m o l v a ria tio n in la n g u a g e , t h e la c k o l a
s in g le c le a r d iv i d in g lin e b e tw e e n w o r d s e q u e n c e s t h a t a r e g r a m m a t ic a l a n d
w o rd s e q u e n c e s t h a t a r e n o t a n d t h e ta c t t h a t e v e n t o r o n e g iv e n s p e a k e r o f
E n g lish ( o r a n y o t h e r la n g u a g e ) a p a r t i c u l a r s e q u e n c e m ig h t b e o f u n c e r t a in
sla tu s.
M a tth e w s (1 9 7 9 , p p . 2 6 - 3 1 ) d is c u s s e s t h e v e r b s in ( 2 3 ) . T h e w r it e r h as
a d d e d th e c o n t e m p o r a r y v e r b s in (2 3 g ,h ).
(2 3 ) a

T h e y c a b le d t h a t t h e s h i p h a d a r r iv e d in A u c k la n d

T h e y r a d o 'd t h a t t h e s h i p h a d a r r iv e d in A u c k la n d

T h e y t e le g r a m m e d t h a t t h e s h ip h a d a r r iv e d in A u c k la n d ,

T h e y le tt e r e d t h a t t h e s h i p h a d a r r iv e d i n A u c k la n d

e . T h e y m e s s a g e d t h a t ( h e s h i p h a d a r n v e d in A u c k la n d .
f.

T h e y p h o n e d t h a t t h e s h i p h a d a r r iv e d in A u c k la n d

g.

I h e y e - m a ile d t h a t t h e s h ip h a d a r r iv e d in A u c k la n d .

h.

I h e y S k y p e d t h a t th e s h i p h a d a r r iv e d in A u c k la n d .

G ram m aticality
M a tth e w s f o u n d a c c e p ta b le t h e s e q u e n c e o f v e r b p lu s c o m p l e m e n t c la u s e in
(2 3 a ,b ,f ), b u t w a s c le a r in h is o w n m i n d t h a t ( 2 3 d ) is u n a c c e p ta b le . H e th o u g h t
(2 3 c ) p e c u lia r, b u t h a d c o m e a c r o s s a n e x a m p le in a n ( u n s p e c if ie d ) A m e ric a n
r.ew s m a g a z in e . H e f o u n d (2 3 c ) m o r e a c c e p ta b le t h a n ( 2 3 d ) , b u t q u e s tio n e d
w h e th e r w e w o u ld a c tu a lly s a y it. G iv e n c h a n g e s in te c h n o lo g y o v e r th e p a s t
30 y e a rs , M a tte w s ' ju d g e m e n t c a n n o t b e te s te d , s in c e te le g ra m s , a t le a s t in
th e U n ite d K in g d o m , h a v e fa lle n i n t o d is u s e . A n d th is c h a n g e h a s g iv e n rise
ta a n o t h e r c a s e o l v a r ia tio n a n d la n g u a g e c h a n g e . In th e U n ite d K in g d o m ,
s p e a k e r s o ld e r t h a n , say , 5 0 m i g h t h a v e th e v e r b te leg ra m in t h e i r p a ssiv e
v o c a b u la ry , b u t s p e a k e r s u n d e r 2 0 w ill n o t c o m e a c ro s s t h e w o r d e x c e p t in
n o v e ls s e t b e f o r e 1990 o r so . I n 1 9 7 9 , M a tth e w s d id n o t m e n t i o n th e v e rb s
e -m a il a n d S k y p e , th e y d id n o t e x is t b e c a u s e th o s e ty p e s o f c o m m u n ic a t io n
c i d n o t e x is t. JM f in d s (2 3 g ) a c c e p ta b le , b u t is n o t a t c a s e w ith (2 3 h ) . O n th e
e t h e r h a n d , 4 5 y e a rs a g o , JM w a s n o t e n tire ly a t e a se w i t h th e s e q u e n c e h o p e
fu lly p lu s c la u s e - H o p e fu lly , w e c a n ig n o re th is q u e s tio n - b u t n o w u se s it a s a
n a t t e r o f c o u rs e .
T h e p r o b le m o f g r a m m a t ic a l it y a ffe c ts th e m id d le c o n s t r u c ti o n m e n t io n e d
b e fo re . P o s tg r a d u a te s tu d e n ts w ith w h o m th e w r ite r h a s d is c u s s e d th e m id d le

in e ig h t le c tu re c o u r s e s b e tw e e n 2 0 0 3 a n d 2 0 0 7 a c c e p te d e x a m p le s s u c h a s T h e
te x t n o w reads sm o o th ly , T h e a p a r tm e n ts a re se llin g w e ll a n d T h e w o o l k n it te d u p
b e a u tifu lly . T h e y w e re u n d e c id e d a s to t h e s ta tu s o f e x a m p le s s u c h a s I t w o n t
crush in y o u r sp o rts b a g (in a te le v is io n a d v e r tis e m e n t fo r a m a k e o f s h i r t) a n d
f j u n d u n a c c e p ta b le e x a m p le s s u c h a s T h e w in e r y is la c k in g 1963 a n d 1964
W y n n s C o o n a w a ra E sta te C a b e rn e t S a u v ig n o n , w h ic h b o ttle d as W y n n s C la re t
(in a n e w s p a p e r a r tic le ) a n d It w ill ta k e y e a r s f o r th e M e r se y to c le a n ( f r o m a
liB C T V n e w s r e p o r t) .
In a n y so c iety , e a c h g r o u p o f sp e c ia lis ts h a s its o w n te c h n ic a l la n g u a g e .
(S p e c ia lis ts is in t e n d e d to c o v e r e v e r y s o r t o l g r o u p I r o m fo o tb a lle rs th r o u g h
k n itte rs , p lu m b e r s , g a r d e n e r s a n d s o o n to m e d ic s , la w y e rs a n d t h e m a n y
g r o u p s o f a c a d e m ic s .) T e x ts p r o d u c e d b y m e m b e r s o f s p e c ia lis t g r o u p s u su a lly
c o n ta in s e q u e n c e s o f w o r d s t h a t o u ts id e r s fin d s u r p r is in g , p o s s ib ly u n a c c e p t
a b le a n d o fte n o p a q u e . C o n s id e r t h e te x t in (2 4 ).
( 2 4 ) T h e s id e s o f t h e s la t e d r o o f a t t h e e a v e s w e ' e b e d d e d u p w it h m o r t a r lif t in g
b y t h e s la t e r s o t h a t t h e e n d s la t e s a g a i n s t th e u p s t a n d o f t h e s k e w s lo p e d
a w a y f r o m it t o d iv e r t w a t e r in w in d y w e a t h e r f r o m b e in g b lo w n a g a i n s t the
s t o n e a n d in t o t h e b u ild in g

t h e ju n c t io n b e t w e e n t h e s k e w a n d t h e s 'a t e s

w a s f in is h e d w i t h a t n a n g u la r f ille t o r f la s h in g m a d e o f lim e a n d s a n d w h ic h
d id n o t t e n d t o s h r in k o r c r a c k .
N a is m it h , 1 9 8 5 . p p 9 7 - 8

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T h e s e q u e n c e w e r e b e d d e d u p w it h m o r ta r liftin g b y th e sla te r so t h a t th e e n d
sla tes a g a in s t th e u p s ta n d o f th e sk e w slo p e d a w a y fr o m it r e q u ir e s a d ia g r a m o r
m o d e l fo r ih e r e a d e r w h o h a s n o k n o w le d g e o f a r c h i te c t u r e a n d in p a r tic u la r
th e a r c h ite c tu r e o f S c o ttis h r u r a l b u ild in g s . JM f in d s u n u s u a l t h e s e q u e n c e
d iv e r t w a te r in w in d y w e a th e r fr o m b e in g b lo w n a g a in s t th e s to n e a n d in to th e
b u ild in g . T h e s e q u e n c e d iv e r t w a te r in to a d itc h is n o r m a l , b u t d iv e r t w a te r fr o m
being b l o w n . . . in to th e b u ild in g b o r d e r s o n t h e u n a c c e p ta b le ( f o r JM ).

Gram m aticality and language change

A f u r t h e r c o m p lic a tio n is t h a t g r a m m a t ic a l it y is p a r tly a s o c ia l p h e n o m e n o n ,
w h ic h o f c o u r s e d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t t h e r e a r e n o o b je c tiv e lin g u is tic c o r r e la
tio n s . T h e r e is a c e n tr a l c o r e o f s t r u c tu r e s s h a r e d b y s t a n d a r d s p o k e n a n d w r i t
te n E n g lish : th e s e q u e n c e o l w o r d s in t h e v e r b g r o u p - M o d a l v e rb I P e rle c t
A u x ilia ry + P ro g re s s iv e A u x ilia ry + V -in g , th e o r d e r o f w o r d s in t h e c o m m o n
N P s t r u c tu r e s - D e te r m in e r + A d je c tiv e + N o u n +- R e lativ e C la u s e ; t h e c o m
m o n ly o c c u r r in g ty p e s o f a d v e rb ia l c la u s e - tim e ( w h e n ) , c o n d i t i o n (if), th e g e f
a n d be p a ssiv e s, th o u g h u s u a lly th e s h o r t p a s s iv e is w h a t o c c u r s in s p o n t a n e
o u s s p o k e n E n g lis h w h ile w r it te n te x ts c o n ta i n b o t h s h o r t a n d lo n g p assiv es;
th e s im p le re la tiv e c la u s e s a s in ( 1a d ) .
T h e s t r u c tu r e s ju s t m e n t io n e d a r e m e r e ly a s a m p le o f c o r e c o n s t r u c ti o n s b u t w h a t c o u n t a s c o re ? F o r C h o m s k y , c o r e c o n s t r u c ti o n s a r e th o s e t h a t o b e y
c e rta in g e n e ra l c o n s tr a in ts ; h e re , c o r e c o n s t r u c ti o n s a r e ta k e n to b e th o s e th a t
c c c u r in d a ta b a s e s o f s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lish , p re f e ra b ly in f o r m a l c o n
v e rs a tio n in re la x e d c ir c u m s ta n c e s b e tw e e n s p e a k e r s w h o k n o w e a c h o th e r
w ell. ( 'U n g r a m m a ti c a l' s e q u e n c e s a r c im p o r t a n t in th e te a c h in g o f E n g lish
(a n d F re n c h , R u ssia n , e tc .) a s a s e c o n d la n g u a g e . S w a n (2 0 0 5 , p p . x x v i-x x ix )
lists 130 c o m m o n m is ta k e s . JM f in d s a ll th e e x a m p le s u n a c c e p ta b le . S w a n a lso
lists 2 5 f u r t h e r m is ta k e s th a t e v e n a d v a n c e d s t u d e n ts c a n m a k e ; JM d o e s n o t
a g re e w ith all o f th e m . F o r in s ta n c e , t h e s e q u e n c e r e tu r n b a ck is re b a r b a tiv e to
n o s e w h o a r e a w a re o f I-a tin e ty m o lo g ie s , b u t s u c h a w a r e p e o p le a r e a s m a ll
m i n o r i ty in B rita in th e s e d a y s a n d c o m b i n a ti o n s lik e reverse b a ck, p ro je c t o u t
a n d re d u c e d o w n a r e c o m m o n . S p e a k e rs h a v e c h a n g e d t h e i r u s a g e a n d th e
c o m b in a tio n s a llo w e d b y th e c o d e h a v e c h a n g e d to o .)
A s w e m o v e a w a y f r o m th is c o re , m o r e a n d m o r e v a r i a ti o n a p p e a r s a n d th e
in t u it io n s o f p a r t ic u l a r s p e a k e r s a b o u t g r a m m a tic a lity m ig h t b e j u s t a s s tr o n g
a n d c o n f id e n tly s ta te d a s i n t u i t i o n s a b o u t c o r e c o n s tr u c tio n s , b u t m a y n o t
be s u p p o r te d b y e v id e n c e f r o m v e ry la rg e c o r p u s e s . C o n s id e r rob a n d steal.

G ram m aticality
F o r m a n y s p e a k e rs , th e p a ir R O B a n d S T E A L a r e c le a rly d is tin g u is h e d ; y o u
ste a l v a lu a b le s b y ta k i n g th e m a w a y illegally, b u t y o u r o b t h e o w n e r o f th e
v a lu a b le s (T ra s k , 2 0 0 1 , p . 2 5 0 ). R O B is n o w b e in g u s e d b y m a n y s p e a k e r s fo r
th e a c ti o n a p p lie d t o t h e v a lu a b le s , a s in t h e s e n te n c e T h e y ll p r o b a b ly e n d u p
g o in g to ja il o r s o m e th in g o r p r o b a b ly r o b b i n g s t u f f (B A d is s e r t a ti o n , L a n c a s te r
U n iv ersity , 2 0 0 2 ).
T ra s k s e n t r y o n R O B a n d S T E A L in d ic a te s t h a t w h a t h e p r e s e n ts a s a n e w
usag e is f r e q u e n t e n o u g h to c a tc h th e a t t e n t i o n o l c o n s e r v a tiv e sp e a k e rs.
In fa c t, t h i s is a n o ld u s a g e t h a t h a s s u r v iv e d in s p e e c h a n d in n o n - s ta n d a r d
E n g lish . In J o h n s o n 's D ic tio n a r y , t h e t h i r d d e f in itio n fo r R O B is 't o ta k e aw ay
u n la w fu lly . E x a m p le s a r e fa s h io n a ca rria g e to rob lo ve fr o m a n y (S h a k e s p e a re )
a n d D o u b le sa crileg e . . . to rob th e relick a n d d e fa c e th e s h r in e ( D r y d e n ) . T h is
e x a m p le h ig h lig h ts t h e a m b ig u ity o l t h e t e r m g r a m m a tic a l. F o r s o m e , p e r
h a p s m a n y , s p e a k e r s , p o s s ib ly y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s o f E n g lis h , rob va lu a b le s fr o m
so m e o n e is n o r m a l u sa g e . It m a y re p r e s e n t a c o n ti n u a ti o n o f th e o r ig in a l c o n
s tr u c tio n , b u t it m a y b e a m o d e r n d e v e lo p m e n t, q u i t e i n d e p e n d e n t o f e a rlie r
u sage. W h a t w a s d e c la re d g r a m m a tic a l fo r s t a n d a r d E n g lis h is ro b so m e o n e o f
th e ir v a lu a b le s , w h e t h e r th i s r e p r e s e n t s a u s a g e t h a t h a d s p r u n g u p n a t u r a l l y

a m o n g a p a r t ic u l a r g r o u p o f s p e a k e r s o r w h e th e r it r e p r e s e n ts a u sa g e r e s u lt
in g f r o m d e lib e r a te e la b o r a tio n o f t h e la n g u a g e b y s e lf - a p p o in te d a r b i te r s o f
g o o d g r a m m a r .
C o n s id e r to o t h e s e t o f v e r b s d e n o ti n g t h e a c ti o n o f c o v e rin g a s u r f a c e w ith
s o m e th in g o r s o m e th in g s . T h e r e is a n e s ta b lis h e d a lt e r n a t io n fo r v e r b s s u c h as
spread, s m e a r a n d spray. T h e c h ild sm e a re d ch o c o la te o v e r h e r fa c e v e rs u s T h e
ch ild s m e a r e d h e r fa c e w ith ch o c o la te ; I sp r e a d j a m o n th e b re a d v e r s u s I sp rea d
th e b rea d w ith j a m . T h e y s p r a y e d th e p a th w ith w e e d k iller v e rs u s T h e y sp ra yed
w eedkiller o n th e p a th . S o m e v e r b s d e n o te a c tio n s a ffe c tin g t h e th in g ( s ) s e t o u t
<:n t h e s u r fa c e , w h ile o t h e r v e r b s d e n o te th e s u rfa c e t h a t is c o v e re d : cover
a p p lie s to t h e s u r f a c e - c o v e r a w a ll w ith g reen p a i n t b u t n o t co ver g re e n p a in t
c n a w all. S o m e o f th e s e s p e c ia liz e d v e r b s n o w o c c u r in b o th c o n s tr u c tio n s .
T h e w r it e r s u s a g e is r e p r e s e n te d in T h e trees sc a tte re d lea ve s o n th e la w n (cf.
Leaves w ere sca ttered o n th e la w n a n d T h e re w a s a sc a tte rin g o f leaves o n th e
la w n .) B u t t h e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e o c c u r r e d in a w r itte n te x t a n d s u g g e s ts th e
c o n s t r u c ti o n sc a tte r th e la w n w ith leaves.
( 2 5 ) M y f ie ld s a r e s c a t t e r e d d e e p w it h c h e s t n u t le a v e s
F id e lm a C o o k . F r e n c h le a v e .
T h e H e r a ld , 1 7 O c t o b e r 2 0 0 9 , p 4

133

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

A g e n e r a l v e r b d e n o t i n g th e a c ti o n a ff e c tin g th e th in g ( s ) m o v e d o n to a
su rfa c e is a p p ly. M y u s a g e is a p p ly p a i n t to a d o o r b u t n o t a p p ly a d o o r w ith
f a in t. B u t n o te th e fo llo w in g e x a m p le , c u r io u s ly I r o m th e s a m e n e w s p a p e r
t i o u g h n o t th e s a m e c o n tr ib u t o r . It s u g g e s ts t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a p p ly so il w ith
herb icid es a n d p estic id e s.
( 2 6 ) A c o m p o s t h e a p o r b o x in a n o r g a n ic a lly m a n a g e d g a r d e n is a m a g n e t fo r
w o r m s . W h a t t h e y d is lik e is w e t . a c i d i c s o il w h ic h h a s b e e n r e g u la r ly a p p lie d
w i t h h e r b ic id e s a n d p e s tic id e s .
D a v e A lla n . B in n in g m e n t a lit y '. T h e H e r a ld ,
1 7 O cto b e r 2 0 0 9 , p 3 7

D if f e r e n t p e o p le re a c t d if f e r e n tly t o s u c h e x a m p le s . S o m e d o n o t n o tic e
th e m a t all a n d m a y g o o n to u s e t h e s t r u c tu r e s o r m a y a lr e a d y u s e th e m .
O th e r s w ill re g a r d C o o k a n d A lla n a s h a v in g c o m m it te d g r a m m a tic a l e r r o r s .
IM im m e d ia te ly n o tic e d t h e s e n te n c e s a s p e c u lia r ( a t le a s t, p e c u li a r giv en
h is u s a g e ) , b u t o n e c a n re c o g n iz e t h a t la n g u a g e s c h a n g e a n d t h a t E n g lis h is
c h a n g in g w ith o u t fe e lin g c o m p e lle d t o fo llo w t h e n e w u s a g e o r to c o n d e m n
C o o k a n d A llan . JM , in g o o d lin g u is tic fa s h io n , w ill b e k e e p in g a lo o k o u t fo r
e t h e r e x a m p le s o l t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n in g e n e ra l a n d o t t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n w ith
sca tter a n d apply.

Grammaticality and linguistic power

T h e s o c ia l c o n c e p t o f g r a m m a t ic a l it y is o f te n b o u n d u p w ith s tru g g le s fo r
lin g u is tic , c u lt u r a l a n d p o litic a l p o w e r. T h e s tr u g g le s ta k e p la c e in s m a ll a n d
large a re n a s ; t h e o n e I a m a b o u t to d is c u s s h a p p e n e d in a u n iv e r s ity s e ttin g .
U n iv e rs ity X h a s a n e th ic s c o m m itte e , a n d e v e ry p ie c e o f re s e a rc h th a t in v o lv e s
w o rk w ith s u b je c ts h a s to b e a p p r o v e d , e v e n lim ite d M A p ro je c ts . T h e E th ic s
C o m m itte e , o r its c o n v e n e r, d e c la r e d its e ll d is s a tis fie d w ith th e g r a m m a r o f
m a n y o f t h e a p p li c a ti o n s t h a t w e re s u b m itte d fo r a p p r o v a l a n d a n n o u n c e d
th a t a p p lic a tio n s w r itte n in u n s a tis f a c to r y la n g u a g e w o u ld b e r e t u r n e d fo r
re v is io n . U n fo rtu n a te ly , t h e 2 0 0 3 v e rs io n o f th e C o m m it te e s r e g u la tio n s c o n
ta in e d t h e fo llo w in g p ie c e s o f te x t. T h e m a i n p ie c e I w a n t to lo o k a t is (2 7 d ) ,
h u t th e o th e r s a r e in s tru c tiv e .
( 2 7 ) a . B y w h o m a n d h o w , w ill in f o r m a t io n a b o u t t h e r e s e a r c h b e g iv e n to
p a r t ic ip a n t s ? ( e .g . i n w r it in g , v e r b a lly . . . )
b . T h e p e r io d d a t a is t o b e k e p t w ill b e c o m m e n s u r a t e t o t h e s c a le o f its
r e s e a rc h .

G ram m aticality
c.

Is G e n e T h e r a p y A d v is o r y C o m m i t t e e o n A s s is t e d H u m a n R e p r o d u c t io n
( N A C H D S E ) a p p r o v a l r e q u ir e d ?

d . It is e x p e c t e d t h a t a c c e s s t o t h e C o n s e n t F o r m s b e r e s t r ic t e d to th e
r e s e a r c h e r a n d / o r th e P r in c ip a l In v e s t ig a to r . It y o u in t e n d o t h e r w is e ,
p le a s e e x p la in
e . It is r e q u ir e d t h a t C o n s e n t f o r m s b e s t o r e d s e p a r a t e ly f r o m d a t a a n d k e p t
f o r s ix y e a rs.

T h e c o m m a a f t e r h o w in (2 7 a ) is v e r y u n u s u a l a n d ils p u r p o s e q u ite
n y s t e r io u s . T h e s e q u e n c e w ill h e c o m m e n s u r a te to th e sca le o f its research is n o t
a c c e p ta b le , s in c e c o m m e n su r a te , in B ritis h E n g lis h a t le a s t, r e q u ir e s w ith .
In ( 2 7 c ) , t h e s e q u e n c e G e n e T h e r a p y A d v is o r y C o m m itte e o n A ssiste d H u m a n
R e p ro d u c tio n ( N A C H D S E ) a p p ro v a l is o v e rly c o m p le x a n d d itf ic u lt to in te rp re t.
(2 7 c ) m a tc h e s J M s u sa g e , b u t th e u sa g e is b e c o m i n g a r c h a ic a n d m a n y w o u ld
w rite I t is r e q u ire d th a t C o n s e n t F o rm s a r e sto re d sep a ra tely.
O n a firs t r e a d in g ( 2 7 d ) s e e m e d p e c u lia r. A s e c o n d r e a d in g p o in t e d t o th e
c o m b i n a ti o n o f I t is e x p e c te d a n d b e re stric te d a s t h e s o u r c e o f t h e p e c u lia rity .
W o n d e r in g w h e th e r h is r e a c tio n w a s m is g u id e d , JM c h e c k e d Q u i r k a n d G re e n l a u m ( 1 9 7 3 ). O n p . 3 6 1 , th e y list t h e v o litio n a l v e r b s c o m m a n d , d e m a n d , insist,
order, p ro p o se, r e c o m m e n d , a n d su g g e st a n d th e v o litio n a l a d je c tiv e s a d a m a n t,
keen a n d in siste n t. T h e y s a y t h a t th e v o litio n a l v e r b s r e q u ir e t h e s u b ju n c tiv e
a n d th a t th e v o litio n a l a d je c tiv e s , w h ic h e x p re s s s o m e c o m m a n d in d ire c tly ,
u s u a lly ta k e th e s u b ju n c tiv e in A m e ric a n E n g lis h b u t s h o u ld in B ritis h E n g lish .
T h e y g iv e t h e e x a m p le s in (2 8 ).
( 2 8 ) a . I d e m a n d t h a t h e l e a v e th e m e e t in g
b

T h e e d it o in s is t e d t h a t t h is c o m m e n t b e t a k e n o u t

W e p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e n e w D e p a r t m e n t d e a l o n ly w it h p o s t g r a d u a t e

T h e d o c t o r w a s a d a m a n t th a t th e p e rso n le a v e th e su rg e ry ,

s tu d e n t s .

e . T h e d o c t o r w a s a d a m a n t t h a t s h e p r e s c r i b e d t h e c o r r e c t m e d ic a t io n

(2 8 d ,e ) h ig h lig h t th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n in d ire c t c o m m a n d s a n d s t a t e

m e n ts . (2 8 d ) c o n v e y s th e p r o p o s iti o n t h a t th e d o c t o r a s k e d t h e p e r s o n to leave
a n d w o u ld n o t c h a n g e h is o r h e r m i n d . In (2 8 e ), th e p r o p o s iti o n c o n v e y e d is
th a t t h e d o c t o r w a s c e r ta in , a n d s a i d s o v e r y firm ly , th a t s h e h a d p re s c rib e d
c o rre c tly .
(2 7 e ), th e n , is g r a m m a tic a l ( i t m a tc h e s J M s u sa g e !) a n d fo llo w s th e a c c o u n t
in Q u ir k a n d G r e c n b a u m ; re q u ire is a v o litio n a l v e rb . A q u ic k c h e c k o n G o o g le
c f 180 in s ta n c e s o f th e s e q u e n c e is e x p e c te d p r o d u c e d 2 e x a m p le s w ith th e
s u b ju n c tiv e a n d 178 w ith w<is o r sh o u ld . T h a t is, (2 7 d ) t u r n e d o u t to b e

135

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u n g r a m m a tic a l in te r m s o f b o t h th e u sa g e t h a t IM fo llo w s a n d t h e d a ta tu r n e d
u p b y G o o g le .
W h a t is t h e e x p la n a tio n f o r ( 2 7 d |? It c o u ld b e a c a s e o f h y p e r c o r r c c tio n , th e
w rite r o f th e d o c u m e n t b e in g a w a re o f th e c o n s t r u c ti o n V e rb + th a t + C la u se
w ith s u b ju n c tiv e v e r b lo r m . S e m a n tic s a n d p r a g m a tic s m ig h t h a v e le d th e
w rite r t o th e c o n s t r u c ti o n . E x p e c t in its b a s ic m e a n i n g a n d in m a n y c o n te x ts is
r o t a v o litio n a l v e rb : I e x p e c t t h e y w ill a r r iv e a b o u t six, W e e x p e c t h e r to ta k e a t
least th e silv e r m e ila l a n d s o o n . W h e r e t h e s p e a k e r is in a p o s i ti o n o l a u th o r ity ,
e x p e c t c a n b e u s e d to s ig n a l a v e ry in d ir e c t c o m m a n d : I e x p e c t y o u to b e h ere a t
(. a m ( s p o k e n b y p o lic e in s p e c to r t o n e w c o n s ta b le ) , a n d in ( 2 7 d ) e x p e c t is n o t
ju s t a s t a te m e n t o f e x p e c ta tio n b u t is p a r t o f a n in d ir e c t c o m m a n d . N o n e ti e l e s s , e x p e c t d o e s n o t n o r m a lly c o m b i n e w ith a c la u s e c o n ta i n in g a v e r b in
t i e s u b ju n c tiv e . T h e m o r a l o t th e ta lc is th a t p in n i n g d o w n e x a c tly w h a t is
g r a m m a tic a l a n d w h a t is n o t c a n b e v e r y tric k y , a n d e v e n h ig h ly e d u c a te d
w rite rs c a n g o astra y .

Limitations on speakers' grammatical

knowledge and intuitions
W c c lo s e th is d is c u s s io n o f g r a m m a tic a lity w ith a la s t e x a m p le f r o m S a m p s o n
(2 0 0 7 ). It illu s tr a te s th e lim its o n a n y o n e s p e a k e rs k n o w le d g e o f t h e i r n a tiv e
la n g u a g e , t h e fa c t t h a t d ilf e r e n t s p e a k e r s m a y h a v e d itle r e n t in t e r p r e ta ti o n s o l
a p a r t i c u l a r c o n s t r u c t i o n o r c h u n k o f s p o k e n d is c o u r s e a n d th e n e e d t o c o n
su lt d a ta b a s e s s u c h a s re fe re n c e g r a m m a r s , d ic tio n a r ie s a n d c o r p u s e s . It a lso
ra ise s th e q u e s tio n o l w h a t c o u n ts a s a c h a n g e in a g iv e n la n g u a g e . T h e p o in t
a t is s u e is th e c o n v e r s a tio n a l r e s p o n s e w h a te v e r, a s in th e fo llo w in g d ia lo g u e
(in v e n te d b y JM ).
(2 8 ) A
B

I d o n t t h in k t h a t fir m is t h e r ig h t o n e ( o r t h e ;o b .
B u t t h e y 'v e in s t a lle d lo t s o f w in d - t u r b i n e s a n d a r e r e c o m m e n d e d b y M ik e
a n d P h ilip p a .

W h a t e v e r.

S a m p s o n (2 0 0 7 , p . 5 ) t h o u g h t th e re s p o n s e w h a te v e r w a s a w a y o f sa y in g
s o m e th in g lik e Y ou a r e s u c h a lo s e r th a t y o u m u s t n t e x p e c t m e to p u t e ffo rt
i n to g iv in g y o u a c o n s id e r e d answ er." A n o t h e r g lo s s , w h ic h S a m p s o n c a m e
a c ro s s in a p ie c e o n la n g u a g e b y a jo u r n a li s t, is 'Y o u a r e c o r r e c t, b u t I a m
u n w illin g t o a d m i t it e x p lic itly .' T h e g lo s s e s d o n o t c o in c id e , b u t th e y h av e

G ram m aticality
a fa m ily re s e m b la n c e in e x p re s s in g s c o r n to w a r d s t h e c o n v e r s a tio n a l p a r tn e r
w h ile a v o id in g o v e r! d is a g r e e m e n t w ith th e p a r t n e r . C o n te x t is c r u c ia l. I n th e
a b o v e d ia lo g u e , w h a te v e r d o e s n o t e x p re s s s c o r n o r a v o id o v e r t d is a g re e m e n t,
b u t s ig n a ls A s u n w illin g n e s s to s a y e x p lic itly t h a t B h a s a g o o d p o i n t a n d t h a t
A m ig h t b e w r o n g . I n o t h e r c o n te x ts , i t m ig h t c a r r y th e m e a n in g s m e n t io n e d
b y S a m p s o n . T h e C a m b r id g e A d v a n c e d L e a r n e r s D ic ti o n a r y 12008, p . 1654)
o ffe rs th e e x a m p le i n ( 2 9 ) , w h ic h s e e m s to b e s p o k e n b y p a r e n t to o f f s p r in g - a
te e n a g e r c o m e s to m in d .
(2 9 ) A
B

B r y c e , c o u l d y o u d o w h a t I a s k y o u t o o n c e in a w h ile ?
W h a t e v e r.

S w a n (2 0 0 5 , p . 6 1 4 ) g iv e s th e e x a m p le i n (3 0 ). H e c o m m e n ts t h a t w h a te v e r
n e a n s I d o n 't c a r e ' o r I 'm n o t in te r e s te d ' a n d c a n s o u n d r u d e .
(3 0 ) A

W h a t w o u l d y o u lik e

to d o ? W e c o u l d g o a n d s e e d f ilm , o r g o

s w im m in g .
B

W h a t e v e r.

S a m p s o n d o c s n o t re g a r d th is u s e o l w h a te v e r a s a c h a n g e in th e E n g lish
la n g u a g e b u t a s t h e e x p lo i ta t io n o f a p o s s ib ility t h a t h a d b e e n l a t e n t in th e
E n g lish la n g u a g e b e fo r e a n y o n e t h o u g h t t o u s e it. S w a n (2 0 0 5 , p . 6 1 4 ) gives
e x a m p le s in w h ic h w h a te v e r h a s a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c lo s e to t h e o r ig in a l o n e o f
'a n y th in g a t a ll': I f y o u p l a y fo o tb a ll o r te n n is o r w h a te v e r, i t d o e s ta k e u p a lot
c f tim e . W h e n e v e r c a n b e u s e d in th e s a m e w a y : W e c a n g o th e re to m o r r o w or
F rid a y o r w h en e ve r. E a rlie r t h i s m o r n i n g a r a d io d is c u s s io n o f w h y c h ild re n
s h o u l d r e a d s t o r ie s o tt e r e d e x a m p le s o t w h o e v e r a n d w h a te v e r. I f M u m , o r D a d
c r a b a b y sitte r o r w h o e v e r rea d s th e c h ild re n stories, th a t's g o o d a n d I f t h e y read
H a r r y P o tte r o r E n id B ly to n o r w h a te v e r . . . W h a te v e r a n d w h e n e v e r c a n b e u se d
a s s i n g le - w o r d re s p o n s e s t h a t d o n o t s ig n a l c o n t e m p t a n d in d itf e re n c e , b u t
leave t h e c h o ic e to t h e o t h e r p e rs o n .
(3 1 )
B
(3 2 ) A
B

W h e n c a n y o u c o m e a n d h e lp u s w i t h t h e p a m t m g ?
W henever
W il l I c o o k p o t a t o e s o r n e e ?
W h a t e v e r ? |l h a p p if y e a t b o t h .)

It is e a s y to se e h o w , g iv e n th e r i g h t c o n te x t, w h a te v e r c o u ld h a v e a c q u ir e d
th e v a r i o u s a ffe c tiv e m e a n in g s m e n t io n e d a t th e b e g in n in g o f th is d is c u s s io n .
D o th e s e u sa g e s re p r e s e n t a c h a n g e in th e E n g lish la n g u a g e ? W e fo llo w S a m p s o n

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i:i d is tin g u is h in g b e tw e e n ih e E n g lis h la n g u a g e a s a c o d e a n d t h e u s e r s o f th e
c o d e . T h e c o d e t h a t JM h a d u n ti l re c e n tly a llo w e d h im to u t t e r e x a m p le s s u c h
as W h a te v e r y o u d o , d o n 't b u y th a t h o u s e w ith o u t h a v in g a c o m p le te s u r v e y d o n e
a n d You c a n c o n s u lt w h a te v e r b o o ks y o u like. S e q u e n c e s s u c h a s M u m , o r D a d or
ii b a b y sitte r o r w h o e ve r, H a r r y P o tte r o r E n id B ly to n o r w h a te v e r a n d to m o rr o w
or F rid a y o r w h e n e v e r a r e n e w p ie c e s o f c o d e fo r JM . T h ir t y y e a rs a g o h e w o u ld
have u s e d a n d s o o n o r etcetera . T h a t is, w h a te v e r h a s c h a n g e d f r o m b e in g ju s t
p a r t o l a s c m i-f ix c d p h ra s e , w h a te v e r y o u d o , o r a d e te r m i n e r , w h a te v e r books
yo u l i k e i t h a s b e c o m e a s u b s tit u te fo r a n d s o o n a n d etcetera . It h a s also
a c q u ir e d t h e f u n c t io n o f a r e s p o n s e r o u g h ly e q u iv a le n t to a n y th in g y o u like,
I d o n 't m in d .
A re a s o n a b le a s s u m p ti o n is t h a t th e la s t d e v e lo p m e n t w a s f o r w h a te v e r to
a c q u ir e th e d is c o u r s e p a r tic le f u n c tio n n o te d b y S a m p s o n a n d o th e r s . T o s u m
i p , w e a g re e w ith S a m p s o n t h a t t h e re c e n t u s a g e s o f w h a te v e r w e re l a t e n t in its
o r ig in a l m e a n in g . W e n u a n c e h is a c c o u n t b y s u g g e s tin g t h a t th e u s a g e s d i d n o t
a rise all to g e th e r b u t in sta g e s , a v ie w t h a t is s u p p o r t e d b y c o r p u s d a ta . It is a lso
r o t c le a r w h y c h a n g e s in u sa g e s h o u l d n o t c o u n t a s c h a n g e s in t h e E n g lis h
la n g u a g e , u n le s s S a m p s o n is c o n f in in g th e la tte r to c h a n g e s in th e c o d e as

o p p o s e d to th e u s e m a d e o f t h e c o d e . B u t e v e n i f w e a c c e p t th e la tte r a p p r o a c h ,
t i e e v o lu tio n o f w h a te v e r still c o u n t s a s a c h a n g e in t h e c o d e . It h a s b e c o m e a
s u b s titu te fo r etce tera a n d a n d s o o n in th e s e q u e n c e s in w h ic h th e s e o c c u r, a n d
it h a s a c q u ir e d a n e w e x te n d e d d is t r i b u t i o n ( a t le a s t, Z e llig H a r r i s w o u ld h av e
h a n d le d it a s s u c h ) a s a r e s p o n s e in d is c o u rs e .
T h e a b o v e d if fic u ltie s in a n a ly s in g d a ta a r e u se d b y S a m p s o n a s a p la tf o r m
fo r a tt a c k in g a f u n d a m e n ta l a im o f C h o m s k y 's w o r k , n a m e l y t o s e p a r a te th e
g r a m m a tic a l s e q u e n c e s w h ic h a r e th e s e n te n c e s o f [ a la n g u a g e l L f r o m th e
u n g r a m m a tic a l s e q u e n c e s w h ic h a r e n o t s e n te n c e s o f L a n d t o s t u d y t h e s t r u c
t u r e o f th e g r a m m a t ic a l s e q u e n c e s (C h o m s k y , 1957, p. 1 3 ). T h is a im h a s h e ld
c o n s ta n t th r o u g h th e v a r i o u s m o d e ls o f C h o m s k y a n g e n e ra tiv e g r a m m a r ;
S a m p s o n p o in t s o u t t h a t s o m e C h o m s k y a n s ta k e a m o r e e x tr e m e v iew . C a r n ie
(2 0 0 2 , p p . 1 0 - 1 1 ) c la im s t h a t to g e t a t w h a t w e k n o w a b o u t o u r la n g u a g e s w e
f .r s t h a v e to k n o w w h a t s e n te n c e s a r e n o t w e ll- f o r m e d . T h e e x a m p le s d is c u s s e d
h v S a m p s o n a n d t h e o t h e r e x a m p le s p r e s e n te d e a rlie r m a k e i t c le a r t h a t th e
a im is u n re a liz a b le . T h is d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t n o u n g r a m m a tic a l s e q u e n c e s c a n
b e re c o g n iz e d b u t , t o p ic k u p a n e a r lie r p o in t , t h a t b e y o n d a c e r t a in c o r e th e
d is tin c tio n is e it h e r a p p lic a b le w ith g r e a t d if fic u lty o r c a n n o t b e a p p lie d a t all.
(T h e is s u e s w e re d is c u s s e d in M a tth e w s (1 9 7 9 ) ; h e a r r iv e d a t th e s a m e g e n e ra l
c o n c lu s io n .)

G ram m aticality
T o c o n c lu d e th e d is c u s s io n , w e r e t u r n to S a m p s o n (2 0 0 7 , p . 11) a n d h is
a s s e rtio n t h a t it is im p o s s ib le to s e t a b o u n d a r y b e tw e e n w o r d s e q u e n c e s th a t
v/ill n e v e r h a v e a u s e a n d th o s e w h ic h c u r r e n tl y h a v e n o u s e b u t w ill a c q u ire
a u s e a t s o m e f u t u r e ti m e . T h i s is v e ry tr u e , b u t in w h a t w a y is it r e le v a n t to
th e c o n c e p t o f g ra m m a tic a lity ? T h e la s t q u i r k in t h i s c o n c e p t, in a d d itio n
to t h e p r o b l e m s s e t o u t a t t h e b e g in n i n g o f t h e c h a p te r, is t h a t g r a m m a tic a lity
r o t o n ly v a rie s o v e r se ts o f s p e a k e r s o f 'o n e a n d th e s a m e la n g u a g e ' ( a p h ra s e
th a t o p e n s u p m o r e is s u e s ), b u t v a rie s o v e r t i m e a n d w ith in t h e life tim e of
in d iv id u a l s p e a k e rs . T h e h o p e fu lly c o n s t r u c ti o n b e c a m e g r a m m a tic a l fo r m a n y
s p e a k e r s s o m e 4 0 y e a rs a g o ( w h e n JM b e g a n u s i n g it) , b u t r e m a in e d u n g r a m
m a tic a l fo r m a n y o t h e r s p e a k e rs . T h e re v iv a l o f th e m id d le c o n s t r u c ti o n a n d
th e u s e o f access a s a tr a n s itiv e v e rb a r e o n ly tw o o f m a n y b its o f E n g lis h c o d e
th a t h a v e b e c o m e g r a m m a t ic a l fo r JM o v e r th e p a s t 2 5 y e a rs . W e s h o u l d n o t
in fe r f r o m th e s e c h a n g e s t h a t g r a m m a t ic a l it y is b a s e d e n tir e ly o n s a n d . JM is
a w a re f r o m h is e x p e r ie n c e o f c o p y e d ito r s o v e r th e p a s t 4 0 y e a rs t h a t h is i n t u
itio n s a b o u t g r a m m a t ic a l it y m a tc h th e irs . T h a t is, a s fa r a s w r it te n E n g lish
is c o n c e r n e d , JM b e lo n g s t o a p a r t l y re a l a n d p a r tly im a g in e d c o m m u n it y
c f c d u c a tc d u s e r s o f B r itis h E n g lis h . T h e r e is s ta b ility i n a g iv e n la n g u a g e b u t

also m u c h v a r i a ti o n , s y n c h r o n ic a n d d ia c h r o n ic ; it is in e v ita b ly re fle c te d in

in tu itio n s a b o u t w h a t is g r a m m a t ic a l a n d w h a t is n o t.

139

Usage-based Models

Chapter Outline
T he u sa g e -b a se d a p p ro a ch

140

T e n s e a n d a s p e c t in E n g li s h

141

C o n c lu s io n

162

The usage-based approach

T h e te r m s u s a g e - b a s e d ' a n d c o r p u s lin g u is tic s h a v e b e e n in v o g u e l o r s o m e
y e a rs. H a v in g c a r r ie d o u t h i s re s e a rc h o n s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e o n
v a r io u s c o r p u s e s o l d a ta , JM is w ell a w a re h o w v a lu a b le a g o o d c o r p u s is.
N o n e th e le s s , t h e t e r m c o r p u s lin g u is tic s is m e r e tr ic io u s . c o r p u s is s im p ly a
c o lle c tio n o f d a ta to b e s e a r c h e d . C o r p u s e s c a n b e p a r s e d a n d a n n o ta t e d , a n d
th e y c a n b e c o d e d to r a ll s o r ts o f in f o r m a t io n ; c o r p u s s e a r c h e s c a n b e c a rr ie d
o u t w ith sk ill a n d flair, o r u n im a g in a tiv e ly a n d u n p ro d u c tiv e ly . N o n e o f th e se
a c tiv itie s in v o lv e s lin g u is tic s . L in g u is tic s c o m e s in to p la y w h e n c o r p u s d a ta is
to b e a n a ly se d , s a y fo r s y n ta c tic s t r u c tu r e o r re fe re n c e tr a c k in g o r se n s e re latio n s.
T h e c o lle c tio n o f s p o k e n o r w r it te n d a ta b y m e a n s o f a u d io r e c o r d in g s (o r
p e r h a p s a u d io + v id e o re c o r d in g s ) is e s s e n tia l w o rk in m a n y fie ld s. It s u p p lie s
lin g u is ts w i t h n a tu r a ll y o c c u r r in g d a ta a n d e n a b le s t h e m to s t u d y th e la n g u a g e
o f s m a ll c h ild r e n , c o n v e r s a tio n s b e tw e e n s p e a k e r s o f a ll a g es, n o n - s ta n d a r d
a n d s t a n d a r d v a rie tie s a n d s o o n . S u c h r e c o r d in g s e n a b le lin g u is ts to o b s e rv e
w h a t s p e a k e r s d o r a t h e r t h a n w h a t th e y s a y t h e y d o . O f c o u r s e , re s e a rc h c a n n o t
rely so le ly o n a u d io r e c o r d in g s o t n a tu r a lly o c c u r r in g s p e e c h o r o n c o rp u s e s
o f w r it te n te x ts . T h e in v e s tig a tio n o f p a r t ic u l a r a re a s o f g r a m m a r , s a y te n se
a n d a s p e c t, o r c o m p l e m e n t c la u s e s , r e q u ir e s a c o m b i n a ti o n o f c o r p u s d a ta a n d

U sage-based M odels
c a la e lic ite d v ia d if f e r e n t ta s k s, g e n in g s u b je c ts to fill in g a p s in s e n te n c e s ,
c r to c o m p l e te s e n te n c e s , o r to c h o o s e b e tw e e n t w o o r m o r e p o s s ib le s e n te n c e
c o m p le tio n s , a n d s o o n . T h e in v e s tig a tio n o f n o n - s t a n d a r d v a r ie tie s d o e s
re q u ire a u d io r e c o r d in g s , g iv e n w h a t w a s s a id in th e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r a b o u t
th e u n r e lia b le i n t u i t i o n s o l s p e a k e r s o f n o n - s t a n d a r d v a r ie tie s a n d t h e g e n e ra l
u n re lia b ility o f i n t u i t i o n s a b o u t s p o k e n la n g u a g e . ( N o t t h a t s p e a k e r s o f n o n
s t a n d a r d v a r ie tie s a r e s o m e h o w less a b le t h a n s p e a k e r s o f s t a n d a r d v a rie tie s,
b u t o v e r t a n d a c c e ss ib le i n t u i t i o n s a b o u t g r a m m a r a r e a c q u ir e d in th e class
r o o m a n d i t is s t a n d a r d v a rie tie s t h a t a r e u s e d in sc h o o ls .)
U s a g e -b a s e d m o d e l s a re , rig h tly , s e e n a s a n a n ti d o te to th e o r iz in g a b o u t
s p e a k e r s 'c o m p e te n c e b a s e d o n th e i n t u i t i o n s o f li n g u is ts a n a ly s in g m a g n a s y n
ta x . B a rlo w a n d K e m m e r (2 0 0 0 , p . v iiii) p o i n t o u t th a t u s a g e - b a s e d re s e a rc h
a llo w s a n a ly s ts to d e v e lo p h y p o th e s e s a b o u t lin g u is tic s t r u c t u r e o n th e b asis
c f o b s e r v e d u tte r a n c e s , w ith o u t m a k i n g c la im s a b o u t m e n ta l s t r u c t u r e a n d
o p e r a tio n . U s a g e -b a s e d m o d e ls a r e n o n e th e le s s o f g re a t in te r e s t to a n a ly s ts
in v e s tig a tin g a c tu a l s p e a k e rs . s p e a k e rs lin g u is tic s y s te m is, in th is p e rs p e c
tive, g r o u n d e d in u s a g e e v e n ts , in s ta n c e s o f a s p e a k e rs p r o d u c i n g a n d u n d e r
s t a n d in g la n g u a g e . G e n e r a l p a tt e r n s a r c g r a d u a lly b u il t u p b y s p e a k e r s tr o m
sp e c ific u tte r a n c e s w ith s p e c ific lex ical ite m s p r o d u c e d in s p e c ific c o n te x ts .
U n its o r p a t t e r n s w h ic h a r e m o r e f r e q u e n t b e c o m e m o r e e n tr e n c h e d ', t h a t is,
s to r e d a s c o g n itiv e r o u t in e s w h ic h e n a b le t h e u n it s a n d p a t t e r n s t o b e r a p id ly
p ro c e s s e d . T h e s p e a k e r 's lin g u is tic a b ility is s e e n a s c o n s t it u te d b y re g u la ritie s
in th e m e n ta l p ro c e s s in g o l la n g u a g e , a n d t h e s h a r p d is ti n c ti o n b e tw e e n
c o m p e te n c e a n d p e r f o r m a n c e c e n tr a l t o m u c h g e n e ra tiv e g r a m m a r is, in th e
u s a g e -b a s e d a p p r o a c h , s e e n a s u n h e lp f u l. P ro c e s s in g is a n in t r i n s ic p a r t o f th e
lin g u is tic k n o w le d g e s y s te m , w h ic h c a n n o t b e t r e a te d s e p a r a te ly f r o m it.

Tense and aspect in English

In t h i s c h a p te r, w e w ill n o t b e c h a lle n g in g t h e a f o r e m e n t io n e d te n e ts o f th e
i s a g e - b a s e d a p p r o a c h to t h e a n a ly s is o f l a n g u a g e n o r w ill w e b e e x p lo r in g th e
r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n p ro c e s s in g a n d lin g u is tic k n o w le d g e . W e f o c u s in s te a d
c n d e m o n s tr a t in g h o w a n a ly s e s b a s e d o n s t a n d a r d w r itte n E n g lis h a n d d e v is e d
e x a m p le s o f s p o k e n s t a n d a r d E n g lis h d iv e r g e s ig n ific a n tly f r o m a n a ly s e s b a s e d
c n u sa g e , lo o k in g in p a r t ic u l a r a t te n s e a n d a s p e c t in E n g lis h . ( T h e d is c u s s io n
in d ire c tly p u ts in a w o r d lo r th e v e r y tr a d it io n a l sk ill, w h ic h r e q u ir e s m u c h
p ra c tic e , o f p a y in g a tt e n ti o n b o t h t o h o w s p e a k e r s c o m m u n ic a t e a m e ssa g e
a n d to th e c o n te n t o f th e m e s sa g e . A n y re s u lts o b ta i n e d b y th is m e t h o d n e e d

142

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

to b e r e p lic a te d b y o t h e r re s e a rc h e rs , a n d th e y d o n o t g iv e i n f o r m a t io n a b o u t
t i e f r e q u e n c y o f o n e c o n s t r u c ti o n in c o n t r a s t w ith a n o t h e r o n e . N e v e rth e le s s ,
c o lle c tin g d a ta o n th e h o o f p r o v i d e s u p - t o - d a t e e v id e n c e o f c h a n g e s in u sa g e ,
w h ic h a r e p a r tic u la r ly v a lu a b le w ith re s p e c t to s p o k e n u sa g e . T h e re s e a rc h e r
sim p ly n e e d s to r e m e m b e r t h a t o n e s w a llo w d o e s n 't m a k e a s u m m e r .)
It is s t r ik i n g h o w t h e tw o ty p e s o f a n a ly s is d iv e rg e , e s p e c ia lly w i t h re s p e c t
to t h e o n g o in g c h a n g e s in t h e E n g lis h te n s e - a s p e c t s y s te m . T h e c o r e o f th e
E n g lish t e n s e - a s p e c t s y s te m is th e c o n t r a s t b e tw e e n th e S im p le a n d P ro g r e s
sive f o r m s a n d b e tw e e n P a st a n d P r e s e n t, a s illu s tr a te d in ( 1 ).
(1 )

S im p le
P ast
P re se n t

S h o n a b o u g h t f la t s

c . S h o n a b u y s fla ts .

P r o g r e s s iv e
b . S h o n a w a s b u y i n g fla ts
d . S h o n a is b u y i n g f a t s

tW i/fe p h o s p h o r u s i g n i t e s in s t a n t a n e o u s ly .

In a d d it io n , th e r e is th e P e rfe c t, a s in ( 2 ) , a n d t h e tw o c o n s t r u c ti o n s by
v /h ic h s p e a k e r s c a n re f e r to f u t u r e tim e , a s in (3 ).
(2 ) S h o n a h a s b o u q h t fla ts.

(3 ) a . S h o n a w ill b u y fla ts.

b . S h o n a is g o i n g t o b u y fla ts

T h e tr a d itio n a l a n a ly s is is t h a t b o t h t h e S im p le a n d th e P ro g re ssiv e fo r m s c a n
d e n o te s in g le e v e n ts o r h a b itu a l/r e p e a te d e v e n ts a n d t h a t th e S im p le P re s e n t
c a n a ls o d e n o te g e n e ric e v e n ts . A s in M ic h a e lis (2 0 0 6 , p p . 2 2 0 - 3 ) , ( l a ) a n d
( l b ) , u n d e r s to o d a s re f e rrin g to sin g le e v e n ts , w ill b e c a lle d e p is o d ic clau ses'.
(M ic h a e lis c a lls th e m s e n te n c e s , b u t se e t h e d is c u s s io n o f s e n te n c e a n d c la u s e
in C h a p t e r 2 .) W h e n th e y a r e in t e r p r e te d a s r e f e r r i n g to h a b itu a l o r r e p e a te d
e v e n ts (c f. D u r in g h e r tw e n ty y e a r s in L o n d o n S h o n a b o u g h t fla ts b u t n o t
houses - p e r h a p s S h o n a w a s in v e s tin g a la rg e in h e r ita n c e , a n d A f th a t stage
o f h e r life S h o n a w a s b u y in g fla ts ), th e y w ill b e c a lle d 'h a b it u a l c la u s e s. ( 1e ) w ill

h e c a lle d a 'g n o m ic c la u s e . H a b itu a l c la u s e s s u c h a s ( I c ) a ss ig n p r o p e r tie s to

p a r tic u la r in d iv id u a ls ; g n o m ic c la u s e s s u c h a s ( l e ) h a v e a c o n tin g e n c y in t e r p r e
ta tio n : i f s o m e s t u f f is w h ite p h o s p h o r u s , t h e n it w ill ig n ite in s ta n ta n e o u s ly .

Leech's m odel
W e b e g in th e d is c u s s io n o f E n g lish te n s e a n d a s p e c t a n d s p o n t a n e o u s sp o k e n
la n g u a g e w ith t h e a c c o u n t in L eech ( 1971 ). T h i s a c c o u n t is p a r tic u la r ly h e lp fu l
b e c a u s e L e e c h tr e a ts E n g lis h te n s e a n d a s p e c t in t h e E u r o p e a n s tr u c tu r a lis t

U sage-based M odels
fa s h io n a s a s y s te m o f b in a r y o p p o s i ti o n s , e a c h m e m b e r o f e a c h o p p o s i ti o n
h a v in g its p a r t ic u l a r r e a d in g o r s e t o f r e a d in g s . T h e s y s te m is a s fo llo w s (see
L eech, 1 9 7 1 , v iii) , t h e o n l y c h a n g e b e in g in t h e la b e ls, w h ic h h a v e b e e n a lte re d
s lig h tly to b r i n g o u t t h e o p p o s i ti o n s m o r e c lea rly .

(4 ) n o n - P r o g r e s s iv e

P r o g r e s s iv e

S im p le P r e s e n t

P ro g P re se n t

h e sees

h e is s e e in g

N O N -P t w rc T

S im p le P a s t

P ro g P ast

h e saw

h e w a s s e e in g

( 's im p le ') P r e s e n t P e r f e c t

P r o g P re se n t P e rfe c t

h e h a s seen

h e h a s b e e n s e e in g

P fR F E C T

( 's im p le ') P a s t P e r fe c t

P r o g P a s t P e r fe c t

h e h a d seen

h e h a d b e e n s e e in g

T h e lu n d a m e n ta l c o n tr a s t in (4 ) is b e tw e e n P e rfe c t a n d n o n - P e r f e c t W ith in
e a c h te r m o f t h e c o n tr a s t, th e r e is a f u r t h e r c o n tr a s t b e tw e e n n o n -P r o g re s s iv e
a n d P ro g re ssiv e , a n d e a c h o f th e s e c a n b e p a s t o r n o n - p a s t. (W e fo llo w D a h ls
r o t a t i o n . T e n se s o r a s p e c ts in a p a r t ic u l a r la n g u a g e h a v e la b e ls w ith a n in itia l
c a p ita l le tte r - t h e P ro g re s s iv e in E n g lis h a n d th e I m p e rfe c tiv e in R u ssia n a n d la b e ls fo r a c ro s s -la n g u a g e c a te g o r y a r e in c a p ita ls - th e r e a liz a tio n o t th e
P E R F E C T IV E in R u s s ia n a n d L a tin .)
N o n -P ro g re s s iv e is re a liz e d b y th e S im p le P re s e n t a n d S im p le P a st. T o th e
S im p le P re s e n t, L eech a s s ig n s t h e m e a n i n g u n r e s tr ic tiv c u s e , a s in W a r solves
r o p r o b le m s a n d H o n e s t is th e b e st p o lic y , 'i n s t a n t a n e o u s u s e , a s in W e a ccep t
y o u r o ffe r a n d N a p ie r p a sses th e b a ll to A ttw a te r , w h o h e a d s it s tr a ig h t in to th e
goal, s ta te s a n d e v e n ts ' a s in I sh a ll r e m e m b e r th a t m o m e n t u n t i l I d ie a n d
h a b itu a l use', a s in I b u y m y sh irts a t H a rro d s. L eech c o m m e n ts ( 1 9 7 1 , p . 5 ) th a t
th e H a b itu a l P r e s e n t r e p r e s e n ts a s e r ie s o l in d iv id u a l e v e n ts , w h ic h a s a w h o le
m a k e u p a s t a te s tr e tc h i n g b a c k in to t h e p a s t a n d f o r w a r d i n t o th e f u tu r e . T h is
is o n e c o m p o n e n t o f l e e c h s a n a ly s is w h ic h is s h a r e d w ith th a t o f M ic h a e lis
(2 0 0 6 ), a lb e it t h e la tte r se e s th e P re s e n t T e n se a s c o e r c in g a n y ty p e o f s i tu a t io n
a s p e c t in to th e s t a te ty p e , w h e re a s I ^ e c h d o e s n o t a s s ig n a n y s u c h p r o p e r ty
to P re s e n t T en se b u t se e s h a b itu a is a s d e n o t i n g c o m p le x s ta te s re g a r d le s s o f
tense.
T w o o t h e r p a r t s o f l e e c h 's a c c o u n t b e a r o n o u r a n a ly s is . H e d e s c r ib e s as
im a g in a r y th e u s e o f th e S im p le P re s e n t in n a r r a ti v e , in th e d e s c r ip ti o n o f

143

1 44

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

ro u te s in tr a v e l b o o k s a n d in in s tr u c t io n s in in s tr u c t io n b o o k le ts . By im a g i
n a r y h e m e a n s t h a t p e r s o n s d e s c r ib in g t h e s e t o f e v e n ts s e e th e m a s h a p p e n in g
a i th e y s p e a k , in th e i r m i n d s eye.
L eechs a c c o u n t o f th e P r e s e n t P e rfe c t d o e s n o t u s e t h e te r m s in th e
c la s s ific a tio n in ( 5 ) , b u t th e m a jo r d is tin c tio n s h e d ra w s c o r r e s p o n d to th e
m a jo r in t e r p r e ta ti o n s o f t h e P e rf e c t n o w r e c o g n iz e d b y a n a ly s ts . T h e s e in te r
p r e t a ti o n s a r e e x e m p lif ie d in (5 ).
(5 ) a

e x p e r ie n t ia l/ in d e f in it e p a s t

H a v e y o u e v e r d r u n k ra k ija ?

r e s u lt a t iv e

I h a v e w r i t t e n u p m y th e s is

re ce n t p a st

T h e M in is t e r h a s (ju s t ) a r r iv e d ,

p e r s is t e n t s it u a t io n

I v e b e e n w a it in g f o r a n h o u r

O ngoing changes in the English tense-aspect system

T h e e le g a n t a n d p le a s in g c o n tr a s ts in (4 ) a n d (5 ) m a tc h t h e u s e o f t h e te n s e s
a n d a s p e c ts in f o r m a l w r itte n U n g lish , e sp e c ia lly in te x ts i n s p e c te d b y e d ito rs .
T h e y d o n o t m a t c h th e u s a g e s to b e f o u n d in th e s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lish
c n w h ic h t h e fo llo w in g d is c u s s io n is b a s e d , a n d w e w ill a r g u e t h a t th e y d o n o t
s ta n d u p to s c r u tin y . T h e k e y p o in t s in th e a r g u m e n t a r e a s follow s:

T h e S i m p l e P r e s e n t a n d t h e S i m p l e P a s t a r e p a r t i n g c o m p a n y ; i n p a r t ic u la r , t h e
S i m p l e P r e s e n t c a n b e s e e n a s v e r y m u c h t h e o d d o n e o u t in t h e s y s t e m
T h e r e a r e c l e a r s i g n s t h a t t h e P r o g r e s s iv e is s p r e a d i n g t o m o r e a n d m o r e c o n t e x t s
a n d t h a t it h a s b e g u n t h e p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g a n im p e r f e c t iv e
T h e P e r f e c t is u n s t a b le . T h e r e a r e u s e r s w h o c o m b i n e it w i t h d e f in it e p a s t t im e
a d v e r b s , u s i n g it a s i f It w e r e a p r e t e r it e . O t h e r u s e r s p r e f e r t h e S i m p l e P a s t in s t e a d
o f t h e P e r f e c t , w i t h t h e p o s s ib le e x c e p t i o n o f t h e R e s u l t P e r f e c t ( S e e M ille r ( 2 0 0 0 ) )
A c c o u n t s o f t e n s e a n d a s p e c t .n E n g l i s h u s u a ll y d o n o t in c l u d e t h e R e s u l t a t i v e
c o n s t r u c t i o n s t h a t o c c u r r e g u l a r l y i n s p o k e n E n g li s h .

The Sim ple Present and Sim ple Past

T h e S im p le P r e s e n t a n d t h e S im p le P a st a r c k e p t a p a r t b y a m a jo r d is tin c tio n
i:i in t e r p r e ta ti o n . F r o m th e p e rs p e c tiv e o f m a g n a s y n ta x , S im p le P a st v e rb s
can h a v e e p is o d ic , h a b it u a l o r g e n e ric in t e r p r e ta ti o n s . ( B u t M ic h a e lis (2 0 0 6 ,
p. 2 3 3 ) su g g e s ts t h a t s e n te n c e s w ith p a s t- te n s e v e rb s m a y n o t b e p r o to ty p ic a l
g e n e ric s b e c a u s e t h e s i tu a t io n r e p o r te d is n o t o n - g o in g a t th e tim e o f sp e e c h ,
t o r h e r, a n e x a m p le s u c h a s T h e C a th o lic m a s s w a s re cited in L a tin is a m a r g in a l
g e n e ric .) F ro m t h e p e rs p e c tiv e o f m a g n a s y n ta x , S im p le P re s e n t v e r b s h a v e a n

U sage-based M odels
e p is o d ic in t e r p r e ta ti o n (se e L e e c h s in s ta n t a n e o u s u s e s ta te d e a r lie r ) , a g e n e ric
u s e (s e e l e e c h s 'u n r e s tr ic tiv e u s e ' s ta te d e a r lie r ) a n d a h a b itu a l u se.
A n o th e r a n a ly s is is in d i c a te d b y d a ta f r o m tw o s o u r c e s , e x p e rim e n ta lly
e lic ite d ju d g e m e n ts a n d c o r p u s d a ta . O u t o f c o n te x t. S im p le F a st e x a m p le s
a re ty p ic a lly in te r p r e te d a s d e n o ti n g a sin g le e v e n t, w h e re a s S im p le P re s e n t
e x a m p le s a r e ty p ic a lly i n t e r p r e t e d a s d e n o t i n g r e p e a te d o r h a b i t u a l e v e n ts . T h e
S im p le P re s e n t ty p ic a lly h a s a h a b itu a l o r g e n e r ic in t e r p r e ta ti o n ; it c a n d e n o te
a s in g le e v e n t, b u t o n ly i n s p e c ia l te x t ty p e s s u c h a s s ta g e d ir e c ti o n s a n d s p o r ts
c o m m e n ta r ie s o r in a s p e c ia l n a r r a ti v e sty le .
JM s a t t e n t i o n w a s firs t d r a w n to d iffe re n c e s in th e u s e o t th e S im p le
F re s e n t a n d S im p le P a st w h ile h e w a s w o r k in g o n th e M i lle r - B r o w n C o r p u s o f
S c o ttis h E n g lis h c o n v e rs a tio n s in 1 9 7 9 -8 0 . T h e id e a t h a t t h e y h a d d if fe re n t
ty p ic a l i n t e r p r e ta ti o n s w a s s u p p o r t e d b y i n t u i t i o n s c o lle c te d f r o m m a n y classes
c f s t u d e n t s in t h e 19 8 0 s . A s p a r t o f le c tu r e s o n te n s e a n d a s p e c t g iv e n b y JM in
th e 1980s, s t u d e n ts w e re a s k e d to c a r r y o u t v a r i o u s ta s k s. F o r in s ta n c e , th e y
w ere g iv e n a lis t o f s e n te n c e s s u c h a s W e v is ite d L o n d o n a n d W e v is it L o n d o n
a n d a s k e d to a d d a n a d v e rb ia l p h r a s e o r c la u s e . T h e firs t e x a m p le a lw ay s
d ic ite d a d d itio n s s u c h a s la s t y e a r o r w h e n w c w e re o n h o lid a y la s t s u m m e r a n d

trie s e c o n d e lic ite d a d d it io n s s u c h a s e v e r y s u m m e r o r w h e n e v e r w e g o to sec o u r

cousins.
F u r t h e r s u p p o r t c o m e s f r o m tw o 2 ,0 0 0 -w o rd e x tr a c ts f r o m t h e W e llin g to n
C o r p u s o f S p o k e n N e w Z e a la n d E n g lis h , f r o m n o w o n W S C (W e llin g to n
S p o k e n C o r p u s ) , a n d tw o 2 ,0 0 0 -w o rd e x tr a c ts f r o m t h e M ille rB ro w n C o r p u s
c f s p o k e n S c o ttis h E n g lis h . T h e W S C e x tr a c ts a r e f r o m a r a d i o p h o n e - i n d is
c u s s io n p r o g r a m m e a n d a r u g b y c o m m e n ta r y , a n d th e M ille r - B r o w n e x tra c ts
a r e c o n v e r s a tio n , o n e a n a r r a tiv e a n d th e o t h e r a d is c u s s io n . T h e to k e n s o f
S im p le P r e s e n t a n d S im p le P a st v e r b f o r m s w e r e c o d e d , c o lle c te d a n d s o r te d
in to th o s e d e n o t i n g s ta te s a n d th o s e d e n o ti n g e v e n ts . E x a m p le s o f to k e n s
c e n o t i n g s ta te s a r e in (6 ).
(6 ) a . n o w i k n o w o l a p e r s o n w h o 's g o t T W O T E E N A G E R S p l u s h e rs e lf.
b . i ju s t f e e l t h a t h e is a c t u a lly d o in g it j u s t f o r h is f o r h i s u h c lie n t .
c . i'm g l a d y o u s h a r e a s e n s e o f o u t r a g e .
d . t h a t 's w h a t i w a n t t o hear.

e.

h o w d o e s th a t k n e e lo o k

T h e S im p le f o r m s d e n o t i n g e v e n ts w e re t h e n s p lit in to th o s e o c c u r r in g in
n a i n c la u s e s a n d th o s e o c c u r r in g in s u b o r d in a te c la u s e s , a s in (7 ).

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(7 )

i w o u l d lik e l o y o u l o a s k t h e m i f y o u c a n i f y o u E V E R g e t o n t o t h e m .

T h e f o r m s o c c u r r in g in m a in c la u s e s w e re d iv id e d in to th o s e t h a t o c c u r r e d
in th e a c tu a l d ia lo g u e o r m o n o l o g u e a n d th o s e t h a t o c c u r r e d in th e m e t a
c o m m e n ta r y in th e W S C d a ta , w h e r e t h e c o d in g in c lu d e s p a ra lin g u is tic
a n th r o p o p h o n ic s , fo r e x a m p le , 'la u g h s 'd ra w ls , in h a le s , s n u f fle s a n d s o o n .
Finally, th e f o r m e r w e r e s o r te d w i t h re s p e c t to w h e th e r t h e y d e n o t e d sin g le
(p o s sib ly in s ta n t a n e o u s ) c o m p le te d e v e n ts o r r e p e a te d /h a b itu a l e v e n ts , o r
w ere e x a m p le s o f n a r r a tiv e u se , o r d is c o u r s e o r g a n iz e r s , s e q u e n c e s s u c h a s y o u
see, y o u k n o w , I m e a n , a s I sa y a n d s o o n . T h e re s u lts o f t h e a n a ly s is a n d s o r tin g
a re p r e s e n te d in (8 ).

N Zsp c

N Z rp

S C n a rr

S C d is c

S ta te

H ab /rep

s in g le

n a rr

d is c o u r s e

SP r

11

78

S P st

21

SP r

21

S P st

26

SP r

13

S P st

10

74

SPr

77

16

78

S P st

N Zsp c =

'N e w Z e a la n d s p o r t s c o m m e n t a r y , N Z r p =

p h o n e - in p r o g r a m m e 1, S c n a r r =

N e w Z e a la n d r a d io

S c o t t is h E n g lis h n a r r a t iv e '. 5 c t f o c = 'S c o t t is h

E n g liv h d is c u s s io n '. H a b / r e p = 'h a b it u a l/ r e p e a t e d ', s in g le = s in g le c o m p le t e d

e v e n t ', n a r r = n a r r a t iv e ', d i s c o u r s e = d is c o u r s e o r g a n iz e r s '.

T h e lig u r e s s u p p o r t th e v ie w t h a t s p o r t s c o m m e n ta r ie s a r e d if f e r e n t f r o m
th e o t h e r th r e e te x t ty p e s . N o n e o f th e S im p le P re s e n t f o r m s in t h e s p o r t s c o m
m e n ta r y d e n o te h a b itu a l o r r e p e a te d a c tio n s , b u t 7 8 d e n o te s in g le c o m p le te d
e v e n ts o f th e s o r t in (7 ).
(9 )

a. < W S C # M U C 0 0 2 :0 0 9 5 :JM >

ly n a g h g iv e s it o n t o H o r a n
< W S C ffM U C 0 0 2 :0 1 0 0 JM >
L y n a g h d o u b le s a r o u n d b a c k in t o C a m p e s e w h o 's c o m e in
b

< W S C # M U C 0 0 2 :0 1 2 0 !M >
In n e s g e t s it k ic k s a w a y

< W S C # M U C 0 0 7 :1 ? 8 0 JM >
t h e y 'r e t r y in g t o d ro D h im t o t h e g r o u n d b u t C r o w le y d o e s V F R Y -.veil to
s t a y o n h is f e e t g e t s t h e b a ll t o B a c h o p a n d B a c h o p k ic k s < la u g h s > a w a y
to to u ch

U sage-based M odels
In th e o t h e r te x t ty p e s , n o n e o f t h e S im p le P re s e n t f o r m s d e n o te sin g le
c o m p le te d e v e n ts . In s te a d , th e y a ll d e n o te r e p e a te d o r h a b itu a l e v e n ts , w ith
th e e x c e p tio n

o f ( 1 0 ) , w h ic h

lo o k s m o r e g e n c r ic t h a n

h a b itu a l. ( C a n

in a n i m a t e e n ti ti e s h a v e h a b its ? ) It is u tt e r e d in re s p o n s e t o th e q u e s tio n W h a ts
G alliano?
( 1 0 ) It c o m e s in a lo n g b o t t le w i t h a t w ig in t h e c e n t r e o f it
m b c 1 , c o n v e r s a t io n 2 , < c 3 >

In ( 8 ) , it re f e rs to G a llia n o , w h ic h is a p r o p e r n a m e w h e n r e f e r r i n g to th e
c o m p a n y t h a t m a k e s t h e li q u e u r b u t a m a s s n o u n w h e n r e f e r r in g t o th e ty p e
c f liq u e u r. T h e l a t t e r in t e r p r e ta ti o n is t h e re le v a n t o n e in t h i s c o n te x t. T h a t is,
(8 ) h a s a c o n tin g e n c y in t e r p r e ta ti o n lik e ( l e ) : i f s o m e liq u id is G a llia n o , it
c o m e s in a lo n g b o ttle w ith a tw ig in th e c e n tr e o f it.
In t h e N e w Z e a la n d r a d io p h o n e - i n p r o g r a m m e a n d th e S c o ttis h E n g lish
n a rr a tiv e a n d d is c u s s io n , m o s t o f th e S im p le P r e s e n t v e r b s re f e r to h a b itu a l o r
re p e a te d a c tio n s . T h e e x c e p tio n is t h e d is c u s s io n , in w h ic h a v e r y la rg e n u m b e r
c f S im p le P r e s e n t v e r b s re f e r to sta te s: fo r e x a m p le , I w o n d e r, I reco g n ize th e
b u ild in g , I th in k , I regret, I reckon t h a t . . . , ( ) so h a p p e n s th a t ( I m a m e m b e r o f
th e k ir k j u s t lo ca lly h e re ), I su p p o se , I r e m e m b e r , I still m a in ta in . . . lots o f c in e
m a s w o u ld h a v e s till b e e n o p e n a n d s o o n .
T h e r e a r e 156 to k e n s o f S im p le P a s t v e rb s . 125, o r 8 6 % , re f e r to sin g le
c o m p le te d e v e n ts . 2 2 r e f e r to s la te s a n d 6 re f e r to h a b i t u a l o r r e p e a te d a c tio n s .
If th e s p o r t s c o m m e n t a r y is p u t o n o n e s id e , w e fin d t h a t n o S im p le P re s e n t
fo r m s re f e r to s in g le c o m p le te d e v e n ts a n d o n ly six S im p le P a s t lo r m s
refer t o h a b it u a l/ r e p e a t e d e v e n ts , fig u re s t h a t s u p p o r t t h e s u g g e s tio n th a t it
r.o lo n g e r m a k e s s e n s e to v ie w t h e S im p le P r e s e n t a n d t h e S im p le P a s t as
c o n s titu tin g o n e m e m b e r o f a n o p p o s i ti o n w h o s e o t h e r m e m b e r is th e
P ro g ressiv e.
W h a t a n a ly s is w o u ld m a k e se n se ? J e s p e rs e n (1 9 6 1 b , p . 17) in s is ts t h a t it is
w r o n g to tr e a t h a b it u a l a n d g n o m ic c la u s e s ( h e d o e s n t u s e th e s e te r m s ) as
tim e le s s ; i f s p e a k e r s u s e t h e p r e s e n t te n s e , h e sa y s , i t is b e c a u s e th e i r e x a m p le s
a r e v a lid n o w - o r w e re v a lid a t t h e t i m e o f s p e e c h o r w r itin g . T h is c o m m e n t
a c c o rd s w i t h th e a p p r o a c h a d o p te d h e r e ( a n d in C o g n itiv e L in g u is tic s ),
w h e re b y all d is ti n c ti o n s in m o r p h o lo g y a n d s y n ta x a r e m e a n in g f u l. W h a t w e
h a v e s a id e a rlie r a b o u t t h e S im p le P r e s e n t p a r t in g c o m p a n y w ith t h e S im p le
P ast d o c s n o t m e a n th a t th e c o n tr a s t b e tw e e n p a s t a n d p r e s e n t te n s e is to b e
d is re g a rd e d . Q u i r k a n d G r e e n b a u m (1 9 8 5 , p p . 1 7 9 -8 1 ) u s e te r m s s u c h as
tim e le s s s ta te m e n ts a n d 'k i n d o f " tim e le s s p r e s e n t , b u t t h e i r d ia g r a m sh o w s

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th a t t h e y a n a ly s e h a b it u a l a n d g n o m ic c la u s e s a s h o ld in g in a s t r e tc h o f tim e
th a t in c lu d e s t h e m o m e n t o f s p e e c h - 'now * in th e i r d ia g r a m .
T h e a n a ly s is a d o p t e d h e r e is b a s e d o n L e ec h 's id e a o f i m a g in a r y u s e s (L ee c h ,
1971, p. 13). W e su g g e s t t h a t w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e in s ta n ta n e o u s e v e n t
in te r p r e ta tio n , th e S im p le P re s e n t h a s b e c o m e a k in d o l irre a lis. S im p le P re s e n ts
in s p o r ts c o m m e n ta r ie s a r c u tt e r e d b y s p e a k e r s d e s c r ib in g e v e n ts a s th e y h a p
p e n , a s in < 7 a -c ). T h e y a r e e m i n e n tl y re a lis a n d re p r e s e n t th e c la s sic o p p o s i
tio n o f S im p le a n d P ro g re s s iv e f o r m s , o th e r w is e o b s e r v e d o n ly in th e p a s t
te n s e o r a f t e r w ill a n d sh a ll. S im p le P re s e n t f o r m s w ith h a b it u a l o r g n o m ic
in t e r p r e ta tio n s a r e ir re a lis t o t h e e x te n t t h a t t h e s p e a k e r w h o u s e s t h e m is n o t
r e f e r r in g to a p a r t ic u l a r in s ta n c e o f s o m e ty p e o f e v e n t h a p p e n in g a t th e
m o m e n t o f s p e e c h . F o r th e la tte r, t h e P ro g re ssiv e is re q u ir e d , w itn e s s th e c o n
tr a s ts in (1 1 )( 13).
( 1 1 ) S h e m a k e s h e r o w n d r e s s e s , in f a c t s h e s m a k in g o n e r ig h t n o w
(12) Th ey g o

t o B r s s e ls t w ic e a y e a r , in f a c t t h e y r e d r iv in g t h e r e a t th e

m o m e n t.
( 1 3 ) W a t e r b o ils a t 1 0 0 C . T h e w a t e r i n t h is k e t t le is b o il in g s o it m u s t h a v e
r e a c h e d >0 0 * C

A n a s s e rtio n o f a h a b it u a l o r g n o m ic p r o p o s iti o n m a y b e fo llo w e d b y a

d e n ia l t h a t t h e p r o p o s iti o n is a b o u t to b e tr a n s la te d in to a n a c ti o n o r p ro c e s s.
( 1 4 ) T h e y g o t o B r u s s e ls t w e e a y e a r , b u t t h e y m ig h t n o t g o t h e r e t h is a u t u m n
b e c a u s e t h e ir s o n w ill b e in B e ir u t .

T h e v a lid ity o f t h e p r o p o s iti o n t h a t th e y g o to B ru ss e ls tw ic e a y e a r is n o t

a ffe c te d b y th e la c k o f a n a u t u m n v is it; th is is p o s s ib le b e c a u s e o f th e irre a lis
r a t u r e o f h a b itu a l clau ses.
L e e c h (1 9 7 1 , p . 13) m e n t io n s v a r io u s u se s t h a t a r e h a r d t o classify. H is
e x a m p le s a r e in ( 15 )( 17 ).
( 1 5 ) T o r e a c h C h u g w e ll , w e m a k e o u r w a y u p t o t h e R iv e r E d e , t h e n s k ir t th e
s lo p e s o f W in d y B e a c o n . . . | tra ve lo g u e | .
( 1 6 ) Y o u f a ir e t h e fir s t t u r n i n g o n t h e l e f t . . . t h e n y o u c r o s s a b r id g e a n d b e a r
r i g h t . . . |d irectio n s|.
( 1 7 ) Y o u t e s t a n a ir le a k b y d i s c o n n e c t in g t h e d e liv e r y p ip e a t t h e c a r b u r e t t o r a n d
p u m p in g p e t r o l in t o a c o n t a in e r

T h e s e c a n all b e t r e a te d a s g e n e ric s . T h e y d o n o t re f e r t o a c tu a lly o c c u r r in g

e v e n ts , a n d th e y h a v e c o n tin g e n c y re a d in g s a s r e q u ir e d b y M ic h a e lis (2 0 0 6 ):

U sage-based M odels
If w e a r e t r y i n g to re a c h C h u g w e ll, t h e n w e fo llo w t h i s ro u te , ' I f y o u a r e g o in g
to X , t h e n y o u p r o c e e d t h u s a n d If y o u th i n k th e r e is a n a ir - le a k , y o u d o th e
fo llo w in g .' Q u i r k e t a l. <1985- p . 180) g iv e e x a m p le s o f d e m o n s tr a t io n s , as
i.i (1 8 ). T h e s e c a n b e h a n d le d a s a s p e c ia l c a s e o f g e n e ric s ( r a t h e r t h a n a ty p e
c f c o m m e n ta r y ) ; / c a n h e re p la c e d b y y o u o r o n e a n d th e y h a v e a c o n tin g e n c y
re a d in g : ' I f y o u w a n t to m a k e t h i s d is h , y o u c a r r y o u t th e fo llo w in g s te p s o r
T o n e w a n ts to m a k e th is d is h
( 1 8 ) I p i c k u p th e fru it w it h a s k e w e r , d i p it in t o t h e b a tte r, a n d l o w e r it in t o the
h o t fat.

Q u i r k c t a l. g iv e a n e x a m p le o l w h a t t h e y c a ll a s e lf-c o m m e n ta ry , r e p r o
d u c e d in ( 1 9 ) , a n d e x a m p le s o f p e r f o r m a tiv e s , a s in ( 2 0 ).
( 1 9 ) I e n c lo s e ( h e r e w it h ) a f o r m o f a p p lic a t io n .

( 2 0 ) a . I a v is e y o u t o w ith d r a w .
b . I a p o lo g iz e .
c . W e t h a n k y o u f o r y o u r r e c e n t in q u iry .

(1 9 ) a n d (2 0 ) illu s tr a te t h e d if fic u ltie s o f w o r k in g w ith m a g n a s y n ta x . (1 9 )

c o e s n o t re f e r to a n o n g o in g a c tio n , n o t o n g o in g b y t h e t i m e th e le tte r is
read b y th e r e c ip ie n t a n d n o t o n g o in g w h e n th e w o r d s a r e w r itte n . IM u se d
to c o m p o s e le tte r s o l re fe re n c e o r e n q u ir y t h a t b e g a n w ith c la u s e s s u c h as
I w r ite in s u p p o r t o f th e a p p lic a tio n b y X o r w r i t e in c o n n e c t io n w ith y o u r
le tte r o f t h e 14,h J a n u a ry . H e h a s n o w a b a n d o n e d th e s e f o r m u la e in fa v o u r o f
c la u s e s s u c h a s a m w r it in g in s u p p o r t . . . . T h e c r u c ia l p r o p e r ty o l p e r f o r m a
tives is t h a t t h e u tt e r i n g o f a p e r f o r m a tiv e c la u s e c o n s t it u te s th e p e r f o r m a n c e
c f a n a c t a n d n o t a r e f e re n c e to a n a c t. M u c h o f th e la te r w o r k o n p e r f o r m a
tives lo s t s ig h t o f th e fa c t t h a t th e r e a r e p u b lic c e re m o n ia l a c ts - fo r e x a m p le ,
s e n te n c in g in a c o u r t o f la w , m a r r y in g a n d b a p ti z in g in c h u r c h a n d la u n c h in g
a s h i p - w h ic h d o r e q u ir e p a r t ic u l a r f o r m s o f w o r d s a n d o t h e r n o t s o p u b lic
a c ts , s u c h a s a p o lo g iz in g , a d v is in g a n d th a n k in g , w h ic h d o n o t r e q u ir e t h e u s e
o f S im p le P re s e n t v e rb s . A s t u d y o f h o w s u g g e s tio n s a r e m a d e in b u s in e s s
m e e tin g s f o u n d t h a t t h e v e rb 's u g g e s t' d id n o t o c c u r o n c e (S o d e - W o o d h e a d ,
2 0 0 1 ). (1 9 ) a n d (2 0 ) a r e e x a m p le s o f a r c h a ic u s a g e s t h a t a r e n o w h ig h ly
fo r m u la ic ( a n d m a y b e fa llin g in to d is u s e ) a n d n o t r e le v a n t t o t h e c o r e o f th e
E n g lish v e r b sy s te m .
T h e fin a l u s e o f th e S im p le P r e s e n t is w h a t Q u i r k e t a l. (1 9 8 5 , p. 181 ) c a ll th e
's im p le p r e s e n t r e f e r r i n g to t h e p a s t, b u t th e y a ls o m e n t io n t h e la b e ls 'h is to r ic

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p r e s e n t a n d 'f ic tio n a l p r e s e n t. F o llo w in g th e c r ite r io n t h a t g r a m m a tic a l d iffe r
en c e s a r e to b e ta k e n se rio u sly , w e a s s u m e th a t s p e a k e r s w h o c h o o s e th is u sa g e
d o s o b e c a u s c th e y a r c p r e s e n tin g s i tu a t io n s a s b e in g in p r e s e n t tim e . A n
e x a m p le is in ( 2 1 ).
( 2 1 ) T h e r e 's t h is m a n s il t i n g in a b a r. A w e e g u y c o m e s m w i t h a c r o c o d ile o n
a le a s h .

L eech (1 9 7 1 , p . 12) d e s c r ib e s th e fic tio n a l p r e s e n t a s a d e v ic e fo r d r a m a tic

h e ig h te n in g , p u t t i n g t h e r e a d e r in t h e p la c e o f s o m e o n e a c tu a lly w itn e s s in g
t i e e v e n ts a s t h e y h a p p e n . I le a t t r i b u t e s th is u s a g e to m o r e s e r io u s w r it in g ,
h u t d r a m a ti c h e ig h te n in g is e q u a lly a p r o p e r ty o f 'p o p u l a r n a r r a tiv e . T h e
e x a m p le o l m o r e s e r io u s w r itin g t h a t L eech p ro v id e s is ta k e n f r o m B lea k
H ouse. S e e (2 2 ).
|22> M r T u lk in g h o r n fafe es o u t h i s p a p e r s , a s k s p e r m is s io n t o p la c e t h e m o n a
g o l d e n t a lis m a n o f a t a b ie a t m y L a d y 's e lb o w , p o t s o n h i s s p e c t a c le s , a n d
b e g i n s t o r e a d b y t h e lig h t o f a s h a d e d la m p

B le a k H o u se is a n in te r e s tin g n o v e l w ith re s p e c t to th e u s e o f t h e S im p le
P r e s e n t T h e e v e n ts a r c n a r r a t e d b y tw o p e o p le . O n e is D ic k e n s , in h is ro le as
c m n i s c i e n t n a r r a to r . T h a t ro le e n a b le s h im t o p r e s e n t th e e v e n ts a s th o u g h
t i e y w e r e b e in g w itn e s s e d b y re a d e r s , a n d t h i s e ffe c t is a c lu e t h a t th e h is to ric
c r fic tio n a l p r e s e n t c a n b e r e la te d to t h e I n s ta n ta n e o u s P re s e n t. B o th h a v e to
d o w ith e v e n ts b e in g d e s c r ib e d a s th e y h a p p e n , a n d b o th in v o lv e a m ix tu r e
c f S im p le P r e s e n t a n d P ro g re s s iv e . T h e o t h e r n a r r a t o r is o n e o l t h e le a d in g
c h a ra c te rs , E s th e r S u m m e r s o n . H e r p o r t i o n o f t h e n a r r a tiv e p u r p o r t s to b e
fro m h e r d i a r y a n d is w r it te n in t h e p a s t te n s e , w ith lo ts o f S im p le P asts,
b e in g a c h a r a c t e r in th e n o v e l a n d w r it in g u p t h e e v e n ts f r o m h e r p e rs p e c tiv e ,
F.sther S u m m e r s o n c a n n o t p r e t e n d to o m n is c ie n c e a n d c a n n o t u s e th e S im p le
P re s e n t.
S u m m a r y : T h e s y s te m o f o p p o s i ti o n s a n d u se s s e t o u t b y L e e c h ( 1 9 7 1 ) is
h a s e d o n m a g n a s y n ta x . A n e x a m in a tio n o f u s a g e in d if f e r e n t ty p e s o f s p o n t a
n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lis h re v e a ls a s p l i t b e tw e e n th e S im p le P a st a n d t h e S im p le
P re s e n t. T h e u s e s o f t h e S im p le P r e s e n t c a n b e p u t in to th r e e g ro u p s . O n e
g r o u p c o n s is ts o l p e r l o r m a tiv e s a n d s e ll- c o m m e n ta r ie s , w 'h ic h , in t h e i r m o rp h o s y n ta x , r e p r e s e n t a r c h a ic u s a g e s a n d a n e a r lie r s ta g e in th e h is to r ic a l d e v e l
o p m e n t o f th e E n g lish v e rb s y s te m . A s e c o n d g r o u p c o n s is ts o f S im p le P re s e n t
lo r m s p r e s e n tin g sin g le c o m p le te d e v e n ts a s h a p p e n in g in s ta n ta n e o u s ly . T h is
g r o u p in c lu d e s t h e u s e o f t h e S im p le P r e s e n t in s p o r ts c o m m e n ta r ie s , jo k es

U sage-based M odels
a n d n a r r a tiv e s ( p o p u l a r o r lite r a r y ) . T h e t h i r d g r o u p in c lu d e s t h e h a b it u a l a n d
g e n e ric m e a n in g s a n d in c lu d e s th e u s e o f th e S im p le P r e s e n t in h a b itu a l
cla u se s, g n o m i c c la u s e s , tra v e lo g u e s , d ir e c ti o n s a n d u s e r m a n u a ls .

The Sim ple Present: contrasts w ith Russian,

Chinese and Turkish
T h e u sa g e s r e p o r te d e a r lie r s h o w t h a t th e r e is a n a s p e c tu a l o p p o s i ti o n o n ly in
p a s t te n s e v e r b f o r m s . C o n c e p tu a lly , th is is n o t s u r p r is in g ; w e k n o w w h e th e r
e v e n ts a n d p ro c e s se s in p a s t tim e r a n t h e i r c o u rs e a n d re a c h e d t h e i r fin a l
b o u n d a r y , b u t e v e n ts a n d p ro c e s s e s in p r e s e n t tim e a r e o b s e r v e d a s th e y ta k e
p lace. O n c e a n e v e n t o r p ro c e s s h a s re a c h e d its fin a l b o u n d a r y , it is in th e
p a st a n d a n o t h e r e v e n t o r p ro c e s s b e g in s . In E n g lish , th e S im p le P r e s e n t is
e ith e r c o n f in e d t o p a r t ic u l a r g e n re s o r h a s a h a b itu a l- g e n e r ic in te r p r e ta tio n ,
w h ic h , a s L e e c h ( 1 9 7 1 , p . 5 ) p o i n t s o u t, c a n b e s e e n a s ta k in g a s e r ie s o f sin g le
c o m p le te d e v e n ts a n d p r e s e n tin g it a s a s ta te . In o t h e r la n g u a g e s , th e p ro b le m
o f p r e s e n t- te n s e f o r m s d e n o t i n g c o m p le te d e v e n ts h a s b e e n re s o lv e d in o th e r
vm y s. I n R u s s ia n , v e r b f o r m s th a t h a d p r e s e n t te n s e a n d p e r f e c tiv e a s p e c t

l a v e c o m e to b e u s e d to re fe r to f u t u r e e v e n ts a n d p ro c e s se s. I n a n u m b e r o f
la n g u a g e s, s u c h a s C h in e s e , v e r b s m a r k e d f o r p e rfe c tiv e a s p e c t c a n o n l y b e
u n d e r s to o d a s r e f e r r i n g to p a s t e v e n ts .
T u rk is h o ff e rs a n in te r e s tin g p a ra lle l to t h e E n g lis h S im p le P re s e n t a n d its
uses. L ew is < 1978, p p . 1 1 5 - 2 2 ) d is c u s s e s w h a t h e c a lls th e a o r i s t te n s e . H e
e x p la in s t h a t a o r is t h a s b e e n b o r r o w e d f r o m g r a m m a r s o f G r e e k a n d m e a n s
u n b o u n d e d ' a n d t h a t t h e T u rk is h te r m is g e n is z a m a n 'b r o a d te n s e ', w h ic h
s ig n a ls c o n t i n u i n g a c tiv ity . 1 lo w c v e r th e T urkish a o r is t is to b e a n a ly s e d , it is
r o t a te n s e . T h e T u rk is h v e r b h a s a c o m p le x s t r u c t u r e c o n s is tin g o f a s t e m to
w h ic h affix es a r e a d d e d . T h e r e a r c p a r t ic u l a r s lo ts fo r p a r t ic u l a r se ts o f affixes.
As c a n b e s e e n f r o m (2 3 ), t h e te n s e a ffix e s o c c u r in t h e p e n u lt im a te s lo t. T h e
s q u a r e b ra c k e ts in b o l d b e tw e e n S lo t 1 a n d S lo t 2 sig n a l th e o m is s io n o f se v e ra l
s lo ts , fo r reflex iv e, r e c ip r o c a l, c a u s a tiv e a n d p a ss iv e affix e s ( n o t to m e n tio n
c o u b le c a u s a tiv e s a n d d o u b le p a ss iv e s). T h e s t r u c t u r e in (2 3 ) a ls o o m i ts a slo t
fo r t h e p o te n t ia l affixes.

( 2 3 ) T h e s t iu c t u r e o f T u r k is h v e r b s
S lo t 1
V e rb ste m

I ]

S lo t 2

S lo t 3

S lo t 4

S lo t 5

n e g a t io n

A o r is t

te n se

p e rs o n / n u m b e r

Fu tu re
Im p o rt e c t iv o

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

T h e I m p e rfe c tiv e a ffix is -iy o r. Il is a c la ssic im p c rfe c tiv e , a s it is a d d e d to
s ta tiv e a n d d y n a m ic v e r b s te m s - y a z - i y o r - u m 'l a m w r itin g a n d s e v -iy o r -u m
I lik e - a n d is u s e d fo r r e f e re n c e to a s in g le o n g o in g e v e n t a n d to a h a b itu a l
e v e n t, a s in (2 4 ).
(2 d > T u rk is h
her

sa bah

d o rt

sa a l

each

m o r n in g

fo u r

h o u rs

y a zy o ru m
l-w rite

I w r i t e f o r f o u r h o u r s e a c h m o r n i n g .

S lo t 4 , t o r te n s e , is fille d e ith e r b y 0

fo r P r e s e n t T e n se o r b y -d i fo r P ast

T ense. ( T h e r e a r e f o u r P a st T e n s e a ffix e s, t h e c h o ic e b e in g d e te r m i n e d b y v o w el
h a rm o n y .) F o r e x a m p le , y a z - iy o r - u tn '\ a m w r it in g v e rs u s y a z - iy o r - d u - m w as
w ritin g .' T h e a ffix e s t h a t g o i n t o S lo t 3 a r c d if f ic u lt to c la ssify b u t te n s e s th e y
a re n o t. A s w e h a v e a lr e a d y s e e n , - iy o r is a n a s p e c tu a l su ffix . T h e su ffix la b e lle d
'f u t u r e , - a c a k h a s a s t r o n g m o d a l c o n te n t . A s L e w is p u t s it (L ew is* 1978,
p. 1 1 2 ), th is s u f fix e x p re s s e s n o t o n ly w h a t is g o in g to h a p p e n , b u t w h a t th e
s p e a k e r w a n ts to h a p p e n . It e x p re s se s p r e d ic tio n s , a n d in c o m b i n a ti o n w ith
t i c P a s t T e n s e s u f f ix e s i t h a s t o b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s e x p r e s s in g i n t e n t i o n , a s in

(2 5 ). P r o m a b r o a d e r p e rs p e c tiv e , -a c a k lo o k s v e r y m o d a l.
( 2 5 ) T u rk is h
b u n u y a p - a c a k - t i- m
t h is

d o -fu t u r e -p a s t -IS G

w a s in t e n d in g to d o t h is .

T h e a o r i s t h a s a s t r o n g ir re a lis c o m p o n e n t , in th e s e n s e th a t , lik e th e
h a b itu a l- g e n e r ic S im p le P re s e n t, a o r i s t v e rb s a r e n o t u s e d to re f e r to sp e c ific
a c tio n s . T h e a o r is t y a z - a r - im w r it e - a o r i s t - lS G c a n n o t b e s u b s tit u te d fo r
y a z iy o r itm in (2 2 ). A s L ew is { 1 9 7 8 , p . 117) p u t s it, y a z a r tm w o u ld b e in c o n g r u
o u s w ith th e p re c is e e x p re s s io n o f tim e in ( 2 2 ); it h a s to b e tr a n s la te d a lo n g
t i e lin e s o f a m a w r i t e r ( a n d '! w a s n 't n e c e s s a rily w r itin g a n y th i n g e a rlie r
to d ay , o r y e s te rd a y o r in d e e d f o r th e w h o le o f t h e p a s t y e a r').
T h e T u rk is h a o r is t h a s o t h e r r e s e m b la n c e s to th e S im p le P re s e n t. It is u se d
in s ta g e d ir e c tio n s - E sm a g ir - e r - 0 , o lu r - iir - 0 . E sm a e n ter-a o ri.st-3 .S G , sit
d o w n - a o r - 3 S G , E s m a e n te r s a n d s its d o w n - a n d in p r o v e r b s - il Ur- Ur - 0 ,
k c rv a n g e-er- 0 d o g b a r k - a o r - 3 S G , c a r a v a n le a v e -a o r-3 S G , T h e d o g s h o w l,
L ie c a r a v a n m o v e s on'. T h e T u rk is h A o r is t lo o k s lik e a m a r k e r o l ir re a lis m o o d .
O b v io u sly , it is v e r y b a d m e t h o d o lo g y t o ta k e a n a n a ly s is t h a t is s u p p o r te d b y
g o o d m o r p h o s y n ta c t ic , s e m a n tic a n d p r a g m a tic c r ite r ia in o n e la n g u a g e a n d

U sage-based M odels
a p p ly i l lo a n o t h e r la n g u a g e . N o n e th e le s s , g iv e n t h e ir r e a lis c o m p o n e n t o f th e
E n g lish S im p le P r e s e n t n o te d e a rlie r, w e c a n a t le a st s p e c u la te w h e th e r th e
S im p le P re s e n t, in its h a b itu a l- g e n e r ic a n d r e la te d u se s , is c h a n g in g i n t o a
m a r k e r o f ir re a lis m o o d . W e le a v e i t a s s p e c u la tio n .

The Progressive
T h e s t a n d a r d a n a ly s e s o l ih e E n g lis h v e rb h a v e th e S im p le a n d t h e P ro g re ssiv e
h

o p p o s i ti o n , lu s t a s a n e x a m in a tio n o f re a l u s a g e s h o w s t h a t th e S im p le

P re s e n t a n d th e S im p le P a st a r e m o v i n g a p a r t , s o it s h o w s c h a n g e s in th e
P ro g re ssiv e . T h e c la s sic P ro g re ssiv e is u s e d to p r e s e n t s in g le a c ti o n s o r p r o
c esses a s th e y a r e o n g o in g a n d is s u p p o s e d ly e x c lu d e d f r o m s ta tiv e v e rb s . W h ile
i*. is t r u e t h a t t h e m o s t s ta tiv e o f s ta tiv e v e rb s , K N O W , d o e s e x c lu d e th e
P ro g re ssiv e (see, fo r e x a m p le , Q u i r k e t a l., 1 9 8 5 , p . 198), a t le a s t a t t h e tim e o f
w r itin g , m a n y s ta tiv e v e r b s d o a llo w it, a s Q u i r k e t a l. (1 9 8 5 , p p . 1 9 9 -2 0 8 )
m a k e c le a r. T h e P ro g re ssiv e a ls o a p p e a r s to b e s p r e a d in g i n t o h a b itu a l
c la u s e s - Q u i r k e t al. (1 9 8 5 , p p . 1 9 9 -2 0 0 ) g iv e e x a m p le s - a n d in to g n o m ic
d a u s e s . P r o m a ty p o lo g ic a l h is to r ic a l p e r s p e c tiv e , th e s e u s e s o t t h e P ro g rc s

sive a r e n o t s u r p r is in g , s in c e th e c h a n g e o f P ro g re ssiv e s in to Im p e rfe c tiv e s is

c o m m o n a n d s in c e Im p e r f e c tiv e v e r b s a r e u s e d to re f e r t o s in g le o n g o in g
e v e n ts , to h a b it u a l e v e n ts a n d to g e n e r ic e v e n ts . O f c o u r s e , t h e c la ssic p a tt e r n
c f u s e o f t h e E n g lis h P ro g re s s iv e w ill s u r v iv e fo r s o m e t i m e y e t, p a r tic u la r ly
in f o r m a l w r it te n te x ts s c r u tin iz e d b y e d ito rs , b u t t h e n e w p a tt e r n is v is ib le in
s p e e c h a n d in in f o r m a l w r itin g .
F.arly E n g lish o r ig in a lly h a d a s im p le p r e s e n t a n d a s im p le p a s t (E ls n e ss
1997). A p p e a r in g in t h e f o u r te e n t h c e n tu r y , th e p ro g re s s iv e c a m e in to re g u la r
u se in s u b o r d in a te c la u s e s b y t h e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y a n d b y th e la te tw e n tie th
c e n tu r y , in B ritis h E n g lish , h a d b e c o m e v e ry f r e q u e n t in m a i n c la u s e s , e s p e
c ia lly in sp e e c h . S m i tt e r b e r g (2 0 0 0 ) d e m o n s tr a t e s t h a t th e P ro g re ssiv e b e c a m e
m o r e f r e q u e n t in t h e g e n re s o f L e tte rs , D r a m a , F ic tio n a n d H is to r y b u t less
fr e q u e n t in th e g e n r e o f S c ie n c e . T h e d a ta b a s e s o f M a i r a n d L eech (2 0 0 6 ,
p. 3 2 3 ) s h o w th e P ro g re ssiv e b e c o m i n g g e n e ra lly m o r e f r e q u e n t b u t also
s p r e a d in g i n t o n e w p a r t s o f t h e v e r b s y s te m s u c h a s th e P assiv e. C o llin s a n d
P e te rs (2 0 0 8 , p. 3 4 6 ) o b s e r v e t h e s a m e p h e n o m e n o n i n A u s tr a lia n E n g lis h a n d
N ew Z e a la n d E n g lish . H e re , w e f o c u s o n m a i n c la u s e s a n d t h e s p r e a d o f th e
p ro g re ssiv e to all le x ic a l o r s i tu a t io n a s p e c ts .
W e c o m m e n te d e a r lie r t h a t th e P ro g re ssiv e o c c u r s w i t h s ta tiv e v e rb s . 'C a n
o c c u r ' is less m is le a d in g , a s th e r e is n o s u g g e s tio n t h a t s ta tiv e v e r b s ty p ic a lly

1 53

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

c r e v e n re g u la r ly la k e ( h e P ro g re ssiv e . R a th e r, in s ta n c e s o f s ta tiv e v e rb s in
t i e P ro g re ssiv e t u r n u p a n d th e r e a r e e x a m p le s w h ic h Q u i r k a n d G re e n b a u m
d e c la re u n a c c e p ta b le , s u c h a s ( 2 6 a ) a n d t h e re a l ( w r i t t e n ) e x a m p le (2 6 b ) .
(2 7 a ,b ) a r e f u r t h e r e x a m p le s o f s ta tiv e c o n s t r u c ti o n s i n t h e P ro g re ssiv e .

(7 6 ) a

a m u n d e r s t a n d in g th a t th e o ffe r h a s b e e n a cce p te d .

Q u ir k a n d G re e n b a u m , 1 9 8 5 , p 7 0 3
b . I a m s o r r y t o h a v e t o w o r r y y o u a g a i n w i t h . . . X 's r e s u b m is s io n . H o w e v e r
D e p a r t m e n t Y is s t i l l n o t r e a lly u n d e r s t a n d in g w h a t it is t h a t X n e e d s
to do
U n iv e r s it y o f A u c k la n d , 2 0 0 4 ,
e - m a il f r o m a c o m m it t e e c o n v e n e r

( 2 7 ) a . ' A n d th e r e is a n o ld e r g e n e r a t io n w h o a r e s e e i n g N C E A a s lo w e r i n g th e
s ta n d a rd s. . . '
N Z L is t e n e r , 9

1 5 Ju n e 2 0 0 7 , p 2 3

b . S h e liv e s in a h o u s e w h ic h i s d a t i n g b a c k 2 0 0 y e a r s .
B B C p h o to g ra p h y p ro g ra m m e . Sunday.
1 7 Ju n e 2 0 0 7 , 9 - 9 .3 0 pm
c

it m a y b e t h a t in t e r n a l lin g u is t ic f a c t o r s

a r e g o v e r n i n g t h e chcw ce

b e tw e e n h a v e t o a n d h a v e g o t to
T a g lia m o n t e 2 0 0 4 4 3
d . p e o p le w e r e n ' t e v e n b e l i e v i n g t h e t r u e s to r ie s .
A u s t r a lia n I C E . S 1 A - 0 7 6 ( B ) 6 4

(2 6 )

a n d ( 2 7 a ) o f f e r tw o c la ssic s ta tiv e v e rb s . U N D E R S T A N D a n d SE E, in

th e p ro g re s s iv e . (2 7 b ,c ) a r e e x a m p le s o f s ta tiv e c o n s t r u c ti o n s e v e n i f th e v e rb s
a re n o t c la s s ic a lly s ta tiv e a n d ( 2 7 c ) is a ls o g e n e ric . ( R e m e m b e r L e e c h 's c o m
m e n t q u o t e d a b o v e to th e e lle c t t h a t h a b itu a is d e n o t e s e r ie s o f e v e n ts a n d e a c h
se rie s is a k i n d o f s ta te .) It is w o r th w h ile n o ti n g t h a t (2 6 ) w a s p a r t o f a fo rm a l
e -m a il w r it te n b y a n a c a d e m ic s e n i o r in s ta tu s a n d a g e a n d t h a t (2 7 c ) is fro m
a n a c a d e m ic te x t. A c a d e m ic te x ts a r e s c r u tin iz e d b y re f e re e s a n d p e r f o r m a n c e
e r r o r s a r e u n lik e ly .
< 28a.b) o c c u r r e d in fin a l d e g r e e e x a m in a tio n s c r ip ts . I n e x a m in a tio n s , s t u
d e n ts h a v e little t i m e f o r p l a n n i n g a n d e d itin g a n d p r o d u c e c o n s tr u c tio n s
ty p ic a l o f s p e e c h o r in f o r m a l w r i t i n g b u t u n u s u a l in f o r m a l w r it in g . (2 8 a ,b )
a re g e n e ric , b u t h a v e s ta tiv e v e r b s in th e p ro g re s s iv e - P R E C E D E a n d D E P E N D .
(29) h a s a p ro g r e s s iv e in a c la u s e d e n o t i n g a r e p e a te d e v e n t: t h e s t u d e n ts
r e p e a te d ly fo r g e t t h e n e w n u m b e r s .

U sage-based M odels
( 2 8 ) a . I h e f ir s t v o w e l in [ c o m p la in t s ] is s h o r t a s it is p r e c e e d in g (s it| t h e n a s a l
b ila b ia l /rrV.
F in a l d e g r e e e x a m in a t io n s c r ip t.
U n iv e r s it y o f L a n c a s t e r , J u n e 2 0 0 2

b . N a t u r a l l y a c h i l d is d e p e n d in g o n h i s p a r e n t s , c m o t h e r a d u l t s t o O ' o v i d e
a n e n v i r o n m e n t w h e r e h e c a n learn n e w w o r d s
F in a l H o n o u r s e x a m in a t io n s c r ip t,
E d in b u r g h , J u n e 1 9 8 3

(2 9 ) T h e

co de

is

o fte n

changed

and

stu d e n ts

a re

f o r g e t t in g

th e

new

n u m b e r.
M in u t e s o f S t a f f - H o n o u r s S t u d e n t s L ia is o n C o m m i t t e e M e e t in g ,
U n iv e r s it y o t E d in b u r g h , F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 8 , (W r it t e n b y a 4 t h y e a r s tu d e n t )

( 2 8 a ,b ) m a y re fle c t a c h o ic e o f p e rs p e c tiv e . In e x a m in a tio n s , s t u d e n ts

c is c u s s e x a m p le s g iv e n in th e q u e s tio n p a p e r a n d w r ite d o w n t h e i r a n a ly s is
a s it p ro c e e d s . T h e y m a y u s e t h e p ro g r e s s iv e to m e t a p h o r ic a lly p u t th e ir
re a d e rs in th e m id d le o f o n - g o i n g e v e n ts . If c o r r e c t, th is e x p la n a tio n d o e s n o t
c o n tr a d ic t t h e c o m m e n ts o n th e in c r e a s in g fr e q u e n c y o l th e p ro g re s s iv e b u t
p r o v id e s o n e o f its c a u se s .

Sim ple Past and Perfect

A n a ly sis o f s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n a n d in f o r m a l w r itte n E n g lis h re v e a ls a th i r d
m is m a tc h b e tw e e n t h e u sa g e o l m a n y s p e a k e r s a n d th e a c c o u n ts g iv e n in
r e f e re n c e g r a m m a r s . A c c o u n ts o f t h e S im p le P a s t a n d th e P re s e n t P e rfe c t a re
n i s m a t c h e d ; m is s in g is a n y a n a ly s is o f th e v a r i o u s re s u lta tiv e c o n s tr u c tio n s
l u il t r o u n d a n -e d p a r tic ip le . L eech s d e s c r ip tio n o f th e P e rf e c t, s u m m a r i z e d in
th e e x a m p le s in (3 ) e a rlie r, is a n e le g a n t a n d a c c u r a te s t a te m e n t o f t h e u se
c f th e P e rfe c t b y m a n y s p e a k e r s a n d , e sp ec ia lly , w r ite r s o l s t a n d a r d B ritis h
E n g lish . L e e c h 's d e s c r ip tio n is n o w a lm o s t 4 0 y e a rs o ld [ b u t se e a ls o D ah l
(1 9 9 9 ) a n d M ic h a e lis {1994)1; n o t o n l y a r e lin g u is tic h a b its m o v in g o n , b u t it
lo o k s a s t h o u g h m a n y u s e r s o f s t a n d a r d a n d n o n - s t a n d a r d B ritis h E n g lish
h a d a n d h a v e d if f e r e n t h a b its . W e fin d e x a m p le s o f t h e P e rfe c t c o m b i n in g
w ith s p e c ific P a st T im e a d v e rb s ; e x a m p le s o f S im p le P a sts in c o m b i n a ti o n w ith
a d v e rb s s u c h a s y e t, ever, a n d ju s t w h e r e w e m i g h t e x p e c t to f i n d P e rfe c ts; a n d
v a r io u s re s u lta tiv e c o n s t r u c ti o n s w h ic h a r e n o t in c lu d e d in th e m a jo r re f e r
e n c e g r a m m a r s . [T h e u s e o f t h e S im p le P a st p lu s a d v e rb s is t h e s t a n d a r d p a t
te rn in A m e ric a n E n g lish , b u t is g e n e ra lly a s s u m e d n o t to b e ty p ic a l o f B ritis h
E n g lish . Q u i r k e t a l. (1 9 8 5 , p . 1 93) s a y th a t in A m e r ic a n E n g lis h th e r e is

155

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

a te n d e n c y to u s e , f o i e x a m p le , D i d y o u ever g o to F lorence, I j u s t c a m e b a c k a n d
D id th e c h ild re n c o m e h o m e yet?]
T h e d a ta to b e p r e s e n te d s u g g e s t th a t th e c la s s ic P e rfe c t u n m o d if ie d b y
a d v e rb s e x is ts o n ly in a v e ry re s tric tiv e v a rie ty o f s t a n d a r d E n g lis h a n d th a t in
s p o k e n E n g lis h t h e d if f e r e n t P e rfe c t c o n s t r u c ti o n s d is tin g u is h e d b y a d v e rb s
h a v e a lw ay s b e e n th e ty p ic a l p a t t e r n . T h e d a t a a ls o in d ic a te a c o m p l e x p a tt e r n
c f g r a m m a tic a lis a tio n : th e p o s s e s s iv e -re s u lta tiv e c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h re la tiv e ly
sp e c ific m e a n i n g e v o lv e s in to th e P e rfe c t w ith a m o r e g e n e r a l a n d m o r e a b s tr a c t
in t e r p r e ta ti o n ; th e P e rfe c t in t u r n s p lits in to d if f e r e n t c o n s tr u c tio n s , e a c h w ith
a m o r e sp e c ific m e a n i n g t h a n t h e P e rfe c t a n d m a r k e d b y a n a p p r o p r ia t e
a d v e rb ; t h e o r ig in a l p o s s e s s iv e -re s u lta tiv e c o n s t r u c t i o n n o t o n ly p e rs is ts
b u t its e lf u n d e r g o e s c h a n g e t h a t in c r e a s e s th e m o r p h o s y n ta c tic d is ta n c e
b e tw e e n it a n d t h e P e rfe c t; a n d v a r i o u s o t h e r re s u lta tiv e c o n s t r u c ti o n s d e v e lo p .
G r a m m a r s o f ( s t a n d a r d ) E n g lis h m a i n t a i n th a t t h e P e rfe c t e x c lu d e s d e fin ite
p a s t t i m e a d v e r b s , a s in (3 0 ). [S e e K le in ( 1992).]
( 3 0 ) S h e 's le f t f o r R o m e y e s t e r d a y / th is m o r n in g

T h e fa c t is t h a t c o m b i n a ti o n s o l th e P e rfe c t a n d s p e c ific p a s t tim e a d v e rb s

c c c u r in w r itte n E n g lish a s w ell a s in s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lis h . T h e e x a m
p le in <31 ) w a s in a n u n c e n s o r e d w r it te n te x t, w h ile (3 2 ) w a s in a n e w s p a p e r
te x t - w ith th e in te n s iv e u s e o f c o m p u t e r s n e w s p a p e r s a r c n o lo n g e r e d it e d as
rig o ro u s ly a s th e y o n c e w ere.
( 3 1 ) T h e in v o ic e h a s b e e n s e n t o f f t o F i n a n c e f o r p a y m e n t b e f o r e I w e n t o f f
o n h o lid a y .
L e t t e r f r o m s t a f f in u n iv e r s it y f in a n c e d e p a r t m e n t

( 3 2 ) B E I's s u c c e s s is a l l t h e m o r e w e lc o m e a s B r it a in h a s l o s t g r o u n d 1 0 y e a r s
a g o w i t h t h e S a u d is d e c is io n to o p t f o r A m e n c a n f r e q u e n c ie s o f 6 0 h e r t z
r a t h e r t h a n t h e B r it is h 5 0

h e r t r - g iv in g t h e A m e r ic a n m a n u f a c t u r e r s a

h e a d sta rt
T h e T im e s

E x a m p le s f r o m s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h a r e in <33) a n d (3 4 ).
( 3 3 ) I'v e t a lk e d t o t h e p la y e r t h is m o r n in g a n d h e is n 't le a v in g t h e c lu b .
T V in t e r v ie w

( 3 4 ) S o m e o f u s h a v e b e e n t o N e w Y o r k y e a r s a g o t o s e e h o w t h e y d o it
S im o n H u g h e s , L ib e r a l D e m o c r a t M P,
B B C N e w s a t Ten in t e r v ie w , J a n u a r y 2 0 0 2

U sage-based M odels
(3 3 ) a n d (3 4 ) a r e n o t in n o v a tio n s . E lsn e s s ( 1997, p . 2 5 0 ) c ite s s i m i la r e x a m
ples f r o m S h a k e s p e a re , P e p y s a n d d ia lo g u e in G a ls w o rth y . D e n is o n (1 9 9 3 ,
p . 3 5 2 ) a s s e r ts t h a t in M id d le E n g lis h th e P r e s e n t P e rfe c t a n d t h e S im p le P ast
w ere u s e d in te r c h a n g e a b ly w ith d e f in ite p a s t tim e a d v e rb s . C o m r i e (1 9 8 5 ,
p. 3 3 ) c o m m e n ts t h a t 'w i t h c o n s id e r a b le d ia le c ta l a n d id io le c ta l v a r i a ti o n
s o m e s p e a k e r s o f E n g lis h c o m b i n e s p e c ific p a s t tim e a d v e r b s w i t h th e P e rfe c t
a n d p o i n t s o u t t h a t a d v e rb s r e f e r r in g to r e c e n t p o in t s o r p e r i o d s o f t i m e recently, th is m o r n in g , e tc . - re g u la rly c o m b i n e w ith t h e P e rle c t.
T h e a b o v e e x a m p le s lo o k le s s p e c u lia r w h e n w e r e m in d o u rs e lv e s t h a t th e
c o n s t r a in t o n t h e c o m b i n a ti o n o f P e rle c t a n d sp e c ific p a s t tim e a d v e r b s a p p lie s
o n ly in r e l a ti o n to a c tu a l m o m e n ts o f s p e e c h o r w ritin g . T h e s e c a n b e th o u g h t
c f a s p r i m a r y d e ic tic c e n tr e s . E v e n ts n a r r a t e d b y m e a n s o f th e P e rfe c t m a y
re la te n o t to t h e m o m e n t o l s p e e c h b u t to s o m e o t h e r tim e , a s in th e n a rr a tiv e
i i ( 3 5 ) . T h e s e P e rfe c ts d o c o m b in e w ith s p e c ific p a s t tim e a d v e rb s , s u c h a s th e
c n e s in b o ld in (3 5 ).
(3 5 ) A t 1 o 'c lo c k o n the a fte rn o o n o f 2 9 ; h M a y 2 0 0 9 a p a s s e n g e r is s itt in g in the
d e p a rtu re lo u n g e H e h a s c h e c k e d in a r o u n d 1 2 .3 0 , h a s g o n e t h r o u g h
s e c u r i t y a r o u n d 1 2 .4 5 . a n d is w a it in g f o r h is c o lle a g u e .

T h e d e ic tic c e n tr e fo r (3 5 ) is s e c o n d a r y , t h a t is, it is n o t th e tim e a t w h ic h

th e te x t w a s w r it te n . S e c o n d a ry d e ix is a ls o a llo w s sp e c ific p a s t t i m e a d v e r b s to
c o m b in e w ith P e rfe c t in fin itiv e s , w h ic h , b e in g n o n - f in it e , a r e n o t a n c h o r e d to
a fix e d m o m e n t o f s p e e c h . E x a m p le s a r e in (3 6 ) a n d (3 7 ).
(3 6 ) It's a n n o y in g t o a rriv e a l t h e s ta tio n a t 10 3 0 o n ly to f in d t h a t t h e tra n h a s
l e f t a t 1 0 .1 5 a n d n o t 1 0 .5 0
( 3 / ) T o h a v e a r r i v e d a t 2 p m o n T u e s d a y w a s a m ira cle |is a rn ira ck v \v ill b e a
m iracle )

W e t u r n n o w to e x a m p le s o f th e R e c e n t P a st, E x p e rie n tia l a n d R e su lt

P e rfects. (3 8 ) (4 0 ) a r c li r itis h E n g lis h e x a m p le s o l S im p le P a sts I ju s t re fe r
rin g t o t h e R e c e n t P a s t. ( A r o u n d 1 9 7 2 /7 3 , JM s f o u r - a n d th r e e -y e a r o ld c h ilc r e n b e g a n to ta lk e x p lic itly a b o u t im m e d ia te p a s t tim e . T h e y u s e d t h e S im p le
F ast p lu s ju s t, n o t th e P e rfe c t. S in c e n e ith e r c h ild w e n t t o n u r s e r y s c h o o l, th e y
n u s t h a v e p ic k e d u p t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n f r o m t h e i r p a r e n ts , t h o u g h n e ith e r p a r
e n t w a s a w a re o t u s in g it.)
(3 8 ) Er. a s C h a r lie j u s t p o i n t e d o u t , i l is o f g re a t co n c e rn .
D is c u s s io n a t ir a d e s U n io n C o n g r e s s ,
re c o rd e d in the B ritis h N a tio n a l C o r p u s

157

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

(3 9 ) Sorry, Ja n e 's n o t in . S h e j u s t w e n t o u t (= h a s ju s t g o n e o u t).
N o t e d in fo r m a lly in c o n v e rsa tio n
(4 0 ) m y fa t h e r b o u g h t a r o u n d o f d n n k s a fte r th e m e a l th e re w a s n a e o n e fo r m e
y o u se e a n d o n e o f t h e m e n h a p p e n e d to c o m m e n t h e sa y s B o b h e sa y s
y o u f o r g o t t h e b o y ' 'N o ' h e s a y s d i d n a e f o r g e t the boy.'
M a c a u la y , 1 99 1 p . 1 9 / - 8

T h is u s a g e is w id e s p r e a d th r o u g h o u t v a r ie tie s o f E n g lish . It is th e n o r m in
N o rth A m e r ic a n E n g lis h . A s e a r c h th r o u g h t h e A u s tr a lia n c o m p o n e n t o f IC E
in th e M a c q u a r ie C o r p u s ( S I A , p r i v a te d ia lo g u e ) re v e a le d a n e q u a l n u m b e r o f
S im p le F a sts a n d P e rfe c ts c o m b i n in g w ith ju s t. A n u m b e r o f th e e x a m p le s o f
S im p le P a s ts c o u ld o n ly b e ju d g e d in b ig g e r c o n te x ts , w h ic h a r e o m i tt e d h e re .
T h e N e w Z e a la n d c o m p o n e n t h a s n o t b e e n s e a r c h e d in t h e s a m e w ay, b u t o n e
s u g g e s tiv e e x a m p le , in ( 4 1 ) , c o m e s f r o m a n a d v e r tis e m e n t f o r th e N e w Z e a la n d
H e ra ld s e e n o n th e b a c k o f a b u s in A u c k la n d in 2 0 0 7 . T h e e x a m p le is su g g est ve b e c a u s e , c e r ta in ly in th e U n ite d K in g d o m a n d N e w Z e a la n d , c o n te m p o
ra r y a d v e r tis e m e n ts b a s e d o n d ia lo g u e t r y to re fle c t u p - t o - d a t e s p o k e n u sa g e .
(4 1 ) D id y o u h e a r w h a t ju s t h a p p e n e d ?

T h e u s e o f e v e r w ith th e P e rfe c t o r S im p le P a st is m o r e c o m p le x a n d w h a t
a rc p r e s e n te d b e lo w a r c B ritis h E n g lish e x a m p le s o l th e E x p e rie n tia l m e a n in g
e x p re s s e d b y th e S im p le P a s t p lu s e ver, in (4 2 )(4 4 ).
(4 2 ) A

it's a g r e a t p la c e - h a v e y o u e v e r b e e n to th e c o m m o n w e a lth p o o l

B n o re ally i'm n o a v e ry g o o d s w im m e r
A

w h a t w h a t e h n o y o u s a id y o u e n |o ye d f is h in w e r e y o u e v e r i n t e r e s t e d
in f o o t b a ll

B n o w e g o t o the s h o o tm
M ille r -B ro w n C o r p u s , 1 - c o n v e rsa tio n 8 , m l /
(4 3 ) D i d y o u e v e r t r y to g iv e u p s m o k in g
A d v e r t o n ITV, U K . 2 0 0 3
(4 4 ) w h o 's b re n d a d i d I m e e t h e r ? (in c o n te x t = . . . h a v e I m e t h e r? ')
M ille r -B r o w n C o r p u s , 2 , c o n v e rsa tio n 1 2 , m 6

Resultative and Perfect

S p o n ta n e o u s s p o k e n s t a n d a r d E n g lis h h a s a n u m b e r o f c o n s t r u c ti o n s o th e r
th a n th e P e rfe c t w h ic h a r e u s e d to c o n v e y re s u lta tiv e m e a n in g . T h e y a ll in v o lv e
t i e p a s t p a r t ic i p le (p a s s iv e ) , w h ic h w as o r ig in a lly re s u lta tiv e |s e e H a s p e lm a th

U sage-based M odels
( 1 9 9 3 . O n e o f t h e re g u la r ly u s e d c o n s t r u c ti o n s is th e o n e t h a t is ta k e n l o b e
th e s o u r c e o f t h e E n g lis h P e rfe c t, a s e x e m p lif ie d in (4 5 ). ( 4 5 a ) is a d e v is e d
e x a m p le , b u t ( 4 5 b d ) a r e f r o m th e W e llin g to n C o r p u s o f S p o k e n N e w Z e a la n d
E n g lish . ( 4 5 b ) is f r o m a s p o r t s c o m m e n ta r y ; ( 4 5 c ) is f r o m c o n v e rs a tio n . (4 6 )
h as a c o o r d i n a te re s u lta tiv e s t r u c t u r e a n d w a s p r o d u c e d b y a s u r g e o n ta lk in g
in a r a d i o in te r v ie w a b o u t n e w te c h n o lo g y in A c c id e n t a n d E m e rg e n c y d e p a r t
m e n ts . (4 7 a ,b ) s h o w h o w th e o r ig in a lly p o ss e ssiv e c o n s t r u c ti o n h a s h a d its
p o sse ssiv e n a tu r e r e in f o r c e d b y th e in t r o d u c t i o n o l lu tv e g o t. ( 4 7 a ) is a d e v is e d
e x a m p le , b u t ( 4 7 b ) is f r o m th e s a m e s o u r c e a s (4 5 b ,c ).
(4 5 ) a . I h a v e t h e le tte r w r it t e n
b b a c h o p h a s h i s b a c k s lin e d o u t t o t h e r i g h t t o t h is s id e o f t h e fie ld
< W S C # M U C 0 0 2 :1 0 7 S :JM >
c. a n d h e d o e s h a v e a c a r p a r k e d n o t f a r a w a y
< W S C # D P C 0 0 3 : 1 0 4 5 :F G >
(4 6 ) Y o u h a v e a c c e s s t o a v e in g a in e d a n d c a r d ia c a n a ly s is d o n e w it h in o n e
m in u te
(4 7 ) a I'v e g o t trie le tter w ritte n
b i s a id t h e y v e g o t t h o s e w e l l la b e l l e d o r this
< W S C D P C 0 0 2 :0 7 1 0 :M K >

In ( 4 7 b ) , t h e s p e a k e r is r e f e r r i n g t o a b o ttle o f p ills . (4 8 a c ) a r e e x a m p le s o f
a n e x is te n tia l- p r e s e n ta tiv e c o n s t r u c t i o n w ith a re s u lta tiv e p a r tic ip le . T h e c o n
s t r u c ti o n is u s e d to i n t r o d u c e a s i tu a t io n t r e a te d a s n e w in f o r m a t io n . T h e s i t u
a tio n h a s t o d o w i t h t h e r e s u lt o f a p r e v i o u s e v e n t.
(4 8 ) a

th e re 's s o m e th in g fa lle n d o w n t h e sink.

b. t h e re s a ca t tra p p e d u p th e tree.
c. t h e re s o n e p e rso n in ju re d in the e xp lo sio n .

In t h e e x is te n tia l- p r e s e n ta tiv e c o n s t r u c ti o n , th ere's is p r o n o u n c e d w ith th e

re d u c e d v o w e l. T h e W e llin g to n C o r p u s o f S p o k e n N e w Z e a la n d E n g lis h c o n t i i n s a t le a st o n e e x a m p le o f a n e x is te n tia l p r e s e n ta tiv e w ith t h e fu ll d e ic tic
a n d a p a s s iv e /r c s u lta tiv e p a r tic ip le . S e e ( 4 8 d ) , f r o m a s p o r ts c o m m e n ta r y .
(4 8 ) d. t h e re s t h e b a ll w o n b y t h e a u stra lia n s
< W S C M U C 0 0 2 0 0 0 5 JM >

( 4 8 d ) c o n ta in s a d e f in ite N P , th e ball, w h e re a s ty p ic a l e x is te n tia l- p r e s e n ta tives c o n ta i n in d e f in ite N P s . W h a t is b e in g p r e s e n te d is n o t t h e b a ll, w h ic h h as

159

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

b e e n m e n t io n e d m a n y tim e s in i h e c o u r s e o f i h e m a tc h , b u t t h e s i tu a t io n 'th e
hall h a v in g b e e n w o n b y t h e A u stra lia n s .
C o n s id e r n o w th e c o n s t r u c ti o n in ( 4 9 a - c ) .
(49) a . T h a i's th e le tte rs written a n d p o s te d .
Kennedy. 1994
b

T h a t's h im c o n s u lte d
T V c o m e d y s h o w 'H a r r y E n lie ld a n d C h u m s '

c . H e re 's Ih e tyre re p a ire d a n d g o o d a s new .

C o n v e rs a tio n in g a r a g e

W h a t is t h e s t r u c t u r e o f (4 9 a ,b ) ? T h e y a r e in s ta n c e s o f a c o p u la c o n s t r u c t.o n : th a t is c o n n e c te d b y t h e c o p u la 's w i t h N P s c o n ta i n in g a re s u lta tiv e p a r t i

c ip le , th e Id le r s w r itte n a n d p o s te d a n d h i m c o n su lte d . I n th is re s p e c t, th e y a re
p a ra lle l in s t r u c t u r e t o re v e rs e W H c le fts s u c h a s T h a t s w h a t y o u n e e d to do.
(N o te t h a t re v e rs e c a p tu r e s th e fa c t t h a t s u c h c le f ts a r e th e re v e rs e o f W h a t y o u
need to d o is g o o n a lo n g h o lid a y , in w h ic h th e W H p h r a s e is in s e n te n c e -in itia l
p o s itio n .) R e v e rse W H c le fts a r e u s e d t o r e in f o r c e a p o i n t a n d t o b r i n g a
se c tio n o f d ia lo g u e to a c lo s e - se e th e o v e rv ie w o f p re v io u s w o rk a n d th e
a n a ly s e s o f n a tu r a lly o c c u r r in g e x a m p le s in W e in e r t a n d M ille r (1 9 9 6 ) . E x a m
p le s s u c h a s ( 4 9 a ,b ) a r e T H c le fts, b u t h a v e th e s a m e d is c o u r s e f u n c tio n as
re v e rse W H clefts.
( 4 9 a - c ) c o u ld in p r in c ip le b e re p la c e d b y th e b a s ic P e rfe c t c o n s t r u c t i o n I v e w r itte n a n d p o s te d th e letters, I v e c o n su lte d h i m a n d T h e ty r e h a s been
rep a ired a n d is a s g o o d a s n e w . T h e re p la c e m e n ts , h o w e v e r, i n t r o d u c e a n
e x p lic it o r im p lic it A g e n t in a n o n - c le f t c o n s t r u c ti o n , th e r e b y c h a n g in g w h a t is
h ig h lig h te d a n d r e d u c in g t h e s a lie n c e o f th e c u r r e n t r e s u lt. It is w o rth w h ile
s la tin g e x p lic itly t h a t th e c o n s t r u c ti o n is n o t u n iq u e to S c o ttis h E n g lish . (4 9 b )
is f r o m a te le v is io n c o m e d y p r o g r a m m e f r o m s o u t h e r n E n g la n d a n d th e
c o n s tr u c tio n is i n r e g u la r u s e in C o lc h e s te r in E ssex. (D a v e B r ita in , U n iv e rs ity
c f E ssex , p c .)
S c o ttis h E n g lish ( a n d d o u b tle s s o t h e r v a rie tie s o f E n g lish ) h a s a n o th e r
re s u lta tiv e c o n s t r u c ti o n in a d d it io n to th o s e in ( 4 5 ) - ( 4 9 ) . T h e re s u lta tiv e
p a rtic ip le s in th o s e e x a m p le s m o d if y P a tie n t n o u n s ( w h ic h a r c n o t n e c e ss a rily
d ir e c t o b je c ts ). In th e re s u lta tiv e c o n s tr u c tio n e x e m p lif ie d in (5 0 )( 5 5 ) , th e
p a r tic ip le m o d ifie s t h e A g e n t o r s u b je c t n o u n . T h e s u b je c t n o u n m a y re f e r to
a n A g e n t, a s i n (5 0 b ,c ) - a n d in ( 5 0 a ) , d e p e n d in g o n t h e a n a ly s is o f S E E . T h e
p a rtic ip le a ls o m o d ifie s a n A g e n t s u b je c t n o u n in (51 )( 5 3 ) . ( I t is im p o r t a n t to
n o te t h a t th e s e e x a m p le s a r e n o t a n a lo g o u s t o t h e fa lle n lea ve s a n d u n d e sc e n d e d

U sage-based M odels
testicles e x a m p le s d is c u s s e d in B re s n a n (1 9 8 2 , p p . 2 9 a n d 3 0 ), w h ic h in v o lv e
p a r tic ip le s m o d if y in g T h e m e s - to u s e B re s n a n s te r m in o lo g y .)
(5 0 ) a

b u t th a t's m e s e e n it <= Iv e s e e n i l n o w )
M a ca u la y , 1991

b. th a t's y o u f i n i s h e d ( = Y o u h a v e fin ish e d (th e task))

W a p T a sk D ia lo g u e s ,
se e W e in e rt a n d M ille r (1 9 9 6 )
c. th a t's Ia n a r r i v e d (in fo rm a lly re c o rd e d in co n v e rsa tio n !

(51 ) a n d - e h w h e n I w a s w a it in g o n th e m ilk e h -th e f a rm e r c a m e o o t a n d h e sa y s

T h a t y o u l e f t t h e s c h o o l n o o A n d r e w ? ' sa y s I It i s h e s a y s be
lo o k m g lo r a jo b
M a ca u la y. 1 9 9 1

(5 2 ) j5 0

o n c e s h e g o e s t o h a d d in g t o n it ll n o b e s o b a d i m e a n sh e 's m o v in g to
h a d d in g t o n in ju n e

m 5 1 e v e n h a d d in g t o n jo y c e is fa r e n o u g h y o u k n o w
j5 1

i k n o w m a rtin b u t a t le ast its n o t a ll w e e w in d y ro a d s to it ( w in d / =

w in d in g )

m 5 2 n o y o u c a n g e t o n th e a l
j5 2

y o u 'r e o n th e m a in ro a d t o h a d d in g t o n

m 5 3 i t h in k y o u c a n s ta y o n the m a in road
j5 3

a y e t h e m u s s e lb u rg h ro a d a n d y o u 'r e th e re t h r o u g h m a c m e rry a n d
th a t w a y a n d t h e n y o u re a t h a d d in g t o n a r e n 't y o u

m 5 4 a y e t h a t s r ig h t h a d d in g t o n s t h e n e xt o n e e v e n s o jo y c e its still a w a s te
to g o w h e r e d o e s s h e g o a fte r th a t
j5 4

t h a t 3 's h e r f i n i s h e d i t h in k a fte r h a d d in g t o n s h e g o e s to co lle g e

a g a in f o r a f e w w e e k s
M ille r -B ro w n C o r p u s , c o n v e rsa tio n 2 7

T h a t's h e r fin is h e d in (5 2 ) is a T H c le ft a n d th e in t e r p r e ta ti o n is n o t t h a t sh e
h as b e e n f in is h e d o i l b u t t h a t s h e w ill h a v e f in is h e d h e r p e r io d o l tr a in i n g o n c e
s h e c o m p le te s h e r s t i n t a t H a d d in g to n . I n ( 5 1 ) , T h a t y o u le ft th e sch o o l is
a r e d u c e d in te r r o g a tiv e T H c le ft. T h e fu ll s t r u c t u r e is I s th a t y o u le ft t h e school,
a s s h o w n b y t h e re p ly I t is.
(5 3 ) n o w I'm try in g t o e n c o u r a g e S a lly - y o u g e t o n in life if y o u w o u ld ju s t d o
t h a t little b it m o re y o u k n o w e rm e v e n t h o u g h y o u 'v e o n ly g o t o n e m ore
s e n te n c e to d o

w h y n o t ju s t d o it ? E v e n i f its 2 0 3 4 m in u t e s p a s t

o f 3 0 m in u te s

S a lly is t h e k in d o f p e rs o n t h a t w ill s a y t h a t 's m e d o n e it'

in ste ad

a n d t h e n s to p a n d s h e 'll g o o f f . . .
C o n v e r s a t io n re co rd e d b y G illia n F o y (2 0 0 0 )

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

(5 4 ) a n d (5 5 ) o ffe r e x a m p le s o f th e re s u lta tiv e c o n s t r u c ti o n in th e p a s t
te n s e , t h e e q u iv a le n t o f P lu p e rfe c ts .
(5 4 ) the b u s c o rn e d l t w e n ty -fiv e m in u te s t o s ix in th e m o r n in g a n d h e sta rte d at
s e v e n o 'c lo c k t w e n ty -fiv e t o six n o w s e e i l h e d id n a e g e t th a t b u s th a t w a s
h im h e w a s n a e o o t < =h e h a d n 't g o t o u t o f t h e h o u s e ) h e n e e d e d t o g e t the
first o n e in t h e m o r n in g g o in g d o o n t h e p it o r t h a t 's h i m s l e p t in
M a c a u la y (1 9 9 1 )
(5 5 ) h e ju s t la y d o o n o n the s e tte e a n d t u rn e d o v e r a n d t h a t w a s h im g o n e
<= h e h a d g o n e )
M a c a u la y (1 9 9 1 )

Conclusion
T h e a b o v e a c c o u n t d e m o n s tr a t e s th e v a lu e o f t h e u s a g e - b a s e d a p p ro a c h .
T h e S im p le P r e s e n t o t E n g lis h is n o lo n g e r ju s t th e P re s e n t-T e n s e c o r r e s p o n
d e n t o f t h e S im p le P a s t a n d m o s t o f its u s e s a r e irre a lis . T h e P ro g re s s iv e , as
in d ic a te d b y (2 6 ) ( 2 9 ) is a c q u ir in g th e c h a r a c te r is tic s o f a n Im p e rfe c tiv e . T h e
c p p o s i ti o n b e tw e e n S im p le P a st a n d P e rfe c t is n o t c le a r - c u t, a n d th e r o le o t
j i s t , ever, a n d y e t in s ig n a llin g th e v a r io u s s u b - ty p e s o f P e rfe c t m a y t u r n o u t to
h e r a th e r s ig n ific a n t. T h e s o u r c e c o n s t r u c t i o n fo r t h e P e rfe c t, th e tr a n s itiv e
R e su lta tiv e , h a s n o t o n ly s u r v iv e d b u t s t r e n g th e n e d , a n d th e r e s u lta tiv e p a r t i
c ip le s a r e re g u la r ly u s e d in a n u m b e r o f R e su lta tiv e c o n s t r u c ti o n s . W h a t w e see
is a t e n s e - a s p e c t s y s te m in t h e p ro c e s s o t c h a n g e b u t a ls o d if fe re n t, th o u g h
c v e r la p p in g , te n s e - a s p e c t s y s te m s fo r f o r m a l w r itte n E n g lish a n d s p o n ta n e o u s
s p o k e n E n g lish . T h e la tte r s y s te m m a y b e o f lo n g s t a n d in g , lik e s o m a n y o th e r
p a tt e r n s in n o n - s t a n d a r d g r a m m a r . R e g re tta b ly , w e c a n n o t a p p ly t h e u sa g e b a s e d a p p r o a c h re tro s p e c tiv e ly , m e r e ly c a tc h a g lim p s e o r tw o v ia d ia lo g u e in
n o v els.

Grammar and Semantics:

The Get Passive

Chapter Outline
In t r o d u c t io n

163

H o w f r e q u e n t is t h e

get p a s s i v e ?

T h e in t e r p r e t a t io n o f t h e

g e t p a s s iv e

G e f: a m e a n in g le s s v e rb o r a v e rb o f m o v e m e n t?
W h e r e d id t h e

g e t p a s s iv e

c o m e fro m ?

166
167
170
172

Introduction
T h e c o n n e c t io n b e tw e e n g r a m m a r a n d s e m a n tic s is f a s c in a tin g a n d c e n tr a l
to a n y la n g u a g e . C a s e m a r k in g , c o n tr a s ts o f m o o d a n d m o d a lity , te n s e a n d
a s p e c t, p e r s o n , n u m b e r , g e n d e r a n d v o ic e c o n v e y e s s e n tia l i n f o r m a t io n a b o u t
s itu a tio n s a n d t h e s p e a k e rs a tt it u d e to s itu a tio n s .
It is t h e s u b je c t o l m a jo r in v e s tig a tio n s a n d h a s a lw a y s b e e n c e n tr a l in
e x p la n a tio n s o ffe re d b y te a c h e rs o f a g iv e n la n g u a g e to le a r n e r s w i t h a d iff r
a i t n a tiv e la n g u a g e . N o n - n a ti v e le a r n e r s o f a n y la n g u a g e ty p ic a lly f i n d th e se
g r a m m a tic o - s e m a n tic s y s te m s t h e m o s t d if f ic u lt p a r t s to m a s te r ; m a n y y e a rs
a fte r h e e n te r e d th e e le m e n ta r y R u s s ia n c la s s a t u n iv e r s ity , JM still g e ts little
s u rp ris e s .
E x p la n a tio n s o f a p a r t i c u l a r c a s e o r a s p e c tu a l u s a g e in R u s s ia n , to tak e
J M s e x p e rie n c e , w e r e a ll th e m o r e w e lc o m e i f th e y m a d e s e m a n tic o r p r a g
m a tic s e n s e . T h e a p p r o a c h ta k e n h e r e is t h a t all g r a m m a t ic a l fo r m a tiv e s
n u s t b e a s s u m e d to b e m e a n in g f u l. It m a y n o t a lw a y s b e p o s s ib le to d e fe n d
t h a t a s s u m p ti o n fo r p a r t ic u l a r f o r m a tiv e s , say t h e E n g lis h p r e p o s iti o n o f, b u t
th a t m u s t b e th e in itia l a s s u m p ti o n . T h a t a s s u m p ti o n a p p lie s to c a s e su ffix e s ,

164

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

p r e p o s itio n s , te n s e a n d a s p e c t m a r k e rs , m o d a l v e r b s a n d s o o n . Il is a lso
a s s u m e d t h a t all c o n s t r u c ti o n a l c h a n g e s b r i n g a s e m a n tic c h a n g e . F o r e x a m p le ,
F illm o re ( 1 9 6 8 ) d r e w a t t e n t i o n to th e lo c a tiv e in v e r s io n c o n s t r u c ti o n s as
in T h e g a r d e n e r p la n te d th e g a r d e n w ith d a ffo d ils a n d T h e g a r d e n e r p la n te d
d a ffo d ils in th e g a rd e n . T h e firs t e x a m p le c a n o n l y b e in t e r p r e te d a s 'th e
g a rd e n e r p la n t e d d a ffo d ils e v e ry w h e re in th e g a r d e n '; t h e in t e r p r e ta ti o n o f
t i e s e c o n d o n e leav e s i t o p e n a s to w h e th e r t h e e n ti r e g a r d e n h a d d a ffo d ils
in i t o r ju s t a p a r t o f th e g a rd e n .
JM s tr e a t m e n t o f g r a m m a r a n d s e m a n tic s c o in c id e s w i t h t h a t o f C o g n itiv e
G r a m m a r , e s p e c ia lly t h e w o r k by, fo r e x a m p le , L a n g a c k e r ( 1 9 9 1), b u t it d e riv e s
d ir e c tly f r o m th e w o rk o n lo c a lis m (s e e A n d e r s o n , 1971 a n d L y o n s, 1 9 7 7 b ) in
E d in b u rg h in th e la te 1 960s a n d e a r ly 1970s. A n o th e r m e th o d o lo g ic a l p r in c i
p le is t h a t w h e r e t h e s a m e f o r m , b o u n d o r I r e e , o c c u rs in a v a rie ty o l c o n s t r u c
tio n s , t h e s a m e b a s ic m e a n i n g s h o u l d b e a s s ig n e d to all in s ta n c e s o f it. T h is
p r in c ip le a p p lie s to c a s e in f le c tio n s , w h ic h a r e b o u n d , b u t a ls o to f o r m s th a t
fu n c tio n a s fu ll le x ic a l ite m s a n d a s a u x ilia r y c o n s titu e n ts . (S e e t h e d is c u s s io n
c f g e t b e lo w .) A n e x te n s io n o f th is p r in c ip le is t h a t i f t h e s a m e c o n s tr u c tio n ,
th e s a m e s e q u e n c e o l f o rm s , o c c u rs w ith tw o a p p a r e n tly d if fe r e n t m e a n in g s ,

a s y n c h r o n ic r e la tio n s h o u ld b e e s ta b lis h e d , w h e r e p o s s ib le , b e tw e e n th e
m e a n in g s . ( O f c o u rs e , il w ill n o t a lw a y s b e p o s s ib le to a p p ly th e p r in c ip le , g iv e n
th e v a g a rie s o f h is to ric a l c h a n g e a n d la rg e v a r ia tio n in lin g u is tic p ra c tic e s a n d
c o d e s a m o n g t h e s p e a k e r s o f w h a t is c o n s id e r e d o n e la n g u a g e , b u t t h e g o a l is
to a p p ly a p a r tic u la r a n a ly s is w h e re v e r th e r e is s u f fic ie n t e v id e n c e fo r it.)
A s e c o n d p r in c ip le is t h a t i f in a n u m b e r o f la n g u a g e s o n e f o r m e x p re s se s
t i e s a m e s e t o f m e a n in g s - t h a t is, o n e f o r m p e r la n g u a g e b u t a d if f e r e n t f o r m
fo r e a c h la n g u a g e - a n d i f t h e s e t o f m e a n in g s in c lu d e s a s p a t ia l o n e , th e s p a tia l
m e a n in g is ta k e n a s b a s ic a n d t h e o t h e r m e a n in g s d e riv e d f r o m it, o r f r o m a
m e a n in g t h a t c a n b e d e riv e d f r o m th e s p a tia l o n e . E x a m p le s a r e th e b y n o w
w e ll- k n o w n p a ra lle ls b e tw e e n lo c a tio n a l a n d p o sse ssiv e c o n s t r u c ti o n s a n d
b e tw e e n lo c a tio n a l a n d p ro g r e s s iv e c o n s t r u c ti o n s . F o r t h e fo r m e r, c o n s id e r th e
F in n ish e x a m p le s in ( l a - c )
(D a .

P y d a lia o n k irja .
t a b le - o n is a - b o o k T h e r e is a b o o k is o n t h e t a b le .'

b . M in u lla o n k irja .
l- o n is b o o k h a v e a b o o k .
c

H n e il o4i k a u n iit h a m p a a t
S h e - o n a r e b e a u t if u i t e e t h S h e h a s b e a u t if u l t e e t h '

G ram m ar an d Sem antics: The Get Passive

T h e su ffix -U ai-U e x p re s se s l o c a t io n o n i h e s u r f a c e o f . T h is su ffix o c c u rs
i i ( l a ) , w h ic h h a s a s p a tia l lo c a tio n a l m e a n in g , a n d in ( l b ,c ) , w h ic h hav e
p o sse ssiv e m e a n in g s . A ll th r e e

F in n is h

c la u s e s

have th e

s a m e sy n ta x ,

i n c lu d in g w o rd o r d e r a n d c a s e su ffix e s: a n o u n in t h e a d e ss iv e c a s e + a f o r m
c f th e F in n is h v e rb e q u iv a le n t to b e, a g r e e in g in p e r s o n a n d n u m b e r w ith
th e fo llo w in g n o u n in t h e n o m i n a ti v e c a s e + a n o u n in t h e n o m i n a ti v e case.
G iv e n th e s e fa c ts , a ll th r e e c la u s e s a r e a s s ig n e d th e s a m e lo c a tio n a l s e m a n tic
s tr u c tu r e , w ith p o s s e s s io n a s a s e c o n d a r y in t e r p r e ta ti o n lh a t is p o s s ib le fo r
all th r e e c la u s e s b u t is p a r tic u la r ly s t r o n g w h e r e t h e n o u n in t h e a d e ssiv e
c ase d e n o te s a n a n im a te b e in g a n d th e n o u n in t h e n o m i n a ti v e c a s e d e n o te s
ty p ic a l p o s s e s s io n s o f h u m a n b e in g s . F in n is h is o n ly o n e o f m a n y la n g u a g e s
in w h ic h lo c a tio n a l a n d p o sse ssiv e c o n s t r u c ti o n s h a v e th e s a m e s y n ta x a n d
m o rp h o lo g y .
A n d e r s o n (1 9 7 3 ) c o lle c te d e x a m p le s f r o m a w id e ra n g e o f la n g u a g e s o f p r o
g ressiv e c o n s t r u c ti o n s t h a t a r e id e n tic a l w ith lo c a tio n a l o n e s . A la n g u a g e n o t
c ite d b y h im is M a o r i, e x e m p lif ie d in (2 ). ( T h e e x a m p le s a r e f r o m W in ifre d
B au er, p c .)
(2 ) a . i t a n a t a h a
a t h e r s id e
b. i t e w a ia t a r a t o u .
A t t h e s in g in g t h e y t h e y w e r e s in g in g '

T h e lo c a lis t a p p r o a c h t o th e s e m a n tic s o f g r a m m a r is e s s e n tia lly t h e s a m e

a p p r o a c h a p p li e d b y J a c k e n d o f f (1 9 7 6 ) a n d c e n tr a l t o h is w o r k o n le x ic a lc o n c e p tu a l s t r u c tu r e s . The id e a th a t m o v e m e n t, s o u r c e , p a t h a n d s o o n a re
re le v a n t to d if f e r e n t d o m a i n s , w ith t h e s a m e p r e p o s iti o n s , c a s e su ffix es, v erb s
c f m o v e m e n t a n d lo c a tio n a n d s o o n , is o n e a v a ta r o f th e lo c a lis t id e a .
L o calism h a s b e e n c e n tr a l t o L a n g a c k e rs w o r k s in c e th e p u b li c a ti o n o f h is
1982 p a p e r o n s p a c e g r a m m a r , a f o r e r u n n e r o f c o g n itiv e g r a m m a r . T h e lo c a lis t
a p p r o a c h w ill b e illu s tr a te d f u r t h e r in t h e d is c u s s io n o f t h e g e t p a ss iv e belo w .
N o th in g f u r t h e r w ill b e s a id h e re , a s r e a d e r s c a n c o n s u l t A n d e r s o n ( 2 0 0 7 ) fo r
case a n d L a n g a c k e r ( 1 9 8 7 ,1 9 9 1 ) a n d J a c k e n d o f f (1 9 7 6 ).
T o b r i n g o u t t h e im p o r t a n c e o f t h e lin k b e tw e e n g r a m m a r a n d s e m a n tic s ,
to h ig h lig h t t h e c e n tr a lity o f g r a m m a t ic a l c r ite r ia in s e m a n tic a n a ly s is a n d to
e m p h a s iz e t h a t e v e ry g r a m m a t ic a l m o r p h e m e h a s m e a n in g , w e w ill e x a m in e
fo u r to p ic s : th e g e t p a ss iv e , w h w o r d s a n d c o n s t r u c ti o n s , p a r t s o f s p e e c h a n d
th e m a tic o r p a r t ic i p a n t ro les.

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How frequent is the get passive?

T h is a c c o u n t o f I h e E n g lis h g e t p a s s iv e e n c o m p a s s e s g r a m m a r , s e m a n tic s ,
p ra g m a tic s , a n d in d e e d u sa g e . B ih e r e t a l. ( 19 9 9 , p . 481 ) c o m m e n t th a t th e g e t
p assiv e is g e n e ra lly r a r e a n d r e s tr i c te d p r i m a r i ly lo c o n v e r s a tio n . T his is
q u ite tr u e , g iv e n t h a t d u r i n g t h e e n ti r e tw e n ti e th c e n t u r y t h e u s e o f g e t w as
fo rc e fu lly d is c o u r a g e d in s c h o o ls . W h a t is o b s c u r e d b y th e d a ta in B ib e r e t al.
is t h a t fo r t h e v a s t m a jo r ity o f s p e a k e r s c o n v e r s a tio n is t h e s o r t o f s p o k e n l a n
g u a g e th e y a r e m o s t e x p o s e d to a n d p r o d u c e m o s t o f t h e tim e . M a n y u s e r s o f
l.n g lish d o n o t r e a d o r w r i t e la rg e q u a n ti ti e s o f w r itte n te x t; m a n y u s e r s w h o
d o p r o d u c e w r itte n te x t d o s o in t h e c o n te x t o f q u a s i- c o n v e r s a tio n s b y e -m a il
c r S kype.
T h e ^ e f p a s s iv e is r a r e in a c o r p u s t h a t e n c o m p a s s e s a la r g e r a n g e o f w r itte n
a n d s p o k e n te x t ty p e s , b u t is m u c h m o r e f r e q u e n t in t h e m o s t c o m m o n s p o
k e n g e n re . M ille r a n d W e in e rt (2 0 0 9 , p p . 8 8 - 9 ) , w o r k in g o n S c o ttis h E n g lish ,
a n a ly s e d p a ss iv e s in th e M a p T a sk D ia lo g u e s . T h e fig u re s a r e in T a b le 7 .1 . T h e y
also e x a m in e d a s m a ll s u b s e t o t c o n v e rs a tio n s in t h e M ille r - B r o w n C o r p u s
a n d f o u n d 18 b e p a s s i v e s a n d 11 g e l p a s s i v e s . S u z a n n e R o m a i n e , w o r k i n g o n

S c o ttis h E n g lis h in th e m id -1 9 7 0 s , re c o r d e d a 1 0 -y e a r-o ld g ir l t a l k in g a b o u t

h e r h o m e a n d tr ie n d s , h e r s c h o o l life a n d t h e te le v is io n p r o g r a m m e s s h e
v /a tc h e d . T h e g ir l u s e d 6 6 p a s s iv e s , o f w h ic h 6 0 c o n ta in e d get.
F o r t h e p u rp o s e s o f th is b o o k , JM a n a ly s e d th e tr a n s c r ip tio n s o f c o n v e rsa t o n s 1 1 -2 0 in th e M ille r - B r o w n C o r p u s , a p p r o x im a te ly 1 9 ,0 0 0 w o rd s , a n d
c o n v e rs a tio n s 7 1 - 8 0 , a p p ro x im a te ly 2 8 ,0 0 0 w o rd s . In th e A u s tra lia n c o m p o n e n t
c f IC E , h e e x a m in e d c o n v e r s a tio n s 1 - 3 0 in d a ta b a s e S I A , p riv a te u n s c r ip te d
d ia lo g u e o f 6 0 ,0 0 0 w o rd s . H e a ls o lo o k e d a t t h e M a p T ask D ia lo g u e s . (S e e th e
I n tr o d u c tio n .) T a b le 7.1
T a b le 7 .1 6 o a n d p e r p a s s iv e s in s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h
BE

BE

Dynam ic

Static

GET

M ID

m bc2

11

A u j ICE

22

46

22

m hcS

20

IB

10

9
24

A u slC E - A u s tr a lia n o p p o n e n t o t I C E
m b c 2 = W ller-B rc'A n C o r p u s , s i d o n 2 . c o n v e r s a ti o n s 1 1 - 2 0
m b c 8 = M ille r - B r o w n C o r p u s , s e c t o n 8 . c o n v e r s a ti o n s 7 1 - 8 0
M I D - W .ip la s k D ia lo g u e s

G ram m ar an d Sem antics: The Get Passive

T h e M a p T ask D ia lo g u e s c o n ta i n a v e r y s m a ll n u m b e r o f p a ss iv e s o v e ra ll.
T h e tw o s u b s e ts o f c o n v e r s a tio n s , m b c 2 a n d m b c 8 , d if f e r in th e n u m b e r o f g e t
p assiv es: 2 4 in m b c 2 b u t o n ly 10 in m b c 8 . T h e c o n v e r s a tio n s w e re h e ld in s im i
lar c o n d it io n s b u t in d if f e r e n t s c h o o ls . T h e m a jo r s o c io -Iin g u is tic d if fe re n c e is
t h a t w h ile all th e c o n tr ib u t o r s w e re s p e a k e r s o f S c o ttis h E n g lish , th o s e r e c o r d e d
in m b c 2 w e re n e a r e r t h e S c o ts p o le o f t h e S c o ttis h E n g lis h c o n t i n u u m a n d
th o s e r e c o r d e d in m b c 8 w e re n e a r e r t h e S ta n d a r d E n g lis h p o le . ( F o r f u r th e r
tiis c u s s io n a n d d e ta ils , s e e M ille r, 2 0 0 3 .) F iv e o l th e te n g e l p a s s iv e s in m b c 8
v/ere p r o d u c e d b y o n e s p e a k e r , a 1 6 -y e a r -o ld g irl, a n d tw o s p e a k e r s p r o d u c e d
r o g e t p a ssiv e s. All th e s p e a k e r s in m b c 2 p r o d u c e d a t le a st o n e g e t p a s s iv e . T h e
A u s tr a lia n E n g lis h d a ta w e re r e c o r d e d in v a r i o u s in f o r m a l s e ttin g s a n d fro m
s p e a k e r s r a n g i n g in a g e f r o m 1 9 /2 0 to 3 0 . T h e d y n a m i c b e p a ss iv e s a n d g e t p a s
sives w e r e e q u a l in tr c q u e n c y . B y its v e r y m e a n in g , g e t is e x c lu d e d f r o m s ta tic
passiv es.
B ib e r e t a l. < 1999, p . 4 8 1 ) s t a te t h a t o n ly a fe w v e r b s a r e c o m m o n w i t h th e
g e t p a ss iv e , e v e n in c o n v e r s a tio n : o n ly g e l m a r r ie d h a s m o r e t h a n 2 0 in s ta n c e s
p e r o n e m illio n w o r d s a n d o n l y g e t h it/in v o lv e d /le ft/s tu c k h a v e m o r e th a n
5 i n s ta n c e s p e r o n e m i l l io n w o r d s . It is w o r t h c o m m e n t i n g t h a t a v e r y la rg e

ra n g e o f v e r b s o c c u r s in t h e g e t p assiv e, e v e n i f fe w o f t h e m o c c u r fre q u e n tly :

A usICF. y ie ld s , f o r e x a m p le , g e t c a u g h t/c u t o u t! m ix e d u p ( w ith so m e o n e )/ja rre d /
d isq u a lifie d !a c c e p te d !re b u ilt!b itte n . M b c 8 h a s, f o r e x a m p le , g e t c o n firm e d
(in t h e r e lig io u s s e n s e ) / b a p tize d /e le c te d !sm a sh e d i n / tu r n e d back.

The interpretation of the get passive

H u d d le s to n a n d P u llu m < 2 0 0 2 ) - t h a t is, G re g o ry W a rd , B e tty B irn e r a n d
R o d n e y F lu d d le s to n , w h o w r o te C h a p te r 16 o n t h e p a ss iv e - g iv e a n a c c o u n t o f
th e g e t p a ssiv e , w h ic h in o n e re s p e c t is p u z z lin g . F o llo w in g L a k o l (1 9 7 1 ) a n d
G iv o n a n d Y an g (1 9 9 4 ) , t h e y s a y t h a t g e t p a ss iv e s a r e m o r e c o n d u c iv e to a n
a g e n tiv e in t e r p r e ta ti o n o f t h e s u b je c t ( H u d d le s to n a n d P u ll u m , 2 0 0 2 , p . 1 4 4 2 ).)
By t h i s t h e y m e a n th a t g e t p a ss iv e s in d u c e a n in t e r p r e ta ti o n t h a t t h e p a r tic i
p a n t re f e r r e d to b y th e s u b je c t N P , a lt h o u g h p la y in g th e ro le o f P a tie n t, is
re s p o n s ib le fo r th e e v e n t h a p p e n in g . T h e y s u g g e s t t h a t g e t is t h e n a tu r a l c h o ic e
in Jill d e lib e ra te ly g o t a rr e ste d (i.e. Jill e n g in e e r e d h e r a r r e s t) a n d in e x a m p le s
s u c h a s (3 ).
(3 ) a

S h e m a n a g e d t o g e t t r a n s f e r r e d to t h e f in a n c e d e p a r t m e n t

b . G o a n d g e t c h e c k e d o u t a t t h e m e d ic a l c e n t re .

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

c . G e t t i n g e le c t e d p r e s id e n t o f t h e s t u d e n t u n io n t o o k a lo t o f t im e a n d
e ffo r t.
d . H e d id silly t h in g , h e g o t c a u g h t d o w n lo a d i n g p o r n o g r a p h y o n th e ir
co m p u te r.

L ike C a r te r a n d M c C a rth y (1 9 9 9 ) , th e y re g a r d g e t p a ss iv e s a s c h a r a c te r is tic

c f c la u s e s in v o lv in g a d v e r s ity o r b e n e f it. I n t h e d a ta f r o m C A N C O D E e x a m
in e d b y C a r te r a n d M c C a rth y , m a n y o t t h e ^ e f p a ss iv e s d e n o te e v e n ts th a t h av e
an a d v e rs e e ffe c t o n t h e p e r s o n re f e r r e d to b y t h e s u b je c t N P . T h is is t r u e a lso
c f th e g e t p a ss iv e s in m b c 2 , m b c 8 a n d A u sIC E - se e th e a b o v e s e le c tio n o f
v e rb s lr o m g e t p a ssiv e s. B y th e s a m e to k e n , s o m e b e p a ss iv e s a ls o d e n o t e a d v e rse
e v e n ts a n d s o m e g e t p a ss iv e s d o n o t d e n o te a d v e rs e e v e n ts .
A lo n g t h e s a m e lin e s , L a k o ff ( 1 9 7 1 ) , fo llo w e d b y G iv o n a n d Y ang (1 9 9 4 ),
a p p e a ls to t h e in v e n te d e x a m p le s in ( 4 ) . In ( 4 a ) , th e a d v e rb s u p p o s e d ly d e n o te s
a q u a li ty o f M a r y s a c tio n , b u t n o t in (4 b ).
(4)

a . M a r y g o t s h o t in te n t io n a lly / o n p u r p o s e ,
b . M a r y w a s s h o t in te n t io n a lly / o n p u r p o s e .

L a k o ff a ls o a s s e r ts t h a t g e t p a ss iv e s a llo w t h e in te r e n c e th a t t h e s p e a k e r s
e m o t io n s a r e e n g a g e d . F o r e x a m p le , s h e say s, a g e t p a ss iv e w o u ld b e m o s t
u n lik e ly to o c c u r in th e s o r t o f n e u tr a l s t a te m e n t t h a t n e w s re a d e rs m a k e . T h is
is d if f ic u lt to ju d g e , a s n e w s re a d e rs r e a d f r o m a s c r ip t o n a u to c u e a n d th e w r it
ers o f s u c h s c r ip ts p r o d u c e v e ry c o n s e r v a tiv e w r it te n la n g u a g e . G e t p a ss iv e s a re
ty p ic a lly a b s e n t f r o m s u c h te x ts . T h e e n g a g e m e n t o l e m o t io n s d id g e t s u p p o r t
f r o m G e e (1 9 7 4 ) , w h o u s e d t h e in v e n te d e x a m p le s in (5 ).
(5 ) a

O u r g r a n t w a s c a n c e lle d ( ? d a r n it ')

b . O u r g r a n t g o t c a n c e lle d ' d a m itl).

S o m e c o lle a g u e s a n d s t u d e n t s a t t h e U n iv e rs ity o f E d in b u r g h (S c o ts,

E n g lish a n d A m e ric a n ) s u g g e s te d t h a t (5 a ) is n e u tr a l b u t t h a t (5 b ) is a p p r o p r i
a te i f t h e e v e n t is u n e x p e c te d . O n e r e a d in g o f ( 6 b ) , th e y s a id , m i g h t b e T h e
h o u s e g o t p a in t e d b y a c c id e n t,' w h ile L a k o ff ( 1971 ) p r o p o s e s 'T h e h o u s e fin a lly
g o t p a in te d .
(6 ) a . T h e h o u s e w a s p o in t e d la s t w e e k ,
b . T h e h o u s e g o t p a in t e d la s t w e e k .

B o th L a k o f f a n d G e e c o n s id e r th e b e p a ss iv e fe e b le a n d c o lo u r le s s , t h e g e t
p assiv e v iv id a n d e n e rg e tic . T h e c o n te n t io n h e r e is t h a t t h i s d if fe re n c e c a n b e
tra c e d to th e la c t t h a t th e g e t p a ss iv e is d y n a m ic a n d b u il t r o u n d a v e rb o l

G ram m ar an d Sem antics: The Get Passive

m o v e m e n t. I f b e h a s a n y c o n c r e te m e a n in g , it is ju s t lo c a tio n , a n d i n fa c t it
is s o g r a m m a tic a liz e d t h a t it p r o b a b ly d o e s n o t e v e n d e n o te lo c a tio n . T h e
v a rio u s a d d it io n a l c o m p o n e n t s o f m e a n i n g m e n t io n e d a b o v e c a n b e h a n d le d
a s c o n te x t - d e p e n d e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s m a d e p o s s ib le b y t h e d y n a m i c n a tu r e
c f get.
H a v in g d e v e lo p e d th e a b o v e p o in t s a b o u t t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e g e l
p a ss iv e , W a r d e t a l. a s s e rt t h a t fee a n d g e t a r e d u m m y v e r b s t h a t c a r r y n o i d e n
tifia b le m e a n i n g o f th e i r o w n b u t m e r e ly s e r v e to m a r k th e p a ss iv e v o ic e a n d
to c a r r y t h e p r e t e r i te te n s e in f le c tio n ( H u d d le s to n a n d P u lllu m , 2 0 0 2 , p . 1 4 4 3 ).
Is th e r e a c o n tr a d ic t io n h e re ? P r e s u m a b ly w h a t is m e a n t is th a t t h e g e t p assiv e
c o n s tr u c tio n a s a w h o le c a r r ie s t h e in t e r p r e ta ti o n o f re s p o n s ib ility o r a d v e rs e
e ffe c t b u t t h a t th e a c tu a l v e rb g e t o n its o w n h a s n o id e n tif ia b le m e a n in g .
T h e c e n tr a l p o i n t in th e a n a ly s is a d o p te d h e r e is t h a t g e t d o c s h a v e a n
id e n tif ia b le m e a n in g . B e fo re w e m o v e o n to th a t to p ic , w e c a n u s e f u lly lo o k a t
th e c o n s t r u c ti o n a l m e a n i n g illu s tr a te d in ( 4 a ) . N o n e o l t h e g e t p a ss iv e s fro m
A u s I , m b c 2 o r m b c 8 c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s c a r r y in g th is in t e r p r e ta ti o n . T h e
e x a m p le s t h a t d o c a r r y t h i s in t e r p r e ta ti o n a ll in v o lv e a c a u s a tiv e -re fle x iv e
c o n s tru c tio n , a s in (7 ).

(7 ) a . H e g o t h im s e lf c u t u p a n d t h a t a b it a l o n g t h e l e g a n d t h is a n d his
t ro u s e r s .
| T h e r e f e r e n c e is t o a m o t o r c y c le a c c id e n t c a u s e d b y t h e in ju r e d p e r s o n
d r iv in g t o o f a s t .l
A u s lC E , S 1 A - 0 1 K B ) :2 7 7
b. S h e r e a lly lo v e s f ir s t n a m e 1S a n r i s h e w a n t s t o s t a y w i t h h im n o w t h a t sh.p's
g o t tu rn b a c k a n d s h e 's w o r r ie d a b o u t w h a t w ill h a p p e n w it h f ir s t n a m e 3
w h e n h e c o m e s h e re a n d
S I A -Q 8 3 { B ):3 9 1
S h e 's g o t t e n h e r s e lf in to it
S I A - 0 8 3 < A ) :4 1 5
c . S o I I'v e g o t m y s e lf in t o a n ic e lit t le ( ix a n d lik e I d i d n 't d is c o u r a g e h im
e it h e r w h ic h w a s
S I A -0 9 3 (A ):1 79
d . is th e r e n o t a n y w a y y o u c a n g e t y o u r s e lf in v e ig le d in t o a p e r m a n e n t p o s t
w it h t h e d e p a r t m e n t
M i l l c - B r o w n C o r p u s , c o n v e r s a t io n 31
e.

. I m e a n h i s p a l s o r t o f s it s b a c k a n d e g g s h im o n a n d o f c o u r s e h e g e t s
h im s e lf la n d e d in t o it
M ille r - B r o w n C o r p u s , c o n v e r s a t io n S 6

169

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G iv o n ( 1 9 9 0 , p . 6 2 0 ff ) c la im s t h a t i n t h e s i t u a t i o n d e n o t e d b y (8 a ) th e riv a l
g r o u p a c te d d e lib e ra te ly , w h e re a s in (8 b ) t h e p ic k e t a c te d d e lib e ra te ly .
( 8 ) a . t h e s u p p o r t e r s w e r e d e lib e r a t e ly p r o v o k e d b y a r iv a l g r o u p .
b . t h e p k k e t g o t k n o c k e d d o w n d e lib e r a t e ly b y t h e s e c u r it y g u a rd .

JM 's i n t u i t i o n s d o n o t m a t c h G iv o n s ; (8 b ) w o u ld h a v e to b e r e p h r a s e d as
T he p ic k e t g o t h i n t s e f / h e r s e f k n o c k e d d o w n d e lib e ra te ly b y th e s e c u r ity g u a rd .
G iv o n c la im s t h a t g e t p a s s iv e s w ith a c c id e n ta lly a r e in c o r r e c t, b u t im p lic itly
re c o g n iz e s th a t s u c h e x a m p le s o c c u r w h e n h e d e c la re s t h a t e x a m p le s s u c h as
T h e p ic k e t g o t k n o c k e d d o w n a c c id e n ta lly a r e s u b - s t a n d a r d . T h e r e m a y b e a
d iffe re n c e in u s a g e b e tw e e n B ritis h a n d A m e ric a n E n g lish o r it m a y b e th a t
G iv o n s i n t u i t i o n s a r e m is le a d in g .

Get: a meaningless verb or

a verb of movement?
D o c s g e t in t h e g e t p a s s iv e r e a lly h a v e n o id e n tif ia b le m e a n in g ? M ille r ( 1 9 8 5 ,

p p . 1 7 0 -9 0 ) a rg u e s th a t t h e g e t p a ss iv e is b a s e d o n g e t a s a v e r b o f m o v e m e n t,
a n a n a ly s is t h a t is a r g u e d a lo n g s lig h tly d if f e r e n t lin e s b y G r o n e m e y e r (1 9 9 9 ).
T h e a r g u m e n t is b a s e d o n s y n c h r o n ic a n d d ia c h r o n ic e v id e n c e . T h e s y n c h r o n ic
e v id e n c e is th a t th e g e t p a ss iv e d e n o te s c h a n g e s o f s ta te : g o t rejected d e n o te s a
p ro c e ss o f t r a n s i t i o n f r o m a s t a te o l n o t b e in g re je c te d t o o n e o f b e in g re je c te d .
G ot a n g r y lik e w ise d e n o te s a t r a n s i t i o n f r o m a s t a te o f n o t b e in g a n g r y to a
s ta te o f b e in g a n g r y , a n d in m a n y la n g u a g e s tr a n s it io n s f r o m o n e s t a te to
a n o th e r a r e e x p re s s e d b y v e rb s t h a t a lso e x p re s s m o v e m e n t. I n E n g lish , g e t is a
v e rb o f m o v e m e n t p a r e x c e lle n c e . It c o m b in e s w i t h d ir e c ti o n a l c o m p le m e n ts
a i in (9 ) a n d w ith a ll th e d ir e c tio n a l p a rtic le s : t o r e x a m p le , g e t d o w n o f f th e
w all, g e t u p o n to th e r o o f g e t o u t, g e t p a s t w ith o u t b e in g seen, a n d s o o n .
(9 ) a

W e g o t t o S tirlin g

b . T h e t h ie v e s g o t in t o t h e b u ild in g
c

T h e y g o t o u t o f t h e b u il d i n g b y t h e fire e s c a p e

d . T h e r u n n e r s g o t r o u n d t h e c ir c u it in le s s t h a n t h r e e h o u r s

G e t a ls o d e n o te s c a u s e d m o v e m e n t, a s in (1 0 ), a n d c a u s e d c h a n g e o f s ta te ,
as in (1 1 ).
( 1 0 ) a . W e g o t th e b o x in t o th e car.
b . T h e d r iv e r g o t t h e c a r a s fa r a s th e g a r a g e

G r a m m a r a n d S e m a n t ic s : T h e G e t P a s s iv e

c . 11 w a s q u it e in c r e d ib le t h e w a y w e g o t t h e c a s e o f b e e r s o v e i th e f e n c e
A u s I C E S 1 A - 0 3 1 < B ) :1 7 5

( 1 1 ) a . S h e 's g o t to g e t it o r g a n is e d b e f o r e s h e g o e s to h o s p it a l f o r h e r k n e e
A u s IC E S I A -0 1 6 (A ):2 5
b . w h a t y o u m ig h t Iw v e d o n e w a s g e t e h g e t i t in s u re d o r s o m e t h in g lik e th a t
M ille r - B r o w n C o r p u s , c o n v e r s a t io n 2 0
c . s o y o u g o t y o u r g i a n t a ll f ix e d u p a n d e v e r y t h in g
M ille r B r o w n C o r p u s , c o n v e r s a t io n 1 4
d i t m ig h t t a k e y o u a w e e k t o g e t a n a le r t c o n c u r r e d
G l a s g o w b u s in e s s m e e t in g
e . a s lo n g a s s h e g e t s h e r w o r k d o n e h e r b e - h e r s c h o o l w o r k
f . a m in i's e a s y t o m a n o e u v r e i m e a n y o u c a n g e t it p a r k e d e a s ie r
M ille r - B r o w n C o r p u s c o r p u s , c o n v e r s a t io n 1 2

T h e e x a m p le s in (1 0 ) d e n o t e e v e n ts in w h ic h s o m e th in g m o v e s f r o m o n e
p lace to a n o th e r : t r o m o u ts id e t h e c a r t o in s id e th e c a r - ( 1 0 a ), f r o m n o t a t th e
g a ra g e lo a t ( h e g a r a g e - {1 Ob) a n d f r o m o n e s id e o f th e fe n c e to t h e o t h e r (1 0 c ). T h e e x a m p le s in ( I I ) d e n o te m o v e m e n t f r o m o n e s t a te to a n o th e r : fro m
r.o t b e in g o r g a n iz e d t o b e in g o r g a n iz e d - ( 1 1 a ) , f r o m b e in g u n in s u r e d to b e in g
i is u r e d - (1 l b ) , f r o m b e in g n o t fix e d u p to b e in g fix ed u p - (1 l c ) , f r o m n o t
b e in g a g r e e d o r c o n c u r r e d t o b e in g c o n c u r r e d

( 1 I d ) , f r o m n o t b e in g d o n e to

b e in g d o n e - ( l i e ) a n d f r o m n o t b e in g p a r k e d to b e in g p a r k e d - ( I l f ) . T o s u m
u p t h e i m p o r t o f e x a m p le s ( 9 ) ( 1 1), t h e r e a r e c o n c e p tu a l p a r a lle ls b e tw e e n
c h a n g e o l lo c a tio n a n d c h a n g e o l s t a te a n d b e tw e e n c a u s e d c h a n g e s o f lo c a tio n
a n d c a u s e d c h a n g e s o f s ta te . (S ee t o o J a c k e n d o ff, 1 9 7 6 ,1 9 9 0 ). T h e g e t p a ssiv e
c c n o te s c h a n g e s o f s ta te a n d g e l o c c u r s in th e c o n s t r u c ti o n s in (9 )( 11 ) a n d in
th e d y n a m i c o r g e t passive.
W e t u r n n o w to th e d ia c h r o n ic e v id e n c e s u p p o r t i n g t h e a n a ly s is o f t h e g e l
p assiv e a s b a s e d o n a v e r b o f m o v e m e n t. T h e d ia c h r o n ic e v id e n c e is in tw o
p a rts . O n e c o n c e r n s th e lo n g - te r m h i s to r y o f th e E n g lis h d y n a m ic passive,
w h ic h s e e m s to h a v e b e e n b a s e d o n a s u c c e s s io n o f v e rb s o f m o v e m e n t, a n d
th e o t h e r c o n c e r n s g e l, w h ic h is firs t r e c o r d e d a s a v e r b o f o b ta i n in g b u t w h ic h ,
b y t h e f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e o f th e g e t p a s s iv e , h a d b e e n a v e r b o f m o v e m e n t fo r
th re e h u n d r e d y e a rs.
T h e a c c o u n t i n M ille r (1 9 8 5 , p p . 1 8 8 - 9 ) is b a s e d o n c ita tio n s o f g e l in
th e O E D . T h e e a rlie s t, d a te d 1 2 0 0 , is e q u iv a le n t to 'o b ta in '. T h e n e x t e a rlie s t
c ita tio n is a h u n d r e d y e a rs la te r, b u t il a n d th e lo llo w in g l o u r c ita tio n s
all d e n o t e m o v e m e n t: 1 3 0 0 - a r r iv e a t', g e t o u t', g e t a w a y ; 1 3 4 0 - 'g e t u p ;

172

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

1513 - 'b e ta k e o n e s e lf ; 1530 - 'b r i n g s o m e o n e i n t o o r o u t o f a p o s i ti o n o r
s la te . T h e s t a tu s o f e a rlie s t r e c o r d e d G E T p a ss iv e in t h e w r itte n la n g u a g e u s e d
to b e g iv e n to a c it a ti o n f r o m 1 6 5 2 , A c e rta in S p a n is h p r e te n d in g A l c h y m is t . . .
g p t a c q u a in te d w it h fo u r e rich S p a n is h m e rc h a n ts. G r o n e m e y e r (1 9 9 9 , p . 2 9 ),
c itin g in s u p p o r t a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n ic a t io n f r o m D e n is o n , s u g g e s ts th a t th e
e a rlie s t re lia b le e x a m p le o f a g e t p a ss iv e is f r o m 1693: 1 a m reso lv'd to g e t in tr o
d u c e d to M r s A n n a b e lla . ( P o w e ll, V e ry G o o d W ife . Il.i, p . 10, f r o m th e A R C H E R
C o r p u s .) W h ic h e v e r c it a ti o n is ta k e n a s t h e e a r lie s t in s ta n c e o f a G E T P assiv e,
tn e im p o r t a n t p o in t is th a t b y t h e t i m e t h e G E T p a s s iv e h a d b e e n in u s e lo n g
e n o u g h to a p p e a r in w r it in g its u s e a s a v e rb o l m o v e m e n t h a d b e e n e s ta b
lis h e d f o r m o r e t h a n th r e e h u n d r e d y ears.
G r o n e m e y e r (1 9 9 9 ) p ro v id e s p a th s o f c h a n g e fo r g e t. As t h e s t a r ti n g p o in t
c l t h e p a th s , s h e h a s t h e o b ta i n c o n s t r u c ti o n , w h ic h s h e r e p r e s e n ts a s [in g re ssive + h a v e | . O n e p a th le a d s v ia [s ta tiv e p o s s e s s io n ) to ( o b l ig a t io n |. A se c o n d
p a th le a d s v ia ( m o v e m e n t] to [in c h o a tiv e ] t o (p a s siv e ]. A t h i r d p a th le a d s v ia
[ m o v e m e n t] to [c a u s a tiv e ], w h e r e it s p lits i n t o a p a t h to [p e r m is s io n ] a n d a
p a th t o [in g re s s iv e ]. T h u s , in G r o n e m e y e r s a c c o u n t, all t h e g e t c o n s t r u c ti o n s
e v o lv e v i a Im o v e m e n t I a p a r t I r o m [ s t a t i v e p o s s e s s i o n , a n d [o b l i g a t i o n | , b u t

even th e y ev o lv e d ir e c tly f r o m th e e a rlie s t c o n s t r u c ti o n , w h ic h h a s [in g re ssiv e )

as p a r t o f its m e a n in g . (A t le ast, it h a s in g re s s iv e a s p e c t' a s p a r t o f its m e a n in g .
O n e c a n o n ly a s s u m e t h a t in g re ssiv e a s a c o m p o n e n t o f t h e o b ta i n c o n s t r u c tio n h a s th e s a m e in t e r p r e ta ti o n a s th e e n d p o i n t [in g re ss iv e ] o n o n e o f th e
p a th s. G r o n e m e y e r (1 9 9 9 , p. 11 ) c o m m e n ts t h a t t h e lo c a lis t a n a ly s is in M ille r
(1 9 8 5 ) m a k e s it d if f ic u lt f o r h im to e x p la in th e b a s ic p o s s e s s io n c o n s tr u c tio n .
G ro n e m e y e r 's a n a ly s is is its e lf a c la ssic lo c a lis t o n e , t h e lo c a lis t a n a ly s is o f
o b ta in in g e v e n ts b e in g in te r m s o f a n a b o u t - t o - b e p o s s e s s e d o r re c e iv e d e n tity
m o v in g t o a p o s s e s s o r. T h e s t u m b l in g b lo c k fo r M ille rs a c c o u n t w a s h o w a
v e rb d e n o t i n g m o v e m e n t to a p o s s e s s o r, ty p ic a lly h u m a n , c a m e to d e n o te th e
m o v e m e n t o f (ty p ic a lly a n im a te ) e n ti ti e s f r o m o n e lo c a tio n to a n o th e r . I t is
r o t c le a r th a t G r o n e m e y e r h e r s e lf s u c c e e d s in e x p la in in g th is s h if t, b u t th e
p o in t d o e s n o t a ff e c t th e a n a ly s is o f th e

p a ss iv e a s h a v in g e v o lv e d f r o m a

m o v e m e n t c o n s t r u c ti o n ( a n d a s h a v in g m o v e m e n t a s a c e n tr a l c o m p o n e n t o f
its m e a n in g ).

Where did the get passive come from?

G ro n e m e y e r (1 9 9 9 , p . 3 7 ) h o ld s th a t s e m a n tic c h a n g e s a r e d e p e n d e n t o n s y n
ta c tic in n o v a tio n s l o r a m e a n in g c o n s tr u c tio n to b e e s ta b lis h e d a n d g e n e ra liz e d .

G ram m ar an d Sem antics: The Get Passive

C o n te x tu a lly a m b ig u o u s e x a m p le s a llo w la n g u a g e le a r n e r s to m a k e a n o v e l
a n a ly s is o f s e m a n ti c - s y n t a c ti c c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s , w h ic h le a d s t o a s h if t in
m e a n in g . M ille r (1 9 8 5 ) o ff e rs a d if f e r e n t ta k e o n t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e
g e t p a ss iv e , a r g u in g f r o m t h e fa c t t h a t f r o m t h e e a rlie s t r e c o r d e d te x ts th e
E n g lish d y n a m i c p a ss iv e h a s b e e n b a s e d o n v e r b s o l m o v e m e n t. H is a lte rn a tiv e
v iew is t h a t s e m a n tic c h a n g e s w e r e n o t im p lic a te d i n th e a p p e a r a n c e o f th e
g e t p a ss iv e b u t t h a t it r e p r e s e n te d a n e w e x p re s s io n o f a n o ld c o n c e p tu a l
s tr u c tu r e .
O ld E n g lish h a d th r e e p assiv e s: o n e w ith b e o n b e , b e c o m e , o n e w ith w esa n
be, b e c o m e a n d o n e w ith w eor an 'b e c o m e , a ris e , h a p p e n '. ( T h e g lo s se s a re
fro m I lo l th a u s c n , 1 9 6 3 ). A s T r a u g o tt p u ts it (1 9 7 2 , p p . 8 2 - 3 ) : 'b e o is u s e d to
e x p re s s . . . in t e r m it te n t g e n e r a lity w h ile ives- e x p re s s e s p e r m a n e n t g e n e ra lity
c r p r e s e n t a c tio n , a n d - s tre s s e s t h e a c tiv ity a n d th e e v e n t. S o m e tim e s
th e s e n s e o f b e c o m i n g is still s o s t r o n g in

+ P P th a t it s e e m s to a p p r o x i

m a te to o u r u s e o f g e l a s in I t g o t sto le n v e r s u s I t w a s sto le n . W e o r d a n g ra d u a lly

c is a p p e a r e d a n d w a s r e p la c e d b y o t h e r v e rb s . A c c o rd in g to M u s ta n o ja (1 9 6 0 ,
p p . 6 1 8 - 1 9 ) , t h e fa c t th a t w u r d e w a s u s e d a s a h ig h ly c o lo u r le s s a u x ilia r y in
p a s s iv e p e r ip h r a s e s p r o b a b ly w e a k e n e d its p o s itio n in th e o t h e r f u n c tio n s a n d

c r e a te d th e n e e d f o r n e w v e rb s to e x p re s s th e id e a o f b e c o m in g in a m o r e
fo rc e fu l w ay. T h i s . . . r e s u lte d in t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f se v e ra l v e r b s ( b e c o m e , grow ,
w ax, e tc .) to e x p re s s t h e id e a o f w e o r d a n ! N o w a d a y s M u s ta n o ja s h y p o th e s is
w o u ld b e e x p re s s e d in te r m s o f w e o r d a n b e in g c o m p le te ly g r a m m a tic a liz e d ,
lo sin g c o n ta c t w ith its o r ig in a l c o n c r e te m e a n i n g ( w h ic h s e e m s to h a v e b e e n
m o v e m e n t - s e e b e lo w ) a n d b e in g re p la c e d b y a v e rb w h ic h d i d h a v e a c o n
c re te d e n o ta t io n .
In e x a m p le s s u c h a s T h e s k y g r e w b la ck. T h e leaves tu r n e d y e llo w . T h e kin g
fe ll ill a n d T h e n o is e b e c a m e u n b ea ra b le, g re w , tu r n e d a n d fell, w h ic h c a n e x p ress
m o v e m e n t f r o m o n e p la c e to a n o th e r , e x p re s s m o v e m e n t f r o m o n e s t a te to
a n o th e r . B e c o m e n o w a d a y s e x p re s se s o n l y c h a n g e o f s ta te , b u t a t t h e p e r io d
w h e n it r e p la c e d w e o rd a n a n d a p p e a r e d in th e d y n a m i c p a ss iv e , it d id e x p re ss
m o v e m e n t f r o m o n e p la c e to a n o th e r . B o s w o rth a n d T o lle r g iv e th e fo llo w in g
e x a m p le s f r o m O ld E n g lis h : I n a ceastre b e c u m a n m e a h te 'x h o u m ig h te s t c o m e
in to th e c ity '; H a n n ib a l lo d a m la n d e b e c o m H a n n ib a l c a m e to th a t la n d .
B e c u m a n c o u ld a lso e x p re s s s lig h tly m o r e a b s t r a c t m o v e m e n t: H im d a e s g r im
lea n b e c o m T h is g r i m r e t r ib u t io n h a p p e n e d to th e m . B e c u m a n is a lso s a id to
e x p re s s t h e m e a n in g o l b e c o m in g , b u t th e o n ly e x a m p le in w h ic h t h e m o d e r n
E n g lish tr a n s la t io n c o n ta in s b e c o m e is sy a n n ih t b e co m a fte r it h a d b e c o m e
rig h t'. T h i s is a ls o tr a n s la te d a s a fte r n ig h t h a d c o m e , w h ic h fits th e O ld

173

174

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

E n g lis h le x is a n d g r a m m a r . T h e r e a r e n o e x a m p le s o f b e c u m a n e x p re s s in g
m o v e m e n t f r o m o n e s l a te to a n o th e r .
W eo rd a n a ls o e x p re s s e d c o n c r e te m o v e m e n t. B o s w o rth a n d

T oiler give

S o n tte h e b e tw u x u s a n d h ire ^ 'T h e n il ( th e m o o n ) c a m e b e tw e e n u s a n d it

(ih e s u n ) ; g i f h i o n d a m w u d a w eor p il t h e y g e t in to t h e w o o d . (R . L e Page
in a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n ic a t io n s u g g e s te d t h a t a m o r e f a ith f u l tr a n s la t io n is If
th e y c o m e to b e in t h e w o o d ,' sin c e w u d a is in th e d a tiv e c a se , w h ic h e x p re s se s
lo c a tio n . O n c i t h e r tr a n s la t io n a n d in t e r p r e ta ti o n w e o r d a n d e n o te s m o v e m e n t
f r o m o n e p la c e to a n o th e r , f r o m o u t s i d e t h e w o o d to in s id e t h e w o o d .)
W e o r d a n s e e m s t o h a v e lo s t its a s s o c ia tio n w ith c o n c r e te m o v e m e n t e a rlie r
t h a n b e c u m a n , w h ic h in M id d le E n g lis h te x ts still h a s th is a s s o c ia tio n . K u ra th
a n d K u ra th ( 19 6 3 ) g lo ss th is m e a n i n g o f b ic o m e n a s 'g e t o r a tt a in ( t o a c e r ta in
s la te ) ' a n d b e c o m e s o m e th in g , t h e e a rlie s t e x a m p le o f b ic o m e n w ith th is
d e n o ta t io n b e in g d a te d 12 55.
T h e c h a n g e in th e d y n a m i c p a ss iv e c a n b e s u m m a r iz e d th u s . W eo rd a n , w h ic h
o rig in a lly d e n o te d c o n c r e te m o v e m e n t b u t lo s t t h a t d e n o ta t io n , w a s re p la c e d
in M id d le E n g lis h b y b ic o m e n , w h ic h still d e n o te d c o n c r e te m o v e m e n t. B ico m en
its e lf e v e n tu a lly c e a s e d t o d e n o t e c o n c r e t e m o v e m e n t a n d , t h o u g h i t d i d n o t

d is a p p e a r, a c q u ir e d s u b s tit u te v e r b s in c o n s t r u c ti o n s o f b e c o m in g . T h e s e
v/cre v e r b s s u c h a s tu r n , g o a n d fa ll, w h ic h a ls o d e n o te d m o v e m e n t f r o m o n e
lo c a tio n o r p o s i ti o n to a n o th e r . A n o th e r r e p la c e m e n t w as g e t, w h ic h h a s
b e c o m e th e p r i n c ip a l a u x ilia r y fo r t h e d y n a m i c p assiv e.
T h e a b o v e d a ta s u p p o r t th e id e a t h a t t h e E n g lis h d y n a m ic p a ss iv e h a s f r o m
t i e e a rlie s t re c o r d e d e x a m p le s b e e n b a s e d o n t h e c o n c e p t o f m o v e m e n t in to
a s ta te . T h e e a r lie s t c o n s t r u c ti o n h a d t h e v e r b o f m o v e m e n t w eo rd a n a t its
c e n tr e ; its s u c c e s s o r h a d t h e v e rb o f m o v e m e n t b ic o m en ; a n d t h e la te s t c o n
s t r u c ti o n h a s t h e v e r b o f m o v e m e n t g e t, b u t a ls o b ecom e.

Grammar and
Semantics: wh words

Chapter Outline
W h w o rd s

a s d e ic t ic s

175

In d e f in it e a n d in t e r r o g a t iv e p r o n o u n s

186

C o n c lu s io n

190

Wh words as deictics
T h e a n a ly s is o f w h p r o n o u n s in E n g lis h b e a r s o n th e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n
sy n ta x a n d s e m a n tic s ( o r p r a g m a tic s ) , t h e q u e s tio n o f w h a t s t r u c tu r e to a ss ig n
to th e c h u n k w h a t y o u n e e d in a s e n te n c e s u c h a s Tell w e w h a t y o u n e e d ? a n d
th e c h u n k w h ic h y o u p r e fe r in D e c id e w h ic h y o u p re fe r a n d r e tu r n th e o th e r rug.
H o w is it th a t w h p r o n o u n s o c c u r in c h u n k s lik e w h a t y o u n e e d a n d a lso in
in te rro g a tiv e c la u s e s - W h a t a r e y o u o rd erin g ?, W h ic h is ch ea p er? a n d s o o n - in
W H c le f ts - W h a t s h e d i d w a s se ll h e r h o u s e - a n d in fix e d p h r a s e s s u c h a s Tell
y o u w h a t: y o u s ta y h e re a n d I'll b rin g th e cu r r o u n d ? W h a t p r o p e r ty o f w h
p r o n o u n s e n a b le s t h e m to f u n c tio n in th e s e d if f e r e n t c o n s tr u c tio n s ? T h e
d is c u s s io n o f t h e E n g lis h w h p r o n o u n s le a d s in to t h e m o r e g e n e ra l to p ic o f
in d e f in ite a n d in te r r o g a tiv e p r o n o u n s a n d t h e ro le o f s e m a n tic s a n d p r a g m a t
ics in in t e r p r e tin g th e h is to ric a l d a ta .
W c p r o p o s e h e r e t h a t t h e c ru c ia l p r o p e r ty o l w h p r o n o u n s is t h a t th e y a re
d e ic tic s , t h a t c h u n k s lik e w h a t y o u n e e d a n d w h ic h y o u p re fe r a r e N P s a n d th a t
in d e f in ite w h p r o n o u n s a r e h is to ric a lly p r i o r to in te r r o g a tiv e w h p r o n o u n s .
T h e a n a ly s is fits w i t h t h e a c c o u n t o f free re la tiv e s in B re s n a n a n d G r im s h a w
(1 9 7 8 ) b u t n o t w ith t h e a c c o u n t in H u d d le s to n a n d P u llu m (2 0 0 2 ) . T h e a n a ly
sis a ls o g o e s a g a in s t t h e a c c o u n t in H a s p c lm a th (1 9 9 7 ) o n ih e g r o u n d s th a t

176

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

H a s p e lm a th d o e s n o t o f f e r a c o n v in c in g s e m a n ti c - p r a g m a ti c re a s o n fo r
h is p o s tu la te d m o v e f r o m in te r r o g a tiv e to in d e f in ite , b u t th e r e is a s o lid
s s m a n ti c - p r a g m a ti c e x p la n a tio n lo r th e m o v e f r o m in d e f in ite to in te rro g a tiv e
(L yons, 1 9 7 7 b ).
W h y tr e a t th e w h p r o n o u n s a s in d e f in ite d e ic tic s? C o n s id e r firs t th e
e x a m p le i n ( 1 >, f r o m a p h o n e - i n p r o g r a m m e b r o a d c a s t in A u stra lia .
(1 ) it's q u it e a h e a v y b o o k u h l i k e i t p r o b a b ly I c a ll it m y b ib le it s p r o b a b ly
a s h e a v y a s a b ib le a s w e l l b u t I t e l l y o u w h a t a n y t im e I n e e d t o k n o w a n y
t h in g it s g o t e v e r y t h in g a b o u t e v e r y f a u t a n d h e r b a n d v e g e t a b le in it
M a cq u a n e C o rp u s. A u stg ra m 3 C o m m East

T h e s p e a k e r s a y s I te ll y o u w h a t. T h e s p e a k e r k n o w s w h a t h e is a b o u t t o say
b u t t h e lis te n e r d o e s n o t, a n d th is is th e s e n s e in w h ic h t h e w h p r o n o u n s a re
in d e f in ite , s p e c ific fo r t h e s p e a k e r b u t n o n - s p e c if ic fo r t h e lis te n e r. W h a t in
(1 ) p o i n t s f o r w a r d t o th e p r o p o s iti o n t h a t t h e b o o k u n d e r d is c u s s io n h a s a lo t

c f i n f o r m a t io n a b o u t h o r t ic u l tu r e . I t is th is p o in t in g f u n c tio n t h a t m a k e s w h
p r o n o u n s d e ic tic .
O f c o u r s c t h e e x a m p i e i n < 1) i s o f a t e m p l a t e t h a t a l l o w s a v e r y l i m i t e d

l u m b e r o f c h a n g e s : K n o w w h a t? O r I te ll y o u w h a t su rp rise s y o u a s in (2 ).
(2 ) I t e ll y o u w h a t s u r p r is e s y o u e h a s I s a y I r e m e m b e r s e e in g A r t h u r S tr e e t f r o m
th e u n iv e r s it y w h e n I w e n t b a c k
M ille r - B r o w n C o r p u s , m b c I

W h a t su rp rises y o u p o in t s f o r w a r d to t h e i n f o r m a t io n t h a t th e A r th u r S tre e t
a re a s e e m e d v e r y s m a ll, b u t th e s p e a k e r r e m e m b e r s t h a t in h is y o u th th e re
w ere h u n d r e d s o f p e o p le liv in g th e r e . W e s t a r t w ith th is te m p la t e b e c a u s e th e
a n a ly sis is s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d , b u t w h p r o n o u n s o c c u r w ith th e s a m e f u n c tio n in
W11 c le fts, a s in (3 ).
(3 ) w h a t w a n t to d o w it h y o u t h o u g h is p r o b a b ly n o w h e r 'a s t p o e m a n d it's
c h illin g
W S C # M U S 0 0 1 :0 4 2 0 :F G >

(4 ) w h a t y o u d o is m a r in a d e t h e m f o r t h r e e o r f o u r h o u r s

(5 ) b u t w h a t r a e le n e w a s s a y in g u m t h e y 'v e h a d t r o u b le w i t h s t a f f t u r n o v e r
< W S C * D P C 0 0 2 :0 1 8 5 :D S >

In (3 ) w h a t p o in t s t o h e r la s t p o e m , in (4 ) w h a t y o u d o p o in t s to th e p r o p o s i
tio n c o n v e y e d b y m a r in a d e th e m fo r th re e o r f o u r h o u rs, in (5 ) w h a t ra e le n e w a s

G ram m ar and Sem antics: wh W ords

sa y in g p o in t s to th e y 'v e h a d tro u b le w ith s t u f f tu r n o v e r. T h e d e ic tic ta r g e t c o u ld
be t h e p r o p o s iti o n e x p re s s e d b y th e s e w o r d s ( th e m o s t lik e ly in t e r p r e ta ti o n ) o r
th e w o r d s th e m s e lv e s p r e s e n te d b y th e s p e a k e r c o u ld b e R a e le n c s o w n .
In ( 1 ) - ( 5 ) , t h e w h c h u n k is s p e c ific f o r th e s p e a k e r b u t n o n - s p e c if ic fo r th e
liste n e r, b u t in o t h e r e x a m p le s th e w h c h u n k is s p e c ific l o r b o th . I n ( 6 ) , fo r
e x a m p le , t h e w h c h u n k s w h a t th e y 're d o in g n o w lik e a n d w h a t t h e y v e clone w ith
th e d u m b ie d y k e s j u s t re c e n tly lik e p o i n t b a c k to a to p ic t h a t c a m e u p in th e
c o n v e rs a tio n ju s t 5 m i n u te s e a rlie r ; t h a t is, th e y a r e s p e c ific l o r b o t h s p e a k e r
a n d lis te n e r. ( T h e D u m b ie d y k e s is a n a r e a o f E d in b u r g h .) T h e w h c h u n k
re -e s ta b lis h e s t h e to p i c , k n o c k in g d o w n th e o ld b u ild in g s a n d e r e c tin g n e w
o n e s , a n d o n c e re - e s ta b lis h e d it c a n b e re f e r r e d to b y th a t - th e y s h o u ld h a ve
d o n e t h a t y e a r s ago.
(6 ) b u t s till r k o n w h a t t h e y r e d o i n g n o w lik e w h a t t h e y 'v e d o n e w it h the
d u m b ie d y k e s |ust r e c e n t ly lik e t h e y s h o u ld h a v e d o n e t h a t y e a r s a g o
M ille r - B r o w n C o r p u s , c o n v e r s a t io n 1

Wh com plem ent clauses

C o n s id e r ( 7 ) - ( 9 ) .
(7 ) w h a t IS im p o r t a n t is t h a t y o u u n d e r s t a n d < > u r n h o w

t h in g s W O R K

a n d W H E R E Y O U C A N F IN D o u t w h a t y o u w a n t t o k n o w w h e n y o u w a n t to
k n o w it
W S C # M U S 0 0 7 0 0 8 0 :T T

(8 ) it's a g o o d id e a e h i t h in k it's a b u s e d b u t e h t h e y d o n t s e e m t o h a v e a v e ry
g o o d e h w h a t 's t h e w o r d r e p u t a t io n in a m e r ic a s in g le s b a r s f r o m w h a t i c o u ld
g a t h e r (u h h u h )
M ille r - B r o w n C o r p u s , c o n v e r s a t io n 2

(9 ) < x s 6 > o h y e a h y e a h u h h u h a s i s a y i c a n t r e m e m b e r w h e n t h e y b u ilt the

m u s e u m i t m a y h a v e b e e n d e m o lis h e d a t i h a t t im e to m a k e w a y ( o r th e S c o t
tis h m u s e u m
M ille r B r o w n C o r p u s , c o n v e r s a t io n 1

(7 )

h a s f o u r w h c o m p le m e n t c la u s e s: t h e s u b je c t is w h a t I S im p o rta n t,

th e d ir e c t o b je c ts o f u n d e r s ta n d a r e h o w th in g s W O R K a n d W H E R E Y O U
C A N F IN D o u t w h a t y o u w a n t to know , a n d th e d ir e c t o b je c t o f f i n d o u t is
w h a t y o u w a n t to k n o w . T h e r e f e re n ts o f t h e firs t th r e e w h c o m p le m e n ts h av e
sp e c ific re fe re n c e fo r t h e s p e a k e r b u t n o t f o r t h e lis te n e rs . T h e r e f e r e n t o f th e
f o u r t h c o m p le m e n t is n o n - s p e c if ic f o r s p e a k e r a n d lis te n e rs . T h e f a c t t h a t wh

177

17 8

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

c o m p le m e n ts f u n c tio n a s s u b je c ts o r o b je c ts is a g o o d in d i c a ti o n t h a t th e y
a re n o m in a l, b u t (8 ) p r o v i d e s e v id e n c e t h a t th e y a r e a c tu a lly N P s , s in c e th e
c o m p le m e n t w h a t I c o u ld g a th e r is p r e c e d e d b y t h e p r e p o s iti o n fr o m .
H u d d le s to n a n d P u llu m (2 0 0 2 , p . 1 0 3 6 ) c a ll th e w h p r o n o u n s 'f u s e d re la t.v e s ' T h e y p o i n t o u t t h a t a p h r a s e s u c h a s a b a n d o n in g w h a t w e h o ld m o s t d e a r
c a n b e p a r a p h r a s e d a s a b a n d o n in g th a t w h ic h w e h o ld m o s t d e a r. T h e y p r o p o s e
a s y n ta c tic s t r u c t u r e in w h ic h w h a t w e h o ld m o s t d e a r is a n N P w ith w h a t as
its h e a d , m o d if ie d b y t h e c la u s e w e h o ld m o s t dear. T h e c la u s e h a s a n e m p ty
c b je c t N P s lo t fo llo w in g h o ld . S o far, th is s y n ta c tic s t r u c t u r e is t h e o n e p r o
p o s e d b y B re s n a n a n d G r im s h a w (1 9 7 8 ) , b u t H u d d le s to n a n d P u llu m a d ju s t
th e s t r u c t u r e s o t h a t w h a t is a d a u g h t e r o f t h e N P n o d e a n d a d a u g h te r o f th e
r o d e 'M o d if ie r : C la u s e d o m i n a ti n g w e h o ld m o s t dear. T h is re v is e d a r r a n g e
m e n t o l c o n s t it u e n ts c a p tu r e s th e i r v ie w (firs t p r o p o s e d in H u d d le s t o n , 1984,
a n d H u d d le s to n , 1988, p p . 1 5 8 - 9 ) t h a t in th e a b o v e w h s t r u c tu r e s w h a t re s u lts
f r o m a fu s io n o f th a t a n d w h ic h . I n t h e th a t w h ic h v e r s io n t h a t is d o m i n a te d b y
tn e h e a d N P n o d e a n d w h ic h is d o m i n a te d b y t h e n o d e 'M o d i f ie r : C la u s e .
J e s p e rs e n (1 9 6 1 a , p . 5 4 ) c o m m e n te d t h a t O n i o n s ( 1 9 0 4 ) a n d S o n n e n s c h e in
(1 9 2 1 ) p r o p o s e d to d e r iv e t h e iv h f o r m s in / k n o w w h a t y o u w a n ! a n d Tell m e
w h o g o t th e j o b b y e llip s is , fr o m , say , I k n o w th a t w h a t/w h ic h y o u w a n t a n d Tell
n e h im /h e r w h o g o t th e jo b . H e a ls o c o m m e n ts ( J e s p e rs e n , 196 1 a, p . 5 5 ) th a t
S w eet (1 8 9 2 ) c a lle d th e s e w h w o r d s 'c o n d e n s e d re la tiv e p r o n o u n s b e c a u s e
'

u n i t e s th e g r a m m a tic a l f u n c t io n s o f th e tw o w o r d s s o m e th in g a n d which'.

Je s p e rse n a s k s , w ith o u t f u r th e r d is c u s s io n , w h e th e r th e w h w o r d s s h o u l d b e
seen a s a c o n d e n s a t io n o f th a t a n d w hich.
O n e d is a d v a n ta g e o f H u d d le s to n a n d P u ll u m s a n a ly s is is th a t t h e w h p r o
n o u n s a r e n o t j u s t e q u iv a le n t to th a t w h ich . In (7 ), h o w is e q u iv a le n t to th e
w a y /m a n n e r in w h ic h a n d w h e r e to th e p la c e in w h ic h . I n ( 9 ) , w h e n is e q u iv a le n t
to t h e t i m e a t w h ic h o r th e tim e d u r in g w h ic h . A n d in < 1 0 ), w h y is e q u iv a le n t to
th e reason f o r w h ic h .
( 1 0 ) A n d y e t e v e n a s t h a t n o v ic e , s till in th e p r o c e s s o f g e t t in g y o u r h e a d r o u n d
t h e o f t e n m ic r o s c o p ic s u b t le t ie s o f w h a t t o m a n y e n t h u s i a s t s i s a l m o s t a
r e l i g i o n , it s n o t o v e r ly d if f ic u lt t o a p p r e c ia t e w h y t h a t s h o u l d b e s o T h e y
a r e . a f t e r a ll. b o t h P o r s c h e 9 1 Is .
C h r i s H o r t o n , D e f e n d e r s o f t h e F a it h ',

911 &

P o r s c h e W o r ld , J u ly 7 0 0 9 , p 8 4

A n o th e r s t r a n d in H u d d le s to n a n d P u llu m s a n a ly s is o f 'f u s e d re la tiv e s is

t h a t th e o n e s in t r o d u c e d b y w h a t a r e N P s , b u t th o s e b a s e d o n w h e re a n d w h en ,
a s i n ( 1 1 ) , a r e P P s.

G ram m ar and Sem antics: wh W ords

( 1 1 ) a . P u t it b a c k w h e r e y o u f o u n d it.
b . H e still c a l ls h i s p a r e n t s w h e n e v e r h e is i n t r o u b le .

N o w i t is c o r r e c t t h a t w h e r e y o u f o u n d it c a n b e p a r a p h r a s e d b y in th e place
y o u f o u n d i t o r in th e p la c e in w h ic h y o u f o u n d i t a n d s o o n , b u t p a r a p h r a s e s a re
r o t a c r ite r io n f o r c h o o s in g th is o r t h a t s y n ta c tic s t r u c tu r e . T h e p a r a p h r a s e
n i g h t s u g g e s t t h a t w h e r e y o u f o u n d it a n d in th e p la c e in w h ich y o u f o u n d it
s h o u ld b e lin k e d to th e s a m e s e m a n tic s t r u c tu r e , b u t t h e o n ly d is tr i b u ti o n a l
p r o p e r ty is t h a t P u t it b a c k c a n b e fo llo w e d b y a PP, P u t it b a c k in th e cu p b o a rd ,
c r b y a w h c la u s e a s in ( 11 a ). A p p ly in g th e a n a ly s is o f w h p r o n o u n s a s d e ic tic s ,
w e p r o p o s e t h a t w h e re is a d e ic tic th a t is u s e d fo r p o i n t i n g to lo c a tio n s . W h e th e r
w h e re c h u n k s f u n c t io n a s s u b je c ts s u c h a s in W h e r e sh e m e t h i m is a m y s te r y o r
a s d ir e c t o b je c ts s u c h a s in I d o n 't k n o w w h e r e s h e m e t h i m o r a s o b li q u e o b je c ts
s u c h a s in You w ere a s k in g a b o u t w h e re s h e m e t h im , th e y p o i n t t o lo c a tio n s ,
a n d t h i s is w h a t m a k e s th e m a s u ita b le th i r d a r g u m e n t fo r p u t in c la u s e s s u c h
a s S h e p u t i t w here n o b o d y c o u ld see it.

Whenever and when in adverbial clauses

T h e w h c h u n k in < 1 l b ) is a n a d v e r b ia l c la u s e o f tim e a n d t h e p r o b le m h e r e is
w h e th e r t o a n a ly s e w h e n e v e r a s a c o m p l e m e n t iz e r /s u b o r d in a t in g c o n ju n c t io n
fo llo w ed b y t h e c o r e o f th e c la u s e , h e is in tro u b le , o r a s a d e ic tic w h p r o n o u n
m o d ifie d b y a re la tiv e c la u s e . W h e n e v e r c e r ta in ly d e n o te s a s e t o f tim e s , ju s t
a s w h e n in W h e n w e le ft, w e w e r e s a d d e n o te s a tim e , b u t t h a t is n o t a s tr o n g
a r g u m e n t fo r tr e a ti n g it a s a w h p r o n o u n . M a n y p r e p o s itio n s d e n o te lo c a tio n s ,
s u c h a s b e h in d in b e h in d th e h o u se, b u t t h a t d o e s n o t m a k e th e m n o u n s , a n d
th e fa c t t h a t tr a n s m it a n d tr a n sm iss io n ( i n o n e o f its s e n s e s ) b o th d e n o te a n
a c tio n d o e s n o t m a k e a n a ly s ts a b a n d o n t h e v ie w t h a t tr a n s m it is a v e r b a n d
tra n sm issio n a n o u n .
O n e T u rk is h e q u iv a le n t o l a d v e rb ia l w h e n c la u s e s p ro v id e s a n in s tr u c tiv e
c o n tr a s t. I n T u r k is h , v a r io u s n o m i n a ls a r e d e r iv e d f r o m v e rb s . O n e s e t o f fo r m s
c o n s is ts o f a v e r b s te m p lu s th e su ffix - d i k ( - d i g b e tw e e n v o w e ls) a n d w ith th e
v o w e ls i, i, u o r U d e p e n d in g o n th e v o w e l o f th e v e r b s te m . F o r in s ta n c e , th e
v e rb s te m o f o i- r e a d g iv es o k u d u k -, to w h ic h c a n b e a d d e d p o ss e ssiv e su ffix e s,
p lu r a l su ffix e s a n d c a se s u tfix e s . O k u d u g u m c a n b e ro u g h ly g lo s s e d a s m y
n -a d in g , o k u d u g u m la r a s t h e th in g s 1 a m re a d in g ' a n d o k u d u g u m la r d a a s in
th e th in g s I a m r e a d in g .
T h e s e n o m i n a l f o r m s c a n m o d i f y n o u n s , a s in O k u d u g u m k i t a b m y - r e a d in g
b o o k , t h e b o o k w h ic h I a m r e a d in g . T u rk is h h a s a p o ss e ssiv e c o n s tr u c tio n ,
w h ic h in th e th i r d p e r s o n c o n s is ts o f a p o s s e s s o r n o u n in th e g e n itiv e c a se a n d

179

1 80

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

a n o u n d e n o t i n g th e p o ss e sse d . T h e la tte r n o u n h a s a p o ss e ssiv e su ffix : th u s ,
F a tm a ( w o m a n s n a m e ) F a tm a m n k ita b t 'F a t m a - o f b o o k - h e r , F a tm a s book*.
T h e p o ss e ssiv e c o n s tr u c tio n c a n c o n ta i n th e n o m i n a l f o r m s d e r iv e d fro m
v e rb s , a s in F a tm a n m o k u d u g u 'F a t m a - o f r e a d in g - h e r , 'F a tm a s r e a d in g . T h is
p o sse ssiv e c o n s t r u c ti o n c a n m o d if y a n o u n , y ie ld in g th e T u rk is h e q u iv a le n t o l
a n E n g lis h re la tiv e c la u s e : F a tm a n m o k u d u g u k it a b F a t m a - o f r e a d in g - h e r
h o o k , th e b o o k t h a t F a tm a is r e a d in g , o r O k u d u g u m k ita b r e a d in g - m y b o o k .
Lie b o o k 1 a m re a d in g .
C o n s id e r n o w t h e T u rk is h n o u n z a m a n 't i m e . It ta k e s d e m o n s tr a tiv e s , o
z a m a n 't h a t tim e ', a n d a p lu r a l su ffix , z a m a n la r tim e s . It c a n b e m o d if ie d b y
c n e o f th e a f o r e m e n tio n e d n o m i n a l f o r m s , a s in o k u d u g u m z a m a n 'rc a d in g n y t i m e . T h is is th e e q u iv a le n t o f a n E n g lish w h e n a d v e rb ia l c la u s e a n d is
t r a n s la te d a s 'w h e n I w a s re a d in g '. (1 2 ) s h o w s a c o m b i n a ti o n o l t h i s a d v e rb ia l
d a u s e a n d a m a i n c la u se .
( 1 2 ) O k u d u g u m k it a b i z a m a n , o n a c e v a p v e r d im
r e a d m g - m y b o o k t im e h im - t o a n s w e r g iv e -p a s t - l
W h e n I r e a d t h e b o o k I g a v e h im a n a n s w e r '

In th e T u rk is h c o n s t r u c ti o n , z a m a n lo o k s v e r y n o u n - l ik e a n d o k u d u g u m
k ita b i lo o k s v e ry lik e a re la tiv e c la u s e . T h a t is, th e r e is s o lid s y n ta c tic a n d m o r p h o s y n ta c tic e v id e n c e in T u r k is h fo r tr e a ti n g z a m a n a s a n o u n in (1 2 ), a n d th is
e v id e n c e h ig h lig h ts j u s t h o w little s u c h e v id e n c e t h e r e is fo r tr e a tin g w h e n e v e r
c r w h e n a s a w h p r o n o u n in E n g lis h a d v e rb ia l c la u s e s o f tim e .

M ain clauses introduced by when

liie r e a r c f o u r m o r e w h c o n s t r u c ti o n s in E n g lis h w h o s e a n a ly s is c o n tr ib u te s
to t h e d e ic tic p e rs p e c tiv e . T h e firs t is t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n in ( 1 3 ), w h ic h is v e ry
c o m m o n in s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n n a r r a tiv e b u t r e g a r d e d b y m a n y u s e r s o f
B ritish E n g lish a s u n a c c e p ta b le in w r itin g . ( T h a t o b s e r v a tio n is b a s e d o n an
e x a m in a tio n o l c o r r e c tio n s m a d e to h o m e w o r k e x e rc is e s b y te a c h e rs o l
E n g lish in s e c o n d a r y s c h o o ls in E d in b u rg h .)
( 13 ) F io n a w a s a d m i r i n g t h e g a r d e n w h e n M a g n u s c a m e o u t o f t h e h o u s e .

T h e w h e n c la u s e , w h e n M a g n u s c a m e o u t o f th e h o u se, lo o k s lik e a n a d v e rb ia l
d a u s e o t t i m e , b u t a s w e w ill se e la te r , th e r e a r c r e a s o n s t o r tr e a tin g it a s a m a in
d a u s e . T h e d e ic tic n a tu r e o f w h e n is q u ite c le a r in ( 1 3 ). T h e s e n te n c e d e s c rib e s
a s i tu a t io n in w h ic h tw o e v e n ts h a p p e n ; t h e b a c k g r o u n d e v e n t is F io n a

G ram m ar and Sem antics: wh Words

.sta n d in g a d m i r i n g th e g a r d e n a n d t h e m a i n o r f o r e g r o u n d e d e v e n t is M a g n u s
c o m in g o u t o f t h e h o u s e . T h e tim e o f t h e f o r e g r o u n d e d e v e n t, to b e c o n c e iv e d
c f a s a p o in t , is c o n ta i n e d w ith in th e t i m e o f th e b a c k g r o u n d e v e n t, to b e c o n
ce iv e d o f a s a lin e re p r e s e n tin g a p e r i o d o f tim e . I n ( 1 3 ) , th a t is t o say, w h e n
p o in t s to a tim e th a t h a s b e e n e s ta b lis h e d in th e d is c o u r s e , t h e tim e o f t h e b a c k
g r o u n d e v e n t; w e c a n a s s u m e t h a t th is tim e is s p e c ific f o r s p e a k e r a n d liste n e r.
(1 3 ) m a y n o t a ffe c t t h e p r e c e d in g d is c u s s io n o f a d v e rb ia l c la u s e s o f tim e
a n d t h e c o m p le m e n tiz e r , b e c a u s e t h e c la u s e w h e n M a g n u s c a m e o u t o f th e
h o u se is p r o b a b l y b e tt e r a n a ly s e d a s a m a i n c la u s e . T h e r e is s y n ta c tic e v id e n c e
fo r s u c h a n a n a ly s is , s in c e t h e p r e p o s itio n a l p h r a s e o u t o j th e h o u s e c a n b e
m o v e d lo t h e f r o n t o f th e c la u s e : F io n a w a s w a te rin g th e p la n ts w h e n o u t o f th e
h o u se c a m e M a g n u s . P re p o s itio n a l p h r a s e s c a n o n ly b e f r o n te d in m a i n c la u s e s ,
c r a t le a s t in c la u s e s w h ic h a r e w e a k ly s u b o r d in a te in th e i r s y n ta x . I f (1 3 ) is
c h a n g e d s o t h a t t h e w h e n c la u s e p re c e d e s th e m a in c la u s e , a s in (1 4 ), o u t o f th e
h o u se c a n n o t b e f r o n te d . ( 1 4 a ) is a c c e p ta b le , ( 1 4 b ) is n o t.
( 1 4 ) a . W h e n M a g n u s c a m e o u t o f i h e h o u s e , F io n a w a s w a t e r i n g t h e p la n ts ,
b . W h e n o u t o f t h e h o u s e c a m e M a g n u s , F io n a w a s w a t e r i n g t h e p la n ts .

T h e r e is a ls o s e m a n tic e v id e n c e l o r tr e a tin g th e w h e n c h u n k i n (1 3 ) a s a
m a in c la u s e . (1 4 a ) is th e c a n o n ic a l c o m b i n a ti o n o f s u b o r d in a te a d v e rb ia l
c la u s e o f tim e a n d m a in c la u s e . T h e m a in c la u s e e x p re s s e s t h e m a in o r fo r e
g r o u n d e d e v e n t, F io n a w a s w a te rin g th e p la n ts, t h e o n e t h a t m o v e s th e n a r r a
tive a lo n g , w h ile t h e a d v e rb ia l c la u s e o f tim e e x p re s s e s t h e s e c o n d a r y o r
b a c k g r o u n d e v e n t, M a g n u s c a m e o u t o f th e h o u se. I n (1 3 ), th e tw o e v e n ts h av e
s w a p p e d s ta tu s ; th e s e c o n d a r y e v e n t is F io n a w a s w a te r in g th e p la n ts a n d it is
e x p re s s e d b y th e m a in c la u s e , w h ile t h e m a i n e v e n t is M a g n u s c a m e o u t o f th e
house, w h ic h is e x p re s s e d b y t h e a d v e rb ia l c la u s e . T h e d if f e r e n t in f o r m a tio n a l
s ta tu s o f t h e c la u s e s is a s t r o n g in d ic a tio n t h a t (1 3 ) is n o t ju s t (1 4 a ) w ith th e
cla u s e s in a d il lc r c n t o rd e r.

Wh relative clauses
T h e s e c o n d c o n s t r u c ti o n is t h e w h re la tiv e c la u s e , a s in ( 15).
( 1 5 ) a . th e m e e t in g w h ic h I a t t e n d e d
b

th e b o y w h o lik e d c h e s s

th e w r it e r w h o s e n o v e ls I a m r e a d in g

t h e is la n d w h e r e t h e k in g s a r e b u r ie d

e . t h a t d a y w h e n e v e r y t h in g w e n t w r o n g

182

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

A c e n tr a l id e a in a ll f o r m a l m o d e ls o f s y n ta x is t h a t a g iv e n re la tiv e
p r o n o u n is c o - in d e x e d w ith th e N P ( o r n o u n , d e p e n d in g o n th e m o d e l)
m o d if ie d b y th e re la tiv e c la u s e . T h u s , in ( 1 5 a ) w h ic h is c o - in d e x e d w ith th e
m eetin g , in (1 5 c ) w h o se is c o - in d e x e d w ith th e w r ite r a n d s o o n . T o c o n s id e r
t i e w h re la tiv e p r o n o u n s d e ic tic , p o in t in g to th e re f e re n t o f t h e p re c e d in g
NP, is s im p ly to m a k e e x p lic it s o m e th i n g t h a t is im p lic it in t h e g e n e ra tiv e
an aly ses.
T h e d e ic tic v ie w fits w ith o t h e r fa c ts o f E n g lish s y n ta x a n d w ith th e
g e n e ra l d e v e lo p m e n t o f re la tiv e c la u s e s in I n d o - E u r o p e a n . O n e fa c t o f E n g lish
sy n ta x is t h a t w h ic h re la tiv e c la u s e s c a n m o d if y p r o p o s iti o n s o r s itu a tio n s ,
as in <16).
(1 6 ) a

i l t h e p u p ils w a n t e d a Christm as f e e

w h ic h th e y ob v io u sly d id it's

ir r e le v a n t i m e a n h e c o u l d b e a b u d d h is t f o r a ll : c a r e
M ilie r - B r o w n C o r p u s , c o n v e r s a t io n 2 9

b . b u t t h e a t t it u d e t o w a r d s w o r k in c o u r s e s a n d e v e r y t h in g 's s e r io u s y o u
k n o w w h ic h is in s o m e w a y s h a lf t h e b a t t le a b o u t g o i n g t o u n iv e rs itie s
M ille r - B r o w n C o r p u s , c o n v e r s a t io n 1 5

c. w e ll w e 'v e b o th see n e lta n jo h n in c o n c e rt tw ice w h ic h a t the tim e w e

th o u g h t w a s great
M ille r -B r o w n C o rp u s, co n versation 12

N o n e o t t h e w h ic h c la u s e s in ( 1 6 a -c ) c a n b e c o - in d e x e d w i t h N P s o r tr e a te d
as p o i n t i n g to t h e r e f e re n ts o f N P s . In ( 1 6 b ) , w h ic h d o e s p ic k u p th e re f e r e n t o f
t i e N P th e a ttitu d e to w a rd s w o rk , b u t i t a ls o re f e rs t o t h e s i tu a t io n d e n o te d b y
t i e c la u s e e v e r y th in g 's serio u s. In (1 6 a ) w h ic h re f e rs to t h e s i tu a t io n d e n o t e d by
th e p u p ils w a n te d a C h ristm a s tree a n d in (1 6 c ) t o th e s i tu a t io n 's e e in g E lto n
J o h n in c o n c e rt'. O n e w a y o f h a n d li n g th e s e e x a m p le s is to a d o p t a d is c o u rs e
r e p r e s e n ta tio n a n a ly s is i n w h ic h e n titie s o f v a r io u s s o r ts , i n c l u d in g s itu a tio n s ,
a re e s ta b lis h e d a s e n ti ti e s w h ic h c a n th e n b e re f e r r e d to . T h e a n a ly s is o f th e
v h p r o n o u n s a s d e ic tic s c o n n e c ts th e e x a m p le s in (1 6 ) to a w id e r n e tw o r k o l
d e ic tic u se s .
A s e c o n d fa c t o t E n g lis h s y n ta x is t h a t w h ic h o c c u rs in e x a m p le s s u c h as
(17) a n d ( 1 8 ) , w h e r e it f u n c t i o n s a s a g e n e r a l c o n ju n c tio n .
( 1 7 ) y o u c a n le a v e a t C h n s t m a s if y o u r b ir t h d a y 's in D e c e m b e r t o F e b r u a r y w h ic h
I t h in k is w r o n g lik e m y b ir t h d a y s M a r c h a n d I h a v e t o s t a y o n t o M a y w h ic h
w h e n I'm 1 6 in M a r c h I c o u l d b e lo o k i n g f o r a jo b
M ille r - B r o w n C o r p u s , c o n v e r s a t io n d

G ram m ar and Sem antics: wh W ords

( 1 8 ) H e h a d h e a r d i t g iv e n f o r a t r u t h t h a t a c c o r d i n g a s t h e w o r ld w e n t r o u n d ,
w h i c h r o u n d it d id r e v o lv e u n d o u b t e d , e v e n t h e b e s t o f g e n t le m e n m u s t
t a k e h i s t u r n o f s t a n d in g w i t h h i s h e a d u p s id e d o w n . . .
C h a r le s D ic k e n s , U t i l e D o r r it , B o o k 2 , C h a p t e r 2 7

( 17 ) c o n ta in s tw o o c c u r r e n c e s o f w h ic h . T h e firs t o n e , w h ic h I th in k is wrong,
is in a re la tiv e c la u s e m o d if y in g a p r o p o s iti o n - 'Y o u c a n leav e a t C h r is tm a s
i: y o u r b ir th d a y s in D e c e m b e r to F e b ru a ry '. T h e s e c o n d o n e , w h ic h w h e n I 'm
16 in M a rc h I c o u ld b e lo o k in g f o r a jo b , is n o t a re la tiv e p r o n o u n . It d o e s n o t
b e lo n g to a n y c la u s e , b u t is fo llo w e d b y a n a d v e rb ia l c la u s e o f t i m e w h e n
Im 16 in M a rc h , c o m b i n in g w ith a m a in c la u s e I c o u h l b e lo o k in g f o r a job.
T h e f u n c t io n o f w h ic h is to sig n a l a g e n e r a l lin k b e tw e e n t h e m a te r ia l th a t
p re c e d e s i t a n d t h e m a te r ia l fo llo w in g .
T h is c o n s t r u c ti o n is n o t n e w in E n g lish . It is a tte s te d in D ic k e n s n o v e ls see (1 8 ), f r o m L ittle D o rrit, p u b lis h e d o v e r t h e p e r i o d 1 8 5 5 -5 7 . M r W e g g in
O u r M u t u a l F rie n d h a s a s t r o n g lin e in th is w h ic h c o n s t r u c ti o n , a n d it w as
re g u la rly u s e d in c a r t o o n s in P u n c h a s a s te re o ty p ic a l f e a tu r e o f u n e d u c a te d
la n g u a g e . T h e d e ic tic a n a ly s is o l w h ic h e n a b le s u s to p r o v id e a p le a s in g p a ra lle l
h is to ric a l a c c o u n t o f w h ic h a n d th a t. B o th d e riv e f r o m p r o n o u n s in E arly E n g
lish a n d b o t h c h a n g e i n t o c o n ju n c t io n s , th is c h a n g e b e in g ty p ic a l th r o u g h o u t
I n d o - E u r o p e a n a n d o t h e r la n g u a g e la m ilic s . T h a t b e c a m e a s u b o r d in a ti n g
c o n ju n c t io n , lo s in g a ll its p r o n o m in a l fe a tu re s . W h ic h b e c a m e a d is c o u rs e
c o n n e c tiv e , in w h ic h ro le it p re s e rv e s its d e ic tic p r o p e r tie s , e x c e p t t h a t in s te a d
c f p o in t in g to th e r e f e r e n t o f a p r e c e d in g N P it p o in t s to a la r g e r p o r t i o n o f
text. F o r e x a m p le , in (1 7 ), it c o n n e c ts tw o c h u n k s o f d is c o u r s e , th e o n e r u n
n in g t r o m y o u c a n le a v e to s t a y o n to M a y a n d w h e n I 'm 16 in M a rc h I c o u ld be
lo o k in g fo r a jo b . A s a d is c o u r s e c o n n e c tiv e , it c a n b e s e e n a s a w e a k s u b o r d in a t
in g c o n ju n c t io n , a p r o p e r ty t h a t c o m e s o u t in t h e in t e r p r e ta ti o n w h a t I a m
a b o u t to s a y fo llo w s o n f r o m w h a t I h a v e ju s t b e e n sa y in g . T h e r e le v a n c e o f th e
c o m m e n t a b o u t t h e d a te o f t h e s p e a k e rs s ix te e n th b ir th d a y c a n o n l y b e w o rk e d
c u t ( r o m th e firs t p a r t o f t h e s p e a k e rs s ta te m e n t.

Wh interrogatives
T he t h i r d c o n s t r u c ti o n t o b e e x a m in e d in th is s e c tio n is t h e w h in te rro g a tiv e ,
e x e m p lifie d in (1 9 ). S e e t h e a c c o u n t o n p p . 1 8 6 -1 9 0 .
(1 9 ) a

W h a t d id s h e s a y ?

b . W h ic h o n e d id h e c h o o se ?
c . W h o g o t t h e |o b?

183

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

IT clefts
O n e m o r e c o n s t r u c ti o n n e e d s to b e m e n tio n e d , t h e IT -c le ft w ith u n c le a r
sy n ta x d is c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 4 , p p . 1 1 0 -1 1 4 . T h e e x a m p le s a r e r e p e a te d b e lo w
as (2 0 ).
(20) a

It w a s i n S e p t e m b e r t h a t I fir s t n o t i c e d it

b . It w a s in P a r is t h a t w e m e t
c . It w a s b e c a u s e h e w a s ill t h a t w e d e c id e d t o r e t u r n .

In (2 0 a ) t h e c la u s e th a t I fi r s t n o tic e d it m o d ifie s th e p h r a s e in S e p te m b e r , in
(2 0 b ) th e c la u s e t h a t w e m e t m o d ifie s t h e p h r a s e in P aris a n d in ( 2 0 c ) th e
d a u s e th a t w e d e c id e d to re tu rn m o d ifie s t h e c la u s e b eca u se h e w a s ill. T h e d if
f ic u lty is t h a t re la tiv e c la u s e s d o n o t n o r m a lly m o d if y p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s .
T h e y c a n m o d if y c la u s e s ( o r p r o p o s itio n s e x p re s s e d b y c la u s e s ) , b u t o n ly w h
re la tiv e c la u s e s , a s in S h e le ft h e r p r o p e r ty to K a ta r in a , w h ic h w a s v e r y su rp risin g .
(2 0 a -c ) a r e d if fe re n t b e c a u se t h e y e x c lu d e w h re lativ e c la u se s, a s s h o w n in (21 ).
(2 1 ) a

* lt w a s in S e p t e m b e r w h ic h I fir s t n o t ic e d it

b . It w a s m P a r is w h ic h w e m e t
c . * lt w a s b e c a u s e h e w a s ill w h ic h w e d e c id e d t o r e tu rn .

A s p o in t e d o u t in t h e e a rlie r a c c o u n t, (2 1 a ,b ) d o n o t p r e s e n t a n y d iffic u lty

fo r a n a ly s ts o f s p o k e n E n g lis h f o r t h e s im p le re a s o n t h a t s p e a k e r s u s e a d iffe r
e n t c o n s t r u c ti o n , a s in (2 2 ).
1 2 2 ) a . It w a s in S e p t e m b e i w h e n I f ir s t n o t ic e d it.
b . It w a s in P a n s w h e r e w e m e t.

T h e w h s e q u e n c e s s e e m to b e c o m p le m e n t c la u s e s , n o t re la tiv e c la u s e s . T h e y
can b e a s s ig n e d a s t r u c t u r e w i t h a n e m p t y c o n s t it u e n t, w h ic h c o u ld b e a p r e p
o s itio n a l p h r a s e , say a t th a t t i m e o r in th a t p la ce, o r a th d e ic tic , th e n o r there.
(2 2 a ,b ) e a c h c o n ta in tw o c la u s e s , th e s e c o n d o n e b e in g in s id e a n N P , a s s h o w n
in (2 3 ).
( 2 3 ) C la u s e 1 ( It w a s in S e p t e m b e r )

C la u s e 2 HP { ,/ w h e n ) CUuvi 2 (I f ir s t n o t ic e d it t h e n

W h e n p o i n t s t o a tim e , s p e c ific in th is c a se , a n d th e n p o i n t s t o t h e s a m e
t m e . O n th is a n a ly s is , th e c o m b i n a ti o n o f c la u s e s is u n in t e g r a t e d , th e tw o

G ram m ar and Sem antics: wh W ords

cla u s e s s im p ly b e in g ju x t a p o s e d . T h e r e is a r e la te d c o n s t r u c ti o n in w h ic h th e y
a r e m o r e in te g r a te d . S e e (2 4 ).
{2 4 )

W h e n I f ir s t n o t ic e d it w a s in S e p te m b e r .

In th e h e y d a y o f tr a n s f o r m a t io n a l g r a m m a r , ( 2 2 a ) c o u ld h a v e b e e n
d e riv e d f r o m (2 4 ) b y e x tr a p o s it io n , th e t r a n s f o r m a t io n t h a t r e la te d s e n te n c e s
s u c h a s To a v o id c a tc h in g s w in e f l u is v e ry d iffic u lt a n d I t is v e r y d iffic u lt to
a v o id c a tc h in g s w in e f l u . T h e t r a n s f o r m a t io n m o v e d a f in ite c o m p le m e n t
c la u s e o r a n in f in itiv e to th e e n d o f a s e n te n c e a n d in s e r te d it in to t h e N P slo t
left e m p t y b y t h e m o v e m e n t. F o r s p o k e n E n g lish t h i s is n o t a n a p p r o p r ia te
t r e a tm e n t b e c a u s e s p e a k e r s p r o d u c i n g u tt e r a n c e s o f f th e c u f f a v o id c o m p le x
s u b je c t N P s. (M ille r a n d W e in e r t (2 0 0 9 ) f o u n d t h a t in t h e i r s a m p le s o f
s p o n ta n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lis h 7 0 p e r c e n t o f th e N P s c o n s is te d o f p r o n o u n o r
r.o u n o r d e te r m i n e r + n o u n . O n ly 6 p e r c e n t c o n s is te d o f t h e s e q u e n c e ( d e te r
m in e r ) + a d je c tiv e + n o u n . A n a n a ly s is o f R u ssia n c o n v e rs a tio n p r o d u c e d
s im ila r fig u re s: 3 7 p e r c e n t fo r N P s c o n s is tin g o f p r o n o u n o r n o u n o r d e te r
m in e r + n o u n - b u t m a n y z e ro s u b je c t N P s , w h ic h w e r e n o t c o u n te d , a n d
c n l y 5 .5 p c r c e n t f o r N s c o n s is tin g o t th e s e q u e n c e ( d e t e r m in e r ) + a d je c tiv e +
r.o u n . O t h e r ty p e s o f N P h a d e v e n s m a lle r p e r c e n ta g e s .) T o ta k e t h e m o r e
c o m p le x s t r u c t u r e a s b a sic a n d tr a n s f o r m it in to t h e m o r e f r e q u e n t s t r u c tu r e
m ig h t b e a n a ly tic a lly m o r e e c o n o m ic a l a n d e le g a n t, b u t w o u ld ig n o r e c e n tr a l
facts o f s p o k e n E n g lish . A n e x p lic it a c c o u n t o f (2 2 a ,b ) w ill p r o b a b ly b e b a se d
c n s o m e m o d e l o f d is c o u r s e r e p r e s e n ta t io n . ( T h e p r e c e d in g d is c u s s io n h as
sa id n o t h i n g a b o u t (2 0 c ), I t w n s b eca u se h e w a s ill th a t w e d e c id e d lo retu rn .
S in c e i t is n o t re le v a n t to t h e a n a ly s is o f w h w o rd s , w e leav e th e c o n s tr u c tio n
u n e x p lo re d .)
W e c lo se t h i s s e c tio n w i t h e x a m p le s (2 5 )(2 8 ) s h o w in g t h a t t h e c o n s tr u c
tio n in (2 2 a ,b ) is s p r e a d in g to s c r i p t e d s p o k e n E n g lis h s u c h a s n e w s b r o a d c a s ts
to n e w s p a p e rs a n d t o p u b lic n o tic e s.

(2 5 )

It w a s liv e y e a r s a g o w h e n N e ls o n M a n d e la r e a lis e d h i s p r is o n n u m b e r c o u ld
b e p u t t o a n o t h e r u se
B B C , N ew s at 10, 1 D e ce m b e r 2 0 0 /

(2 6 )

H e w a s b o r n in 1 9 1 8 i n In d ia , t h e s o n o f a r e g im e n t a l s e r g e a n t m a jo r , b u t it
w a s in 1 9 3 1 in E n g la n d w h e n h e d is c o v e r e d a t a s t e f o r p e r f o r m a n c e .
T h e In d e p e n d e n t, 2 8 F e b ru a ry 2 0 0 2

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

(2 7 )

In th e b e g in n in g s k a t in g w a s u s e d a s a m e a n s o f t r a n s p o r t a t io n , it w a s n 't
u n t il t h e la s t c e n t u r y w h e n s k a t i n g b e c a m e v ie w e d a s r e c r e a t io n a l.
N o t ic e i n S t r a t f o r d M u s e u m , S t r a t f o r d ,
O n t a r io , C a n a d a . O c t o b e r 1 9 9 9

(2 8 )

It's h e r e w h e r e w e h a v e t h e h i g h e s t c h a n c e o f fro s ts.

B B C I V w e a t h e r fo re c a s t, F e b ru a ry 2 0 0 2

Indefinite and interrogative pronouns

A rc w e t o tr e a t a s id e n tic a l t h e w h p r o n o u n s a n d a d je c tiv e s in in te rro g a tiv e
c o n s t r u c ti o n s s u c h a s W h ic h f r i e n d p h o n ed ? , in W 11 c le fts s u c h a s W h a t h e 'll d o
i>resign, i n c o m p l e m e n t s s u c h a s / a s k e d w h e n sh e w a s lea vin g , in re la tiv e c la u s e s
s u c h a s th e s tr e e t w h e re s h e lives a n d in th e fix e d p h r a s e s tell y o u w h a t a n d
k n o w w hat? T h e a n s w e r is y e s a n d t h e a r g u m e n t fo r th e a n s w e r is in tw o p a rts ,
t i e firs t d e a lin g w ith t h e b a s ic g r a m m a tic a l fa c ts f r o m E n g lis h , th e n f r o m
I n d o - E u r o p e a n a n d o t h e r la n g u a g e fa m ilie s, th e s e c o n d p r o v id in g a s e m a n ti c p r a g m a tic e x p la n a tio n f o r th e c o n n e c tio n .
W c n e e d g iv e n o m o r e t h a n a n o u t l i n e o f t h e b a s ic g r a m m a t ic a l fa c ts , s in c e

th e y a r e p r e s e n te d in d e ta il a n d c o g e n tly d is c u s s e d in H a s p e lm a th (1 9 9 7 ). T h e
E n g lish fa c ts a r e t h a t th e w h p r o n o u n s d e riv e f r o m th e E a rly E n g lis h h w a
'w h o ', h w i e t 'w h a f a n d h w y le ' w h ic h ' ( o f m a n y ) . Q u i r k a n d W r c n n { 1 9 5 7 , p . 39)
say th e in te rro g a tiv e s c o u ld b e u s e d in d e f in ite ly , e q u iv a le n t to a n y o n e a n d
a n y th in g . I n t h e i r n o n - s p e c if ic in t e r p r e ta ti o n , th e h w fw h fo r m s w e re e x te n d e d
b y t h e a d d i t i o n o f e v e r, a s i n w h a te v e r y o u do, y o u c a n 't w in a n d w h o e v e r sa id
th a t is a n id io t. In I n d o - E u r o p e a n , g e n e ra lly t h e f o r m s o f in te r r o g a tiv e a n d
in d e f in ite p r o n o u n s a n d a d v e rb s a r e re la te d . L y o n s (1 9 7 7 , p . 7 5 8 ) m e n tio n s
F re n c h , C la ss ic a l G re e k , L a tin a n d R u s s ia n . H a s p e lm a th (1 9 9 7 ) s u p p lie s
d e ta ile d e v id e n c e f r o m tw o s a m p le s , o n e o f f o r ty la n g u a g e s , in c lu d in g a la rg e
s a m p le o f I n d o - E u r o p e a n la n g u a g e s b u t a ls o T u rk ic la n g u a g e s , I l a u s a , S w ah ili,
C h in e s e , J a p a n e s e , K o re a n a n d Q u e c h u a , a n d o n e o f a h u n d r e d la n g u a g e s,
in c lu d in g o n e s f r o m th e C a u c a s u s , S o u th a n d C e n tr a l A m e ric a , A u stra lia ,
A frica a n d t h e P ac ific. In th e la tte r s a m p le , 6 4 la n g u a g e s h a v e , in H a s p e lm a th s
w o rd s , in d e f in ite s b a s e d o n in te rro g a tiv e s .
T h e d if f ic u lty w ith I la s p e lm a th s w o r d in g is t h a t w h ile h e a rg u e s c o n v in c
in g ly t h a t n o n -s p e c ific a n d ir re a lis a r e n e x t to q u e s tio n a n d c o n d it io n a l o n a n
im p lic a tio n a l sc a le , h e d o e s n o t g iv e a n y s e m a n ti c - p r a g m a ti c e x p la n a tio n o f
w h y h e ta k e s th e d ir e c ti o n to b e f r o m in te r r o g a tiv e to in d e f in ite . H e d o e s
say w h y h e fa v o u r s t h a t d ir e c ti o n < 1997, p p . 1 7 4 - 6 ) . H e d is tin g u is h e s b e tw e e n

G ram m ar and Sem antics: wh W ords

b a r e in te rro g a tiv e s a n d c o m p le x in t e r r o g a tiv e s c r e a te d b y th e g r a m m a tic a liz a tio n o f v a r i o u s s o u r c e c o n s tr u c tio n s . E x a m p le s a r e E n g lis h w h e re v e r ( < w h ere
y o u e v e r g o /l iv e / e tc .) , F re n c h n im p o r te q u i << n 'im p o r te q u i v i e n t 'n o t im p o r
ta n t w h o c o m e s . I t s n o t im p o r t a n t w h o c o m e s ) , T u rk is h k in ts e [ < k irn 'w h o ' +
se i f ). H e h a s n o e x a m p le s o l c o m p le x in d e f in ite p r o n o u n s b e in g r e d u c e d to
b a r e in te rro g a tiv e s . I n a ll o f h i s la n g u a g e fa m ilie s (A ll o r m o s t'? H a s p e lm a th
say s

. . in la n g u a g e fa m ily a fte r la n g u a g e f a m ily

b a r e in te rro g a tiv e

p r o n o u n s a r e r e s is ta n t to e ty m o lo g ic a l a n a ly s is a n d a p p e a r to b e a m o n g th e
slo w e s t c h a n g in g e le m e n ts in a n y la n g u a g e . T h e b a r e in te r r o g a tiv e p r o n o u n s
h In d o - F .u ro p e a n , h e m a in ta in s , d e riv e f r o m b a r e p r o n o u n f o r m s t h a t a re
in te rro g a tiv e s a s f a r b a c k a s th e y c a n b e tra c e d .
T h e r e c o n s tr u c t e d o r ig in a l r o o t is k w i-1 'k w o -, w h ic h is n ic e ly re fle c te d in
th e m o d e r n S lav ic la n g u a g e s . T h e b a s ic r o o t is k u - , w h e r e u r e p r e s e n ts a je r , a n
e x tra s h o r t ( b a c k ) v o w e l. In O l d C h u r c h S lav ic, t h e r o o t k u - o c c u rs in th e
in te rro g a tiv e a d je c tiv e k u - i j 'w h ic h o n e , in w h ic h - i j is a d e ic tic su ffix . (O ld
C h u r c h S lav ic o r O l d C h u r c h S la v o n ic is t h e S o u th S la v ic la n g u a g e o f a s e t o f
B u lg a ria n , M a c e d o n ia n a n d M o r a v iia n m a n u s c r ip t s d a ti n g f r o m th e te n t h a n d
e le v e n th c e n tu r ie s .)

It o c c u rs in t h e in te r r o g a tiv e p r o n o u n k u -to , in w h ic h to is a ls o a d e ic tic .

( D a ta f r o m S c h m a ls tie g , 1 9 8 3 .) I j is t h e s o u r c e o f t h e S la v ic p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s
a n d to is a d e m o n s tr a t iv e . K u - o c c u r s in k u - i d e ea ch , e v e r y . In M o d e r n
B u lg a ria n , th e in te r r o g a tiv e p r o n o u n f o r h u m a n s is k o j, d e r iv e d f r o m k u -ij,
th e re la tiv e p r o n o u n is k o j + to < m a sc ), k o j a + to ( f e m ) a n d k o e + to ( n e u t e r ) .
T h e e a r lie s t e x a m p le s o f th e I n d o - E u r o p e a n r o o t " k w i-t k w o - a r e in
H ittite te x ts d a ti n g f r o m th e s e v e n te e n th to s ix te e n th c e n tu r ie s B C E . F ield,
S c h m a ls tie g a n d C e r t / (1 9 8 7 , p p . 3 2 - ) list t h e d e m o n s tr a t iv e p r o n o u n t h a t
as, f o r e x a m p le , a - p a - ( a - ) n i 't h a t n o m i n a ti v e s in g u la r a n d a - p u - { u - ) u n th a t
a c c u s a tiv e s in g u la r . T h e y lis t t h e d e m o n s tr a tiv e p r o n o u n th is a s t h e r o o ts ka,
ku a n d k i p lu s su ffix e s e x p re s s in g c a s e a n d n u m b e r , fo r e x a m p le , k ti-d -a i
'th is n o m i n a ti v e s in g u la r ' a n d k u - u - u n 'th is a c c u s a tiv e s in g u la r'. W h a t th e y call
th e r e la tiv e - in te r r o g a tiv e p r o n o u n (i.e . a p r o n o u n t h a t o c c u r s in re la tiv e
c la u s e s a n d in w h in te r r o g a tiv e c la u s e s ) c o n s is ts o f th e r o o t k u - p lu s su ffix es
e x p re s s in g c a s e a n d n u m b e r , l o r e x a m p le , k u - i s ( n o m in a tiv e s in g u la r ) . T h is
p r o n o u n c o u ld a ls o b e u s e d a s a n in d e f in ite , b u t t h e r e w a s a c o m p l e x in d e fir i t e p r o n o u n c o n s is tin g o f th e re la tiv e in te r r o g a tiv e p r o n o u n p lu s t h e p a r tic le s
(to u s e H e ld e t al.s tc r in ) -k i, - k a o r - k u . T h e s e p a r tic le s a r e id e n tic a l i n lo r m
w ith t h e r o o ts o f th e d e m o n s tr a t iv e p r o n o u n th is ; it lo o k s a s t h o u g h th e re
is a p a ra lle l b e tw e e n H ittite a n d R u s s ia n . T h e R u ssia n in te r r o g a tiv e p r o n o u n

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

w h o is klo , w h ic h d e riv e s f r o m t h e r o o t k u , d is c u s s e d in th e p r e c e d in g p a r a
g r a p h , a n d t h e d e m o n s tr a tiv e to. O n e o f t h e in d e f in ite p r o n o u n s in M o d e r n
R u ssian is k to -to , t h a t is, k to p lu s , in h is to ric a l te r m s , a n o t h e r in s ta n c e o f to.
(T h is ty p e o f d e r i v a ti o n o f in t e r r o g a tiv e s f r o m in d e f in ite s is n o t m e n t io n e d
b y H a s p e lm a th .) T h is is th e s p e c ific in d e f in ite p r o n o u n - s o m e o n e c a lle d a n d
I c a n te ll y o u a b o u t t h e m - i n c o n tr a s t w ith th e n o n - s p e c if ic in d e f in ite p r o r o u n k to - n ib u d '. T h e la tte r c a n b e g lo s s e d a s 's o m e o n e , b u t I c a n t te ll y o u
a n y th in g a b o u t th e m .
VVliat c o u ld c o u n t a s a c o n v in c in g s e m a n ti c - p r a g m a ti c e x p la n a tio n o f
a n in d e f in ite p r o n o u n a c q u ir in g a n in te r r o g a tiv e f u n c tio n ? L y o n s (1 9 7 7 b ,
p p . 7 5 8 - 6 2 ) p r o p o s e s a n e le g a n t a n a ly s is b a s e d o n t h e c o n c e p t o f p r e s u p p o s i
tio n . T h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f t h e a n a ly s is is s h a r e d w ith m a n y o t h e r a c c o u n ts ,
in c lu d in g t h a t b y H a llid a y (1 9 6 7 a ) , w h o re la te s th e y e s - n o a n d w h in te rro g a t.v es to in f o r m a tio n tr e a te d b y s p e a k e r s a s g iv e n o r n e w . F o r p r e s e n t p u rp o s e s ,
sin c e p r e s u p p o s itio n a s a lo g ic a l r e la tio n o p p o s e d to e n ta i lm e n t is c o n tr o v e r
sial in s o m e q u a r t e r s , w e w ill in t e r p r e t it a s w h a t s p e a k e r s ta k e fo r g r a n te d .
C o n s id e r t h e q u e s t io n s in (2 9 ).
(29> a D id s o m e o n e o p e n th e d o o r? /D id a n y o n e o p e n the d o o r?
b. W h o o p e n e d the d o o r
c. W h a t d id th e b o y s o p e n ?

T h e s p e a k e r u tt e r i n g ( 2 9 a ) ta k e s n o t h i n g f o r g r a n t e d a b o u t th e e v e n t, b u t
w a n ts t o k n o w i f th e d o o r w a s o p e n e d . Yes o r n o w o u ld b e s u ffic ie n t a n sw e rs,
b u t in t h e c a se o f yes, p o lite n e s s a n d G ric e a n c o n s t r a in t s w o u ld im p e l m a n y
a d d re s s e e s to s u p p l y t h e n a m e o f t h e p e r s o n o p e n i n g th e d o o r . T h e s p e a k e r
u tte rin g ( 2 9 b ) ta k e s it f o r g r a n t e d t h a t th e d o o r w a s o p e n e d a n d ask s
th e a d d r e s s e e to s u p p ly t h e n a m e o f t h e p e r s o n w h o c a r r ie d o u t th e a c t. T h e
s p e a k e r u tt e r i n g (2 9 c ) ta k e s it f o r g r a n t e d t h a t th e b o y s o p e n e d s o m e th in g a n d
ask s t h e a d d r e s s e e to s a y w h a t w a s o p e n e d .
T h e s p e a k e r s p r e s u p p o s itio n s - w h a t th e y ta k e fo r g r a n t e d - c a n b e
e x p re s s e d b y m e a n s o f s e n te n c e s c o n ta i n in g t h e m o d e r n E n g lis h in d e f in ite
p r o n o u n s so m e o n e o r s o m e th in g , a s in (3 0 ).
( 3 0 ) a . S o m e o n e o p e n e d t h e d o o r.
b . T h e b o y s o p e n e d s o m e t h in g .

L y o n s p o in t s o u t t h a t a n e x a m p le s u c h a s ( 3 0 a ) c a n b e u tte r e d w i t h tw o
in to n a tio n p a tt e r n s , o n e t h a t m a r k s a n u tt e r a n c e o f (3 0 a ) a s a s t a te m e n t a n d

G ram m ar and Sem antics: wh W ords

o n e t h a t m a r k s it a s a q u e s tio n . (I n fa c t, in in f o r m a l s p o k e n E n g lis h , t h e q u e s
tio n u tt e r a n c e is m o s t lik ely t o b e so m e o n e o p e n e d th e d o o r?, w i t h n o a u x ilia r y
d id .) T h e q u e s tio n c a n b e u n d e r s to o d a s a y e s - n o q u e s tio n - D id t h i s e v e n t
h a p p e n ? - o r a s a w h q u e s t io n - k n o w th e d o o r w a s o p e n e d ; te ll m e w h o d id
i.. T h e ty p e o l q u e s tio n c o u ld b e c le a rly s ig n a lle d b y v a r ia tio n in s tre s s as
w ell a s i n t o n a t i o n . L y o n s o b s e rv e s t h a t th e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n t h e s ta te m e n t
a n d th e tw o k in d s o f q u e s t io n s is ra re ly , i f e v e r, s y s te m a tic a lly m a d e so le ly in
th e n o n - v e r b a l c o m p o n e n t o l la n g u a g e s'. N o n e th e le s s , in p r i n c ip le , m a r k in g
th e d iffe re n c e d o e s n o t re q u ire d if f e r e n t s y n ta c tic s t r u c tu r e s . T h is t h e n is th e
m u te b y w h ic h in d e f in ite p r o n o u n s c o m e to b e u s e d a s in te rro g a tiv e s : k n o w
th a t s o m e p e r s o n , fo r m e a s y e t n o n - s p e c if ic , o p e n e d th e d o o r . P le a s e sp e c ify
th a t so m e o n e '.
L y o n s (1 9 7 7 b , p p . 7 6 0 - 1 ) a ls o s u g g e s ts a r o u t e b y w h ic h in d e f in ite p r o r o u n s c a n c o m e to f u n c t io n a s re la tiv e p r o n o u n s . T h e s p e a k e r w h o d e c la re s
T he m a n w h o b ro k e th e b a n k a t M o n te C a rlo is a m a th e m a tic ia n is a s s e r tin g th a t
a p a r t ic u l a r p e r s o n is a m a t h e m a t ic i a n a n d ta k in g f o r g r a n t e d /p r e s u p p o s i n g
th a t s o m e o n e d i d in d e e d b r e a k t h e b a n k a t M o n te C a r lo a n d t h a t th e s o m e o n e
a m a n . L y o n s p r o p o s e s w h a t h e c a lls Q u a s i E n g lis h , in w h ic h t h e p rc

s u p p o s iti o n s a r e e m b o d i e d in a c la u s e w h ic h c a n m o d if y a n o u n - so m e o n e
bro ke th e b a n k a t M o n te C a rlo - a n d w h ic h is in s e r te d i n t o N P s to y ie ld T h e
[s o m e o n e b ro k e th e b a n k a t M o n te C a rlo ] m a n is n m a th e m a tic ia n . T h i s is th e
p a th b y w h ic h in d e f in ite p r o n o u n s c o m e to f u n c tio n a s re la tiv e p r o n o u n s .
L y o n s c lo s e s h is d is c u s s io n b y s t a ti n g th a t , u n f o r tu n a te ly ' t h e w h re lativ e
p r o n o u n s o f E n g lis h a r e m o r e c lo s e ly re la te d h is to ric a lly to in te r r o g a tiv e th a n
to in d e f in ite d e c la r a tiv e c la u s e s . I t is n o t c le a r w h e th e r L y o n s is r e f e r r i n g to
th e ir h is to ric a l s o u r c e o r to th e s y n ta x o f th e c la u s e ty p e s , b u t in a n y c a se w e
c o n o t h a v e to a c c e p t h is s ta te m e n t u n le s s s o m e o n e p ro v id e s a p la u s ib le
s e m a n ti c - p r a g m a ti c r o u t e f r o m in te r r o g a tiv e p r o n o u n s to re la tiv e p r o n o u n s
a s w e ll a s to in d e f in ite p r o n o u n s . M o re o v e r, t h e d ir e c tio n o f c h a n g e p r o p o s e d
b y H a s p e lm a th t u r n s o u t to b e b a s e d o n e v id e n c e f r o m e a r lie r s ta g e s o f
I n d o - L u r o p c a n la n g u a g e s t h a t is n o t a s r o b u s t a s it s e e m s a t firs t s ig h t. T h e
H ittite a n d t h e S lav ic (e s p e c ia lly E a s t a n d W e s t S la v ic ) e v id e n c e p o in t s to a n
in d e f in ite in t e r p r e ta ti o n f o r t h e ' k w h /* k w o - r o o t. A n d th e r e is t h e d if fic u lty
th a t w h ile i t is te m p ti n g to ta k e t h e e a rlie s t a tte s te d te x ts a s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t fo r
I n d o - E u r o p e a n , th e y a r e n o th i n g o f th e k in d . It is ju s t t h a t w e c a n n o t g e t h o ld
cf e a rlie r w r itte n te x ts o r e a r lie r s p e a k e r s . E v en o n th e a s s u m p ti o n t h a t th e
' k w i- l'k w o - r o o t w a s in itia lly in te rro g a tiv e , it m i g h t w e ll h a v e d e v e lo p e d f r o m
a n e a rlie r in d e f in ite . H a s p e lm a th o b s e r v e s t h a t a c r o s s la n g u a g e s in te rro g a tiv e

189

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p r o n o u n s a r e v e ry re s is ta n t to c h a n g e , b u t in d e f in ite p r o n o u n s a r e s u b je c t to
r a p id c h a n g e . It is q u ite p o s s ib le t h a t th e e a rly in te rro g a tiv e s r e p r e s e n te d
e x te n s io n s o f in d e f in ite p r o n o u n s , w h ic h t h e n c h a n g e d o r w e re re p la c e d b y
a lte rn a tiv e fo rm s .

Conclusion
To re c a p : E n g lis h w h p r o n o u n s a r c c e n tr a l to W H c le fts, W H c o m p le m e n t
d a u s e s , re la tiv e c la u s e s , w h in te rro g a tiv e s a n d o n e a d ju s ta b le te m p la te , tell
y o u w h a t, k n o w w h a t a n d s o o n . T h e a b o v e d is c u s s io n is a n a t t e m p t to a n s w e r
th e q u e s tio n w h y th e y o c c u r in th e s e d if f e r e n t c o n s t r u c ti o n s a n d w h e th e r th e
v/ p r o n o u n s h a v e a p a r t ic u l a r p r o p e r ty t h a t is e x p lo ite d in t h e c o n s tr u c tio n s .
T h e firs t k e y c o m p o n e n t o l th e a c c o u n t is t h a t t h e p r o n o u n s a r c in d e f in ite
d e ic tic s , w h ic h c a n h a v e s p e c ific o r n o n - s p e c if ic r e f e re n c e d e p e n d in g o n th e
c o n te x t. W h a t t h e d e ic tic s re f e r to c a n b e a n im a te b e in g s , in a n i m a t e th in g s ,
t in e s , p la c e s, p r o p o s iti o n s a n d e v e n ts . T h e s e c o n d k e y c o m p o n e n t is a g o o d
s e m a n tic e x p la n a tio n o f w h y in d e f in ite d e ic tic s c a n a c q u ir e th e f u n c tio n s
c f in te r r o g a tiv e p r o n o u n s a n d r e la tiv e p r o n o u n s . T h e a n a ly s is r e s ts o n th e

a s s u m p tio n th a t a r r a n g e m e n t s o f f o r m s a n d c h a n g e s o f f o r m a r e n o t s e m a n ti
cally a r b itr a r y . H a s p e l m a t h s im p lic a tio n a l sc a le in w h ic h t h e ju x t a p o s itio n o f
tw o f u n c t io n s is im p o r t a n t p r o v id e s n o r e a s o n w h y th e r e s h o u l d b e a p r o g r e s
s io n f r o m o n e f u n c t io n to th e o th e r . L y o n s a c c o u n t d o e s .

Grammar and Semantics:

Parts of Speech

Chapter Outline
P a r t s o f s p e e c h a n d d e n o t a t io n

191

P a rts o f s p e e c h a n d s p e e c h acts

194

Parts of speech and denotation

T h e th i r d to p ic in th is o v e rv ie w o f s e m a n ti c s a n d g r a m m a r is p a r t s o f s p e e c h
o r w o r d classes. A w id e ly re c e iv e d v ie w a m o n g lin g u is ts s in c e t h e p u b lic a tio n
c f B lo o m fie ld (1 9 3 3 ) h a s b e e n n o t o n ly t h a t p a r t s o f s p e e c h c a n n o t b e d e fin e d
c r e s ta b lis h e d i n t e r m s o f m e a n i n g b u t a ls o t h a t th e r e is n o re lia b le c o n n e c t io n
a t all b e tw e e n a g iv e n p a r t o f s p e e c h a n d m e a n in g . B lo o m fie ld s e x a m p le w as
c a ts a n d w heal: w h y s h o u l d o n e b e p lu r a l a n d t h e o t h e r s in g u la r w h e n th e y
b o th d e n o te d ty p e s o f g ra in ? ( P e r h a p s , th e a n s w e r lie s in h o w th e g r a in s a re
i s e d a n d w h a t th e c e re a ls lo o k lik e w h e n th e y a r c r e a d y l o r u se . W h e a t c o m e s
h a m a s s o f flo u r, w h e re a s o a ts c o m e in re a d ily d is tin g u is h a b le g r a in s o r
f a k e s. Pease w a s r e i n te r p r e te d a s a p lu r a l, p r o b a b ly b e c a u s e t h e in d iv id u a l
p e a s in a p e a p o d a r c v e r y o b v io u s a n d c o u n ta b le . T h e p e a s t h a t n o w a d a y s
c o m e o u t o f t i n s a r e v e ry o b v io u s in d iv id u a l u n it s .) B lo o m fie ld s e x tr e m e
v iew h a s b e e n te m p e r e d in tw o w ays. B e tte r a n d m o r e s u b t le th e o r ie s o l d e n o t a t io n a n d s p e e c h a c ts h a v e e n a b le d m o r e s u b t le h a n d li n g o f p a r t s o f sp e e c h ,
a lth o u g h w i t h t h e p r o v is o t h a t th e p a r t s o l s p e e c h lo r a g iv e n la n g u a g e first
h a v e t o b e e s ta b lis h e d o n f o r m a l c r ite r ia . A n e x tr e m e v ie w a t t h e o t h e r e n d o f
trie s p e c t r u m h a s b e e n s e t o u t b y C ro ft ( 2 0 0 7 ) , a n d t h a t is t h a t f o r m a l, d i s t r i
b u ti o n a l c r i te r ia d o n t w o r k b u t t h a t s p e e c h a c ts c o n s t it u te t h e in d is p e n s a b le
f o u n d a tio n .

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

M ille r ( 1 9 8 5 , p p . 2 0 6 - 1 9 ) p r o v id e d a n a c c o u n t o f p a r t s o f s p e e c h in w h ic h
c o n n e c tio n s w ith m e a n i n g w e re c e n tr a l. It in v o lv e d a c o m b i n a ti o n o f d is tr ib u t.o n a l c r i te r ia , th e c o n c e p t o f p r o to ty p e s , L y o n s w o r k o n firs t, s e c o n d - a n d
t h i r d - o r d e r e n titie s (L y o n s 1 9 7 7 b , p p . 4 3 8 - 4 5 0 ) a n d s p e e c h a c ts . F ir s t- o r d e r
e n titie s a r e p h y s ic a l o b je c ts . T h e y h a v e re la tiv e ly c o n s t a n t p e r c e p tu a l p r o p e r t.e s, th e y a r e lo c a te d in th r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e ( o r a r e p e rc e iv e d a s s o lo c a te d ,
as w h e n s m a ll c h ild r e n lo o k a t p ic tu r e s ) a n d th e y a r e p u b lic ly o b s e r v a b le
a n d d e s c r ib a b le . P r o to ty p ic a l n o u n s , t h a t is, n o u n lo r m s t h a t m e e t all t h e d is
tr ib u tio n a l c r ite r ia f o r n o u n - h o o d , d e n o t e f i r s t - o r d e r e n ti ti e s s u c h a s ta b le s ,
h o o k s , te d d ie s , d o lls , b a th s , w a te r, n a p p ie s , d if f e r e n t k in d s o f fo o d , m ilk , ju ic e
a p p le s , d o g s , tr e e s a n d s o o n . T h e s e a r e t h e s o r ts o f e n titie s t h a t p a r e n t s talk
a b o u t w ith sm a ll c h ild re n a n d w h ic h s m a ll c h ild r e n ta lk a b o u t in th e e a rly
sta g e s o l la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n . T h e c o n n e c t io n b e tw e e n n o u n s , d is tr i b u ti o n a l
p r o p e r tie s a n d c o n c r e te e n titie s is s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d a n d q u ic k ly e s ta b lis h e d .
S e c o n d - o r d e r e n ti ti e s a r e e v e n ts , p ro c e s s e s a n d s ta te s o f a ffa irs . T h e y a re
lo c a te d in t i m e a n d m a y h a v e p e r c e p tib le ( a n d e v e n s ig n if ic a n t) d u r a t i o n in
t m e . E v e n ts a n d p ro c e s s e s a r e d e n o te d b y v e rb s . A k e y p r o p e r ty is t h e fa c t th a t
a s i n g l e e v e n t o r p r o c e s s is t y p i c a l l y o t s h o r t d u r a t i o n . A d j e c t i v e s d e n o t e s t a t e s ,

w h ic h a r e ty p ic a lly , i f n o t p e r m a n e n t , a t le a st o f lo n g e r d u r a t i o n t h a n e v e n ts
a n d p ro c e s s e s . A n d o f c o u r s e e v e n ts a n d p ro c e s s e s a r e d y n a m ic , in v o lv in g
c h a n g e o v e r tim e a n d th e e x p e n d it u r e o f e n e r g y ( i n th e b r o a d e s t s e n s e ), w h ile
s la te s a r e h o m o g e n e o u s a n d d o n o t in v o lv e t h e e x p e n d itu r e o f en erg y .
T h i r d - o r d e r e n titie s a r e a b s tr a c t o b je c ts s u c h a s p r o p o s iti o n s , w h ic h a re
c u ts id e s p a c e a n d t i m e - a n d o u t s i d e t h e e x p e r ie n c e o f s m a ll c h ild r e n b e g in
n in g to u s e la n g u a g e . F ir s t- o r d e r e n ti ti e s a r c s a i d t o e x is t o r t o b e (a s in T h e re
exists a p e c u lia r fis h a n d There is a n X in th e k itc h e n ) a n d s e c o n d - o r d e r e n titie s
a re s a id to h a p p e n o r ta k e p la c e (a s in T h e c o llisio n h a p p e n e d a r o u n d I arn a n d
T h e w e d d in g to o k p la c e la s t m o n th ) . P r o p o s iti o n s d o n o t e x is t o r o c c u r, b u t a re
h e ld o r e n te r ta i n e d b y h u m a n s .
A d je c tiv e s a r c tr a d itio n a lly s a i d t o d e n o t e t h e p r o p e r tie s o f th in g s , w h ile
a d v e rb s d e n o te th e p r o p e r tie s o f e v e n ts , p ro c e s s e s a n d s ta te s o f a ffa irs . B u t if
t i i n g s a r e t h o u g h t o f a s b u n d le s o f p r o p e r tie s , w h a t is th e d is ti n c ti o n b e tw e e n
a p r o p e r ty a n d a th in g ? T h e id e a o f d if f e r e n t o r d e r s o l e n ti ti e s c a n o n l y b e
m a d e to w o r k i f w e g o b a c k to M ille r a n d J o h n s o n - L a ir d s w o r k o n h o w
h u m a n s s u c c e e d in p e r c e iv in g o b je c ts a m o n g th e flu x o f v is u a l a n d a u d ito r y
s tim u li. T h e y a r g u e t h a t a n o ti o n o l 'p e r m a n e n t o b je c t is f u n d a m e n ta l to
h u m a n p e r c e p tio n a n d th a t t h e o b je c t c o m e s firs t a n d p r o p e r tie s a r e s o rte d
c u t later. T h e p e r c e p tu a l m e c h a n is m is a b le to d if le r e n tia te a n o b je c t f r o m th e

G ram m ar and Sem antics: Parts o f Speech

b a c k g r o u n d a g a in s t w h ic h it a p p e a r s . T h e s a m e o b je c t t h a t a t o n e m o m e n t
is a p e r c e p tu a l fig u re m a y b e c o m e p a r t o f t h e b a c k g r o u n d in th e n e x t, b u t
p e o p le a s s u m e t h a t it c o n ti n u e s to e x is t in a s ta b le f o r m e v e n w h e n th e y a re
r o t lo o k in g a t it. T h e s im p le s t p e r c e p t io n o f a c o n c r e te o b je c t s e e m s to d e p e n d
o n a p r i o r c o n c e p t o f o b je c t p e r m a n e n c e . M ille r a n d J o h n s o n - L a ir d m a k e th e
i m p o r t a n t p o i n t t h a t p e o p le c a n re c o g n iz e a n o b je c t th e y h a v e s e e n b e fo re
e v e n w h e n t h e y a r e s u b je c t to a n o v e l s e t o f s tim u li. T h e p e r c e p tu a l m e c h a r i s m c r e a te s a c o h e r e n t p s y c h o lo g ic a l e n ti ty in r e s p o n s e to v a r io u s se ts o t
p e r c e p tio n s (M ille r a n d lo h n s o n - L a ir d , 1 9 7 6 , p p . 3 9 - 4 0 ) .
T h e a b o v e a r g u m e n t m e a n s t h a t th e d is ti n c ti o n b e tw e e n e n ti ti e s a n d p r o p
e r tie s is n o t ju s t n a v e fo lk p h ilo s o p h y ( t h o u g h o n e m ig h t w o n d e r w h e th e r it
is a c c id e n ta l t h a t t h e d is ti n c ti o n b e tw e e n o b je c ts a n d e n titie s is a p p lie d in
all o u r e v e ry d a y ta lk o l p e o p le , th in g s a n d e v e n ts ) , b u t is a n e s s e n tia l p a r t o l
th e o r ie s o f p e r c e p tio n .
T h e p e r c e p tio n o t a c h a n g e o r p a tt e r n o l c h a n g e s a s a n e v e n t is m o r e
su b je c tiv e t h a n t h e p e r c e p t io n o f a s e t o f s tim u li a s a n o b jc c t. O u r ta lk a b o u t
e v e n ts , s a y M ille r a n d J o h n s o n - L a ir d (1 9 7 6 , p . 9 0 ) is e v e n m o r e d e p e n d e n t o n
c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n . T h e y s u g g e s t t h a t s o m e p a tte r n o l c h a n g e m a y b e re g a rd e d

a s a n e v e n t s im p ly b e c a u s e t h a t is h o w w e ta lk a b o u t it, n o t b e c a u s e w e p e r
ceiv e it t h a t w ay. A n d e v e n m o r e a b s tr a c t c o n c e p ts a r e e n te r ta i n e d b y h u m a n s ,
c o n c e p ts t h a t a r e c r u c ia l to e v e ry d a y u n d e r s ta n d in g a n d c o o p e r a t io n : th e s e
are c o n c e p ts s u c h a s 'i n t e n t i o n , fe e lin g a n d t h o u g h t . (S e e th e d is c u s s io n o f
re le re n c e a n d t r u t h a n d p r o b l e m s w ith t h e c o m m o n - s e n s e v ie w o l o b je c ts in
J ic k e n d o ff, 2 0 0 2 , p p . 3 0 0 - 3 2 .) O n e a d v a n ta g e o f lo c a lis m is t h a t i t p r o v id e s a n
e x p la n a tio n fo r p a t t e r n s o f g r a m m a r a n d m e a n in g , n o t j u s t w ith in o n e la n
g u a g e b u t a c r o s s m a n y la n g u a g e s , a n d o ff e rs s e m a n ti c - c o n c e p tu a l s t r u c tu r e s
th a t a llo w c h ild r e n t o b r e a k in to m e a n i n g v ia t h e m o s t c o n c r e te o b je c t a n d
re la tio n s , m o v in g o u t f r o m t h a t p la tf o r m i n t o m o r e a b s tr a c t a n d c o m p le x
re la tio n s . T h e r e l a ti o n s b e tw e e n c o n c r e te o b je c ts a r e tr a n s f e r r e d to a b s tr a c t
c o m a i n s (s e e , fo r e x a m p le , J a c k e n d o ff, 1 9 9 0 ,2 0 0 2 , p p . 3 5 6 - 3 6 9 ) , a n d t h e w ay s
c f ta lk in g a b o u t c o n c r e te o b je c ts a n d r e la tio n s a r c a ls o tr a n s f e r r e d .
A c e n tr a l t e n e t o f lo c a lis m , a n d a ls o o f c o g n itiv e g r a m m a r , w h e th e r o f th e
L a n g a c k e r o r L a k o ff v a r ie ty (s e e L a n g a c k e r (1 9 9 1 ) a n d L a k o ff (1 9 8 7 ) ) is th a t
h u m a n la n g u a g e d o e s n o t r e la te d ir e c tly t o t h e o b je c tiv e w o r ld 'o u t th ere'.
R a th e r, it re la te s to t h e c o n c e p tu a l w o rld c o n s t r u c te d in s id e p e o p le 's h e a d s . As
J i c k c n d o f f (2 0 0 2 , p . 3 0 8 ) p u ts it, th e p e r c e p tu a l w o rld is n o t to ta lly o u t o f
s y n c h w ith t h e re a l w o r ld , s in c e o r g a n is m s h a v e to a c t a n d c o o p e r a te re lia b ly
h t h e r e a l w o r ld . B u t t h e p e r c e p tu a l w o r ld is re a lity fo r u s , a lt h o u g h p e rc e p ts

193

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

a re t r a p p e d i n t h e b r a i n . I n s p ite o f p e rc e p ts b e in g 'f o r m a l s t r u c tu r e s
in s ta n tia te d in n e u r o n s , t h e p e r c e p tu a l s y s te m s g iv e u s th e s e n s e o f 'b e i n g o u t
th e r e . la c k e n d o f f s e ts o u t a c le a r a n d e m i n e n tl y c o n v in c in g c a s e lo r th a t
a p p r o a c h to la n g u a g e a n d th e c o n c e p tu a l w o r ld a n d d e m o n s tr a t e s t h a t m a n y
re f e re n tia l a c ts c a n n o t b e u n d e r s to o d w ith o u t it. H e re , t h e a d v a n ta g e s o f th e
a p p r o a c h w ill b e d e m o n s tr a t e d in t h e n e x t c h a p te r, in a d is c u s s io n o f p a r tic i
p a n t/ th e m a ti c ro le s a n d c a se m a r k in g .
R e tu r n in g to p a r t s o l sp e e c h , w e c a n s u m u p th e s t a te o l p la y th u s . It is
p o s s ib le to d if f e r e n tia te p a r t s o f s p e e c h b y d e n o ta t io n , p r o v id e d w e b e g in w ith
p r o to ty p ic a l n o u n s d e n o t i n g c o n c r e te f i r s t - o r d e r e n titie s ; p r o to ty p ic a l v e rb s ,
d e n o ti n g m o r e easily p e rc e iv e d a n d c o n c e p tu a liz e d e v e n ts s u c h w a lk in g , r u n r i n g , j u m p i n g , s ittin g , e a tin g , liftin g ( a n d f o r s m a ll c h ild r e n , p a tt in g d o g s,
s tr o k in g c a ts , lo o k in g a t p ic tu r e s , p o in t in g a t o b je c ts , p re s s in g lig h t sw itc h e s
a n d s o o n ) ; p r o to ty p ic a l a d je c tiv e s d e n o ti n g t h e m o r e p e r c e p tib le p r o p e r tie s
c f e n titie s , s u c h a s s iz e , c o lo u r , te x tu r e , s m e ll, ta c tile p r o p e r tie s , t y p e o l
m o v e m e n t, ty p e o f n o is e m a d e a n d s o o n ) ; p r o to ty p ic a l a d v e r b s , d e n o t i n g th e
n o r e p e r c e p tib le p r o p e r tie s o f a c tio n s , p ro c e s s e s a n d e v e n ts , s u c h a s sp e e d ,
a m o u n t o l n o is e , a n d s o o n . T h e p e r c e p tu a l a n d c o n c e p tu a l s y s te m s m u s t b e

w h a t e n a b le s p e a k e r s o f o n e la n g u a g e to b r e a k in to a n o t h e r o n e w ith v e ry d if
fe r e n t g r a m m a r . N o u n s in C h in e s e h a v e d if f e r e n t d is tr i b u ti o n a l p r o p e r tie s
f r o m n o u n s in E n g lish , b u t e d u c a te d n a tiv e s p e a k e r s o f E n g lish u n d e r s ta n d
s o m e th in g a b o u t a f o r m t h a t is d e s c r ib e d a s a n o u n o r a v e r b in C h in e s e . V ery
y o u n g b ilin g u a l c h il d r e n d o n o t h a v e w o r d s s u c h a s n o u n a n d v e rb in th e ir
v o c a b u la ry , b u t u n d e r s ta n d w h ic h s e q u e n c e s o f f o r m s in th e i r tw o la n g u a g e s
a p p ly to a g iv e n s itu a tio n , o b je c t, a c tio n , p r o c e s s o r p r o p e r ty .

Parts of speech and speech acts

O u r a n a ly s is h a s t o b e m o r e c o m p le x t h a n t h a t s in c e i t is n o t a d e q u a te t o hav e
r.o u n s w ith d e n o ta t io n w , v e r b s w ith d e n o ta t io n x , a d je c tiv e s w ith d e n o ta t io n
y, a n d a d v e rb s w ith d e n o ta t io n /.. T h is n e a t s c h e m e is d i s t u r b e d b y t h e v e rs a til
ity o f n o u n s , w h ic h c a n d e n o te c o n c r e te f ir s t- o r d e r e n ti ti e s , s e c o n d - o r d e r e n t i
ties s u c h a s a c tio n s a n d p ro c e s s e s , a n d p r o p e r tie s o t a ll k in d s . C o n s id e r th e
d e n o ta t io n o f a m a z e m e n t in ( 1 ).
(I)

amazement
a c t io n o f a m a z in g
p r o p e r ly o f s o m e o n e
t h e p r o p e r t y o f s o m e a c t io n

H is a m a z e m e n t o f t h e c r o w d s w it h h i s a c r o b a t ic s
t h e a m a z e m e n t o f t h e c r o w d s a t h i s a c r o b a t ic s
a m a z in g ly s k ilf u l

G ram m ar and Sem antics: Parts o f Speech

T h e r e a r e fo r m s s u c h a s lo o k t h a t d e n o t e a c tio n s o r th in g s .
(2 ) H e lo o k e d a t t h e in tr u d e r
H is lo o k s t o p p e d t h e in t r u d e ' in h i s t r a c k s
H e h a s a w o r r y i n g lo o k

T h e fa c t is t h a t in E n g lis h ( a n d o t h e r la n g u a g e s ) n o u n s d e n o te a n y k in d o f
e n tity , w h ile v e rb s , a d je c tiv e s a n d a d v e r b s a r e r e s tr ic te d to o n e k in d o f e n tity
( c o u n tin g a c tio n s , p ro c e s s e s a n d s ta te s a s all s e c o n d - o r d e r e n titie s ) . T h is
m o r e n u a n c e d v ie w still leav e s u s w ith c le a r - c u t d iffe re n c e s in d e n o ta t io n if
w e c o n s id e r o n ly n o u n s d e n o ti n g f i r s t - o r d e r e n titie s , b u t it w o u ld b e p le a s in g
i: w e c o u ld f i n d s o m e s e m a n tic p r o p e r t y t h a t d if f e r e n tia te d all f o u r m a jo r
p a r t s o f sp e e c h . T h e r e is o n e , a t le a s t, th e r e is a p r a g m a ti c p r o p e r ty , th e ty p e
c f s p e e c h a c t p e r f o r m e d w ith a p a r t ic u l a r p a r t o f s p e e c h . (T h e fo llo w in g
d is c u s s io n is b a s e d o n M ille r (1 9 8 5 , p p . 2 1 5 4 0 ). A v e r y s im ila r, a p p a r e n tly
in d e p e n d e n t, p r o p o s a l is s e t o u t i n C ro ft (2 0 0 7 , p . 4 2 1 ) .) S p e e c h a c t h e re
c o e s n o t re f e r to m a k i n g s ta te m e n ts , a s k in g q u e s tio n s , a p o lo g iz in g , p ro m is in g
a n d s o o n b u t to r a th e r m o r e g r a m m a tic a l a c ts: re f e r r in g , p r e d ic a tin g a n d
m o d ify in g . S e a rle (1 9 6 9 ) d e s c r ib e s r e f e re n c e a n d p r e d ic a tio n a s p r o p o s itio n a l
a c ts . T h e id e a o l r e f e re n c e a s a n a c t p e r f o r m e d b y s p e a k e r s a n d w r ite r s w as
a d o p te d b y L y o n s (1 9 7 7 b ) a n d in c o r p o r a te d in a n o p p o s i ti o n w ith d e n o ta tio n :
c e n o t a t i o n a n d le x e m e s b e lo n g to t h e la n g u a g e s y s te m ; r e f e re n c e is a n ac t
p e r f o r m e d b y s p e a k e r s a n d w r it e r s a n d is p a r t o f la n g u a g e b e h a v io u r . (S tric tly
sp e a k in g , it is N P s t h a t re fe r, o r t h a t c a n b e u s e d to re fe r, to e n titie s , b u t th e y
c a n s u p p o r t th is lu n c t io n o n l y b e c a u s e th e y c o n ta i n n o u n s .)
T h e id e a t h a t p r e d i c a ti o n is a n a c t is p re v a le n t in tr a d i t i o n a l g r a m m a r . It is
p u z z lin g t h a t in s p ite o f t h e u b iq u i ty o f t h e f o r m u la o f s o m e o n e s a y in g s o m e
th in g a b o u t s o m e p e r s o n o r th in g , o r p r e d i c a ti n g a p r o p e r ty o f s o m e p e r s o n o r
tilin g , d is c u s s io n s o f s p e e c h a c ts d o n o t in c lu d e p r e d ic a tio n . P e r h a p s th e d if
ficulty, a s S e a rle (1 9 6 9 , p . 1 23) say s, is t h a t p r e d i c a ti o n n e v e r c o m e s n e u tr a lly
b u t a lw a y s in o n e illo c u tio n a r y m o d e o r a n o t h e r . P r e d ic a tio n is n o t a s e p a r a te
a c t. It is a slic e f r o m t h e to ta l il lo c u t io n a r y a c t; j u s t a s in d ic a tin g th e illo c u tio n
a r y fo r c e is n o t a s e p a r a te a c t, b u t a n o t h e r slic e f r o m th e illo c u tio n a r y a c t.
W h e th e r a s p e a k e r is m a k in g a s t a te m e n t, a s k in g a q u e s t io n o r is s u in g a
c o m m a n d is c le a rly a n d c o n s p ic u o u s ly s ig n a lle d b y th e g r a m m a r s o f n a tu r a l
la n g u a g e s ( o r b y th e p itc h p a tt e r n s ) . N a tu r a l la n g u a g e s a ls o h a v e w a y s o f sig
n a llin g w h a t p a r t o f a c la u s e c a r r ie s r e f e re n c e a n d w h a t p a r t c a r r ie s p r e d ic a
tio n . I n U n g lish , th is is s ig n a lle d b y d e te r m in e r s a n d p lu r a l su ffix e s in N P s; in
e t h e r la n g u a g e s , it m a y b e s ig n a lle d b y o r d e r o f c o n s t it u e n ts in a p a r t ic u l a r

195

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

c o n s tr u c tio n o r i t m a y b e s ig n a lle d b y s p e c ia l m a r k e r s . T h e m o s t w e ll- k n o w n
e x a m p le o f t h e la st ty p e is p r o b a b l y N o o tk a , w h ic h u s e d to b e re g u la rly c ite d
as a n e x a m p le o f a la n g u a g e w ith o u t s e p a r a te c la s se s o f n o u n a n d v e rb . N o w
w h ile i t is t r u e th a t N o o tk a s te m s d o n o t c a r r y su ffix e s o r o t h e r m a r k e r s s ig n a l
lin g t h a t th e y a r e n o u n s o r v e rb s , t h e c la u s e s c ite d in H o c k e tt (1 9 5 8 , p . 225)
c o n ta in m a r k e r s s ig n a llin g w h ic h w o rd c a r r ie s th e r e f e re n c e a n d w h ic h th e
p r e d ic a tio n . H a r r is (1 9 4 6 ) c o m m e n ts t h a t in m u c h w o rk o n s y n ta x lab e ls
su c h a s n o u n , 'v e r b ' a n d a d je c tiv e a r e u s e d in te r c h a n g e a b ly l o r t h e p o s itio n s
in a s y n ta c tic s t r u c t u r e a n d f o r th e f o r m s t h a t o c c u r in a g iv e n p o s itio n . We
w ill se e tr o m th e N o o tk a e x a m p le s t h a t la b e ls s u c h a s n o u n ' a n d v e rb ' c o u ld
b e a p p lie d to p a r t ic u l a r p o s itio n s in t h e s t r u c tu r e s e v e n i f t h e s te m s o c c u r in
e ith e r p o s itio n w ith o u t a n y c h a n g e in s h a p e . C o n s id e r (3 ) a n d (4 ).
(3 ) a .

q o * ?a sm a
H e - is - a - m a n

b.

?i* h m a*
h e - is - la r g e

?i* h ? i.
t h e - la r g e , 'T h e la r g e o n e is a m a n .
q o * ? a s ? i.
t h e - m a n , ' I h e m a n is la r g e .'

In th e a b o v e e x a m p le s , m u ' m a r k s th e p r e d ic a tio n o r w o r d c a r r y in g th e

p r e d ic a tio n a n d ?i m a r k s t h e w o r d c a r r y in g th e re fe re n c e . T h e s a m e a p p lie s
in (4 ).
(4 ) a .

m a m o 'k m a *
h e - is - w o r k in g

b.

Qo ?asm a
h e - is - a - m a n

q o * ? a s ? i.
t h e - m a n . " T h e m a n is w o r k i n g .
m a m o 'k i.
t h e - w o r k i n g , 'T h e w o r k e r is a m a n .'

H o c k e tt (1 9 5 8 , p . 2 2 5 ) d e s c r ib e s N o o tk a a s h a v in g a ll - r o u n d p la y e r s a n d
L atin a s h a v in g s p e c ia lis t p la y e rs . I t is t r u e t h a t w h o le w o r d s in L a tin a re
sp e c ia list p la y e rs , b u t t h e r o o t s lo o k m o r e lik e a ll - r o u n d p la y ers: t h e s t e m a m
lo v e o c c u r s in a m a i h e /s h e lo v e s a n d a m o r lo v e ( n o u n ) . I n a m a t t h e a
n a r k s a v e rb s te m to w h ic h a p e r s o n - n u m b e r e n d in g c a n b e a d d e d , h e r e - t . In
am or, th e - o r m a r k s t h e s te m a s a n o u n , o n e to w h ic h a c a s e - n u m b e r - g e n d e r
s u ffix c a n b e a d d e d . T h e n o m i n a ti v e s i n g u la r su ffix is 0 fo r th is c la s s o f n o u n s .
L a tin , th e n , th e w o r d c a r r y in g th e r e f e re n c e a n d th e w o r d c a r r y in g t h e p r e d
ic a tio n a r e m a r k e d b y m e a n s o f su ffix e s; i n N o o tk a , t h e s te m s a r e n o t m a r k e d
b u t t h e s lo ts a r e m a r k e d - t h o u g h in t h e e x a m p le s c ite d b y H o c k e tt ?i a n d m tr
c o u ld b e t r e a te d a s m a r k in g t h e s te m s .
In t h e C la ss ic a l G r e e k c o p u la c o n s t r u c ti o n c o n s t it u e n t o r d e r in d ic a te s
w h e n a d je c tiv e s c a r r y a p r e d ic a tio n . E x a m p le s a r e in (5 ).

G ram m ar and Sem antics: Parts o f Speech

(5 ) a . H e k a le g u n e
T h e b e a u t ifu l w o m a n
b . H g u n e h k a le
T h e w o m a n t h e b e a u t if u l, ' t h e b e a u t if u l w o m a n '
c.

H g u n e kale .
T h e w o m a n b e a u t if u l, ' T h e w o m a n is b e a u t ifu l.'

d . K a l h g u n .
B e a u t if u l th e w o m a n . T h e w o m a n is b e a u t ifu l.'

A d je c tiv e s d ir e c tly fo llo w in g a n o u n o r p re c e d in g th e d e f in ite a rtic le a re

p re d ic a tiv e ; in o t h e r p o s i ti o n s th e y a r c a tt r i b u ti v e , o r , to u s e th e s p e e c h act
te r m in o lo g y , m o d ify in g . W h a t t h e N o o lk a , L a tin a n d G r e e k e x a m p le s s h o w is
t h a t t h e s p e e c h a c ts o f re f e re n c e , p r e d i c a ti o n a n d m o d if ic a tio n a r e s ig n a lle d b y
p o s i ti o n in a c o n s t r u c ti o n e v e n il th e r e is n o m a r k in g in s te m s a n d w o rd s , a n d
th e y a r e a ls o c le a rly s ig n a lle d b y s t e m c h a n g e s . T h e c o m b i n a ti o n o f d iffe re n c e s
in d e n o ta t io n ( p a r tic u la r ly in r e la tio n t o th e v o c a b u la r y a n d th e lim ite d w o rld
c f v e ry y o u n g c h ild r e n ) a n d s p e e c h a c t p r o v id e s t r o n g e v id e n c e th a t d illc r e n c e s b e tw e e n p a r t s o f s p e e c h a r e m o tiv a te d b y s e m a n tic s a n d p ra g m a tic s .

197

Grammar and Semantics:

Thematic Roles

Chapter Outline
In t r o d u c t io n

198

G r a m m a t ic a l f u n c t io n s

199

R o le s

203

R o l e s a c r o s s la n g u a g e s

215

C o n c lu s io n

217

Introduction
T w o in tc r c o n n c c tc d c o n c e p ts a r c c e n tr a l to w o r k o n a r g u m e n t s tr u c tu r e ,
tr a n s itiv ity a n d c a se m a r k in g ( i n c lu d i n g c a s e a ffix e s a n d a d p o s i ti o n s ) . T h e s e
c o n c e p ts a r e s e m a n ti c o r p a r t ic i p a n t o r th e m a t i c r o le a n d g r a m m a t ic a l f u n c
t i o n o r re la tio n . W e a r g u e in t h i s s e c tio n t h a t g r a m m a tic a l f u n c tio n s a r e n o t
a s u s e fu l a s is g e n e ra lly t h o u g h t a n d t h a t t h e c o n c e p t o f s e m a n tic o r p a r t i c i
p a n t ro le is n o t n e a r ly a s h o p e le s s a s re c e n t c o m m e n ta t o r s s u g g e s t. ( T h e te r m
th e m a ti c ro le w ill n o t b e u s e d h e re . It is in t h e c h a p te r title b e c a u s e il is th e
c u r r e n t t e r m in v a r io u s g e n e ra tiv e m o d e ls , b u t it is v e ry in c o n v e n ie n t. T h e
t r o u b le is t h a t b e fo r e th e te r m th e m a ti c ro le ' w a s in t r o d u c e d in C h o m s k y a n
g e n e ra tiv e g r a m m a r t h e w o rd t h e m e h a d fo r m a n y y e a rs b e e n in u s e a s p a r t
o f w o r k in w h a t is n o w k n o w n a s in f o r m a t io n s t r u c tu r e . Q u ite a p a r t f r o m its
u s e in P ra g u e S c h o o l L in g u is tic s , it w as - a n d still is - a k e y te r m a n d c o n c e p t
in H a llid a y s th e o r y o f in f o r m a tio n s t r u c tu r e , firs t s e t o u t in h i s k e y p a p e r s in
1967 a n d 1968.)

G ram m ar an d Sem antics: Them atic R o les

Grammatical functions
W e b e g in w ith g r a m m a t ic a l f u n c tio n s , w h ic h a r e b a s e d o n g r a m m a tic a l
c r ite r ia a n d n o t o n s e m a n tic s . S in c e a t le a st th e m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y th e y
have b e e n d e p lo y e d b y a n a ly s ts w h o s a w s u b je c t, d ir e c t o b je c t a n d s o o n as
w e ll- f o u n d e d c o n c e p ts c o m p a r e d w i t h c o n c e p ts s u c h a s A g e n t, P a tie n t a n d
G o a l. T h e la tte r w e re c o n s id e r e d t o b e b a s e d o n s e m a n tic i n t u i t i o n s a n d n o t
a b le to b e a p p li e d c o n s is te n tly f r o m o n e la n g u a g e to a n o th e r o r e v e n b y d iffe r
e n t a n a ly s ts w o rk in g o n th e s a m e la n g u a g e . W e w ill s e e th a t t h e d e f in itio n s o f
g r a m m a tic a l f u n c t io n s a r e n o t e n tir e ly s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d , th a t th e y d o n o t c a r r y
e v e r f r o m o n e la n g u a g e to a n o th e r , a n d t h a t t h e c o n c e p t o f s u b je c t is n o t
a p p lic a b le in all la n g u a g e s.

Grammatical subject
A d e f in itio n o l s u b je c t - m o r e a c c u ra te ly , g r a m m a tic a l s u b je c t - l o r F n g lish
c o n ta in s th e fo llo w in g c o m p o n e n ts . F irs t, a lim ita tio n : t h e c r ite r ia fo r s u b je c ts
a re e s ta b lis h e d f o r b a sic c la u s e s . T h e s e a r e c la u s e s w ith th e g r e a te s t ra n g e o f
te n s e , a s p e c t, m o o d a n d v o ic e ; t h e y a r e th e e a s ie s t to t u r n i n t o re la tiv e o r in t e r
ro g a tiv e c la u s e s; t h e y ta k e t h e g re a te s t r a n g e o f a d v e r b s ; a n d t h e y a r e s e m a n ti
cally m o r e b a s ic t h a n o t h e r c la u s e s . ( T h e k e y a r tic le o n s u b je c t is still K e e n a n
(1 9 7 6 ).) T h e r e f e re n ts o f s u b je c t N P s e x is t i n d e p e n d e n tly o f th e a c tio n o r
p ro c e s s d e n o t e d b y c la u s e s ( t h e a u to n o m y p r o p e r ty ) - S k ille d m a so n s b u ilt
th e c e n tr a l to w e r in less th a n a y e a r is a b a s ic c la u s e , b u t n o t T im o th y w a s b o rn
cn H a llo w e e n . S u b je c ts c o n tr o l re fle x iv e s, c o n tr o l th e u n d e r s to o d s u b je c ts o f
in fin itiv e s, f u n c t io n a s p iv o ts in in fin itiv e s a n d c o o r d i n a te c o n s tr u c tio n s
a n d c o n tr o l q u a n ti f i e r flo a tin g . T h e s u b je c t N P o f a n a c tiv e c la u s e c o r r e s p o n d s
to t h e N P in th e b y p h r a s e o f a p a ss iv e c la u s e . S u b je c ts a g r e e in p e r s o n a n d
n u m b e r w ith th e f in ite v e r b in a g iv e n c la u s e , th e y ty p ic a lly d e n o te a g e n ts a n d
w ith re s p e c t to in f o r m a t io n s t r u c t u r e th e y ty p ic a lly f u n c tio n a s t h e th e m e o f
a c la u s e . |F o r a b r i e l b u t c o m p r e h e n s iv e o v e rv ie w w ith e x a m p le s , se e M ille r
(2 0 0 8 , p p . 9 8 - 1 0 8 ) .]

Direct, indirect and oblique objects

D ire c t o b je c ts in E n g lis h im m e d ia te ly fo llo w t h e m a i n v e rb in b a s ic c la u s e s
a n d c o r r e s p o n d to th e s u b je c t o l p a ss iv e c la u s e s . In b a sic c la u s e s s u b je c t N P s
ty p ic a lly re fe r to A g e n ts a n d d ir e c t o b je c t N P s re fe r to P a tie n ts . (A g e n t a n d
P a tie n t w ill b e d e f in e d b elo w .)

199

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

O b liq u e o b je c ts a r e N P s p r e c e d e d b y p r e p o s itio n s : in g a v e i t to R e n e, b o u g h t
i' f o r P a v e l, ra n r o u n d t h e g a r d e n , th r e w i t o u t t h e w i n d o w a n d th e r o o f o f th e
h o u s e t h e N P s in b o l d a r c a ll o b li q u e o b je c ts.
M a n y d e s c r ip ti o n s o f E n g lis h a n d o t h e r la n g u a g e s e m p lo y th e c o n c e p t o f
'in d i r e c t o b je c t' t o r n o u n s p r e c e d e d b y to a n d fo r, s u c h a s th o s e in ( l a - c ) .
(1 ) a . T a t ia n a w r o t e t o O n e g in .
b . M a g n u s w e n t t o E g ilsa y .
c . f r a n k b o u g h t a p ia n o f o r J a n e

T h e c o n c e p t o f in d ir e c t o b je c t is p r o b le m a tic a l. G r a m m a r s o f E n g lish
w o u ld m e r e ly re f e r to v e r b s s u c h a s tell, sa y, s h o w a n d g iv e , w h ic h o c c u r in th e
c o n s t r u c ti o n V N P , to N P . o r V N P . N P ,: cf. C elia g a v e th e ca r to H en v e rs u s
C elia g a v e H en th e ca r, w h e re th e ca r is N P , a n d B e n is N P ,. T h e in d ir e c t o b je c t
w as s a id to b e th e N P p r e c e d e d b y to a n d th e re le v a n t v e r b s w e re e it h e r liste d
in d iv id u a lly o r d iv id e d in to c la sse s la b e lle d v e rb s o f say in g ', v e r b s o f g iv in g '
a n d s o o n , to a v o id th e la b e l 'in d i r e c t o b je c t b e in g a s s ig n e d to p h r a s e s s u c h as
to D u n d e e in H e w e n t to D u n d e e .
In fa c t, in d ir e c t o b je c ts a r e d if f ic u lt to s e p a r a te f r o m a d v e r b s o f d ir e c tio n .
I; is s o m e tim e s s u g g e s te d th a t th e tw o c a n b e d is tin g u is h e d o n t h e g r o u n d
fn at in d ir e c t o b je c t N P s c o n ta i n a n i m a t e n o u n s , w h e re a s a d v e r b s o f p la c e
c o n ta in in a n im a te n o u n s d e n o t i n g c o u n tr ie s , to w n s a n d o t h e r p la c e s. I f th is
w ere c o r r e c t, w e w o u ld e x p e c t in a n i m a t e n o u n s n o t t o o c c u r im m e d ia te ly a fte r
a v e r b s u c h a s s e n t in (2 ) a n d (3 ).
(2 ) a . L u c y s e n t a le t t e r to is a d o r e
b

L u c y s e n t Is a d o r e a letter.

13) a . T h e G o v e r n m e n t s e n t a n e n v o y to C h in a ,
b . < ) T h e G o v e r n m e n t s e n t C h in a a n e n v o y

C h in a in (3 b ) h a s t o b e in t e r p r e te d n o t a s a g e o g ra p h ic a l u n it b u t as
an o r g a n iz a tio n ( q u a s i a n im a te ) t h a t c a n in te r a c t w ith th e p e r s o n s e n t a s a n
envoy. T h e o d d n e s s o f (3 b ) c a n b e re m o v e d b y s u b s tit u ti n g d if f e r e n t lex ical
ite m s , a s in ( 4 ) . I lo re, C h i n a is p r e s e n te d a s a b o d y t h a t is to b e n e f it f r o m th e
e n g in e e rs.
(4 ) T h e c o m p a n y s e n t C h i n a it s s e n io r
n e w m in e s

m in in g e n g in e e r s t o h e lp p l a n th e

G r a m m a r a n d S e m a n tic s : T h e m a t ic R o le s

(4 ) s u p p o r t s a n o t h e r s u g g e s tio n t h a t g e n u in e a d v e rb s o f d ir e c ti o n c a n n o t
o c c u r im m e d ia te ly a f t e r a v e rb , w h e re a s in d ir e c t o b je c ts c a n . ( C h in a is n o t a n
a d v e rb o f d ir e c ti o n .) T h is s u g g e s tio n is c o r r e c t, b u t it still fa ils to d is tin g u is h
in d ire c t o b je c ts ; m a n y v e r b s a r e lik e te ll a n d sh o w in t h a t th e y o c c u r in th e
N P to N P , c o n s t r u c t i o n b u t n o t in t h e d o u b le o b je c t c o n s t r u c ti o n . A ttr ib u te d
th e p ic tu r e to R a p h a e l, fo r w a r d e d th e le tte r to W in ifre d , p r e s e n te d a g o ld w a tc h
to th e fo r e m a n , k ic k e d th e b a ll to Jo h n , h it th e b a ll to M a r tin a a n d a sc rib e d th is
p la y to S h a k e sp e a re a rc a ll c o r r e c t, b u t n o t th e c o r r e s p o n d in g e x a m p le s in (5 ).
(5 ) a . ' T h e e x p e r t s a t t r ib u t e d R a p h a e l t h is p ctu re .
b . *1 f o r w a r d e d W in if r e d t h e letter.
c

' T h e m a n a g e r p re s e n te d t h e fo re m a n a g o ld w a tch ,

d . ' K i c k J o h n t h e b a ll,
e

' M o n i c a h i t M a r t in a t h e b a il

' T h e c r it ic s a s e n b e S h a k e s p e a r e t h is play.

T h e e x a m p le s in (5 ) h a v e b e e n te s te d o n m a n y c la s se s o f s t u d e n ts . S o m e
have a c c e p te d s o m e o l t h e e x a m p le s , e s p e c ia lly ( 5 b ) , b u t t h e v a s t m a jo r ity
h a v e n o t a c c e p te d a n y o f th e m . W e c a n n o t m a i n t a i n t h e tr a d it io n a l c o n c e p t o f
in d ire c t o b je c t a s th e to p h r a s e w ith v e r b s s u c h a s g ive, s h o w a n d tell; a ll N P s
p r e c e d e d b y a p r e p o s iti o n a r c tr e a te d a s o n e c a te g o ry , o b liq u e o b je c ts.
E x a m p le s s u c h a s g a v e L iz a th e d o ll a n d sh o w e d th e la w y e r th e d o c u m e n t a re
sa id to re a liz e t h e d o u b le - o b je c t c o n s t r u c ti o n . T h e q u e s tio n is - w h a t k in d o f
o b je c t? S o m e a n a ly s e s a p p ly th e te r m in d ir e c t o b je c t' to L iz a a n d th e r e a re
c e rta in ly la n g u a g e s in w h ic h L iz a w o u ld h a v e a d if f e r e n t c a s e su ffix f r o m doll.
In R u s s ia n , L iz a a n d k u k la 'd o ll' a r e b o t h f e m in i n e n o u n s ; d a ta L iz e k u k lu is th e
tr a n s la tio n o f g a v e L iz a th e d o ll, a n d k u k lu h a s th e a c c u s a tiv e c a s e s u f fix t h a t is
a tta c h e d to d ir e c t o b je c t n o u n s , w h ile L iz e h a s t h e d a tiv e c a s e s u lfix th a t , in te r
a lia , is a tta c h e d to n o u n s d e n o t i n g re c ip ie n ts .
T h e p r o b le m fo r E n g lish is t h a t in (6 ) t h e c r ite r ia fo r d ir e c t o b je c t a p p ly to
S u sa n a n d n o t to m o n e y . S u s a n im m e d ia te ly lo llo w s t h e v e rb a n d c o r r e s p o n d s
to t h e s u b je c t o f th e p assiv e.
(6 ) a . M o n ic a g a v e S u s a n Ih e m o n e y .
b . S u s a n w a s g iv e n t h e m o n e y b y M o m c a .

W e c a n m a k e s e n s e o t t h e s y n ta x o f (6 a ) if w e tr e a t it a s a c o n s t r u a l o l a n
e v e n t o f g iv in g in w h ic h t h e r e c ip ie n t is p r e s e n te d a s d ir e c tly a ffe c te d b y th e

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

a c tio n , a s a P a ti e n t. T h e s e m a n tic s n o w m a t c h t h e s y n ta c tic s t a tu s o f S u s a n as
d ir e c t o b je c t. M o n e y c a n b e la b e lle d 's e c o n d o b jec t'.

Grammatical functions across languages

I; lo o k s a s t h o u g h g r a m m a tic a l J u n c tio n s c a n b e re c o g n iz e d fo r E n g lis h o n
t i e b a s is o f E n g lis h s y n ta x a n d m o r p h o s y n ta x a n d s u b je c t a n d d ir e c t o b je c t
c an b e t r e a te d a s d e n o ti n g re s p e c tiv e ly A g e n ts a n d P a tie n ts . O n e q u e s tio n
b r in g s o u t a s e r io u s w e a k n e s s in t h e c o n c e p t: c a n g r a m m a tic a l f u n c t io n s b e
g e n e ra liz e d o v e r la n g u a g e s? P o ss ib ly n o t. F o r in s ta n c e , g r a m m a r s o f F re n c h
a p p e a l to t h e c o n c e p ts o f s u b je c t, d ir e c t o b je c t a n d s o o n , b u t t h e g ra m m a tic a l
fa n c tio n s o f F r e n c h a r e e s ta b lis h e d o n t h e b a s is o f F r e n c h s y n ta x a n d m o r p h o
sy n ta x . W h a t is t h e ju s tif ic a tio n f o r id e n tif y in g d ir e c t o b je c ts o r s u b je c ts in
E n g lish g r a m m a r w ith d ir e c t o b je c ts o r s u b je c ts in F r e n c h g ra m m a r ? T h i s is
a n a lo g o u s to t h e d if fic u ltie s a ff e c tin g a n a ly s e s o f p a r t s o f s p e e c h : s in c e th e y
a re e s ta b lis h e d o n d is tr i b u ti o n a l c r ite r ia fo r o n e la n g u a g e a t a tim e , h o w
d o w e ju s tify e q u a t i n g n o u n s in E n g lis h w ith n o u n s in T u rk is h , C h in e s e o r
D y irb al? T h e o n ly re a s o n a b le a n s w e r lies in th e d e n o ta t io n o f p r o to ty p ic a l
r .o u n s , v e rb s , a d je c tiv e s a n d s o o n a n d in t h e s p e e c h a c ts t h a t a r e p e r f o r m e d
w ith th e m - re f e r r in g , p r e d i c a ti n g a n d m o d ify in g . I n a n a lo g o u s f a s h io n , th e
r e a s o n l o r id e n tif y in g s u b je c t a n d d ir e c t o b je c t in E n g lis h w i t h s u b je c ts a n d
d ir e c t o b je c t in F r e n c h o r T u rk is h is, w e m a y s u p p o s e , t h e fa c t t h a t w e rec o g r iz e p r o to ty p ic a l A g e n ts a n d P a tie n ts n o m a t t e r w h a t th e la n g u a g e . T h a t is,
p r o to ty p ic a l s e m a n tic r o le s a r c p r i m a r y a n d u n iv e r s a l, w h e re a s g r a m m a tic a l
f u n c t io n s a r e a d e q u a t e o n ly fo r o n e la n g u a g e a t a tim e .
A n a d d it io n a l d r a w b a c k is t h a t t h e m a jo r g r a m m a tic a l f u n c tio n o f s u b je c t
is n o t r e a d ily a p p lic a b le to s o m e la n g u a g e s . In a la n g u a g e s u c h a s E n g lis h a
r u m b e r o f s y n ta c tic , m o r p h o s y n ta c tic , s e m a n tic a n d d is c o u r s e p r o p e r tie s
c o n v e rg e o n o n e n o u n ( p h r a s e ) in a c la u s e , a s o u tl in e d e a rlie r. T h a t N P is
w h a t is la b e lle d s u b je c t. A s d e m o n s tr a t e d b y S c h c h te r (1 9 7 7 ) , in a la n g u a g e
s u c h a s T a g a lo g th e c o n c e p t o f s u b je c t is n o t a p p lic a b le , a s t h e p r o p e r tie s th a t
a c c u m u la te o n s u b je c t N P s in E n g lish lall in to tw o s e ts , w h ic h a c c u m u la te o n
d if fe re n t N P s . A th i r d p r o b le m is t h a t in s o m e e rg a tiv e la n g u a g e s , e s p e c ia lly
t.io s e o f A u s tra lia , th e N P t h a t m ig h t b e re c o g n iz e d a s th e s u b je c t o l a c la u s e
d o e s n o t c o r r e s p o n d to t h e s u b je c t N P s o f E n g lis h a n d o t h e r la n g u a g e s o f
E u ro p e .

G ram m ar an d Sem antics: Them atic R o les

Roles
S e m a n tic o r p a r t ic i p a n t r o le s h a v e n o t h a d a g o o d p re s s . B u tt (2 0 0 9 , p . 3 3 )
s ta te s t h a t w h ile ro le s s u c h a s A g e n t. G o a l/E x p e r ie n c e r, T h e m e /P a tie n t, I n s t r u
m e n t a n d L o c a tio n a r e a c k n o w le d g e d b y m a n y lin g u is ts , a c r o s s th e o r ie s th e re
is a h u g e a m o u n t o f d is s a tis fa c tio n w i t h th e s e ro le la b e ls, d is s a tis fa c tio n th a t
w as p r o m p t e d b y F illm o r e (1 9 6 8 ) a n d w a s n o t a lla y e d b y D o w ty (1 9 9 1 ).
A c c o rd in g t o B u tt (2 0 0 9 , p . 3 3 ) ,T h e p r o b l e m is t h a t w h ile t h e la b e ls a r c u tte r ly
in tu itiv e a n d th e r e f o r e q u ite u s e fu l a t s o m e le v e l o f d e s c r ip tio n , it is v e r y d if
f ic u lt t o p u t t h e m to p ra c tic a l u s e b e c a u s e t h e d e f i n it io n s p r o v id e d t o d a te
a re s i m p l y to o v ag u e . ( T h e d if fe re n c e b e tw e e n b e in g u s e fu l a t s o m e le v e l o f
d e s c r ip tio n , w h a te v e r t h a t m i g h t m e a n , a n d b e in g p u t to p ra c tic a l u s e is
r.o t e x p la in e d .) A c c o rd in g to P r im u s , w r itin g in th e s a m e v o lu m e (2 0 0 9 ,
p p . 2 6 5 - 6 ) , t h e m a i n w e a k n e s s o f ro le s is t h a t t h e y a r e n o t d e f in e d in te rm s
o f a lim ite d , c o n c e p tu a lly w e ll- m o tiv a te d s e t o f s e m a n ti c p r im itiv e s . A s a re s u lt
ih e n u m b e r o f ro le s fa r e x c e e d s t h e n u m b e r o f c o r e s y n ta c tic f u n c t io n s ; a n a
ly sts w o r k in g w i t h ro le lis ts u n d e r e s tim a te ro le d if fe re n c e s , w h ic h m a y le a d to
e m p iric a lly in a c c u r a te a n a ly s e s ; a n d ro le lists a r e u n s t r u c t u r e d s e ts l o r w h ic h
a n a ly s ts h a v e to s t ip u la te ro le h ie r a r c h ie s o r m a p p i n g p rin c ip le s .
B u tts r e f e re n c e to F illm o re (1 9 6 8 ) is c o r r e c t b u t ir r e le v a n t, s in c e t h e e ss e n tial id e a in F illm o re s m o d e l w a s t h a t s y n ta c tic tr e e d ia g r a m s s h o u l d lo c u s o n
th e d e p e n d e n c y r e la tio n s b e tw e e n th e n o u n s in a c la u s e a n d th e h e a d v e rb a n d
t h a t th e d e p e n d e n c y re la tio n s s h o u l d b e r e p r e s e n te d a s la b e lle d b r a n c h e s . T h e
a d e q u a c y o f th e la b e ls, w h ic h s ig n a lle d p a r t ic i p a n t ro le s, w a s a s e c o n d a r y issu e .
M a n y d e s c r ip tiv e g r a m m a r s e m p l o y t h e c o n c e p ts o f A g e n t, P a tie n t a n d s o o n ;
th e q u e s tio n is: w h a l p la c e is th e r e l o r p a r t ic i p a n t ro le s in lo r m a l m o d e ls?
Q u ite it lo t is t h e a n s w e r. R o les t u r n u p in v a r io u s C h o m s k y a n m o d e ls , in Jack e n d o l t s m o d e ls a n d in m o d e ls , s u c h a s L ex ical F u n c tio n a l G r a m m a r , in w h ic h
a r g u m e n t s t r u c t u r e is l i n k e d to s y n ta c tic s t r u c tu r e . J a c k e n d o f f (2 0 0 2 , p . 142)
d e c la re s 'T h e c o n s e n s u s in th e fie ld is t h a t th e o r d e r | o f N P a r g u m e n ts in
c la u se s] is d e te r m i n e d b y t h e th e m a tic r o le s o l t h e c o r r e s p o n d in g th e m a tic
a r g u m e n ts a n d re f e rs to , in t e r a lio s , V a n V a lin a n d L a P o lla (1 9 9 7 ) a n d G r im s h a w (1 9 9 0 ).
T h e re s ilie n c e o f s e m a n ti c /p a r t ic i p a n t r o le s is its e lf a n in d ic a tio n th a t th e
c o n c e p t h a s a lo t o f in tu itiv e a p p e a l f o r a n a ly s ts , a n d F illm o re (1 9 6 8 ) re s o n a te d

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w r y s t r o n g ly w ith m a n y s t u d e n t s in I M s classes. T h is is n o t a r e a s o n fo r
sim p ly a c c e p tin g t h e c o n c e p t, b u t it is a g o o d r e a s o n fo r n o t th r o w in g it aw ay
a n d lo r t r y i n g to g iv e it a s o lid f o u n d a t io n . A n o th e r r e a s o n is th a t in la n g u a g e s
s u c h a s R u s s ia n , w ith a r ic h s y s te m o f c a s e su ffix e s p la y in g a c e n tr a l p a r t in
t i e s y n ta x a n d s e m a n ti c s o f t h e la n g u a g e , t h e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n s e m a n tic
ro les a n d c a se su ffix e s is a n e s s e n tia l a n d in t r i g u in g issue.

Clause structure, p rop ositions and roles

T h e s e m a n ti c f o u n d a t i o n o f a n y c la u s e is its p r o p o s iti o n a l c o re , w h ic h h a s to
d o w ith th e s ta te , p ro c e s s o r a c tio n d e s c r ib e d b y a g iv e n c la u s e a n d th e p a r t ic i
p a n t ro le s in v o lv e d in a g iv e n s ta te , p ro c e s s o r a c tio n . P ro c e s s e s a n d a c tio n s a rc
ty p ic a lly a s s o c ia te d w ith v e rb s , w h e re a s s ta te s a r e a s s o c ia te d w ith e it h e r v e rb s
c r a d je c tiv e s . ( N o t a ll la n g u a g e s h a v e a c le a r d is ti n c ti o n b e tw e e n v e rb s a n d
a d je c tiv e s . W h e r e th e d is ti n c ti o n is la c k in g , s ta te s a r e a s s o c ia te d w ith v e rb s .
F o r in s ta n c e . E n g lish h a s th e a d je c tiv e ill a s in H e is ill, b u t s o m e la n g u a g e s
h a v e a c o n s t r u c t i o n w ith a v e rb , ro u g h ly e q u iv a le n t to t h e a r c h a ic E n g lis h H e
i i o ilin g ) T y p ic a l s ta te s a r e b e in g ill o r b e in g ta ll; ty p ic a l p ro c e s s e s a r e c h a n g e s
c f s ta te , s u c h a s I r c e z in g (o l ic e ) o r d y in g ; ty p ic a l a c tio n s a r e r u n n i n g a n d c u tt.n g , c a u s in g c h a n g e s o f s ta te a n d c a u s in g s o m e a c tio n to h a p p e n ( m a k e s o m e
b o d y d o s o m e th in g ). T h e p a r t ic i p a n t ro le s a r e a s s o c ia te d w ith N P s.
T h e n o ti o n s o f c o m p l e m e n t a n d a d j u n c t a r c c e n tr a l to d is c u s s io n o f th e
p r o p o s itio n a l c o re . E x te n d i n g 'c o m p le m e n t (se e p p . 4 2 - 4 8 ) to ta k e in s u b je c t
N P s, w e c a n s a y t h a t a g iv e n v e rb r e q u ir e s a c e r ta in n u m b e r o l N P s , o r h a s a
c e rta in n u m b e r o f p la c e s f o r N P s. ( I t is im m a te r ia l w h e th e r a n N P is lin k e d to
t i e v e r b b y a p r e p o s iti o n o r n o t.) V e rb s a r e d e s c r ib e d a s o n e - p la c e (e .g . John
n m ) , tw o -p la c e (e .g . S u e s h a r p e n e d th e k n ife ) o r th r e e - p la c e (e .g . F io n a g a ve
th e p a rc e l to A n g u s). T h e v e rb a n d its c o m p l e m e n t s c o n s t it u te th e n u c le u s o f
t i e p r o p o s iti o n a l c o re . It is u s e f u l to b e a b le to r e t e r to t h e c ir c u m s ta n tia l ro le s
a s s o c ia te d w i t h a p r o p o s itio n a l n u c le u s ; th e s e a r e e x p re s s e d b y a d v e rb ia l
p h ra s e s o f tim e , p la c e , m a n n e r , e tc ., w h ic h a r e ty p ic a lly a d ju n c t s o f a v e r b in
th a t th e y a r e o p ti o n a l c o n s titu e n ts . T h ey a r e a ls o o p ti o n a l in th e p r o p o s itio n a l
c o re . T h e s e n te n c e S u e s h a r p e n e d th e k n ife in th e k itc h e n la s t n ig h t h a s a s th e
n u c le u s o f its p r o p o s iti o n a l c o r e S H A R P E N (S U E , K N IF E ). In th e k itc h e n
a n d la s t n ig h t a r e a d ju n c t s a n d c o r r e s p o n d to c ir c u m s t a n ti a l ro le s o f lo c a tio n
a n d tim e th a t a r e o u ts id e t h e p r o p o s iti o n a l n u c le u s . T h e ir p re s e n c e in th e
s r n te n c e a n d in th e p r o p o s iti o n a l c o r e d o e s n o t a lte r t h e fa c t t h a t SI IA R P E N
ii a tw o - p la c e v erb .

G ram m ar an d Sem antics: Them atic R o les

Reasons for roles and criteria for roles

T h e re s t o l t h e c h a p tc r d is c u s s e s th e ty p e s o f p a r t ic i p a n t ro le s th a t a r c a p p r o
p ria te fo r s ta te s , p ro c e s se s a n d a c tio n s . W e w ill d e a l w ith v a r io u s q u e s tio n s :
ty p e s o f ro le s, h o w th e ro le s c a n h e ju s tif ie d , h o w m a n y d if f e r e n t ro le s a re
r e e d e d a n d h o w r o le s a r e s ig n a lle d in d if f e r e n t la n g u a g e s . T h e s t a r ti n g p o in t
c f th e d is c u s s io n is E n g lis h , b u t d a t a f r o m o t h e r la n g u a g e s w ill a p p e a r. T h e
e s s e n tia l p o i n t t o r e m e m b e r b e f o r e h a n d is t h a t ro le s h a v e t o b e ju s tif ie d o n
g r a m m a tic a l g r o u n d s . T h e g r o u n d s m a y b e s y n ta c tic o r m o r p h o lo g ic a l o r m a y
re la te to te s ts s u c h a s th e q u e s t io n - a n s w e r p a ir s to b e p r e s e n te d b e lo w : th e
i m p o r t a n t th in g is lo h a v e c r i te r ia . 11 a n a n a ly s t p r o p o s e s a p a r t ic i p a n t ro le
th a t is n o t s ig n a lle d in t h e g r a m m a r o f s o m e la n g u a g e o r s u p p o r te d b y o th e r
te s ts - t h a t is, w h ic h d e riv e s e n tir e ly f r o m th e a n a ly s t's in t u it io n s - w e m u s t b e
s u s p ic io u s . T h e v a lid ity o f i n t u i t i o n s is n o t b e in g d e n ie d , n o r th e fa c t t h a t cert i i n s p e a k e r s o f a g iv e n la n g u a g e w ill a g re e t h a t th e y s h a r e c e r ta in in tu itio n s .
T h e c r u x o i th e m a t t e r is s im p ly th a t i n t u i t i o n s a r c n o t in fa llib le , a r e n o t alw ay s
s h a r e d a n d d o n e e d t o b e ju s ti f ie d b y e v id e n c e t h a t is p u b lic .
T h e r e a r e s t a n d a r d a r g u m e n ts fo r in c lu d in g ro le s a s b a s ic e le m e n ts in
sy n ta c tic th e o ry .
T h e y e n a b le u s t o h a n d le c o n s t r u c t io n s t h a t h a v e th e s a m e c o n s t it u e n t s tr u c tu r e
b u t d i f f e r e n t m e a n in g s .

C o n s id e r (7 ) a n d <8).
(7 ) a . B a r n a b a s lik e d s p a g h e t t i
b

B a r n a b a s a t e t h e la s a g n a

(8) a. S a n rin a m a d e Freya h e r friend,

b. S a b rin a m a d e Freya a meal.

A n tic ip a tin g th e d is c u s s io n th a t fo llo w s, w e n e e d n o t e h e r e o n l y th a t

B a rn a b a s is d o in g s o m e th i n g in th e s i t u a t i o n d e n o te d b y (7 b ) b u t n o t in th e
c n e d e n o te d b y ( 7 a ) : t h a t is, h e p la y s a d if f e r e n t r o le i n th e s i tu a t io n s d e s c rib e d
b y th e tw o s e n te n c e s , a lt h o u g h in b o th B a rn a b a s is th e s u b je c t N P . In (8 a ,b ),
Freya d ir e c tly fo llo w s t h e v e r b in s id e t h e VP. N o n e th e le s s , F re y a p la y s d if fe re n t
ro les. I n t h e s i t u a t i o n d e n o te d b y ( 8 a ) , S a b rin a d o e s s o m e th in g to F re y a ,
w h e re a s in t h a t d e n o t e d b y (8 b ) S a b rin a d o e s s o m e th in g fo r F rey a.
N P s c a n b e c o o r d i n a t e d in F n g l i s h ( a n d o t h e r l a n g u a g e s ) , f o r e x a m p le , P a v e l a n d
R e n o , i h c s n o w a n d ic e , e t c . C e r t a i n r e s t r i c t i o n s a f f e c t c o o r d i n a t i o n , a n d e x a m p le s
t h a t b r e a k t h e r e s t n c t io n s s o u n d o d d . s u c h a s ( 9 a , b )

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(9 ) a . T h e q u ic h e a n d I w e r e c o o k in g .
b . K a t a r in a m a d e h e r m o t h e r a n o m e le t t e a n d t h e k it c h e n a m e s s .

T h e o d d n e s s d e r iv e s f r o m t h e ro le s. In (9 a ), / re f e rs to a n A g e n t, b u t th e
q u ic h e d o e s n o t. In ( 9 b ) , h e r m o th e r r e fe r s t o th e r e c ip ie n t o f th e o m e le tte , b u t
ih e k itc h e n d o e s n o t re fe r to a r e c ip ie n t. C o o r d in a t e d N P s m u s t h a v e t h e s a m e
ro le o r b e a c c o u n te d in s ta n c e s o f z e u g m a .

R o l e s a r e r e le v a n t t o t h e n e u t r a l o r d e r o l p r e p o s it io n a l p h r a s e s , a s in (10).

(1 0 ) a

J u lie t w e n t o n M o n d a y t o N e w c a s t le

b . In S t r a s b o u r g m y b r o t h e r lives.
c . W it h r o s e s h e p la n t e d t h e g a r d e n la s t N o v e m b e r

( lO a -c ) a r e n o t a c c e p ta b le a s e x a m p le s o f n e u tr a l w o r d o rd e r. N o r m a l n e u
tra l w o r d o r d e r i s . . . to N e w c a stle o n M o n d a y ,. . . liv e s in S tr a sb o u rg a n d . . . w ith
roses lu s t N o v e m b e r . In (1 0 a ), a g o a l p h r a s e - to N e w c a stle - n o r m a lly p re c e d e s
a t i m e p h r a s e - o n M o n d a y ; in ( 1 0 b ) a c o m p le m e n t p la c e p h r a s e n o r m a lly
fo llo w s t h e v e r b , a n d

in

( 1 0 c ) a m a t e r i a l ' w i t h

p h r a s e n o r m a l l y fo llo w s

t i e v e r b a n d t h e d ir e c t o b je c t. O f c o u r s e , t h e o r d e r s in ( l O a - c ) a r e p o ss ib le .
T h e y c o u ld o c c u r, b u t n o t a s firs t s e n te n c e s in , say , a c o n v e r s a tio n , b e c a u s e th e y
stre ss t h e p r e p o s itio n a l p h r a s e s a n d m u s t b e u s e d to c o n tr a d ic t a p r e v io u s p a r i
c f s o m e h y p o th e tic a l c o n v e rs a tio n . T h e k e y p o i n t is th a s in c e a ll th e p h ra s e s
a re p r e p o s itio n a l p h r a s e s , th e r e is n o d iffe re n c e in c o n s t it u e n t s t r u c tu r e . W h a t
is d if f e r e n t is t h e ro le a tt a c h in g to th e N P in t h e p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e .

R o l e s a r e r e l e v a n t t o t h e a n a ly s i s o f p r e p o s i t i o n s , c a s e a f f i x e s a n d v e r b a f f ix e s .

B o th B u tt (2 0 0 9 ) a n d P r im u s (2 0 0 9 ) c o m p la in , q u i t e ju s tifia b ly , a b o u t th e
lack o f g o o d c le a r d e f i n it io n s o f s e m a n tic ro le s. T o t h a t c a n b e a d d e d t h e lack
c f c r ite r ia f o r e s ta b lis h in g ro le s. F o r e x a m p le , C u lic o v e r (2 0 0 9 , p. 6 7 ) say s th a t
in T h e d o g g o t sic k t h e N P th e d o g is a T h e m e b e c a u s e it u n d e r g o e s a c h a n g e
c f s ta te . T o th e b e s t o f J M 's k n o w le d g e , n o b o d y h a s e v e r a r g u e d t h e c a s e fo r
th is a n a ly s is. A n d e r s o n (2 0 0 6 , p p . 9 0 -1 ) c ritic iz e s D o w tv ( 1 9 8 9 ) fo r a s s ig n in g
t i e A g e n t ro le to th e d u c k in t h e f o llo w in g e x a m p le s . A s w e w ill se e s h o rtly , th e
d u c k is o n ly a n A g e n t in tw o o f ih e s i tu a t io n s d e n o te d b y t h e e x a m p le s , b u t to
b e fair, in th e li g h t o f D o w ty ( 1991 ), h e m a y h a v e a b a n d o n e d t h a t a n a ly sis.
Ill)

a . T h e d u c k is s w im m in g
b . T h e d u c k is d y in g

G ram m ar an d Sem antics: Them atic R o les

c.

T h e d u c k s a w t h e fr o g

d . T h e d u c k s w a llo w e d t h e fr o g

S in c e ( l i b ) a n s w e r s th e q u e s tio n W h a t is h a p p e n in g to th e d u c k ?, th e d u c k is
a P a tie n t. ( 1 1 a ) a n s w e rs t h e q u e s tio n W h a t is th e th ic k doing? ( - sw im m in g )
a n d ( l i d ) a n s w e r s th e q u e s tio n W h a t d i d th e d u c k d o ? ( - sw a llo w th e fro g ).
In th e s e e x a m p le s , th e d u c k is a n A g e n t. (1 1 c ) a n s w e rs n e it h e r o f th e s e q u e s
tio n s a n d is a s s ig n e d t h e ro le o f F .x p erien cer.
A n d e r s o n (2 0 0 6 , p . 91 ) q u ite c o rr e c tly c ritic iz e s a n a ly s e s o i p a ir s o l se n te n c e s
su c h a s ( 12 ), w h ic h s ta te th a t 'o n a n in tu itiv e level o n e w o u ld a s s u m e th a t , fo r
e x a m p le , M a x is a n A g e n t a n d M a r y a R e c ip ie n t in b o t h ( 12a) a n d (1 2 b ).

( 1 2 ) a . M a x s o l d th e p i a n o to M a r y f o r S 1 .0 0 0 .
b . M a t y !> o u g h t t h e p ia n o f r o m M a x f o r S 1 ,0 0 0 .

A n d e r s o n h e r e ta k e s th e s a m e lin e a s L a n g a c k e r a n d o t h e r p r o p o n e n t s o f
C o g n itiv e L in g u istic s: ( I 2 a , b ) d o n o t m a p d ir e c tly o n to t h e e x tr a lin g u is tic
w o rld b u t o n t o m e n ta l r e p r e s e n ta t io n s o f it. S u c h r e p r e s e n ta t io n s ty p ic a lly
a llo w d if f e r e n t c o n s tr u a ls o f w h a t, in a n a v e t r u th - c o n d i ti o n a l a p p ro a c h ,
n i g h t b e c o n s id e r e d o n e a n d t h e s a m e s itu a tio n . T h u s , in ( 1 2 a ) , M a x is p r e
s e n te d a s t h e A g en t, t h e p ia n o a s t h e P a ti e n t a n d M a r y a s th e G o a l. I n (1 2 b ),
M a ry is p r e s e n te d a s th e A g e n t, t h e p ia n o is a g a in th e P a tie n t a n d M a x is
p r e s e n te d a s t h e S o u rc e f r o m w h ic h t h e p ia n o m o v e s to M ary . In fa c t, g iv e n
th e d y n a m ic s o f e v e n ts o f b u y in g a n d se llin g , it is p e rf e c tly p o s s ib le t h a t in th e
re a l-w o rld s i tu a t io n c o r r e s p o n d in g t o ( 1 2 b ) M a r y is t h e A g e n t, p e r s u a d in g
M a x t o le t t h e p ia n o g o fo r $ 1 ,0 0 0 r a t h e r th a n M a x p e r s u a d in g M a r y t o tak e
th e p i a n o a n d p a y SI,01K).

The im portance of gram m atical criteria

( 12 a ,b ) illu s tr a te a n o t h e r im p o r t a n t p o in t: r o le s m u s t b e e s ta b lis h e d o n th e
b asis o f g r a m m a t ic a l a n d lex ical e v id e n c e s u c h a s t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f c a se s u f
fixes o r a d p o s itio n s , w o r d o r d e r a n d le x ic a l v e rb s . C h a n g e s in g r a m m a r a n d
c h a n g e s o f lex ical v e rb s ig n a l a c h a n g e in m e a n in g , in t h e se n s e o f a c h a n g e in
c o n s tr u a l a n d p o s s ib ly a c h a n g e in p r im itiv e t r u t h c o n d it io n s to o . In (1 2 a ,b ) ,
th e le x ic a l v e r b c h a n g e s f r o m so ld to bought. M a x is g r a m m a t ic a l s u b je c t in
(1 2 a ), b u t M a r y is th e g r a m m a t ic a l s u b je c t in (1 2 b ) ; M a r y i s a n o b liq u e o b je c t
in ( 1 2 a ) , b u t M a x is t h e o b liq u e o b je c t in (1 2 b ).
S u p p o s e w e h a v e t o a n a ly s e t h e s e n te n c e T h e d o c to r le ft th e w a rd . W h a t
ro le is b e s t a s s ig n e d to w ard? S o u rc e m ig h t s e e m a p p r o p r ia te , g iv e n t h a t th e

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d o c to r m o v e s f r o m th e w a r d to a n o t h e r lo c a tio n , b u t th is is n o t s u p p o r te d b y
t i e g r a m m a r . ( T h e ) w a rd is t h e d ir e c t o b je c t o f le ft a n d c a n o n l y b e a P a tie n t.
T h e S o u rc e r o le is ju s tif ie d o n l y w h e r e th e r e a r c p r e p o s iti o n s s u c h a s fr o m
a n d o u t of. I d a s h e d fr o n t th e ro o m a n d I r a n o u t o f th e ro o m . B a d m e th o d o lo g y
h a s le d to t h e a c c u s a tiv e a n d in f in itiv e c o n s t r u c ti o n b e in g t r e a te d a s E x c e p
tio n a l C a s e M a r k in g in C h o m s k y a n g e n e ra tiv e g r a m m a r . I n W e b e lie v e d ih e
d r iv e r to b e in n o c e n t, t h e d r i v e r is a n a ly s e d a s t h e s u b je c t o f a c la u s e th e d riv e r
he in n o c e n t a n d th e w h o le c la u s e is t h e d ir e c t o b jc c t o l b elieved . I n v a rio u s
C h o m s k y a n m o d e ls , t h e s u b je c t o f t h i s c la u s e is a s s ig n e d , e x c e p tio n a lly , a c c u
sativ e c a s e , a lt h o u g h t h a t c a se is o th e r w is e a s s ig n e d to d ir e c t o b je c ts . S u p p o s e
w e a p p ly o u r p r i n c ip l e t h a t g r a m m a t ic a l c r ite r ia a r c o f th e firs t im p o r t a n c e
w h e n w e a r e a s s ig n in g p a r t ic i p a n t ro le s. C a n w e p r o v id e a p la u s ib le s e m a n tic
a n aly sis? O n e p o s s ib ility is t h a t in t h i s c o n s t r u c ti o n (se e t h e d is c u s s io n o f c o n
s t r u c tio n s a n d c o n s t r u c ti o n m e a n i n g o n p p . 1 0 2 - 1 1 7 ) b elieve a c q u ir e s th e
c o n s tr u c tio n 's c a u s a tiv e m e a n in g : 'b y o u r b e lie l w e p u t th e d r i v e r i n t o th e cla ss
o f i n n o c e n t p e o p le .
T h e e x a m p le s u s e d b y I-a k o ff ( 1 9 6 8 ) c a n b e tr e a te d in t h e s a m e f a s h io n . T h e
o rig in a ls h a d S e y m o u r c u ttin g s a la m i w ith a k n if e , b u t a r c b r o u g h t u p to d a te

in (1 3 ).

(1 3 ) d

S u e c a r v e d th e t u r k e y w i t h th e e le c t r ic k n ife ,

b . S u e u s e d th e e le c t r ic k n if e to c a r v e th e tu rk e y .

B e c a u se e le c tric k n ife d e n o te s a k in d o f to o l, l a k o f f a s s u m e d t h a t in b o th
(1 3 a) a n d ( 1 3 b ) electric k n ife h a s t h e I n s t r u m e n t ro le . ( I t w ill b e p r o p o s e d
b elo w , b u t n o t a r g u e d , th a t th e in s tr u m e n t ro le is a s u b - t y p e o f a m o r e g e n e ra l
c o m ita tiv e ro le .) O n l y ( 13a) o ff e rs s y n ta c tic s u p p o r t fo r th e I n s tr u m e n t r o le electric k n ife is a n o b li q u e o b je c t p r e c e d e d b y w ith . In ( 13 b ) , e lectric k n ife is th e
d ir e c t o b je c t o f u s e d a n d t h e s e n te n c e h a s a p a ss iv e v e r s io n T h e electric k n ife
y/as u s e d b y S u e to c a rv e th e tu rk e y . ( 1 3 a ) c e r ta in ly im p lie s ( 1 3 b ) , a n d v ic e v e rsa , b u t in < 13 b ) g r a m m a t ic a l e v id e n c e s h o w s t h a t e lectric k n ife h a s t h e ro le
c.f P a tie n t. E n ta i lm e n ts c a n h o l d b e tw e e n s e n te n c e s w i t h o u t t h e N P s b e in g
a s s ig n e d t h e s a m e r o le in e a c h s e n te n c e . A n tic i p a ti n g th e d is c u s s io n b e lo w .
T h e g a rd e n e r p la n te d th e g a r d e n w it h roses e n ta ils T h e g a rd e n e r p la n te d roses in
th e g a rd e n b u t roses a n d g a rd e n h a v e d il le r e n t ro les.
T h e e x a m p le s in (1 4 ) b e a r in a p a r t ic u l a r ly in te r e s tin g w a y o n th e t h e s ta tu s
c f p a r t ic i p a n t r o le s v is - -v is t h e e x tr a - lin g u is tic w o r ld a n d r e in f o r c e th e a d v ic e
to la k e s y n ta x a n d m o r p h o lo g y s e rio u s ly . T h e e x a m p le s in (1 4 ) a r c v e ry w ell
know n.

G ram m ar an d Sem antics: Them atic R o les

(1 4 ) a .

T h e g a r d e n e r p la n t e d r o s e - b u s h e s in t h e g a r d e n ,

b . T h e g a r d e n e r p la n t e d t h e g a r d e n w i t h r o s e - b u s h e s .

( 1 4 a ,b ) a r c n o t id e n tic a l i n m e a n in g . II w c d c s c r ib c th e c o n d itio n s in w h ic h
o n e o r th e o t h e r is tr u e , it e m e r g e s th a t ( 14 b ) is t r u e i f t h e g a r d e n e r fille d th e
g a rd e n w ith ro s e -b u s h e s , w h e re a s < 14a) le a v e s it o p e n w h e th e r t h e ro s e -b u s h e s
a r e all o v e r th e g a r d e n o r o n ly in o n e p a r t o f it. (1 4 b ) e n ta ils ( 1 4 a ) , b u t (1 4 a)
c o e s n o t e n ta il ( 1 4 b ) . T h a t is, t h e s e m a n tic d iffe re n c e s a r e s ig n ific a n t.
A c c o m p a n y in g t h e s e m a n tic d iite r e n c e s a r e d if fe re n c e s in sy n ta x .

T h e w o r d o r d e r is d if f e r e n t : p l a n t e d - r o s e s - g a r d e n v e r s u s p l a n t e d - g a r d e n - r o s e s .
I n < 1 4 a ) , b u t n o t ( M b ) , g a r d e n i s p r e c e d e d b y a p r e p o s i t i o n , t h a t is , is a n o b li q u e
o b j e c t ; r o s e s is p r e c e d e d b y a p r e p o s i t i o n i n ( 1 4 b ) b u t n o t i n ( 1 4 a ) .
T h e p r e p o s i t i o n in ( 1 4 a ) is i n . b u t in ( 1 4 b ) it i s w it h .

R o s e s is t h e d i r e c t o b j e c t o l p l a n t e d in ( 1 4 a ) -

w i t n e s s t h e p a s s iv e R o s e s w e r e

p l a n t e d i n t h e g a r d e n b y t h e g a r d e n e r . In ( 1 4 b ) , i t is g a r d e n t h a t is t h e d i r e c t o b j e c t ,
w i t n e s s t h e p a s s i v e T h e g a r d e n w a s p l a n t e d w i t h r o s e s b y t h e g a r d e n e r . B e in g
d i r e c t o b j e c t is im p o r t a n t b e c a u s e t h e r e f e r e n t s o f d i r e c t o b | e c t N P s a r e t a k e n t o b e
c o m p le t e ly a f f e c t e d b y t h e a c t i o n o r p r o c e s s , u n l e s s t h a t in t e r p r e t a t i o n i s e x c lu d e d ,
sa y b y th e a sp e c t o f th e v e rb

T h e g a r d e n e r w a s p la n t in g t h e g a r d e n w ith ro s e s

le a v e s it o p e n w h e t h e r t h e p l a n t i n g w a s c o m p l e t e l y e a r n e d o u t ; a c o n t in u a t io n
s u c h a s It t o o k h im t w o d a y s t o d o it s ig n a ls c o m p le t io n , b u t h e d i d n 't h a v e e n o u g h
r o s e b u s h e s s ig n a ls n o n - c o m p le t io n

T h e u s e o f a n a d v e r b s u c h a s p a r t ly a ls o s ig

n a ls n o n - c o m p l e t i o n , a s i n T h e g a r d e n e r p a r t l y p l a n t e d t h e g a r d e n w i t h r o s e s .

( 1 4 b ) p r e s e n ts th e g a r d e n a s b e in g d ir e c tly o p e r a t e d o n b y th e g a rd e n e r : it
r.o w h a s t h e P a tie n t ro le . W h a t ro le g o e s to rose h u sh e s? A g a in w ith o u t a r g u in g
fa r th e a n a ly s is ( b u t se e S c h le s in g e r, 1979) w e w ill tr e a t w ith a s s ig n a llin g a
g e n e ra l C o m ila tiv c r o le , b a s e d o n th e u n d e r ly in g n o ti o n o f s a m e p la c e . T h e
ro le s t r u c tu r e o f ( 1 4 b ) h a s th e g e n e ra l in t e r p r e ta ti o n th a t th e g a r d e n e r o p e r
a te s o n t h e g a rd e n , c a u s in g it to b e in t h e s a m e p la c e a s ro s e s . I t m ig h t b e
o b je c te d t h a t t h e E n g lis h s e n te n c e ' T h e g a r d e n is w ith ro se h u sh e s is u n a c c e p t
a b le ( th o u g h its e q u iv a le n t in o t h e r la n g u a g e s is n o t) , b u t t h e N P th e g a rd en
w ith ro se b u sh es is p e r le c tly a c c e p ta b le : c l. 'Ih e g a r d e n w ith rose b u sh e s is m o re
a ttra c tiv e th a n th e g a r d e n w ith h ea th ers.

Criteria for situation type and role

T h re e s im p le te s ts d is tin g u is h a c tio n s a n d p ro c e s s e s f r o m s ta te s a n d th e n
A g e n ts l r o m P a tie n ts . W h a t h a p p e n ed * e n a b le s u s to s o r t o u t a c ti o n s a n d
p ro c e s s e s f r o m s ta te s , s in c e o n ly s e n te n c e s d e s c r ib in g a c tio n s o r p ro c e s se s

209

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

c a n b e a n s w e r s to th e q u e s tio n W h a t h a p p e n e d ? O n c e a n e x a m p le is e s ta b
lish ed a s d e s c r ib in g a n a c tio n , t h e q u e s tio n s in (1 5 ) a n d (1 6 ) p ic k o u t a g e n t
a n d p a tie n t.
(1 5 )

W h a t d id X d o ?

(1 6 )

W h at hap p e n e d to X ?

T h u s , W h a t d id Jacob d o ? c a n b e a p p r o p r ia t e ly a n s w e re d b y H e s h u t th e safe
c t H e e - m a ile d G ra n d p a . W h a t h a p p e n e d to Jacob? c a n b e a p p r o p r ia te ly
a n s w e re d b y H e fe ll o ff th e la d d e r o r H e w a s fo u le d b y th e d efen d er.
O th e r te s ts f o r A g e n t a r e a v a ila b le in lin g lis h . O n e te s t is w h e th e r a s e n te n c e
can b e in c o r p o r a t e d in to t h e p s e u d o - c le f t c o n s t r u c ti o n W h a t X d id w a s . .
W h a t X is d o in g i s . . . a n d s o o n . F o r e x a m p le , Jacob s h u t th e sa fe c a n b e in c o r
p o r a te d in th e c o n s t r u c ti o n to y ie ld (1 7 ).
( 1 7 ) W h a t J a c o b d i d w a s s h u t t h e s a fe .

O t h e r te s ts , m u c h w e a k e r, a r e w h e th e r t h e v e r b in a g iv e n s e n te n c e c a n b e
p u t in to t h e p ro g r e s s iv e a n d w h e th e r it c a n b e p u t in to t h e im p e ra tiv e . Jacob
s h u t th e safe m e e ts b o t h o f th e s e c r ite r ia , a s s h o w n in <1 8 ) a n d (1 9 ).
( 1 8 ) J a c o b w a s s h u t t in g t h e s a fe .

( I S ) S h u t th e sa fe !

T h e p ro g re s s iv e te s t is w e a k e r b e c a u s e it is m e t b y v e r b s t h a t d o n o t h a v e an
A g e n t ro le : T h e p a ti e n t is su ffe rin g a lo t o f p a in , H e's n o t u n d e r s ta n d in g a single
th in g y o u s a y a n d You w ill s o o n b e o w n in g a ll th e la n d r o u n d h e re ( f r o m a
T V p la y ). W e k n o w t h a t th e s e v e r b s d o n o t h a v e a n A g e n t r o le b e c a u s e th e
s e n te n c e s a r e n o t a p p r o p r ia t e a n s w e rs to t h e test q u e s t io n : T h e p a ti e n t is s u f
fe r in g a lo t o f p a in is b iz a r re a s a n a n s w e r to W h a t is t h e p a tie n t d o in g? ( Cf . H e's
a n n o y in g th e nurses, H e 's c o m p la in in g a b o u t th e fo o d , e tc .)
A fin a l p a ir o f te s ts a r e w h e th e r a s e n te n c e c a n b e c o n ti n u e d b e a t it
a n d w h e th e r a d v e r b s s u c h a s e n th u s ia s tic a lly a n d m a s te r fu lly c a n b e in s e r te d
i n to a s e n te n c e . A g a in , Jacob e -m a ile d G ra n d p a m e e ts th e te s ts, a s s h o w n in
( 2 0 ) a n d ( 2 1 ).
( 2 0 ) J a c o b w a s e - m a il in g G r a n d p a w h e n I le f t a n d w a s s till a t i l w h e n I g o l b a c k

( 2 1 ) J a c o b w a s e n t h u s ia s t ic a lly e - m a ilin g G r a n d p a

G r a m m a r a n d S e m a n tic s : T h e m a t ic R o le s

R e tu r n in g to t h e v e r b s t h a t d o n o t h a v e a n A g e n t r o le , w e se e t h a t th e test
q u e s tio n W h a t is h a p p e n in g o r W h a t w ill h e h a p p e n in g ? s e p a r a te s su ffe rin g
fro m o w n in g . D e s p ite its o c c u r r e n c e in th e p ro g re s s iv e , o w n d e n o te s a sta te .
S u ffer d e n o te s a p ro c e s s b u t n o t a n a c tio n , a s a c tio n s re q u ire A g e n ts. I f a n y th in g ,
th e p a tie n t in t h e a b o v e e x a m p le h a s t h e ro le o t P a tie n t: H e 's s u ffe rin g a lo t o f
p a in is a n a p p r o p r ia t e a n s w e r to t h e q u e s t io n W h a t is h a p p e n in g to th e p a tie n t?
O th e r v e r b s d e n o t i n g p ro c e s s e s a r e fr e e z e ( T h e lo ch is fr e e z in g o ver), d ie {T h e
p a tie n t is d y in g ) a n d m e lt ( T h e ic e is m e ltin g ). F in a lly , n o t a ll o n e - p la c e v e rb s
t i k e a P a tie n t N P . T h e q u e s tio n W h a t is X d o in g ? c a n b e a n s w e re d b y , fo r e x a m
p le, X is s w im m in g , X is w a lk in g in th e p a r k a n d X is w o rkin g .

Roles and role players

A n im p o r t a n t d is ti n c ti o n s e p a r a te s ro le s a n d ro le p la y e rs . So fa r w e h av e
c e m o n s tr a te d th e c r ite r ia fo r tr e a ti n g n o u n s a s d e n o ti n g a g e n ts o r p a tie n ts .
T h e g r a m m a r o l a n y la n g u a g e p e r m i t s o n ly v e r y g e n e ra l c a te g o rie s to b e
e s ta b lis h e d , b u t b r o a d r o le s o n th e i r o w n a r e n o t s u f fic ie n t to h a n d le a ll th e
c is ti n c ti o n s o f m e a n i n g t h a t m u s t b e d e s c r ib e d . T h e s e m a n tic in t e r p r e ta ti o n
c i a p a r t ic u l a r c la u s e d o e s n o t d e p e n d ju s t o n g e n e r a l p a r t ic i p a n t ro le s; in io rn a t i o n in th e lex ical e n t r i e s fo r in d iv id u a l n o u n s a ls o c o n tr ib u te s .
T h e im p o r t a n c e o f th e d is ti n c ti o n b e tw e e n ro le s a n d r o le p la y e rs is illu s
tr a te d b y th e p r o p o s a l to r e c o g n iz e a r o le o f C a u s e r in a d d it io n to A g e n t.
( 2 2 ) T h e S u n a t t r a c t s t h e p la n e t s

W h y c a ll S u n a C a u s e r in (2 2 )? T h e ju s tif ic a tio n is t h a t th e S u n is n o t
a n im a te , f a r less h u m a n , a n d c a n n o t b e s e e n a s a n id e a l A g e n t. I t is a ls o tr u e
th a t (2 2 ) e n jo y s th e s a m e s y n ta c tic p riv ile g e s a s s e n te n c e s s u c h a s T h e new
r u m a g e r a ttr a c te d m o r e clients. B o th a n s w e r t h e q u e s t io n W h a t d o e s X d o ? a n d
b o t h o c c u r in t h e p s e u d o - c le f t c o n s t r u c ti o n , a s in (2 3 ) a n d (2 4 ).
( 2 3 ) a . W h a t d o e s t h e S u n d o ? It a t t r a c t s t h e p la n e t s .
b

W h a t d o e s t h e n e w m a n a g e r d o ? H e a t tr a c ts / is a t t r a c t in g m o r e c lie n t s

( 2 4 ) a . W h a t t h e S u n d o e s is a t t r a c t t h e p la n e t s .
b

W h a t t h e n e w m a n a g e ' d o e s is a t t r a c t m o r e c lie n t s .

B o th s e n te n c e s c a n b e a ls o b e p u t in to t h e p a ssiv e . H o w e v e r, t h e S u n is
d e a r l y n o t a s g o o d a n A g e n t a s th e m a n a g e r o l a h o te l o r s to r e a n d th is
is re fle c te d in t h e s y n ta x . T h e c o n s t r u c ti o n b e a t i t in d ic a te s t h e p re s e n c e o f

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a g o o d A g e n t, a s i n T h e m a n a g e r a ttr a c te d c ro w d s o f n e w c lie n ts la s t w ee k a n d is
still a t i t th is w eek. In c o n tr a s t, T h e S u n h a s a ttr a c te d th e p la n e ts f o r m illio n s
c f yea rs a n d is still a t it is d e c id c d ly o d d . ( T h e p r e c e d in g e x a m p le is o n ly
p o s s ib le i f t h e s p e a k e r o r w r it e r p r e s e n ts th e S u n a s a n im a te : th a t is, i f fig u ra t v e la n g u a g e is b e in g u s e d .) G o o d A g e n ts a r e s ig n a lle d b y a d v e r b s s u c h as
e n th u sia stic a lly a n d m a ste r fu lly , w h ic h c a n b e in s e r te d in to (2 3 b ) a n d (2 4 b )
fcut n o t i n t o ( 2 3 a ) o r (2 4 a ).

P ro to typ e roles
C ru s e ( 1 9 7 3 ), in a v e r y e a r ly p a p e r t h a t a n tic ip a te s D o w ty s a p p r o a c h th o u g h
r o t t h e la tte r s re lia n c e o n c n ta i lm e n ts (se e b e lo w ) , a rg u e s e s s e n tia lly t h a t it
is u se fu l t o w o rk w i t h th e c o n c e p t o f p r o ty p ic a l A g e n t a n d v a r io u s ty p e s o f
r.o n - p r o to tv p ic a l A g e n ts. H e tr e a ts t h e A g e n t r o le a s
c o m p o s e d o f f o u r s t r a n d s : v o litiv e , e ffe c tiv e , in itia tiv e a n d a g e n tiv e p ro p e r .

T h e v o l it iv e s t r a n d h a s to d o w i t h a n e n t i t y a c h i e v i n g s o m e t h i n g b y e x e r t i n g it s
w ill p o w e r . C o n s i d e r t h e e x a m p l e s i n ( 2 5 ) .
(2 5 > a . C a p t a i n O a t e s d ie d i n o r d e r to s a v e h i s c o m r a d e s ,
b . T h e f u g it iv e la y m o t io n le s s i n o r d e r to a v o id d is c o v e ry .

A lth o u g h th e v e r b s in (2 5 ) d o n o t d e n o t e a c tio n s . C a p ta in O a te s a n d th e
fj g it iv e e x e rc is e th e i r w illp o w e r a n d c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s A g e n ts, a lb e it w eak
A g en ts. V e rb s s u c h a s d ie a n d lie c a n b e p u t in to t h e im p e r a tiv e , w h ic h is n o t a
test fo r a c tio n s b u t is a te s t fo r v o litio n : cf. D ie a h e ro s d e a th f o r S p a r ta ! a n d L ie
still o r th e y w ill see y o u ! A n a d v e r b s u c h a s a c c id e n ta lly sig n a ls t h a t a n a c ti o n is
r o t v o lu n ta ry , b u t it c a n o c c u r in im p e r a tiv e s e n te n c e s a n d th e la tte r c a n b e
g iv e n a n in t e r p r e ta ti o n . T h u s , K ic k th e d e fe n d e r a c c id e n ta lly c a n b e ta k e n a s a n
in s tr u c t io n to k ic k th e d e f e n d e r b u t to m a k e it lo o k a c c id e n ta l.

T h e s e c o n d s t r a n d is t h e e f f e c t iv e o n e . s o - c a l l e d b e c a u s e it r e la t e s t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n
o f a n e f f e c t . T h i s s t r a n d is e x e m p li f ie d b y ( 2 6 ) .
(2 6 ) a

I h i s c o lu m n s u p p o r t s t h e w e ig h t o f th e p e d im e n t

b . T h e f a l li n g tre e c r u s h e d t h e c a r c o m p le t e ly

T h e c o lu m n p r o d u c e s a n e lte c t s im p ly b y b e in g in a c e r ta in p o s itio n . T h e
tre e c r u s h e d t h e c a r a s a r e s u lt o f m o v e m e n t tr a n s m i tt e d to it, f o r e x a m p le , b y
t i e w in d . N o v o litio n is in v o lv e d , b u t n o te t h a t b o t h ( 2 6 a ) a n d ( 2 6 b ) c a n o c c u r

G ram m ar an d Sem antics: Them atic R o les

i:i t h e p s e u d o - c le ft c o n s t r u c ti o n : W h a t th e c o lu m n does is su p p o r t th e w e ig h t o f
th e p e d im e n t a n d W h a t th e fa llin g tree d id w a s cru sh th e ca r c o m p le te ly . T h e y
c a n b e u s e d a s g o o d a n s w e r s lo t h e q u e s t io n s W h a t d o e s th e c o lu m n do? a n d
W h a t d id th e fa llin g tree do?

T h e t h ir d s t r a n d is t h e in it ia t iv e o n e . s o - c a l l e d b e c a u s e t h e p e i s o n d e n o t e d b y t h e
r e le v a n t n o u n in it ia t e s a n a c t i o n , s a y , b y g i v i n g a c o m m a n d b u t w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r ily
d o in g a n y t h in g e ls e
m a rch e d

I h i s s t r a n d is e x e m p li f ie d b y s e n t e n c e s s u c h a s

th e

g u a rd

the prisoners round th e y a r d .

T h e f o u r t h a n d f in a l s t r a n d is t h e a g e n t i v e o n e p r o p e r . It r e la t e s t o s e n t e n c e s
d e s c r ib i n g s it u a t i o n s in w h i c h a n o b j e c t is p r e s e n t e d a s u s i n g it s o w n e n e r g y , t h e o b je c t
b e in g a li v in g c r e a t u r e , a m a c h i n e o r a n a t u r a l f o r c e . E x a m p le s a r e g iv e n i n ( 2 7 ) .

( 2 7 ) a . T h e c o m p u t e r is p la y in g s ix s im u lt a n e o u s g a m e s o f t h r e e - d im e n s io n a l
ch ess
b . T h e m a c h i n e is c r u s h in g th e w r e c k e d c a r
c

T h e f lo o d s w e p t a w a y w h o le v illa g e s

P r o to ty p ic a l A g e n ts a r e th o s e t h a t u s e th e i r o w n e n e r g y a n d v o litio n to
a c h ie v e a n e ffe c t o r in itia te a n a c tio n . T h is m e a n s th a t , u n t i l th e fifth g e n e r a
tio n o f J a p a n e s e ro b o ts , t h e b e s t a g e n ts w ill b e a n i m a t e c r e a tu r e s , w ith h u m a n s
b e in g s e e n in t u r n a s t h e b e s t a g e n ts w ith in t h a t s u b -c la s s . T o s u m u p : o n
g r a m m a tic a l ( a n d o t h e r ) g r o u n d s a n A g e n t ro le is e s ta b lis h e d . V a rio u s c rite r ia
p ic k o u t a n im a te c r e a tu r e s (e s p e c ia lly h u m a n b e in g s ) a s t h e b e s t p r o to ty p ic a l
a g e n ts , b u t t h e g r a m m a r o f E n g lis h o b lig e s u s to re c o g n iz e t h a t o t h e r ty p e s o f
e n ti ty c a n b e p r e s e n te d a s A g e n ts, a lb e it w e a k e r. H u m a n s , a n im a ls , m a c h in e s
a n d n a tu r a l fo rc e s a r e a ll ty p e s o f p la y e r t h a t c a n ta k e o n th e a g e n t role.

P R O TO -A G EN T A N D P R O TO -PA TIEN T
D o w ty (1 9 9 1 ) su g g e s ts t h a t w e c a n a b a n d o n th e tr a d it io n a l s e t o f d is c r e te
ro les s u c h a s a g e n t, p a t i e n t a n d s o u r c e , r e p la c in g th e m w ith w h a t h e c a lls tw o
c lu s te r c o n c e p ts ,

pro to

a g en t

and

c f v e rb a l e n ta i lm e n ts . T h e s e t fo r
K 'i i e

n t

pro to

pro to

p a t ie n t

a g en t

e a c h c h a r a c te r iz e d b y a set

is in (2 8 ) a n d t h e s e t f o r

is in (2 9 ).

(2 8 ) a
b

V o lit io n a l in v o lv e m e n t in t h e e v e n t o r s ta te
S e n t ie n c e (a n d / o r p e r c e p t io n )
(l o h n s e e s / t e a r s M a ry , is d i s a p p o i n t e d a t X , k n o w s / b e lie v e s X ]

C.

C a u s in g a n e v e n t o r c h a n g e o f s t a t e i n a n o t h e r p a r t ic ip a n t

pro to

21 3

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

d . M o v e m e n t r e la tiv e to th e p o s it io n o f a n o t h e r p a r t ic ip a n t
e . E x is t s in d e p e n d e n t ly o f th e e v e n t n a m e d b y t h e v e r b

(2 9 > a . U n d e r g o e s c h a n g e o f s ta te
b . In c r e m e n t a l t h e m e ( f illin g a g la s s , c r o s s i n g a ro a d )
c . C a u s a l ly a f f e c t e d b y a n o t h e r p a r t ic ip a n t
d . S t a t io n a r y r e la t iv e t o m o v e m e n t o f a n o t h e r p a r t ic ip a n t
e . D o e s n o t e x is t in d e p e n d e n t ly o f t h e e v e n t , o r n o t all

A s D o w ty say s, t h e a b o v e p r o p e r tie s a r c v e ry m u c h lik e t h e p r o p e r tie s set

u p b y K e e n a n ( 1 9 7 6 ) in h is a c c o u n t o f g r a m m a t ic a l s u b je c t (s e e p . 1 9 9 ), In te r
estin g ly , t h e p r o p e r tie s f o r

pro to

a c .e n t

p a r t ic u l a r ly ( 2 8 a - c ) , w e r e e a rlie r p r o

p o s e d b y C r u s e a s s o m e o f th e m a jo r s t r a n d s in h is g e n e ra l c o n c e p t o f A g e n t.
I: is s a tis f y in g to se e tw o d if f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s p r o d u c i n g v e ry s im ila r re s u lts .
(In la c t, it is th r e e a p p r o a c h e s th a t p r o d u c e s im ila r re s u lts b e c a u s e F o le y a n d
V an V a lin (1 9 8 4 ) d e v e lo p e d t h e c o n c e p t o f m a c r o - r o le s , e s s e n tia lly g e n e ra l
c o n c e p ts o f A g e n t a n d P a tie n t.)
O n e o f D o w ty s g o a ls is p r o b a b ly n o t a c h ie v a b le , g e ttin g r i d o f th e tr a d i
tio n a l lis ts o f d is c r e te ro le s C o n s tr u c ti o n s c o m e b a c k in to p la y a t th is p o in t.
K e ep in g in m i n d t h e d is c u s s io n o f c r ite r ia l o r e s ta b lis h in g ro le s, in p a r tic u la r
A n d e r s o n s c r i ti q u e o f a n a ly s e s t h a t ig n o r e g r a m m a tic a l p r o p e r tie s , a n d th e
c o n c e p t o f c o n s t r u a l, w e c a n tr e a t D o w ty s id e a a s a p p ly in g t o m a jo r c o n s t r u c
tio n s in v o lv in g A g e n ts a n d P a tie n ts a n d a s a llo w in g f o r c h a n g e s o f c o n s tr u a l
le a d in g t o c h a n g e s o f c o n s t r u c ti o n , o r c h a n g e s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n le a d in g to
c h a n g e s o f c o n s t r u a l. A n e x a m p le is t h e h is to r ic a l c h a n g e f r o m H im like
fe a r s to H e likes pea rs. I n th e e a r lie r c o n s t r u c ti o n , h im is n o t a n A g e n t b u t a n
K x p e rie n c e r a n d t h e g r a m m a tic a l s u b je c t is pears. In th e la te r c o n s t r u c ti o n , he
is t h e g r a m m a tic a l s u b je c t a n d is p r o b a b ly b e s t tr e a te d a s a v e ry w e a k A g e n t.
T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s c h a n g e d f u r th e r to a llo w th e P ro g re s s iv e , a s W e re really
lik in g i l here, w h ic h p r e s e n ts th e re le r e n ts o f w e a s p la y in g a n a c tiv e p a r t in th e
s itu a tio n , say, b y ta k in g p a r t in a ll t h e a c tiv itie s g o in g o n . T h e M a c d o n a ld 's
slo g a n I 'm lik in g i l c o n ju r e s u p a p ic t u r e o f s o m e o n e m u n c h i n g t h e i r b u rg e r s
a n d e x p re s s in g e n jo y m e n t, n o t j u s t d o w n in g th e f o o d a s q u ic k ly a s p o s s ib le
a n d le a v in g .
A th i r d g o a l o t D o w ty s p a p e r is t o d e te r m i n e , l o r a c la u s e w ith a v e r b a n d
t.vo a r g u m e n ts , w h ic h a r g u m e n t b e c o m e s t h e g r a m m a tic a l s u b je c t a n d w h ic h
b e c o m e s t h e d ir e c t o b je c t. H is p r o p o s a l is t h a t t h e a r g u m e n t fo r w h ic h th e
p re d ic a te e n ta ils th e g r e a te s t n u m b e r o t P ro to -A g e n t p r o p e r tie s w ill b e lcx icalie d a s th e s u b je c t o f th e p re d ic a te ; t h e a r g u m e n t h a v in g th e g re a te s t n u m b e r o f

G ram m ar an d Sem antics: Them atic R o les

P ro to - P a tie n t e n ta ilin e n ts w ill b e le x ic a liz e d a s t h e d ir e c t o b je c t. T h is a p p r o a c h
lo o k s v e ry m u c h lik e t h e p r e c u r s o r o f a n o p tim a lity th e o r y tr e a tm e n t. (See
c e I lo o p , 2 0 0 9 . )
W h a t o t h e r ro le s a r e n e e d e d a n d ju s tif ie d b y g r a m m a tic a l p a t t e r n s ( a n d
e n ta ilm e n ts ) ? A g e n e ra l ro le o t C o m ita tiv e , e n c o m p a s s in g I n s tr u m e n t a n d
M a n n e r . [See S c h le s in g e r (1 9 7 9 ) , o n e o f t h e fe w a c c o u n t s o f s e m a n tic ro le s
th a t a r e b a s e d o n e x p e r im e n ta l e v id e n c e a s w ell a s g r a m m a tic a l p a tte r n s .]
A g e n e r a l r o le o l S o u rc e o r A b la tiv e , e n c o m p a s s in g R e a s o n a n d C a u s e as
w ell a s p h y s ic a l s t a r ti n g p o in t s o f jo u r n e y s . A g e n e r a l ro le o f G o a l o r A ll tive,
e n c o m p a s s in g t h e p h y s ic a l e n d p o in t s o f jo u r n e y s a n d r e c ip ie n ts , w h e th e r
c f c o n c r e te e n ti ti e s s u c h a s m o n e y o r b o o k s o r o f a b s t r a c t e n titie s s u c h
a s a d v ic e a n d id e a s. T h e r e is n o s p a c e to d is c u s s h e r e w h e th e r th e d iffe re n c e
b e tw e e n R e c ip ie n ts a n d P a ti e n ts c a n b e h a n d le d in te r m s o t m o v e m e n t
in to t h e s p a c e a r o u n d a p e r s o n a s o p p o s e d to m o v e m e n t in to t h a t sp a c e
a n d i n t o c o n ta c t w ith a p e r s o n (se e A n d e r s o n , 2 0 0 6 a n d la c k e n d o il, 1983,
p p . 1 8 8 -2 1 1 ).

Roles across languages

O n e e s s e n tia l p r o p e r ty , p e r h a p s th e e s s e n tia l p r o p e r ty , o f t h e a b o v e s e t o f ro le s
is t h a t t h e y a r e b a s e d o n g r a m m a tic a l p a tt e r n s . W e c lo s e t h i s d is c u s s io n o f
s e m a n ti c /p a r t ic i p a n t ro le s b y lo o k in g a t tw o m o r e g r a m m a tic a l p a tt e r n s . O n e
d e m o n s tr a t e s t h a t e v e n p a y in g a t t e n t i o n to s y n ta x a n d m o r p h o s y n ta x w e r u n
in to c o m p le x itie s in th e a s s ig n m e n t o l r o le s a n d t h e o t h e r is a g o o d e x a m p le o f
h o w s e n te n c e s in o n e la n g u a g e a n d th e i r tr a n s la t io n s in a n o t h e r la n g u a g e m a y
b e b a s e d o n d if f e r e n t c o n s tr u a ls .
T h e firs t p a t t e r n re la te s to th e p u ta tiv e d i s ti n c ti o n b e tw e e n A g e n ts a n d
C a u s e r s ( a n d b e tw e e n A g e n ts a n d N a tu r a l F o rc e s, s u c h a s w a te r, w in d , riv e rs,
fro st, r a i n a n d s o o n ) . E a rlie r w e u s e d th e e x a m p le s T h e m a n a g e r a ttr a c ts m o re
cu sto m ers a n d T h e S i m a ttr a c ts th e p la n e ts . T h e tw o c o m b i n a ti o n s o f v e rb
a n d N P s s h a r e v a r io u s g r a m m a t ic a l fe a tu re s in E n g lis h , b u t s u p p o s e a l a n
g u a g e t u r n e d u p in w h ic h th e i r e q u iv a le n t c la u s e s h a d d if f e r e n t s y n ta x , p o s s i
b ly w ith S u n r e q u i r in g a d if f e r e n t p r e p o s iti o n , c a se affix o r w o r d - o r d e r fro m
m a n a g er. T h a t la n g u a g e w o u ld b e a n a ly s e d a s h a v in g a n a r r o w e r A g e n t ro le
th a n E n g lis h , a n d it w o u ld n o t b e p o s s ib le to ta lk o f T h e S u n b e in g p re s e n te d
a s A gent.
R u ssia n d o e s h a v e a sp e c ia l c o n s t r u c ti o n lo r s e n te n c e s d e s c r ib in g th e
o p e r a t io n o f n a tu r a l fo rc e s. C o m p a r e (3 0 ) a n d (3 1 ).

21 5

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

( 3 0 ) S o ld a t y
S o ld ie r s -n o m m a t iv e

z a t o p t a li

c a r e v ic u .

cru sh e d

m a iz e - a c c u s a t iv e - s g

'T h e s o ld ie r s t r a m p le d d o w n t h e m a iz e '

(3 1 ) G r a d o m
H a il- in s t r u m e n t a l

z a d a v ilo

c a r e v ic u .

cru sh e d

m a < z e -a t c u s a t iv e - s g

'T h e h a il f la t t e n e d t h e m a iz e '

In (3 0 ), z a d a v ili is t h i r d - p e r s o n p lu r a l a n d a g re e s in n u m b e r w ith so ld a ty.

S o ld a ty is n o m i n a ti v e p lu r a l, n o m in a tiv e b e in g tr a d it io n a l ly re g a r d e d as
n e c a se o f th e s u b je c t n o u n ; i t a g re e s in n u m b e r w i t h z a d a v ili, is c le a rly th e
s u b je c t o f th e s e n te n c e a n d d e n o te s A g e n ts. In (3 1 ), g r a d o m is in t h e in s tr u
m e n ta l c a se , w h ic h is t h e c a s e u s e d fo r t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l ro le . I f Iv a n d i d s o m e
th in g w ith a h a m m e r , t h e i n s tr u m e n ta l c a se f o r m m o lo to m w ith a h a m m e r
is u s e d . Z a d a v ilo is th i r d - p e r s o n s in g u la r , b u t is n e u t e r g e n d e r a n d d o e s
a g re e in g e n d e r w ith g r a d o m . It is d if fic u lt t o re c o g n iz e a

not

s u b je c t in (31 ) , b u t

il is n o t d if f ic u lt to a s s ig n a ro le to g r a d o m . F o llo w in g th e g r a m m a tic a l
p a tt e r n , w e d o n o t in v e n t a ro le o f C a u s e r o r N a tu r a l F o rc e . R a th e r w e say th a t
N a tu r a l F o rc e s a r e c o n s t r u e d a s I n s tr u m e n ts a n d g r a d o m is a n I n s tr u m e n t.
(S c h le sin g e r w o u ld s a y t h a t it is a s u b - t y p e o f C o m ita tiv e .)
In c o n n e c tio n w ith th e a b o v e d is c u s s io n o f D o w ty s

pro to

a g en ts

it is

w o rth w h ile p o in t in g o u t th a t s p e a k e r s o t R u ssia n c a n u s e th e c o n s tr u c tio n

i:i (3 0 ) f o r d e s c r ib in g h a il f la tte n in g m a iz e - G ra d z a d a v i l ca revicu . T h e v e rb
z a d a v il a g re e s in n u m b e r a n d g e n d e r w ith g ra d , a n d g r a d is in th e n o m in a tiv e
case. In t h i s c o n s t r u c ti o n , th e N a tu r a l F o rc e is c o n s tr u e d a s a n A g e n t, b u t a
w eak A g e n t. N o te t h a t a lt h o u g h g r a d z a d a v il c a re v ic u a n d g r a d o m za d a v ilo
carevicu im p ly e a c h o th e r , t h e y a r e n o t id e n tic a l in m e a n in g . T h e d is c u s s io n
forces u s t o say th a t o n e p r e s e n ts g r a d a s a n A g e n t, t h e o t h e r a s a n I n s tr u m e n t.
W e n o t e in p a s s in g t h a t th e re je c tio n o f t h e p r o p o s e d C a u s e r o r N a tu r a l
F o rc e ro le s c a n b e r e p e a te d f o r th e p r o p o s e d ro le o f R e su lt. R e su lt, w e r e il
a d m itte d to th e s e t o f ro le s, w o u ld b e a s s ig n e d to S t P a u ls C a th e d ra l, p a tte r n
a n d h o le in (3 2 ).
(3 2 ) a

W r e n b u ilt S t P a u l's C a t h e d r a l

b . S io b h a n c a r v e d a p a t t e r n o n t h e p ie c e o l w o o d
c . T h e d o g d u g a h o le in t h e la w n

T h e k e y p o i n t in th e s e e x a m p le s is t h a t b u ild , c a rv e a n d d ig d e n o t e a c ts o f
c re a tio n t h a t b r i n g e n titie s i n t o e x is te n c e . T h e th r e e n o u n s a r e m e r e ly P a tie n ts ,
t.io u g h n o l p r o t o ty p i c a l P a tie n ts .

G ram m ar an d Sem antics: Them atic R o les

T h e f i n a l s e t o f e x a m p le s is in (3 3 )-< 3 6 ).
(3 3 ) O n
he

p r o k o lo l

p la s t m a s s u

p ie r c e d

p la s t ic - a c c u s a t iv e

ig lo )
n e e d le - in s t r u m e n t a l

'H e p ie r c e d t h e p la s t ic w it h a n e e d le '

(3 4 ) M a S a
M a ia

m a x n u la

ruko]

w aved

h a n d - in s t r u m e n t a l

'M a s h a w a v e d (h e r h a n d ) '

(3 5 ) S o b a k a
dog

m a ja ia

xv o sto m

w agged

t a il- in s t r u m e n t a l

T h e d o g w a g g e d its tail'

(3 6 ) D e v o d k a
lit t le - g ir l

r a z m a x jv a la
w a s - b r a n d is h in g

p a lk o i
s tic k -in s t r u m e n t a l

'T h e lit t le g ir l w a s b r a n d is h in g a s t ic k '

B o th th e E n g lis h a n d R u ssia n e x a m p le s in <33) h a v e a n A g e n t n o u n , a

P a tie n t n o u n a n d a n o u n in t h e ro le o f I n s t r u m e n t . I g b j is t h e in s tr u m e n ta l
ease f o r m

o f i g l a n e e d l e . I n t h e E n g l i s h e x a m p l e s i n

(3 4 )

( 3 6 ) , h e r h a n d , it s

to il a n d a s tic k a r e p r o b a b ly to b e a n a ly s e d a s P a tie n ts . T h e b e s t e x a m p le is
(3 4 ), w h ic h c a n b e m a d e p a ss iv e - A slic k w a s b e in g b r a n d is h e d b y th e little
girl. In th e R u s s ia n e x a m p le s , t h e c o r r e s p o n d in g n o u n s a r e in th e in s tr u m e n ta l
case - ru k o j, x v o s to m a n d p a lk o j. F o llo w in g t h e g r a m m a t ic a l p a tt e r n , w e h av e
to t r e a t th e s e n o u n s a n d th e i r r e f e re n ts a s h a v in g th e ro le o t I n s tr u m e n t. T h is
c o n s tr u a l o f t h e s i tu a t io n c a n b e g lo s se d th u s : M a s h a m a d e a w a v in g m o v e
m e n t w ith h e r hand 'T h e d o g m a d e a w a g g in g m o v e m e n t w i t h its ta il' a n d
T h e little g ir l m a d e a b r a n d i s h in g m o v e m e n t w ith a stic k .' T h e a lte r n a tiv e to
th is c o n s t r u a l is t o c o n s id e r t h e i n s t r u m e n t c a s e su ffix e s a s m e r e ly q u i r k y case
n a r k i n g w ith n o s e m a n tic c o n te n t , a m o v e th a t is r u le d o u t b y re lia n c e o n
g r a m m a tic a l c r ite r ia a s p r a c tis e d b y C o g n itiv e L in g u is tic s a n d L o c a lism .

Conclusion
U s in g g r a m m a t ic a l c r ite r ia a n d w o r k in g w i t h a d is ti n c ti o n b e tw e e n ro le
p la y e rs a n d ro le s, t h a t is, d is tin g u is h in g i n f o r m a t i o n c o n v e y e d b y g ra m m a tic a l
p a tte r n s f r o m in f o r m a tio n c o n v e y e d b y le x ic a l ite m s , it is p o s s ib le to e s ta b lis h
a v e ry lim ite d s e t o f ro le s. P r o to ty p ic a l ro le s c a n b e r e c o g n iz e d a c ro s s
la n g u a g e s, a lt h o u g h w h a t lo o k s lik e o n e a n d th e s a m e s i tu a t io n , s u c h as
b r a n d i s h in g a s tic k , m a y b e c o n s t r u e d d if fe re n tly in d if f e r e n t la n g u a g e s.

21 7

2 1 8

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , th e c o n c e p ts o f s u b je c t, d ir e c t o b je c t a n d o b liq u e o b je c t a re
la n g u a g e -sp e c ific , g iv e n t h a t th e y a r e e s ta b lis h e d o n th e b a s is o f g ra m m a tic a l
p r o p e r tie s a n d t h a t a n y g iv e n la n g u a g e h a s its o w n u n iq u e s e t o l g ra m m a tic a l
c h a ra c te ris tic s .

Language Complexity

Chapter Outline
In t r o d u c t io n

219

S p e a k i n g , w r it in g a n d c o m p le x it y

220

C o m p le x it y in c o r p u s e s o l w r it t e n E n g li s h

222

S t u d y i n g s p o k e n l a n g u a g e i n n a t u r a l s e t t in g s

229

H o w ( w r it t e n ) l a n g u a g e b e c o m e s c o m p le x

233

Introduction
T h e c o m p le x ity o f la n g u a g e h a s b e c o m e a f a s h io n a b le to p i c , w ith th e
a p p e a r a n c e in t h e la s t tw o y e a rs o f M ie s ta m o e t a l. (2 0 0 8 ) , S a m p s o n e t al.
(2 0 0 8 ) a n d G iv o n a n d S h ib a i a n i (2 0 0 9 ) . M u c h o f th e re s e a rc h r e p o r te d in
th e s e b o o k s d e a ls w ith t h e e v o lu tio n o f c o m p le x ity in la n g u a g e ; t h e c o m p a r i
s o n o l la n g u a g e s a n d w h a t m i g h t m a k e o n e la n g u a g e m o r e c o m p le x th a n
a n o th e r ; w h e th e r all la n g u a g e s a r e a c tu a lly o f e q u a l c o m p le x ity , w ith in tric a te
m o r p h o lo g y b e in g b a la n c e d b y s i m p l e s y n ta x a n d v ic e v e rs a . A s m a ll p r o p o r
tio n o f t h e re s e a rc h d e a ls w ith th e o c c u r r e n c e o f c o m p le x s y n ta c tic s t r u c tu r e s
in la rg e d a ta b a s e s s u c h a s th e B ritis h N a tio n a l C o r p u s a n d t h e u s e o f s u c h
s t r u c tu r e s b y n a tiv e s p e a k e r s o f E n g lish .
W e w ill leav e o n o n e s id e t h e c o m p a r is o n o f la n g u a g e s w i t h re s p e c t to
c o m p le x ity b u t t h e la s t tw o to p i c s a r e o l in te r e s t h e re . T h e y tie in w ith th e
d is c u s s io n o f m a g n a s y n ta x (s e e p p . 1 2 2 -1 2 7 ), t h e y b e a r o n th e is s u e o f s p o k e n
a n d w r it te n la n g u a g e a n d h o w t h e y d if f e r in s y n ta x , m o r p h o lo g y a n d v o c a b u
lary a n d th e y a r e im p o r t a n t in c o n n e c t io n w ith C h o m s k y a n g e n e ra tiv e

220

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

g r a m m a r , b o t h w i t h t h e c o n s t r a in t s a n d p a r a m e te r s a p p li e d to s t r u c tu r e s
a n d w ith th e C h o m s k y a n th e o r y o f U n iv e rs a l G r a m m a r ( U G ) a n d first
la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n . O n e o f t h e a r g u m e n ts th e r e is t h a t c h ild r e n a c q u ire
s p o n ta n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e , w h ic h is m u c h s im p le r in its s y n ta x th a n
w r itte n la n g u a g e a n d w h ic h c o n ta i n s m a n y fix ed o r s e m i-f ix e d p h r a s e s . T h e
r e le v a n c e o f t h i s is t h a t to a c q u ir e t h e s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n s t r u c tu r e s , p h ra s e s
a n d v o c a b u la r y o f t h e i r n a tiv e la n g u a g e , c h ild r e n d o n o t n e e d th e v e r y ric h
sy s te m o l i n n a t e c o n s t r a in t s ta k e n lo r g r a n t e d b y C h o m s k y a n s . (A s w e w ill see,
tn e le a r n in g o f w r it te n la n g u a g e is a v e ry d if f e r e n t p ro c e s s .) T h is is a n im p o r
ta n t p o in t; t h e C h o m s k y a n th e o r y o l firs t la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n w a s e la b o r a te d
a lte r t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e s t a n d a r d m o d e l o f tr a n s f o r m a t io n a l g ra m m a r .
G e n e ra tiv e g r a m m a r ia n s d e a l w ith

ru le s , c o n s t r a i n t s a n d p r in c ip le s fo r

h a n d lin g m a g n a s y n ta x , th a t is, a ll s t r u c tu r e s I r o m th e s im p le s t to th e m o s t
c o m p le x . T h e th e o r e tic a l a p p a r a t u s o f c o n s tr a in ts , p r in c ip le s , e tc ., is t h e n p r o
je c te d o n t o n a tiv e s p e a k e r s . (S ee th e d is c u s s io n o f th e p o v e r ty o f s tim u lu s
c n p p . 2 4 3 -2 5 4 .)

Speaking, writing and complexity

M iller a n d W e in e r t (2 0 0 9 ) tic in s y n ta c tic c o m p le x ity w i t h w r itte n la n g u a g e ,
fo c u s in g o n E n g lis h b u t a ls o u s in g d a ta f r o m F re n c h , G e r m a n a n d R u ssian .
T h e y a r g u e th a t s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e h a s c e r ta in k e y p r o p e r tie s a n d
t.ia t th e s e p r o p e r tie s d o n o t r e p r e s e n t b r e a k d o w n s in p e r f o r m a n c e b u t a re
p e r m a n e n t d e s ig n fe a tu r e s th a t r e f le c t t h e c o n d it io n s in w h ic h s p e e c h is p r o
d u c e d a n d in te r p r e te d .

i. S p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h i s p r o d u c e d i n r e a l t i m e , i m p r o m p t u a n d w i t h n o o p p o r t u n it y
f o r e d i t i n g , w h e r e a s w r i t i n g is g e n e r a l l y p r o d u c e d w i t h p a u s e s f o r t h o u g h t a n d
w i t h m u c h e d it in g
ii. S p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h is s u b j e c t t o t h e li m it a t i o n s o f s h o r t - t e r m m e m o r y i n b o t h
s p e a k e r a n d h e a r e r : it h a s b e e n s a i d ( b y t h e p s y c h o l i n g u i s t G e o r g e M ille r ) t h a t t h e
s h o r t t e r m m e m o r y c a n h o l d 7 + / - 2 b i t s o f in f o r m a t i o n
iii. S p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h is t y p ic a ll y p r o d u c e d b y p e o p l e t a l k i n g f a c e - t o - f a c e in a
p a r t ic u la r c o n t e x t
iv . S p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h , b y d e f i n i t i o n , in v o l v e s p i t c h , a m p l i t u d e , r h y t h m a n d v o i c e
q u a lit y .
v. S p o n t a n e o u s f a c e - t o - f a c e s p e e c h is a c c o m p a n i e d b y g e s t u r e s , e y e g a ? e , f a c ia l
e x p r e s s io n s a n d b o d y p o s t u r e s , a ll o f w h i c h s ig n a l in f o r m a t i o n .

L a n g u a g e C o m p le x it y

C o n d i t i o n s ( i ) - ( v ) a r e re fle c te d i n c e r t a in lin g u is tic p r o p e r tie s ,

a . I n f o r m a t io n is c a r e f u ll y s t a g e d , a s m a ll q u a n t it y o f i n f o r m a t i o n b e i n g a s s i g n e d to
e a c h p h r a s e a n d c la u s e .
b . S p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n l a n g u a g e t y p ic a lly h a s fa r l e s s g r a m m a t i c a l s u b o r d i n a t io n
t h a n w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e a n d m u c h m o r e c o o r d i n a t io n o r s im p l e p a r a t a x is .
c

T h e s y n t a x o f s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n l a n g u a g e i s i n g e n e r a l f r a g m e n t e d a n d u n in t e g r a t e d ; p h r a s e s a r e le s s c o m p l e x t h a n p h r a s e s o f w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e ; t h e c l a u s a l
c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e le s s c o m p l e x . A c e n t r a l r o le i n s i g n a l l i n g r e l a t i o n s h ip s b e t w e e n
c h u n k s o f s y n t a x i s p l a y e d b y d e ic t i c s . ( S e e C h a p t e r s 3 , 8 . )

d . T h e s e n t e n c e is n o t a u s e f u l a n a ly t ic a l u n it f o r in f o r m a l s p o k e n la n g u a g e .
e . T h e p a t t e r n s o f c o n s t it u e n t s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f h e a d s a n d m o d if ie r s
d o n o t a lw a y s c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e p a t t e r n s r e c o g n i7 e d b y s y n t a c t ic th e o ry.
f. T h e

ra n g e

of

v o c a b u la r y

in

sp o n ta n e o u s

la n g u a g e

is

le s s

th a n

in

w r itt e n

la n g u a g e .
g . A n u m b e r o f c o n s t r u c t i o n s o c c u r i n s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n l a n g u a g e b u t n o t in w r i t
t e n l a n g u a g e , a n d v ic e v e r s a .

O n e i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t y m u s t l>e a d d e d t o t h e list: m a n y o f th e s e q u e n c e s
c f w o r d s p r o d u c e d in s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e a r e fix e d p h r a s e s , e ith e r
c o m p le te ly fix e d s e q u e n c e s o f w o r d s o r te m p la te s t h a t a llo w v e r y lim ite d
s u b s tit u ti o n s o r e x te n s io n s . (S ee p p . 2 4 6 - 2 5 0 .) T h e a c tu a l s y n ta x is s im p le in
th e fo llo w in g se n s e . F ifty p e r c e n t o f N P s c o n s is t o l p r o n o u n s , a n d a n o th e r
25 p e r c e n t c o n s is t o f sin g le n o u n s o r a d e te r m i n e r + s in g le n o u n . D e ta ils o f
N P s in ta s k - r e la te d d ia lo g u e s a n d c o n v e r s a tio n c a n b e f o u n d in T h o m p s o n
(1 9 8 8 ) a n d M ille r a n d W e in e rt (2 0 0 9 ) . (A w e a lth o f e x a m p le s o f th e c o m p le x
N P s u s e d i n f o r m a l w r it te n te x ts c a n b e f o u n d in F e ist ( f o r th c o m in g ) , a n d th e
c if f ic u lty o f in t e r p r e tin g s u c h N P s in w r itte n te x ts b e in g r e a d o u t is d e s c rib e d
in t h e d is c u s s io n o f u n s u c c e s s fu l c o m m u n ic a t io n b e tw e e n fa c to ry m a n a g e
m e n t a n d t h e w o rk fo rc e o n p p . 2 2 9 -2 3 2 .)
T h e v e r y s im p le s t r u c t u r e o f N P s in s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h is a p tly illu s tra te d
b y t h e little te x t in ( 1 ). It m ig h t s e e m lik e a c o u n te r - e x a m p le , b u t i t is ta k e n
fro m a h u m o r o u s p o s tc a r d ( t h e w o r d s a r e s p o k e n b y o n e w o m a n to a n o t h e r as
th e y s it a t th e k itc h e n ta b le c h a tt in g o v e r a g la ss o f w in e a n d a c ig a r e tte ) , a n d
th e h u m o u r c o m e s p r e c is e ly f r o m th e fa c t t h a t in s u c h a re la x e d s e t ti n g m o s t
p e o p le c a n n o t p r o d u c e e v e n tw o o r th r e e w e ll- c h o s e n a d je c tiv e s o i l t h e c u f t ta r
less a s t r i n g o f n in e , a n d e v e n th e m o s t flu e n t s p e a k e r s a r e h a r d p re s s e d to
p r o d u c e c o m p le x s y n ta x a t t h e r i g h t m o m e n t in s tre s s fu l s itu a tio n s .

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

(1 )

I h e n h e s a id w h y -.vas I a lw a y s t r y in g t o C H A N G f c liim a n d I s a id p r o b a b ly
b e c a u s e h e 's s u c h a n o b n o x io u s t h o u g h t le s s s e lf is h o v e r b e a r in g s e lf - r ig h t e o u s
h y p o c r it ic a l a r r o g a n t lo u d m o u t h e d m is o g y n is t b a s ta r d .

R elativ e c la u s e s ty p ic a lly h a v e z e r o r e la tiv iz e rs o r a r e in t r o d u c e d b y th a t,

p r e p o s itio n s a r e a t th e e n d o f t h e c la u s e a n d a r e ty p ic a lly o m i tt e d . (S ee th e
a c c o u n t o l re la tiv e c la u s e s a n d m a g n a s y n ta x o n p p . 1 2 2 -1 2 7 .) C o m p le m e n t
d a u s e s ty p ic a lly h a v e z e ro c o m p le m e n tiz e r s . T h e r a n g e o f a d v e r b ia l c la u s e s
is li m i te d , ty p ic a lly c la u s e s o f t i m e , m a n n e r a n d c o n d itio n . T h e o v e ra ll p r o
p o r t i o n o f s u b o r d in a te to m a i n c la u s e s is m u c h less t h a n in w r it te n E n g lish
g e n e ra lly . ( F o r d e ta ils , se e M ille r a n d W e in e rt (2 0 0 9 ) a n d t h e re le v a n t s e c tio n s
c f B ib e r e t a l. (1 9 9 9 ) . T h e re s u lts r e p o r te d b y M ille r a n d W e in e r t m a tc h th o s e
r e p o r te d fo r I ta lia n b y S o r n ic o la (1 9 8 1 ) , fo r F re n c h b y B la n c h e -B c n v c n is te
(1991 ) a n d fo r R u ssia n b y Z e m s k a ja (1 9 7 3 ) . M ille r a n d W e in e r t c ite d M u n d y
(1 9 5 5 ) c o m m e n ti n g o n t h e lo o s e r s y n ta c tic o r g a n i z a ti o n o l s y n ta x in s p o k e n
T u rk is h . T w o m o r e re c e n t p u b lic a tio n s , fo c u s in g o n re la tiv iz a tio n a n d c o m
p le m e n ta tio n w ith k i, d e m o n s t r a t e c le a rly th e p a r a ta c tic a n d s e q u e n tia l n a tu r e
o f s p o k e n T u rk is h s t r u c tu r e s c o m p a r e d w ith t h e w r it te n T u rk ish s t r u c tu r e s
R e la tiv e -C la u se + H e a d N o u n a n d C o m p l e m e n t C la u s e + V erb, tig h tly in te
g r a te d a n d h ie r a r c h ic a l. (S e e K erslak e, 2 0 0 7 a n d S c h ro e d e r , 2 0 0 2 ).
A lso ty p ic a lly m is s in g f r o m o r r a r e

in s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n

E n g lish ,

d e p e n d in g o n t h e sp e a k e r, a r e h ig h ly in t e g r a t e d n o n - f in it e c la u s e s s u c h a s free
p a r tic ip le s ( lu m p in g to h e r fe e t, s h e th r e w a b o o k a t th e in tr u d e r ) , fre e p a r tic i
p le s w i t h s u b je c t N P s ( T h e in tr u d e r h a v in g esca p ed th r o u g h th e f r o n t door, sh e
s la m m e d it s h u t) a n d fu ll g e r u n d s w ith p o s s e s s iv e s u b je c ts (B ro w n 's fa ilin g to
fo resee th e collapse h a s cost th e c o u n tr y d ea r). ( F o r d e ta ils a n d m o r e e x a m p le s ,
see M ille r a n d W e in e r t, 2 0 0 9 , p p . 8 5 - 7 .) A f u r th e r e x a m p le is t h e s t r u c t u r e o f
t i e p re c e d in g s e n te n c e : a c o p u la c o n s t r u c ti o n in w h ic h th e c o m p l e m e n t s o f
l e a r e in s e n te n c e - in itia l p o s i ti o n a n d t h e s u b je c t N P is its e lf v e r y d e n s e , c o n
s is tin g o f t h e s e q u e n c e h ig h ly in te g ra te d n o n - fin ite clauses su c h as fo llo w e d b y
th r e e c o n jo i n e d N P s , e a c h o f w h ic h is fo llo w e d b y a n e x a m p le in b ra c k e ts .

Complexity in corpuses of
written English
N o t o n l y d o s p e a k e r s s p e a k in g o f f - th e - c u f f e m p lo y s im p le s y n ta x , b u t th e
m o r e c o m p le x s t r u c tu r e s c o m m o n in g e n e ra tiv e a n a ly s e s a p p e a r n o t to b e

Lan gu age C o m p lexity

m u c h u s e d e v e n in w r itte n E n g lish . K a rls s o n (2 0 0 9 , p . 194} r e p o r ts t h a t th e
B ritis h N a tio n a l C o r p u s , th e B ro w n C o r p u s a n d t h e L O B ( L o n d o n - O s l o B c rg e n ) C o r p u s o f f e r o n ly 130 in s ta n c e s o f tw o lev els o f c la u s e -e m b e d d in g .
T h e n u m b e r m a y b e lo w e r, a s w ill b e e x p la in e d b e lo w . (2 ) is s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d :
th e c o m p a r is o n c la u s e th a n is c o m m o n in m o d e r n p o litic s is e m b e d d e d in th e
rela tiv e c la u s e in to w h i c h . . . h a v e g o n e. T h e re la tiv e c la u s e is in t u r n e m b e d d e d
in t h e s u b je c t N P a n u m b e r o f speeches o f th e m a i n c la u se .
(2 ) A n u m b e r o f s p e e c h e s in to w h ic h a g r e a t d e a l o f t h o u g h t a n d p r e p a r a t io n o n
a le v e l m u c h h ig h e r t h a n is c o m m o n in m o d e r n p o lit ic s h a v e g o n e a r e n o t
re p o rte d a t a l l . . .

A n o th e r tw o e x a m p le s a r e n o t s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d . In ( 3 ) , th e m o s t d e e p ly
e m b e d d e d c la u s e , o n K a rls s o n s a n a ly s is , is in w h ic h th e th e m e o f h o m o s e x u a lity
re m a in s la te n t. B u t is th is c la u s e e m b e d d e d ? Il is c e r ta in ly in s id e t h e c la u s e
w h e n o n e c o m p a r e s . . . w ith th e s h o d d in e s s . . . . b u t is s e p a r a te d f r o m th e o th e r
c h u n k s o l t h e c la u s e b y d a s h e s , w h ic h sig n a l t h a t th e c la u s e tu n c t io n s a s a n
a sid e . T h a t is, t h e r e a d e r is in v ite d t o m a k e a s id e s te p a n d t h e n r e t u r n t o th e
n a i n r o u te th r o u g h t h e s e n te n c e .
(3 ) . . . f o r t h a t m a tt e r , w h e n o n e c o m p a r e s S w o n n a n d J e u n e s f ille s
t h e t h e m e o f h o m o s e x u a lit y r e m a in s la t e n t

in w h ic h

w i t h t h e s h o d d in e s s o f t h e la te r

v o lu m e s , o n e is in c lin e d t o w o n d e r . . .

A s im ila r p r o b le m a ris e s w ith ( 4 ) , in w h ic h th e a p p a r e n t ly m o s t d e e p ly

e m b e d d e d c la u s e is a s w a s th e w a y o f th e w o rld . T h is c la u s e is s e p a r a te d
b y c o m m a s f r o m th e r e m a in d e r o f th e a p p a r e n t m a tr ix c la u s e . A s in th e
p r e v io u s e x a m p le , t h i s c la u s e c o n s t it u te s a s id e s te p , a n o p tio n a l, n o t s tric tly
n e c e s s a ry c o m m e n t b y th e n a r r a t o r o n th e c o n te n t o l t h e s to ry . T h e s id e s te p is
in s id e a firs t s id e s te p b e c a u s e t h e c la u s e w h o . . . s h a m b a , s e p a r a te d f r o m th e
rest o f t h e m a i n c la u s e b y c o m m a s , is a n o n - r e s tr ic t iv e re la tiv e . It d o e s n o t
s u p p ly i n f o r m a t io n t h a t h e lp s to p ic k o u t t h e r e l e r e n t , b u t th r o w s in e x tr a
in f o r m a tio n .
(4 ) It w a s n o t u n t il h e w a s a n o ld m a n t h a t o n e d a y h i s s o n , w h o , a s w a s

th e

w a y o f th e w o r ld , h a d le f t t h e s h a m b a , e x p la in e d t o h im t h a t . . .

It m o r e e x a m p le s c a n b e e lim in a te d , c o m p le x s y n ta c tic s t r u c tu r e s w ith tw o

c r m o r e lev els o f e m b e d d in g w ill t u r n o u t to b e e v e n ra re r.

223

224

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

Experim ents on students processing

com plex w ritten language
I! la rg e d a ta b a s e s h a v e le w o r n o e x a m p le s o l a p a r t ic u l a r c o n s t r u c ti o n , it
is r e a s o n a b le to in f e r th a t u s e r s o f t h e la n g u a g e a v o id it, in w r itin g a n d a
f o r tio r i in s p e e c h . E x p e r im e n ta l e v id e n c e o n t h e a b o v e ty p e o f e x a m p le is n o t
a v a ila b le , b u t it is a v a ila b le fo r o t h e r e x a m p le s . D a b ro w s k a (1 9 9 7 ) in v e s tig a te d
h o w w ell d if f e r e n t g r o u p s o f n a tiv e s p e a k e r s o f E n g lis h u n d e r s to o d c o m p le x
s e n te n c e s s u c h a s S a n d y w ill b e e a sy to g e t th e p r e s id e n t to v o le f o r a n d I t w a s
K in g L o u is w h o t h e g e n e ra l c o n v in c e d t h a t th is sla ve m ig h t sp e a k to. S h e f o u n d
t i a t u n iv e r s ity le c tu r e r s u n d e r s to o d th e s e a n d o t h e r e x a m p le s b e tt e r th a n
u n d e r g r a d u a te s , w h o in tu r n u n d e r s to o d th e m b e tt e r t h a n u n iv e r s ity p o r te r s
a n d c le a n e rs.
C h ip e r c ( 2 0 0 8 ) c a r r ie d o u t e x p e r im e n ts w ith tw o g r o u p s o f s t u d e n t s f r o m
a f u r th e r e d u c a t io n c o lle g e . O n e g r o u p c o n s is te d o f s t u d e n t s o f h ig h a c a d e m ic
a b ility , t h e o t h e r o f s t u d e n t s o f lo w a c a d e m ic a b ility . L ev el o f a c a d e m ic a b ility
w as d e f in e d in te r m s o f g ra d e s o b ta i n e d a t G C S E lev e l ( t h e le a v in g c e rtific a te
e x a m in a tio n s ta k e n a t a g e 1 6 in E n g la n d a n d W a le s). I n o n e ta s k t h e s t u d e n ts
v/ere a s k e d to re c a ll t h e g iv e n e x a m p le . I n a s e c o n d ta s k , th e y w e r e a s k e d to
a n s w e r q u e s t io n s o n c o m p le x s e n te n c e s . F o r e x a m p le , p r e s e n te d w ith Tom
k n o w s th e f a c t th a t fly in g p la n e s lo w is d a n g e ro u s excites th e p ilo t, th e y w ere
a sk e d W h a t does T o m kn o w ? a n d W h a t exc ite s th e pilot*. T h e g r o u p w ith h ig h
a c a d e m ic a b ility s ig n ific a n tly o u t p e r f o r m e d t h e g r o u p w i t h lo w a c a d e m ic
a b ility o n b o t h ta s k s. S o m e o f th e lo w a c a d e m ic a b ility g r o u p w e re g iv e n m e m
o r y tr a in i n g , w h ile th e o th e r s w e r e t r a in e d in c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f c o m p le x
s e n te n c e s . T h e o n e s w h o w e re g iv e n m e m o r y t r a i n i n g p e r f o r m e d m u c h b e tte r
o n th e re c a ll ta s k b u t d i d n o b e lt e r a t c o m p r e h e n d in g t h e q u e s tio n s . T h e o n e s
w h o w e re g iv e n c o m p r e h e n s i o n t r a i n i n g w e re b e tt e r b o t h a t re c a llin g th e
s e n te n c e s a n d a t a n s w e r in g th e q u e s tio n s .
O n t h e b a s is o f t h e re s u lts C h ip e r c (2 0 0 9 , p . 191) su g g e s ts th a t n a tiv e
sp e a k e rs v a r y in g r a m m a tic a l c o m p e te n c e , b u t h a v e e q u a l p o te n t ia l t o a c q u ire
f j l l g r a m m a tic a l c o m p e te n c e . S a m p s o n (2 0 0 9 , p . 9 ) m e n t io n s t h e d iffic u lty
in c h a lle n g in g th e id e o lo g ic a lly b a s e d c o n s e n s u s a m o n g g e n e ra tiv e lin g u is ts
t.ia t 'W e k n o w t h a t th e g r a m m a r s t h a t a r e in fa c t c o n s t r u c te d v a r y o n l y s lig h tly
a m o n g s p e a k e r s o f th e s a m e la n g u a g e , d e s p ite w id e v a r ia tio n s n o t o n ly in
in te llig e n c e b u t a ls o in th e c o n d it io n s u n d e r w h ic h la n g u a g e is a c q u ir e d
(C h o m s k y , 1968, p p . 6 - 6 9 ) . T h e e x te n s iv e d if fe re n c e s in t h e U n ite d K in g d o m
b e tw e e n b e tw e e n s p o k e n s t a n d a r d a n d n o n - s ta n d a r d a n d b e tw e e n d if fe re n t

Lan gu age C o m p lexity

r .o n - s ta n d a r d v a rie tie s su g g e s ts t h a t t h e r e a r e w id e v a r ia tio n s . T h e w id e
v a ria tio n s , o b s e r v e d o v e r 3 6 y e a rs, in th e w r itte n o u t p u t o f fir s t- y e a r s t u d e n ts
li k i n g t h e s a m e c o u r s e a t E d in b u r g h U n iv e rs ity a ls o s u g g e s t t h a t C h o m s k y
w as b e in g v e ry o p tim is tic . I n M a h e r a n d G ro v e s ( 1 9 % , p . 4 6 ) , th e r e is a
p h o to g r a p h o l C h o m s k y . T h e b a llo o n t h a t is lin k e d to h im c o n ta in s t h e e le
g a n t a n d p o w e r f u l te x t W e m a y b e m a te ria lly a n d in te lle c tu a lly im p o v e ris h e d ,
p h y sic a lly s ic k , la c k w ill a n d c o n c e n t r a ti o n , h a v e life lo n g b o r d e r lin e p e r s o n a l
ity p r o b le m s , a n d d e s p ite a ll th is , t h e m i n d 's c o g n itiv e s y s te m g o e s o n b u ild in g
r s e d if ic e q u ie tly , u n if o r m ly , s e e m in g ly b e y o n d o u r c o n tr o l. T h e in v ite d
in fe re n c e is t h a t e v e ry o n e h a s th e s a m e g r a m m a r , b u t n o e v id e n c e l o r th is
a s s u m p ti o n h a s b e e n p r o d u c e d a n d s u c h e v id e n c e a s t h e u n d e r s ta n d in g o f
c o m p le x te x ts o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f w r it te n te x ts , a n d p ie c e s o f re s e a rc h s u c h as
P h ilp o tt's (d e s c r ib e d b e lo w ) all g o a g a in s t th e a s s u m p tio n .
M o re o v e r, o n e o b s ta c le b lo c k s C h ip e r e s a t t e m p t to a llo w fo r v a r ia tio n in
g r a m m a tic a l c o m p e te n c e w ith o u t c h a lle n g in g th e c o n s e n s u s : th e s u b je c ts
in h is e x p e r i m e n t s w e re d r a w n f r o m tw o se ts o f s tu d e n ts . It is w e ll- k n o w n th a t
th e s e t o f u n iv e r s ity s t u d e n t s d is p la y s la rg e d is p a r itie s b e tw e e n s t u d e n t s o f
h ig h

a c a d e m ic a b ility

a n d

th o se o l

lo w

a c a d e m ic a b ility . M o r e

im p o rta n tly ,

a p p r o x im a te ly 3 5 p e r c e n t o f a n y g iv e n a n n u a l c o h o r t o f s c h o o l-le a v e rs in th e
U n ite d K in g d o m n o w g o o n to h ig h e r e d u c a t io n . T h a t leav e s 6 5 p e r c e n t w h o
c o n o t, w h e th e r b c c a u s e o f in s u f f ic ie n t a b ility o r b e c a u s e o f la c k o f in t e r e s t in
s c h o o l o r a d v e rs e c ir c u m s ta n c e s a t h o m e a n d s o o n . I t is f r o m t h a t 6 5 p e r c e n t
t h a t D a b ro w s k a s p o r t e r s a n d c le a n e rs a r e d r a w n , a n d C h ip e r e s e x p e r im e n ts
p ass t h e m by.

Spontaneous spoken language: phrases or clauses?

C h ip e r e s b o o k d e m o n s tr a te s , b y a c c id e n t, h o w c r u c ia l i t is to p a y a t t e n t i o n to
t h e lin g u is tic e x p e r ie n c e o f a n y g r o u p o f s p e a k e rs . H is s u b je c ts m a y s p lit in to
h ig h a b ility a n d lo w a b ility g r o u p s , b u t th e y a r e a ll in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , w h ic h
m e a n s t h a t th e y h a d a ll h a d c o n s id e r a b le e x p o s u r e lo ih e c o m p le x s y n ta c tic
s t r u c tu r e s a n d v o c a b u la r y o f f o r m a l w r itin g a n d w e re r e a d in g a n d w r itin g
s u c h la n g u a g e q u ite in te n siv e ly . T h a t is, th e y w e r e im m e r s e d in a v a rie ty
c f la n g u a g e m u c h d e n s e r in g r a m m a r t h a n t h e ty p ic a l s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n
E n g lish s k e tc h e d e a rlie r. In fa c t, th e g a p b e tw e e n f o r m a l w r it te n la n g u a g e a n d
s p o n ta n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e m a y b e e v e n g re a te r. I n d e e d S o r n ic o la (1 9 8 1 )
a rg u e s c o n v in c in g ly o n th e b a s is o f N e a p o lita n I ta lia n t h a t m u c h s p o n ta n e o u s
s p o k e n la n g u a g e d o e s n o t e v e n h a v e a s y n ta c tic s t r u c t u r e in w h ic h p h ra s e s

225

Z Z b

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

c o m b in e i n t o c la u s e s o r c la u s e s in to in te g r a te d c la u s e c o m p le x e s . R a th e r, th e
s t r u c tu r e c o n s is ts o f b lo c k s o f s y n ta x ( p h r a s e s ) w ith little o r n o s y n ta c tic
lin k a g e a n d r e q u i r in g th e lis te n e r to d e p lo y c o n s id e r a b le sk ills o f in fe re n c e
b a se d o n c o n te x tu a l a n d w o rld k n o w le d g e . S o rn ic o la d e m o n s tr a t e s th a t s u c h
f r a g m e n ts s h o u l d h e tr e a te d a s th e s t r u c tu r e s t h a t s p e a k e r s a i m t o p r o d u c e in
s p o n ta n e o u s s p e e c h a n d n o t a s th e r e m n a n ts o f c la u s e s t h a t h a v e fa lle n a p a r t
as th e r e s u lt o f p e r f o r m a n c e e r r o r s . (S e e M ille r a n d W e in e r t, 2 0 0 9 , p p . 5 8 -5 9 .)
S o rn ic o la 's a c c o u n t is s u p p o r te d b y t h e d a ta p r e s e n te d in Z e m s k a ja (1 9 7 3 ).
C o n s id e r (5 ).
(5 ) a . m o lo k o
m ilk

r a z n o s it /

ne

p n x o d ila

eSce ?

s h e -d e liv e r s /

not

cam e

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't h e w o m a n w h o d e lr v e is t h e m ilk , h a s s h e n o t c o m e y e t 7

b. u
at

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k a p r iz n a ja

o cen '

w in d o w

s h e -la y /

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ve ry

t h e w o m a n in t h e b e d b y t h e w in d o w w a s v e " / m o o d y '

(5 a ,b ) e a c h c o n ta i n tw o fin ite v e r b s a n d tw o c la u s e s , ra z n o sit a n d p rix o d ila

in ( 5 a ) a n d leza la a n d a z e r o c o p u la in (5 b ). 11 ( 5 b ) w a s p a s t te n s e , t h e s e c o n d
d a u s e w o u ld c o n ta i n a n o v e r t f o r m o f th e c o p u la , b y la w a s . N o n e o f t h e fo u r
d a u s e s c o n ta i n s a s u b je c t N P b e c a u s e t h e d e ic tic p e r s o n su ffix e s o n th e v e rb s
p o i n t to a th i r d p e r s o n a n d th e c o m p le te c la u s e s , m o lo k o r a z n o sit a n d u o k n a
lezala, p r o v id e e n o u g h in f o r m a t io n fo r t h e lis te n e r(s ) to id e n tif y t h e re fe re n ts .
In a w r it te n te x t, t h e r e w o u ld b e a s u b je c t N P m o d if ie d b y a re la tiv e c la u se ,
as in (6 ).
(6 ) Z e n S d in a ,
W om an

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m o lo k o

r a z n o s it .

ne

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T h e w o m a n w h o d e liv e r s t h e m ilk h a s n o t c o m e y e t .'

In t h e s p o k e n te x ts in ( 5 a ,b ) , th e r e is n o ju s tif ic a tio n fo r a n a ly s in g m o lo k o
ra zn o sit a n d u o k n a le za la a s s o m e k i n d o l r e d u c e d re la tiv e c la u se s- b u t t h e y a rc
g o o d m a i n c la u s e s . T h e / in th e t r a n s c r i p ti o n in d ic a te s a n i n t o n a ti o n p a tt e r n
s ig n a llin g th a t th e u tt e r a n c e is g o in g to b e c o n ti n u e d a n d th a t t h e first c la u s e
a n d th e f o llo w in g c la u s e a r e c o n n e c t e d a n d f o r m a c la u s e c o m p le x . T h e s e a n d
t i e m a n y o t h e r e x a m p le s f r o m Z e m s k a ja (1 9 7 3 ) h a v e t h e a d d it io n a l a d v a n ta g e
c f b e lo n g in g to in l o r m a l s p o n t a n e o u s c o n v e r s a tio n f r o m h ig h ly e d u c a te d
sp e a k e rs a n d c a n n o t b e d is m is s e d a s in s ta n c e s o f n o n - s t a n d a r d R u s s ia n . T h e y
a re re g u la r s t r u c tu r e s o f s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n R u ssia n .

Lan gu age C o m p lexity

T w o m a jo r c a v e a ts m u s t b e m a d e a t t h i s p o in t . T h e firs t o n e c o n c e r n s th e
p r o p o r tio n o f s u b o r d in a te c la u s e s to m a i n c la u s e s in d if f e r e n t te x t ty p e s.
A c c o rd in g to H a llid a y (1 9 8 9 , p p . 7 6 - 9 1 ) w r itte n la n g u a g e is c o m p le x w ith
h ig h ly c o m p a c t a n d s im p le s y n ta c tic c o n s t r u c ti o n s lo a d e d w ith m a n y lex ical
i'.em s. In c o n tr a s t, s p o k e n la n g u a g e is c o m p le x in a d il le r e n t w a y , w ith in tric a te
s y n ta c tic s t r u c t u r e c o n ta i n in g a c o n s id e r a b le p r o p o r t i o n o f s u b o r d in a te
c la u se s. H a llid a y s a s s e r tio n d o e s n o t a p p ly a t all t o t h e M ille r - B r o w n C o r p u s
c f s p o n t a n e o u s c o n v e r s a tio n s n o r to th e n a r r a ti v e s a n a ly s e d in M a c a u le y
(1991 > n o r to t h e F re n c h d a ta in B la n c h e -B e n v e n is te (1 9 9 1 ) n o r to Z e m s k a ia s
R u ssian d a ta . It d o e s n o t a p p ly t o m o r e r e c e n t c o r p u s e s o l s p o k e n E n g lis h s u c h
a s t h e p r iv a te c o n v e rs a tio n s a n d p h o n e - i n r a d io p r o g r a m m e s in th e W e llin g
to n C o r p u s o f S p o k e n N e w Z e a la n d E n g lish a n d t h e in f o r m a l c o n v e rs a tio n s
in th e A u s tr a lia n E n g lis h c o m p o n e n t o l IC E . ( H i s a s s e r tio n d o c s a p p ly to , lo r
e x a m p le , m o n o lo g u e s s u c h a s u n iv e r s ity le c tu r e s a n d d is c u s s io n p r o g r a m m e s
w ith p a r t ic i p a n ts w h o a r e u s e d to ta lk in g in p u b lic a n d w h o a r e g iv e n tim e to
m a k e th e i r v a r io u s c o n t r i b u t i o n s to t h e d is c u s s io n s . U n iv e rs ity le c tu r e s a re
le m i- s c r i p te d in th a t th e le c tu r e r h a s n o te s a n d o v e r h e a d slid e s a n d n o w a d a y s
c i c o u rs e th e u b iq u ito u s P o w e r p o in t p r e s e n ta tio n . T h e s tu d io d is c u s s io n s ju s t

re fe rre d to a llo w e d m u c h m o r e p la n n i n g t i m e t h a n is a v a ila b le in c o n v e rs a tio n

c r in p h o n e - i n r a d i o p r o g r a m m e s , w h e r e im m e d i a te r e s p o n s e s a r e e x p e c te d .
(F o r a m o r e d e ta ile d d is c u s s io n o f s p e a k e r s a n d te x t- ty p e s , s e e M ille r a n d
W e in e rt 2 0 0 9 , p p . 1 4 -2 2 .)
S p o n ta n e o u s s p o k e n te x ts o i l e r a m u c h s m a lle r p r o p o r t i o n o f c la u s e c o m
plexes w ith s u b o r d in a te c la u s e s t h a n , sa y , f o r m a l w r it te n te x ts o r s e m i- s c r ip te d
m o n o lo g u e s , b u t it w o u ld b e w r o n g to s u p p o s e t h a t s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n
L*xts o f f e r n o c la u s e c o m p le x e s o r s u b o r d in a te c la u s e s . A s F e r n a n d e z (1 9 9 4 )
o b se rv e s, e v e n in f o r m a l c o n v e r s a tio n c o n ta i n s r e h e a r s e d c h u n k s o f la n g u a g e ,
w h ic h m a y r a n g e l r o m a s p e a k e r s f a v o u r ite p h r a s e s to a n a r r a ti v e t h a t th e
s p e a k e r h a s to ld se v e ra l tim e s b e fo re . S u c h re h e a r s e d c h u n k s m a y in d e e d
he c o m p le x - b u t th e y a r e n o t c o n s t r u c te d o n th e s p o t. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
H a llid a y s a s s e r tio n a b o u t th e c o n s id e r a b le p r o p o r t i o n o f s u b o r d in a te c la u s e s
c o e s n o t a p p ly a t a ll t o t h e c o r p u s o f s p o n t a n e o u s c o n v e rs a tio n s n o r to th e
n a rr a tiv e s a n a ly s e d in M a c a u le y ( 1991 ).

Clause com bining and intonation

T h e s e c o n d c a v e a t c o n c e r n s a v e ry im p o r t a n t p r o p e r ty o f s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n
la n g u a g e : p itc h p a t t e r n s c a n b e u s e d to s ig n a l w h e n tw o o r m o r e c la u s e s a re

227

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

in te g ra te d ( i f t h a t t e r m is n o t to o s tr o n g ) i n t o a c la u s e c o m p le x . T h is p r o p e r ty
is im p lic it in th e m a r k in g u s e d in t h e tr a n s c r i p t i o n s in Z e m s k a ja ( 1 9 7 3 ), w h e re
s in g le o b liq u e s , a s in < 5 a,b ) a b o v e , in d ic a te lh a t a p a r t ic u l a r u tt e r a n c e h a s n o t
b e e n c o m p le te d b y t h e s p e a k e r . T h is p o in t is m a d e e x p lic itly in F e rn a n d e z
(1 9 9 4 , p p . 9 5 - 6 ) , w h o p o i n t s o u t t h a t i n t o n a t i o n c a n sig n a l t h e in t e g r a t io n o f
tw o c la u s e s a s o p p o s e d t o s i m p l e c o o r d i n a ti o n o r j u x t a p o s i ti o n . H e r (F r e n c h )
e x a m p le s a r e in (7 ).
(7 ) a . T a u r a s p a s d e d e s s e r t

t 'e s p a s v e n u a v e t n o u s .

'Y o u w o n ' t h a v e a n y d e s s e r t b e c a u s e ) y o u d i d n 't c o m e w i t h u * .

b . Il n a p a s p lu

It h a s n 't r a in e d

le li n g e e s t s e c
(s in c e ) t h e w a s h i n g is d r y

A s p e c ia l p itc h p a t t e r n sig n a ls th a t t e s p a s v e n u a v e c n o u s a n d le lin g e e s t sec

a re n o t fr e e - tlo a lin g c la u s e s , b u t a r e lin k e d to t h e firs t c la u s e in e a c h e x a m p le .
O f c o u r s e , th e ty p e o f lin k - t i m e , r e a s o n o r c o n c e s s io n - d o e s h a v e to b e
r e c o n s tr u c te d b y th e a d d re s s e e .
T h e m o s t re c e n t d is c u s s io n o f t h e u s e o f i n t o n a t i o n t o sig n a l t h e in te g r a t.o n o l tw o c la u s e s in to o n e c la u s e c o m p le x is b y M i th u n (2 0 0 9 ) . H e r p a p e r is
im p o r t a n t n o t o n l y b e c a u s e it le n d s s u p p o r t t o Z e m s k a ja a n d F e r n a n d e z (n o w
F e rn a n d e z -V e st) b u t a ls o b e c a u s e it b r in g s d a ta tr o m M o h a w k , a la n g u a g e far
re m o v e d f r o m I n d o - E u r o p e a n in g e o g ra p h ic a l lo c a tio n a n d in s y n ta x . M i th u n
(2 0 0 9 , p p . 5 8 - 9 ) g iv es tw o e x a m p le s o f p a ir s o f c la u s e s t h a t d iffe r in in t o n a
tio n . T h e firs t p a ir is in (8 ) a n d t h e s e c o n d p a ir is in (9 ).
(8 ) a . ' K h e t k a ' io i n e re
I t h in k i t m ig h t b e g o o d .
b . la h k i ' t e io t :o n
It is j u s t n o t p o s s ib le

T k a ' n e : la k e n e n h r n h a w e '
M a y b e I s h o u l d t a k e t h e g r o u p in.
k e n ' n ia o n t ie :r e n '.
I c o u l d j u s t d o it t h e r e .

'It w a s im p o s s ib le t o r m e to d e a l w i t h it .

(9 ) a

S o k ' k e n t a h o n t s a w e n
T h e n t h e y s a y it s t a r t e d

W a 't k a n n w a h k w e k i a w n k e
I t s w ir le d t h is w a te r

D i e w a t e r s t a r t e d s w ir lin g a r o u n d .'
b . S k n :'e t a h a t h s a w e n
S o t h e n h e b e g a n it

w a 't h a h s n t h o '
H e c r ie d

'S o t h e n h e s t a r t e d t o c r y

In (8 a ) a n d ( 9 a ) , th e r e is a fa llin g i n t o n a t i o n f r o m t h e b e g in n i n g o f t h e first
d a u s e /s e n te n c e to th e e n d o f th e c la u s e /s e n te n c e . A t t h e b e g in n i n g o f th e

Lan gu age C o m p lexity

s e c o n d c la u s e /s e n te n c e , t h e i n t o n a ti o n is re s e t a n d s t a r ts h ig h a g a in . I n (8 b )
a n d ( 9 b ) , th e i n t o n a t i o n is n o t re s e t a t th e b e g in n i n g o f th e s e c o n d c la u se .
R a th e r th e r e is a sin g le i n t o n a t i o n p a t t e r n t h a t is h ig h a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e
first c la u s e a n d t h e n fa lls s te a d ily till t h e e n d o f t h e s e c o n d c la u s e is re a c h e d .
In t h e s e c o n d p a ir in p a r t ic u l a r , t h e sin g le i n t o n a t i o n p a tt e r n is r e in lo r c e d b y
th e c la u s e s h a v in g t h e s a m e s u b je c t.
M i th u n (2 0 0 9 , p . 6 9 ) r e m a r k s t h a t a c o m m o n r h e to r ic a l p a tt e r n in M o h a w k
is l o r d e m o n s tr a t iv e s to s ig n a l th a t l u r t h c r d e ta ils a r e to fo llo w . T h e e x a m p le
s h e g iv e s is g lo s se d W e w o u ld g o w a tc h th is ; th e m e n w o u ld p la y la c ro sse ,
w h ic h tr a n s la te s a s W e w o u ld g o a n d w a tc h t h e m e n p la y in g la c ro sse .' T h e
c o g n itiv e i n t e g r a t io n b y m e a n s o f t h e d e m o n s tr a tiv e c a m e to b e r e in f o r c e d b y
a s in g le i n t o n a ti o n p a tt e r n o v e r th e tw o c la u s e s , a s in (8 b ) a n d ( 9 b ) . F e rn a n d e z
(1 9 9 4 , p . 15) o b s e r v e s th a t d is c o u r s e p a r tic le s p la y a n im p o r t a n t r o le in th e
p r e s e n ta tio n o f d is c o n n e c te d p h r a s e s a s a c o h e r e n t m e s sa g e . In th e F in n is h
e x a m p le in ( 1 0 ) , t h e p a r tic le s c o n n e c t c h u n k s o f s y n ta x t h a t d o n o t b y t h e m
selves m a k e u p a c la u s e c o n v e y in g a p r o p o s iti o n . ( T h e p a r tic le s a r e in b o ld .)

(1 0 ) N ii

OK

m ut

se

but

i *w

o li

nys

se

r n t u a ik a

w as

now

ik a i

m o o n s h i n e t im e

s it t e

jo k a

a f t e r w a r d s a ll

p a ik a s .

s id e s

A f t e r t h a t t h e r e w a s illic it a lc o h o l e v e r y w h e r e

W h a t w e see is a p a tt e r n w h e r e b y c la u s e s a r e n o t e m b e d d e d o n e in t h e o t h e r
b u t a r e a d ja c e n t. T h e y a r e n o t c o n n e c t e d b y , f o r e x a m p le , c o m p le m e n tiz e r s
o r c h a n g e s o f m o o d ; t h a t tw o c la u s e s a r e to b e in te r p r e te d a s c o n n e c te d is
sig n a lle d b y i n t o n a t i o n o r b y t h e o c c u r r e n c e o l a c a ta p h o r ic d e m o n s tr a tiv e .
D e m o n s tr a tiv e s a n d g e s tu re s a r e u s e d t o sig n a l c o n n e c t io n s b e tw e e n c h u n k s
c f s y n ta x t h a t a r e s m a lle r t h a n c la u s e s a n d d o n o t c o m b i n e to f o r m a c la u s e .
T h e s e a r e c h a r a c te r is tic s o f s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e ; w h a t w r it te n la n
g u a g e h a s is h ig h ly in te g r a te d s y n ta c tic s t r u c tu r e s .

Studying spoken language

in natural settings
T w o w a y s o f in v e s tig a tin g t h e s y n ta x o f ( s p o n ta n e o u s ) s p o k e n la n g u a g e a re
m e n tio n e d e a rlie r. O n e is th e a n a ly s is o f c o r p u s e s o f s p o k e n la n g u a g e , w o rk in g
b o t h w ith th e t r a n s c r i p ti o n a n d w ith th e a u d io re c o r d in g ( a n d e v e n th e v id e o
r e c o r d in g , i f o n e is a v a ila b le , t h o u g h th e r e is a re a l d a n g e r o f d r o w n in g in
c a t a ) . T h e r e c o r d in g s c a n b e o l m a n y v a r ie tie s o l s p o k e n la n g u a g e : d ia lo g u e s

229

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

a n d m o n o lo g u e s ; in f o r m a l c o n v e r s a tio n w ith fa m ily o r f r ie n d s ; d is c u s s io n s
w ith c o lle a g u e s, s h o p a s s is ta n ts , s t u d e n ts a n d s o o n ; le c tu r e s ; ta s k - r e la te d d ia
lo g u e s ; s to r y - te llin g a n d m a n y o t h e r te x t ty p e s . T h i s is th e m e t h o d u s e d b y , fo r
e x a m p le , S o rn ic o la (1 9 8 1 ) , B la n c h e - B e n v e n is te (1 9 9 1 ) , T h o m p s o n (1 9 9 1 ),
C h a fe (1 9 8 0 ) a n d M ille r a n d W e in e r t ( 1 9 9 8 /2 0 0 9 ). T h e s e c o n d w a y is to fo c u s
c n sp e c ific s t r u c tu r e s o r e v e n s p e c ific le x ic a l ite m s a n d c o lle c t in f o r m a t io n
ex p e rim e n ta lly . T h is is th e a p p r o a c h o f D a b ro w s k a (1 9 9 7 ) a n d C h ip e r e (2 0 0 9 ).
A th i r d m e t h o d is a ls o e x p e r im e n ta l, b u t t h e d a ta a r e c o lle c te d n o t in c o n
tr o lle d c o n d it io n s b u t in n a tu r a l s e ttin g s a n d in c o n n e c t io n w ith re a l c o m m u
n ic a tiv e p r a c tic e s . T h e in v e s tig a to rs d o n o t fo c u s o n sp e c ific s y n ta c tic s t r u c tu r e s
e x p o s in g t h e i r s u b je c ts to v a r ia tio n s o n a th e m e , b u t i n f o r m a t io n e m e rg e s
a b o u t th e d if fic u ltie s s p e a k e r s o f E n g lis h h a v e d e a lin g w i t h f o r m a l w ritte n
te x ts. T h is p r o v id e s a c o n te x t l o r th e a n a ly s is o t s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r tie s su c h
as th o s e s k e tc h e d e a r lie r a n d d e s c r ib e d in m o r e d e ta il in M ille r a n d W e in e rt
(1 9 9 8 /2 0 0 9 ), B la n c h e -B e n v e n is te (1 9 9 1 ) a n d s o o n . A c la ssic e x a m p le is
H e a th (1 9 8 3 ) . S h e d e s c r ib e s h o w th e w o r k f o r c e in th e T r a c k to n m ills in N o r th
C a r o lin a g o th r o u g h s c h o o l, le a r n t o r e a d a n d w r ite b u t lo s e th e i r c o m p e te n c e
in w r i tt e n

E n g lis h b y n e v e r h a v in g t o

u s e it i n l il c o u t s i d e t h e c la s s r o o m . S h e

d e s c rib e s h o w a d m in is tr a tiv e s t a f f a t t h e m ills w o u ld re a d o u t o ffic ia l d o c u

m e n ts to t h e w o r k e r s , w h e t h e r a g r e e m e n ts r e la tin g to in s u r a n c e o r to lo a n s.
W h e n m e m b e r s o f th e A fric a n A m e ric a n c o m m u n it y in T r a c k to n re c e iv e d
le tte rs f r o m th e lo c a l a u th o r it ie s , say c o n c e r n in g c h ild r e n g o in g to s c h o o l
<:r g o in g fo r m e d ic a l c h e c k - u p s , t h e d o c u m e n t s w e r e in t e r p r e te d b y g r o u p s o l
a d u lts , a n d c r u c ia l i n p u t c a m e f r o m a d u lt s w h o h a d a lr e a d y e x p e r ie n c e d s u c h
e v e n ts a n d w e re a b le to re la te th e i r e x p e rie n c e s to o th e r w is e m y s te r io u s p a r ts
c f th e lo c a l a u t h o r i t y te x ts . O n e s e t o f p e o p le in T r a c k to n h a d n o d iffic u lty
w ith c o m p le x w r it te n te x ts : th e p e o p le w i t h p o s t- s c h o o l e d u c a tio n w o r k in g in
t i e p ro f e s s io n s o r in m a n a g e m e n t a t th e m ill o r e ls e w h e re a n d s o o n . T h e
a c c o u n t in H e a th fits w ith a n d in d ir e c tly s u p p o r ts th e f in d in g s o f D a b ra w s k a
a n d C h ip e re .
A n o th e r in v e s tig a tio n ( c a r r ie d o u t in th e U n ite d K in g d o m ) le n d s e v e n
s lr o n g e r s u p p o r t to D a b ro w s k a a n d C h ip e re . I n th e s u m m e r a n d a u t u m n o f
1997 a n d in th e w in te r o f 1 9 9 7 -9 8 R e b ec c a P h il p o tt c a r r ie d o u t re s e a rc h in to
c o m m u n ic a tio n a t t h e f a c to r y w h e r e s h e h a d a s u m m e r jo b . T h e re s e a rc h
w as w r itte n u p a s P h il p o tt (1 9 9 8 ). P h ilp o tt in v e s tig a te d t h e a tt e m p t s b y th e
m a n a g e m e n t to k e e p t h e w o r k f o r c e i n l o r m e d a b o u t e v e n ts in th e fa c to ry , th e
c u r r e n t tr a d in g p o s i ti o n a n d f o r th c o m in g d e v e lo p m e n ts . T h e in f o r m a tio n

Lan gu age Co m p lexity

w as c o n v e y e d v i a p r e s e n ta tio n s b y a m e m b e r o f th e m a n a g e m e n t te a m . T h e
c o re o f e a c h p r e s e n ta t io n w a s a s e t o f o v e r h e a d p r o je c tio n slid e s; a d d itio n a l
r o t e s w e re w r it te n b y t h e f a c to r y m a n a g e r a n d re a d a lo u d b y t h e p re s e n te r.
T h e te x t o n th e slid e s a n d a ll t h e a d d i t i o n a l n o te s w e re r e a d v e r b a tim , to g u a rd
a g a in s t d is c re p a n c ie s in th e in f o r m a t io n g iv e n o u t a t th e d if f e r e n t b rie fin g
se ssio n s.
T h e la n g u a g e o f th e te x t w as h ig h ly c o n d e n s e d p a r tly b e c a u s e o f t h e lim ite d
sp a c e o n th e slid e s a n d p a r tly b e c a u s e o f th e u s e o f te c h n ic a l b u s in e s s
la n g u a g e . T h e c o n d e n s in g w a s m a n if e s te d p r in c ip a lly in v e ry d e n s e N P s, a s in
th e s a m p le o v e r h e a d s lid e in ( 11}. T h e n a m e s o f p r o d u c t s h a v e b e e n re p la c e d
b y d u m m y lab els.
( 1 1 ) T h e w a r m w e a t h e r c o n t in u e d t o d e p r e s s s o u p s a le s .
X s a le s w e r e 5 % a b o v e t h e A p r il 1 9 9 6 le v e l b u t y e a r t o d a t e a r e 7 % d o w n
o n la s t y e a r a n d 1 5 % b e lo w a d a t u m w h ic h a s s u m e d a m a jo r b o o s t f r o m th e
r e la u n c h .
C a n n e d V e g e t a b le s s a le s w e r e b e t t e r in A p r il, 1 % a b o v e la s t y e a r , s o y e a rt o - d a t e a r e 1 3 % d o w n o n la s t y e a r a n d 6 % b e lo w d a t u m .
W h i le X is c u r r e n t ly b e m q r e la u n c h e d w it h a n e w p a c k d e s iq n , t h e fu ll
b o o s t t o v o lu m e w ill c o m e t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h e y e a r b e c a u s e o f d if f ic u lt ie s
in d e v e lo p in g s u f f ic ie n t ly im p a c t f u l a d v e r t is in g

O u r p la n s o r t h e y e a r

h a d a s s u m e d h e a v y a d v e r t is in g f r o m A p r il, s o t h e r e h a s b e e n a s u b s t a n t ia l
r e d u c t io n in t h e s a le s f o r e c a s t . P a r tia lly o f f s e t t in g t h is is a m a j o r s a m p lin g
e x e r c is e

depress s o u p stdes is a te c h n ic a l p h ra s e , n o t a u s e o f depress w h ic h is f o u n d in

r o n - b u s in e s s c o n te x ts , y e a r to d a te is lik e w ise a te c h n ic a l te r m , a lo n g w ith
d a tu m , a d a tu m w h ic h a s s u m e d a m a jo r b o o s t is h ig h ly te c h n ic a l a n d fo rm a l.
T h e lex ical i t e m a s s u m e w ith th is te c h n ic a l s e n s e o c c u rs a g a in i n O u r p la n s fo r
tfte y e a r h a d a s s u m e d h e a v y a d v e rtisin g . O t h e r a w k w a rd p h r a s e s a r e th e fu l l
boost to v o lu m e a n d d e v e lo p in g s u ffic ie n tly im p a c tfu l a d v e rtisin g a n d a s u b s ta n
tia l re d u c tio n in th e sales fo reca st. T h e fin a l s e n te n c e is a n e x a m p le o f a re la
tiv ely r a r e c o n s t r u c ti o n w ith th e c o m p le m e n t o l is in s e n te n c e - in itia l p o s itio n .
P artially o ffsettin g this. ( T h is lo o k s lik e a P ro g re ssiv e , b u t th e s t r u c tu r e is u n a c
c e p ta b le in th e n o r m a l w o r d o rd e r :

m a jo r s a m p lin g exercise is o ffse ttin g this.)

A n o th e r o v e r h e a d s lid e h a d a resp ectively c o n s t r u c ti o n . T h e s e a r c n e v e r ea sy

to in te r p r e t.
( 1 2 ) S a le s a n d p r o f it s ae d o w n a b o u t 5 % a n d 1 0 % r e s p e c t iv e ly o n t h e f ir s t fo u r
m o n t h s c o m p a r e d t o t h e e q u r v a le n t p e r io d la s t y e a r

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

B e c a u se P h i l p o t t w a s y o u n g , h a d b e e n w o rk in g a l Ih e f a c to r y a n d k n e w
m a n y o f th e w o r k e r s , w a s s o c ia b le a n d , b e i n g 'j u s t a s tu d e n t', w a s n o t p e rc e iv e d
a i a th r e a t o r a s s o m e k in d o f sp y , s h e w a s a b le to p e r s u a d e a g o o d n u m b e r o f
w o rk e rs to ta k e p a r t in a n in te rv ie w . A s p a r t o f th e in te r v ie w , s h e to o k an
e x c e rp t tr o m t h e o v e r h e a d slid e s a n d a sk e d th e s u b je c ts to a n s w e r q u e s tio n s
c n its c o n te n t . T h e e x c e rp t is in (1 3 ).
( 1 3 ) X s a le s w e r e 5 % a b o v e t h e A p r il 1 9 9 6 le v e l b u t y e a r t o d a t e a r e 7 % d o w n
o n la s t y e a r a n d 1 5 % b e lo w a d a t u m w h ic h a s s u m e d a m a j o r b o o s t f r o m th e
r e la u n c h .

Fh il p o t t a s k e d h e r s u b je c ts to s a y w h ic h o f t h e fo llo w in g f o u r p r o p o s itio n s
w ere tr u e .

S a le s o f t h e p r o d u c t a r e a b o v e t h e le v e l t h e y w e r e a t in A p r il 1 9 9 6
S a le s a r e d o w n o n t h e s a m e t im e la s t y e a r
S a le s a r e c u r r e n t l y b e lo w t h e p r o j e c t e d t a r g e t
T h i s t a r g e t w a s s e t , t h i n k i n g t h a t s a l e s w o u l d b e im p r o v e d b e c a u s e o f a r e l a u n c h o f
th e p ro d u ct

T h e in te rv ie w re v e a le d a h ig h le v el o f d is c o m f o r t w ith f o r m a l w r itte n l a n
g u a g e a n d its in t e r p r e ta ti o n . M o r e th a n h a lf th e s u b je c ts d id n o t e v e n a tt e m p t
th e e x e rc ise . O f th o s e w h o d id , s o m e g o t n o n e o f t h e p r o p o s iti o n s c o rre c t.
S o m e s u b je c ts , h o w e v e r, d id g a in h ig h sc o re s , in c lu d in g full m a r k s . M a n y
s u b je c ts to o k a lo n g tim e to c o m p l e te th e te s t, w ith th e a v e ra g e t i m e b e in g ju s t
e v e r 10 m in u te s . A n u n e x p e c te d o b s ta c le w a s th a t m a n y s u b je c ts p a r a p h r a s e d
t i e s e n te n c e s id e a lly in s p e e c h , b u t re fu s e d to w r i t e t h i s v e r s io n d o w n a n d e v e n
tn e m o s t v e rb o s e s u b je c ts a s k e d fo r c o n f i r m a tio n t h a t w h a t th e y h a d w ritte n
w as c o r r e c t. ( S o m e m e n p r o v id e d f u r th e r e v id e n c e f o r th e b y n o w w e ll- k n o w n
p h e n o m e n o n o t w o m e n in m a n y h o u s e h o ld s b e in g t h e u s e r s o l w r it te n la n
gu ag e. D u r in g th e in te rv ie w , t h e m e n c o m m e n te d t h a t t h e i r w iv e s a lw a y s d id
t i e w r itin g a t h o m e .) O th e r q u e s t io n s a s k e d t h e s u b je c ts w h e th e r p a r tic u la r
e x c e rp ts w e r e m o r e a b s t r a c t o r h y p o th e tic a l th a n o r d i n a r y la n g u a g e . T e rm s
s u c h a s a b stra c t, h y p o th e tic a l a n d o r d in a r y la n g u a g e s im p ly s o w e d c o n fu s io n .
To s u m u p , P h il p o tts re s e a rc h s h o w e d t h a t n o t o n ly a r e c o m p le x s t r u c tu r e s
a v o id e d in s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h b u t m a n y s p e a k e r s ( o f E n g lis h in h e r s t u d y b u t
h e r f i n d in g s a p p ly g e n e ra lly ) c a n n o t in te r p r e t th e m in w r itin g a n d in d e e d
a v o id w r it in g a n y te x ts a l all.

La n gu a ge C o m p lexity

How (written) language

becomes complex
T he a b o v e a c c o u n t o ! la n g u a g e c o d e , c o m m u n ic a t io n a n d a fa c to ry w o rk fo rc e
is a v a lu a b le r e m in d e r th a t la n g u a g e c o d e s d o n o t b e c o m e e la b o r a te a n d
c o m p le x a ll b y th e m s e lv e s . T h e u s e r s o t la n g u a g e c o d e s e la b o r a te th e m fo r
p a r tic u la r p ra c tic e s a n d t h e e la b o r a ti o n m a y a ffe c t s y n ta x a n d v o c a b u la ry .
All th is is w e ll- k n o w n to s o c io lin g u is ts c o n c e r n e d w ith s t a n d a r d a n d n o n s t a n d a r d la n g u a g e . A s re c o u n te d to s t u d e n ts ta k in g i n t r o d u c t o r y c o u rs e s in
s o c io lin g u is tic s , w h e r e a n u m b e r o f v a r ie tie s c o - e x is t i n a p o litic a l u n it , o n e
v a rie ty is s e le c te d a s t h e s t a n d a r d a n d is c o d if ie d a n d e la b o r a te d fo r p a r t ic u l a r
p u r p o s e s . T h e r e a lity is th a t w h a te v e r g r o u p o f s p e a k e r s h a s p o litic a l, m ilita r y
a n d e c o n o m ic p o w e r u s e th e i r v a r ie ty a n d im p o s e its u s e in f o r m a l, p u b lic
s itu a tio n s . T h e v a r ie ty b e g in s to b e a n a ly s e d a n d d e s c r ib e d ; t h e d c s c r ib e rs
o fte n d o t h e i r w o r k w ith a v ie w to 'im p r o v in g ' th e la n g u a g e a n d c r e a tin g
s t a n d a r d g r a m m a t ic a l n o r m s . P a r tic u la r g r o u p s o f u s e r s e la b o r a te t h e l a n
g u ag e f o r p a r t ic u l a r p u r p o s e s s u c h a s t h e k e e p in g o f r e c o r d s , th e w r i t i n g o f
law s, th e la n g u a g e o f d if fe re n t ty p e s o f p o e tr y a n d s o o n .
D e u ts c h e r ( 2 0 0 0 ) c o n tr ib u t e s to t h e v ie w o f G u ir a u d (1 9 6 3 ) a n d P a lm e r
(1 9 5 4 ) w ith h is w o rk o n A k k a d ia n , a la n g u a g e w h o s e w r it te n tr a d it io n la s te d
fo r 2 ,0 0 0 y e a rs. H e d e m o n s tr a t e s t h a t t h e e a r lie r w r itte n r e c o r d s c o n ta i n s im
ple n o n - r e c u r s iv e s t r u c tu r e s b u t n o n e t h a t w e w o u ld r e c o g n iz e a s c o m p le m e n t
c la u se s. F in ite c o m p le m e n t c la u s e s e m e r g e d slo w ly , p o s s ib ly to s a tis f y c o m
m u n ic a tiv e n e e d s in B a b y lo n ia n so c ie ty . S a m p s o n (2 0 0 9 , p p . 1 6 - 1 7 ) s ta te s
th a t it w o u ld b e im p o s s ib le t o p r o v id e a n a d e q u a t e O ld C h in e s e tr a n s la t io n
f i r t h e o p e n i n g s e n te n c e o f th e U n ite d N a tio n s C h a r te r . T h a t s e n te n c e h as
a n e x tr e m e ly in v o lv e d s y n ta x w ith s e v e ra l la y ers o f s u b o r d i n a t i o n , a n d O ld
C h in e s e d id n o t h a v e s u c h s y n ta c tic d e v ic e s. M o d e r n C h in e s e , a la n g u a g e w ith
a n e x tr e m e ly lo n g tr a d it io n o f b e in g w r itte n a n d e la b o r a te d , c a n b e u s e d to
p ro v id e a n a d e q u a te tr a n s la t io n . S a m p s o n (2 0 0 9 , p . 16) re f e rs to G ils c o n t e n
tio n t h a t o ffic ia l, f o r m a l w r itte n I n d o n e s ia n is t o s o m e e x te n t a n a rtific ia l c o n
s tr u c t, c r e a te d to m i r r o r th e lo g ic a l p r o p e r tie s o f E u r o p e a n la n g u a g e s.
C o m p le x w r itte n la n g u a g e , t h e n , is d e v e lo p e d b y g r o u p s o f u s e r s c o lla b o
ra tin g in p a r t ic u l a r ta s k s a n d la n g u a g e p ra c tic e s a n d e m e r g e s g ra d u a lly . T h e
g r a d u a l e m e r g e n c e o f c o m p le x , e la b o r a te d s e n te n c e s t r u c t u r e in w r it te n la n
g u a g e h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d fo r v a r i o u s la n g u a g e s w i t h lo n g t r a d it io n s o f w r itin g .

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T h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f s e n te n c e s t r u c t u r e is d is c u s s e d , f o r e x a m p le , b y P a lm e r
a n d G u ir a u d . P a lm e r (1 9 5 4 , p . 1 19) r e m a r k s t h a t c o m p le x s e n te n c e s in w r itte n
I j t i n p ro s e w e r e c o n s c io u s ly d e v e lo p e d b y g e n e r a tio n s o f w r ite r s a n d t h a t th e
r e s u ltin g b o d y o f r h e to r ic a l c o n v e n tio n s h a d to b e ta u g h t. O n c e th e v e rn a c u la r
R o m a n c e la n g u a g e s h a d b r o k e n a w a y f r o m L a tin , th e o r g a n i z a ti o n o f c la u s e s
i n to s e n te n c e s h a d to b e e s ta b lis h e d fo r e a c h v e r n a c u l a r R o m a n c e la n g u a g e as
ii b e g a n to b e u s e d a s a v e h ic le fo r p ro s e li te r a tu r e . G u ir a u d (1 9 6 3 , p . 1 13)
o b s e rv e s th a t t h e O ld F re n c h lite r a r y la n g u a g e w a s v e r y c lo s e to th e sp o k e n
la n g u a g e , h a v in g a n e s s e n tia lly p a r a ta c tic o r g a n i z a ti o n o f c la u s e s in to la rg e r
u n its. S u c h a s y n ta x n 'a ja m a is e u le n t r a n e m e n t o u la p r a t iq u e q u i la u r a i e n t
p li e le x p r e s s io n d 'u n e p e n s e la b o r e ; e lle ig n o r e l'a r tic u la ti o n lo g iq u e
d e la d m o n s tr a t io n s c ie n tifiq u e o u les m a n d r e s d e l 'a r g u m e n t a tio n p h il o s o
p h iq u e . [h a s n e v e r h a d th e tr a in i n g o r p r a c tic e t h a t w o u ld h a v e f o r m e d it to
th e e x p re s s io n o f e la b o r a te d th o u g h t; it is u n a w a r e o f th e lo g ic a l s t r u c tu r e o f
s c ie n tific a r g u m e n t o r t h e m e a n d e r in g s o f p h ilo s o p h ic a l d is c u ssio n '. JM ]
It is s ig n ific a n t th a t G u ir a u d m e n t io n s th e u s e s to w h ic h la n g u a g e is p u t by
lite ra te h u m a n b e in g s ; F re n c h s y n ta x d id n o t d e v e lo p a c o m p le x , h y p o ta c tic
o rg a n iz a tio n o i c la u s e s b y s o m e m y s te rio u s p ro c e s s b u t th r o u g h th e c o n s c io u s

e ffo rts o f c e r ta in lite r a te p e o p le to c o n v e r t F re n c h in to a n i n s t r u m e n t s u ita b le

fo r t h e p u r p o s e s s e r v e d b y C la ss ic a l L a tin .
It m u s t b e e m p h a s iz e d th a t n e it h e r P a lm e r n o r G u ir a u d s u g g e s ts th a t
t i e d e v e lo p m e n t o f s u b o r d in a te c la u s e s w a s s u b s e q u e n t to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f
w r itte n L a tin a n d w r it te n F re n c h . R a th e r th e y a llu d e to th e o r g a n iz a tio n o l
se v e ra l o r m a n y c la u s e s in to a s e n te n c e a n d th e w a y in w h ic h th e c o n v e n tio n s
g o v e rn in g t h i s o r g a n i z a ti o n w e re d e v e lo p e d b y t h e u s e r s o f a g iv e n w r itte n
la n g u a g e . T h e y a ls o a llu d e to th e sp e c ia l d e v e lo p m e n t o f la n g u a g e b y s c ie n tis ts
f o r th e a c c u ra te d e s c r ip tio n o f s c ie n tific d a ta , e x p e r i m e n t s a n d th e o r ie s , w h ic h
is q u i t e in a c c o r d w ith t h e c o m m e n ts b y O n g ( 1 9 8 2 ) o n t h e r o le o l th e R oyal
S o c ie ty in B r ita in in th e la te s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y in e n c o u r a g in g th e e m e r
g e n c e o f a s p e c ia l s c ie n tific la n g u a g e a n d th e lo g ic a l p r e s e n ta tio n o f h y p o th e
ses, d a t a a n d c o n c lu s io n s . lo c e ly n e F e rn a n d e z - V e s t ( p e r s o n a l c o m m u n ic a t io n )
p o in t s o u t t h a t a s im ila r o b s e r v a tio n c a n b e m a d e a b o u t th e O l d S w e d ish leg a l
la n g u a g e , w h ic h w a s b a s e d o n t h e p a r a ta c tic o r g a n i z a ti o n o f c la u s e s in th e
s p o k e n la n g u a g e . O v e r tim e , th is le g al la n g u a g e w a s e la b o r a te d a n d p r o v id e d
w ith t h e h y p o ta c tic o r g a n iz a tio n o f c la u s e s i n t o s e n te n c e s ty p ic a l o f e la b o
ra te d w r it te n la n g u a g e .
T w o g e n e ra l p o in t s c o m e o u t o f th e a b o v e . 'H ie first is s im p ly th a t J a c k e n d o ff
(1 9 9 3 , p . 3 2 ) is m is ta k e n w h e n h e a s s e r ts th a t th e e a rlie s t w r itte n d o c u m e n ts

Lan gu age C o m p lexity

a lr e a d y d is p la y t h e fu ll e x p re s siv e v a r i e ty a n d g r a m m a t ic a l c o m p le x ity o f
m o d e r n la n g u a g e s.' T h e e a rlie s t S u m e r ia n r e c o r d s , f o r in s ta n c e , a r e o f b o o ty ,
g ra in s to r e s , ro y a l p o s s e s s io n s . H o o d s, a s tr o n o m ic a l o b s e r v a tio n s a n d s o o n
(G o o d y , 1977, p p . 9 0 - 9 ) . T h a t is, th e y a r e lists, a n d lists o f f e r little o p p o r t u n i t y
f:>r e la b o r a tin g s y n ta x . O n g (1 9 8 2 ) s e ts o u t th e p r o p e r tie s o f th e la n g u a g e o f
th e O ld T e s ta m e n t t h a t in d i c a te t h a t th e s y n ta x a n d d is c o u r s e o r g a n iz a tio n
o f th is c o lle c tio n o f te x ts h a v e m a n y c h a ra c te ris tic s o f t h e te x ts p r o d u c e d in
o ra l s o c ie tie s . C ru c ia lly , n o e la b o r a te d s y n ta x . ( S a m p s o n , 2 0 0 9 , p p . 6 - 7 r e p o r ts
th a t h is r e f e re n c e to O n g p r o d u c e d a f u r o r e o n th e L in g u is t L is t, w ith c la im s
th a t O ld H e b r e w h a d m u c h m o r e in th e w a y o f c la u s e s u b o r d i n a t i o n t h a n O n g
im a g in e d . O n g , h o w e v e r, w a s n o t m a k i n g a n y c la im s a b o u t O ld H e b r e w in
g e n e ra l b u t a b o u t a p a r t ic u l a r s e t o f te x ts.) J a c k e n d o f f s a s s e rtio n is a ls o c o u n
te re d b y th e w o r k o l P a lm e r a n d G u ir a u d re f e r r e d to ab o v e .
T h e s e c o n d p o i n t c o n c e r n s la n g u a g e a s a s o c ia l a n d c u lt u r a l p h e n o m e n o n
a n d a s a p sy c h o lo g ic a l ( a n d b io lo g ic a l) p h e n o m e n o n . P in k e r (1 9 9 4 , p . 18)
c e c la re s th a t la n g u a g e is n o m o r e a c u ltu r a l i n v e n t io n th a n u p r i g h t p o s tu r e
a n d is n o t a c u ltu r a l a r te f a c t t h a t w e le a r n th e w a y w e le a rn to tell t h e tim e .
T h e d e c la ra tio n c o n ta in s a la rg e g ra in

o t tru th

in

th a t th e p ro c e s s e s b y w h ic h

h u m a n s h a n d le s e q u e n c e s o f s y m b o ls c a n c e r ta in ly b e re g a r d e d , in P in k e r s
w o rd s , a s a d is ti n c t p ie c e o f t h e b io lo g ic a l m a k e - u p o f o u r b r a in s , b u t t h e v a r i
o u s g e n re s , re g is te rs a n d th e i r c o r r e s p o n d in g s y n ta x a n d v o c a b u la r y a r e c u l
tu r a l a r te f a c ts ( a n d in p a r tic u la r , th e e la b o r a te d s y n ta x t h a t m a r k s o f f w r itte n
la n g u a g e f r o m s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e ). T h e s e h a v e b e e n c o n s c io u s ly
c e v e lo p e d a n d e la b o r a te d b y c e r ta in u s e r s o f w r it te n la n g u a g e a n d d e v e lo p e d
in d if fe re n t w a y s in d if f e r e n t c u ltu r e s . E x a m p le s a r e th e lo n g e r s e n te n c e s ,
a lm o s t th e e q u iv a le n t o f p a r a g r a p h s , w r it te n b y P e p y s a n d l a n e A u s te n , say,
c o m p a r e d w ith t h e s h o r t e r s e n te n c e s o f m o d e r n n o v e lis ts s u c h a s P e n e lo p e
L ively a n d S u s a n H ill. (S e e th e d is c u s s io n in M ille r a n d W e in e rt, (2 0 0 9 ),
p p . 4 1 - 5 ) . M o d e r n te x ts o f a ll s o r ts o ffe r e x a m p le s o f te x t s e n te n c e s t h a t d o n o t
c o n ta i n a fin ite v e rb ; M ille r a n d W e in e r t p r e s e n t e x a m p le s f r o m F re n c h a n d
R u ssian a n d s e e p p . 2 5 - 2 6 fo r e x a m p le s o f te x t s e n te n c e s f r o m c o n te m p o r a r y
E n g lish . A lso s u p p o r tin g t h e id e a t h a t la n g u a g e is in (p o s s ib ly la r g e ) p a r t
a s o c ia l p h e n o m e n o n a re , a g a in , t h e re s e a rc h e s o f P a lm e r a n d G u ir a u d , G i l s
a r g u m e n t a b o u t t h e c o n s c io u s d e v e lo p m e n t o f f o r m a l, w r it te n I n d o n e s ia n
(see a b o v e ) a n d th e c o m m e n ts o f L e w is (1 9 5 3 ) th a t a tig h te r , m o r e E u ro p e a n '
s e n te n c e s t r u c tu r e w as re p la c in g th e r a m b lin g s t r u c tu r e of tr a d itio n a l T u rk is h
w r itte n s e n te n c e s , m a d e p o s s ib le b y th e m a n y n o n - f in it e n o m in a l c o n s tru c tio n s .
A m o r e a c c u ra te s t a te m e n t w o u ld h a v e b e e n t h a t in f lu e n tia l a n d p r o b a b ly

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

y o u n g e r u s e r s o f w r itte n T u rk is h w e re a d o p t i n g a n e w t y p e o f s e n te n c e
s tr u c tu r e .
T h e a b o v e p a r a g r a p h s d e a l w ith t h e e la b o r a ti o n o f s y n ta x a s a c o n s c io u s
so cial a c tiv ity a m o n g in f lu e n tia l g r o u p s o f w r ite r s . M a ir a n d L eech (2 0 0 6 ,
p. 3 3 6 ) p r o p o s e t h a t a n o p p o s in g la n g u a g e p r a c tic e (a ls o c o n s c io u s ly a d o p te d )
is n o w r e d u c i n g t h e d e g r e e o f e la b o r a ti o n i n t h e w r it te n s y n ta x o f E n g lis h . O n e
e x a m p le o f c h a n g e in la n g u a g e p ra c tic e s is w h a t M a ir a n d L e e c h (2 0 0 6 , p . 3 36)
call c o llo q u ia liz a tio n , t h e u s e in w r it te n la n g u a g e o l le a tu r e s a s s o c ia te d w ith
s p o k e n la n g u a g e : s e m i- m o d a ls - y o u w a n t to d o it th is w a y , th e g e t p a s s iv e , th a t
c r z e ro re la tiv e c la u s e s , a n d s in g u la r they. N o n e o f th e s e is n e w ; in fa c t, th e la st
tn r e e a r e a tte s te d in th e e a rly s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y . S o m e o f th e m h a v e th e ir
c w n f u n c tio n s a n d m e a n in g s : s in g u la r th e y e n a b le s w r ite r s to a v o id t h e c lu m s y
lie o r sh e. t h e g e t p a ss iv e is d y n a m ic a n d is lr e q u c n tly , b u t b y n o m e a n s e x c lu
sively, u s e d fo r a d v e rs e e v e n ts a n d th a t is th e n o r m in re s tric tiv e re la tiv e c la u s e s
in A m e r ic a n E n g lis h . N o t a ll th e s e c h a n g e s r e p r e s e n t a r e d u c t io n in e la b o r a t o n ; a lo n g p a ss iv e is e q u a lly c o m p le x w h e th e r it c o n ta in s b e o r get. B u t re la t ve c la u s e s w ith z e r o o r th a t c o m p l e m e n t iz e r s a r e less c o m p le x t h a n o n e s w ith
w

( s e e t h e d is c u s s io n o f re la tiv e c la u s e s o n p p . 1 2 2

1 2 7 ), a n d th e u s e o f

t h e y

e n a b le s w r ite r s to g e t r i d o f a w k w a rd p h r a s e s s u c h a s h e or s h e o r h is o r hers.
C o m p le x ity o f g r a m m a r is a n in tr ic a te to p ic t h a t c o n n e c t s d ir e c tly w ith th e
c o n tr a s t b e tw e e n s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e a n d f o r m a l w r itte n la n g u a g e
a n d w ith t h e c o n tr o v e rs ia l to p ic o f lin g u is tic c o m p e te n c e a n d w h e th e r all
tn e n a tiv e s p e a k e r s o f a g iv e n la n g u a g e h a v e t h e s a m e le v e l o f c o m p e te n c e .
T h e c o n t r a s t b e tw e e n s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e a n d w r it te n la n g u a g e is
g e n e ra lly ta k e n a s d e m o n s tr a t e d . T h e q u e s tio n o f e q u a lity o f c o m p e te n c e
is le ft o p e n , b u t i t is c le a r t h a t s p e a k e r s w h o d o n o t h a v e lo n g e x p o s u r e to
w r itte n la n g u a g e c a n n o t d e a l w ith its s t r u c tu r e s w h e n th e y a r e li s t e n in g t o a
te x t. A m o u n t o f e x p o s u r e to w r it te n la n g u a g e is o n e o f t h e c e n tr a l issu e s in th e
fo llo w in g c h a p te r o n f i r s t la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n a n d h o w q u ic k ly c h ild r e n
a c q u ir e a k n o w le d g e o f th e i r n a tiv e la n g u a g e .

First Language Acquisition

Chapter Outline
B y w h a t a g e h a v e c h ild r e n a c q u ir e d t h e ir n a t iv e l a n g u a g e ?

240

P o v e rt y o f s t im u lu s

243

T h is fin a l c h a p t e r o ff e rs a c ritic a l a c c o u n t o f th e o r ie s o f first la n g u a g e

a c q u is itio n . F r o m p p . 2 - 1 1 it p ic k s u p t h e d is c u s s io n o t w h a t s y n ta x is (d e s
c rip tiv e s y n ta x vs th e o r y o f t h e la n g u a g e fa c u lty ) a n d f r o m t h e p re v io u s
c h a p te r i t p ic k s u p t h e to p ic o f la n g u a g e c o m p le x ity . T h e c e n tr a l id e a is th a t
th e C h o m s k y a n th e o r y o f f i r s t la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n is n o t a d e q u a t e b e c a u s e it
c o e s n o t ta k e in to a c c o u n t t h e c h a r a c te r is tic s o f s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e ,
w h ic h is w h a t c h ild r e n a r e e x p o s e d t o in la rg e m e a s u r e , a n d it d o e s n o t re c k o n
w ith t h e p r o p e r tie s o f w r it te n la n g u a g e , th e n a tu r e o f w r itte n te x ts a n d th e w a y
h w h ic h c h ild r e n a r r iv e a t s o m e c o m m a n d o f w r it in g a n d r e a d in g . A m o r e
s a tis f a c to r y th e o r y o f la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n lo o k s m o r e lik e ly to e m e r g e fro m
th e a p p r o a c h a d v o c a te d b y re s e a rc h e rs s u c h a s T o m a se llo .
T h e r e a r e five s t r a n d s to th e d is c u s s io n :

t h e a g e b y w h i c h c h il d r e n h a v e a c q u i r e d w h a t k n o w l e d g e o f t h e i r n a t i v e l a n g u a g e ,
w i t h p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t io n t o li t e r a c y i n t h e b r o a d e s t s e n s e ;
t h e id e a s o f p o v e r t y o f s t i m u l u s a n d n e g a t i v e e v i d e n c e ;
t h e p r o ie c t i o n o n t o c h il d r e n ( a n d a d u l t s p e a k e r s ) o f t h e in t r i c a t e a n a ly s e s d e v is e d
b y a n a ly s t s ( i e

a n a ly s t s w o r k i n g w i t h a n y g e n e r a t i v e m o d e l ) t o h a n d l e m a g n a

s y n t a x , f r o m t h e s im p l e s t , m o s t f r e q u e n t s t r u c t u r e s t o t h e m o s t c o m p l e x a n d r a r e ;
t h e f r e q u e n c y o f f ix e d o r s e m i - f i x e d p h r a s e s
t h e a c q u i s it io n o f l a n g u a g e i n c o n t e x t .

238

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

B o e c k x (2 0 0 6 , p . 2 , f n l ) b e m o a n s t h e s a d s i tu a t io n ' in w h ic h n o t e v e ry b o d y
a c c e p ts th e h y p o th e s is t h a t h e a n d m a n y o th e r s c o n s id e r d e m o n s tr a t e d b e y o n d
all d o u b t : t h a t h u m a n s c o u ld n o t a c q u ir e th e i r n a tiv e la n g u a g e u n le s s th e ir
lin g u is tic a b ility w e re s u p p o r te d b y s o m e i n n a t e c o m p o n e n t . B o e c k x d o e s
r o t a r g u e t h e c a se in d e t a i l , m e r e ly p o in t in g | o u t | t h a t th e a r g u m e n ts ra is e d
a g a in s t a n i n n a t e la n g u a g e f a c u lty a r e e x tr e m e ly w e a k a n d v e r y o f te n in c o h e r
e n t (s e e , fo r e x a m p le , C o w ie 19 9 9).' B o e c k x ' c o m m e n ts a r e m is p la c e d , sin c e
t i e r e is g e n e ra l a g r e e m e n t a m o n g lin g u is ts a n d p s y c h o lin g u is ts t h a t c h ild re n
re q u ire s o m e s o r t o f i n n a t e fa c u lty to a c q u ir e la n g u a g e . W h e r e p e o p le d iv e rg e
is o v e r th e p r o p e r tie s o f th e i n n a t e fa c u lty : is it r ic h ly e n d o w e d w ith in f o rm a t.o n a b o u t u n iv e r s a l c o n s t r a in t s o n p o s s ib le s y n ta c tic s t r u c tu r e s a n d core f e re n tia l re la tio n s ? Is it s im p ly th e a b ility to re c o g n iz e r e c u r r e n t b u n d le s o f
s tim u li ( o l w h a te v e r s o r t) , to b u i l d h y p o th e s e s a b o u t t h e in t e r p r e ta ti o n o l th e
b u n d le s in te r m s o f c a te g o rie s a n d to test th e h y p o th e s e s a g a in s t m o r e d a ta ?
T o m a s e llo (2 0 0 3 , p p . 3 - 4 ) s u g g e s ts th a t , w h ile c h ild r e n d o n o t h a v e th e
C h o m s k y a n i n n a t e la n g u a g e fa c u lty , th e y d o h a v e c o n s id e r a b ly m o r e t h a n th e
b a sic m e c h a n is m s o f s im p le a s s o c ia tio n a n d b lin d i n d u c t io n fo r th e le a r n in g
c f p a tte rn s . H e a ttr ib u te s tw o

im p o r ta n t s e ts o l s k ills t o

c h ild r e n , th e

a b ility

to re a d th e in t e n ti o n s o f o th e r s a n d t h e a b ility t o f i n d p a t t e r n s in t h e s tim u li
t.ie y re c e iv e . Y o u n g c h ild r e n q u ic k ly c o m e to fo llo w th e a tt e n ti o n a n d g e s tu r
in g o f o t h e r p e r s o n s to d is ta n t o b je c ts a n d e v e n ts , to d ir e c t t h e a t t e n t i o n o f
e th e r s t o d is ta n t o b je c ts a n d e v e n ts a n d to le a r n th e in t e n ti o n a l a c ts o f o th e r s ,
in c lu d in g th e i r c o m m u n ic a tiv e a c ts u n d e r l a in b y c o m m u n ic a tiv e in te n tio n s .
T h e y a ls o h a v e th e a b ility to f o r m p e r c e p tu a l a n d c o n c e p tu a l c a te g o rie s o f
s im ila r o b je c ts a n d e v e n ts , to f o r m s e n s o r y - m o t o r s c h e m a s f r o m r e c u r r e n t
p a tt e r n s o f p e r c e p t io n a n d a c tio n , to a n a ly s e th e d is t r i b u t i o n o f v a r io u s k in d s
c f p e r c e p tu a l a n d b e h a v io u r a l s e q u e n c e s , a n d to c r e a te a n a lo g ie s a c ro s s tw o o r
m o r e c o m p le x w h o le s, b a s e d o n t h e s im ila r f u n c tio n a l r o le s o f s o m e e le m e n ts
in th o s e d if fe rin g w h o le s.
T h e a c q u is itio n o f m e a n i n g is lik e w ise to b e g r o u n d e d in e x p e rie n c e .
T o m a se llo (2 0 0 3 , p . 5 4 ) su g g e s ts th a t w h a te v e r r e p r e s e n ta t io n s u n d e r l ie c h il
d r e n s u s e o f re la tio n a l w o r d s a n d v e r b s c a n b e s p e c ifie d in te r m s o f sp a ce ,
tim e , c a u s a lity a n d o b je c ts ( a n d p e r h a p s p o s s e s s io n ). T h e s e a r e a ll c o n c e p ts
t h a t c a n b e c o n s t r u c te d b y y o u n g c h ild r e n f r o m t h e i r o w n e x p e rie n c e . F o r
in s ta n c e , t h e a c ti o n o f g iv in g c a n b e c o n c e p tu a liz e d a s a s e q u e n c e o f s te p s : a
p e r s o n m a y b e c o - lo c a te d w ith o r p o s s e s s a n o b je c t b u t s o m e o n e e ls e c o m e s to
be c o - lo c a te d w ith o r p o ss e ss t h a t o b je c t. T h i s v ie w o f h o w a b s tr a c t m e a n in g s

First Lan gu age A cq u isitio n

a r e c o n s t r u c te d 011 th e b a s is o f c o n c r e te r e la tio n a l m e a n in g s is e m in e n tly
c o m p a tib le w i t h th e lo c a lis t a n d C o g n itiv e L in g u is tic a n a ly s is o f c a s e re la tio n s ,
a s p e c t a n d s o o n , m e n t io n e d o n p . 2 1 5 , w h ic h is b a s e d o n g e n e ra l p r o p e r tie s
c f s y n ta x , m o r p h o lo g y a n d m e a n i n g a c ro s s la n g u a g e s .
T h e a p p r o a c h o u tl in e d b y T o m a s e llo u n d e r p i n s th is a c c o u n t o l s p o k e n a n d
w r itte n la n g u a g e a n d th e a c c o u n t in M ille r a n d W e in e r t (2 0 0 9 ). S in c e o u r
fo cu s h e r e is o n th e p r o p e r tie s o f s p o k e n a n d w r it te n la n g u a g e , t h e c o n tr a s t
b e tw e e n T o m a s c llo s a p p r o a c h a n d th e C h o m s k y a n a p p r o a c h w ill n o t b e
e x p lo r e d f u r th e r , b u t o n e ite m f r o m B o e c k x <2 0 0 6 , p . 8 ) r e q u ir e s a c o m m e n t.
B o e c k x d e s c r ib e s M in im a lis m a s a s k in g to w h a t e x te n t t h e a r c h ite c tu r e o f
p r e v io u s g e n e r a tiv e m o d e ls fo llo w s f r o m g e n e r a l p r o p e r tie s o f o p ti m a l , c o m
p u ta t io n a l ly e ffic ie n t s y s te m s . H e d ra w s a p a ra lle l b e tw e e n M in im a lis m a n d
m o d e r n th e o r e ti c a l p h y s ic s a n d d e c la re s t h a t t h e m i n im a lis t p r o g r a m m e h a s a
p a r tic u la r ly s t r o n g c o m m it m e n t to t h e G a lile a n v is io n o f n a tu r a l p h e n o m e n a
a n d th e o r y c o n s tr u c tio n : T h a t is, m in im a lis ts e n d o r s e t h e b e lie f ( h e ld b y all
m a jo r p r o p o n e n t s o f m o d e r n s c ie n c e , f r o m K e p le r to L in s te in ) t h a t n a tu r e is
th e r e a liz a tio n o f t h e s im p le s t c o n c e iv a b le m a th e m a tic a l id e a s, a n d t h e id ea
t h a t a t h e o r y s h o u l d b e m o r e h i g h ly v a lu e d il it " g iv e [ s ] u s a s e n s e t h a t n o t h i n g

c o u ld b e c h a n g e d |T h e q u o te is f r o m W e in b e r g (2 0 0 1 , p. 3 9 ) .J T h e tr o u b le
is t h a t t h e g e n e ra lly re c e iv e d v ie w h a s b e e n t h a t la n g u a g e is n o t a n o p tim a l,
c o m p u ta tio n a lly e ffic ie n t sy s te m b u t a s y s te m w ith a g r e a t d e a l o f r e d u n d a n c y .
A n d it is all v e r y w ell h a v in g a th e o r y t h a t g iv e s th e s e n s e t h a t n o th i n g c o u ld
l:e c h a n g e d b u t il t h a t th e o r y fails to r e la te in a n y c o n v in c in g w a y to th e p r o p
e r tie s a n d th e a c q u is itio n o f s p o k e n la n g u a g e , a n d i f i t fails to ta k e i n t o a c c o u n t
th e d if fe re n c e s b e tw e e n s p o k e n a n d w r itte n la n g u a g e , t h e G a lile a n v is io n
re q u ire s t h a t it b e re v is e d o r e v e n a b a n d o n e d .
H o w lo n g d o e s it ta k e c h ild re n t o a c q u ir e t h e i r n a tiv e la n g u a g e ? P in k e r
(1 9 9 4 , p . 4 4 ) re f e rs t o 'th e th i r d y e a r o f life d u r i n g w h ic h c h ild re n s u d d e n ly
b e g in t o s p e a k in flu e n t s e n te n c e s , r e s p e c tin g m o s t o f th e f in e p o i n t s o f th e ir
c o m m u n it y s s p o k e n la n g u a g e . W h a t c o n s t r u c ti o n s a r e in c lu d e d in a c o m m u
n ity 's s p o k e n la n g u a g e is n o t s p e c ifie d , b u t la te r in th e b o o k . P in k e r (1 9 9 4 ,
p. 2 7 3 ) d e c la re s th a t it is sa fe to say th a t a ll la n g u a g e s a re a c q u ir e d w ith e q u a l
e ase b e t r e t h e c h ild t u r n s lo u r , e x c e p t fo r c o n s t r u c ti o n s t h a t a r e r a r e , a r e u se d
p r e d o m in a n t ly in w r it te n la n g u a g e o r a r e m e n ta lly ta x in g , s u c h a s T h e horse
tfia t th e e le p h a n t kic k e d k isse d th e p ig . T h i s v ie w is s t a n d a r d in p u b lic a tio n s o n
P rin c ip le s a n d P a ra m e te r s a n d M in im a lis m . F o r in s ta n c e , A d g e r (2 0 0 3 , p . 8 )
follow s P in k e r in s ta tin g t h a t m o s t c h ild r e n h a v e a c o m m a n d o v e r th e co re

239

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

s tr u c tu r e s o f th e i r la n g u a g e b y th e tim e t h e y a r e th re e . H e s u p p lie s t h e e x a m p le s
in ( l a ,b ) , w h ic h w e re p r o d u c e d b y a c h ild a t th e a g e o f 3 y e a rs a n d 2 m o n t h s

( 1 ) a . C a n I p u t m y h e a d i n t h e m a i l b o x s o t h e m a il m a n c a n k n o w w h e r e I a r e a n d
p u t m e i n t h e m a il b o x ?
( ? ) b . C a n I k e e p t h e s c r e w d r iv e r j u s t l i k e a c a r p e n t e r k e e p t h e s c r e w d r iv e r

T h e d if f ic u lty w ith P in k e r s s t a te m e n t is t h a t th e s y n ta x le a r n e d a f t e r th e age

c f f o u r is p r e s e n te d a s a n e x c e p tio n , b u t th e e x c e p tio n is e n o r m o u s . I t in c lu d e s
g a p p in g a n d a c c u s a tiv e - a n d - in f m itiv e s t r u c tu r e s , fu ll g e r u n d s a n d free p a r t i
c ip le s, W H re la tiv e c la u s e s , c e r ta in ty p e s o f a d v e r b ia l c la u s e , s u c h a s c la u s e s o f
c o n c e s s io n , c o m p le x N P s, p a r tic u la r ly o l t h e s o r t l o u n d in f o r m a l w r itin g , a n d
th e la rg e n u m b e r s o f G r e c o - L a tin a te v e r b s w ith th e i r p e c u lia r s y n ta x . (See
M ille r a n d W e in e rt, 2 0 0 9 , p p . 8 1 - 1 3 2 f o r t h e s y n ta x o f w r itte n a n d sp o k e n
la n g u a g e a n d p p . 1 3 3 -8 9 fo r N P s in w r it te n a n d s p o k e n la n g u a g e .)
T h e d if fic u lty w ith A d g e rs e x a m p le s in ( 1 ) a n d (2 ) is t h a t t h e y a r e re le v a n t
d a ta o n l y o n th e a s s u m p ti o n t h a t all h u m a n s h a v e t h e s a m e lin g u is tic c o m p
te n c e . I f t h a t a s s u m p ti o n is n o t a c c e p te d (s e e S a m p s o n . 7 0 0 9 ). w e m u s t ask
w h y it is le g itim a te to g e n e ra liz e f r o m o n e c h ild to all c h ild r e n o n t h e b a s is o f
a c o u p le o l e x a m p le s . A d g e r d o e s n o t d e f in e w h a t h e m e a n s b y c o r e s t r u c
tu r e s ; a d e f i n it io n o r a t le a st a list is e s s e n tia l, g iv e n th e a c c o u n t o f re la tiv e
d a u s e s o n p p . 1 0 4 -1 0 6 , w h ic h s h o w s t h a t i t c a n b e tr ic k y d e c id in g w h a t c o u n ts
as a s in g le c o n s t r u c ti o n . I n e a r lie r m o d e ls o f C h o m s k y a n g e n e ra tiv e g ra m m a r ,
t i e c o r e g r a m m a r o f a la n g u a g e c o n s is te d o f t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n s b a s e d o n w h a t
w e re ta k e n to b e th e in n a t e p r in c ip le s a n d p a r a m e te r s o l U n iv e rs a l G r a m m a r ,
w h ic h in c lu d e d th e c o n s t r u c ti o n s s u b je c t to c o n s t r a in t s o n m o v e m e n t, w h
rela tiv e c la u s e s a r e in t h i s s e t o l c o n s t r u c ti o n s , b u t w h re la tiv e c la u s e s a r e ty p i
cal o f w r it te n la n g u a g e a n d it lo o k s a s t h o u g h th e r e a r e m a n y w h re la tiv e c la u s e
c o n s tr u c tio n s , n o t ju s t a sin g le o v e r - a r c h in g o n e .

By what age have children acquired

their native language?
H a e g c m a n ( 1 9 9 1 , p . 16) say s B y t h e a g e o f s ix a c h ild e x p o s e d t o E n g lis h w ill
have c o n s t r u c te d t h e g r a m m a r o f h is la n g u a g e . . . ( H o w e v e r | w e g o o n le a r n
in g n e w w o r d s th r o u g h o u t o u r liv es. In a d d itio n , w e a ls o le a r n c e r t a in less
u s u a l c o n s t r u c ti o n s o f t h e la n g u a g e . T h e s e e x c e p tio n a l o r m a r k e d p a t t e r n s o f

First Lan gu age A cq u isitio n

th e la n g u a g e a r e n o t t a k e n t o b e p a r t o f t h e c o r e g r a m m a r . I t is c e r ta in ly tr u e
th a t c h ild r e n a c q u ir e a la rg e r a n g e o f s y n ta c tic s t r u c tu r e s a n d v o c a b u la r y b y
th e tim e t h e y a r c fo u r, b u t th e r e r e m a in s a v a st r a n g e o f w r itte n s y n ta x , d e r iv a
tio n a l m o r p h o lo g y a n d v o c a b u la r y w h ic h c h ild r e n s till h a v e to m a s te r a n d
w h ic h a r e n e it h e r tr iv ia l e x c e p tio n s to t h e g e n e r a l g r a m m a r n o r r a r e a n d
e x c e p tio n a l p a tte r n s . T h e y c o n s titu te a la rg e m a s s o f m a te r ia l t h a t c h ild re n
le a rn o v e r a n u m b e r o f y e a rs , th a t c h ild r e n a c q u ir e a t d if fe re n t r a te s , th a t
c h ild re n ty p ic a lly d o n o t c o m m a n d u n ti l t h e fin a l y e a r o l s e c o n d a r y e d u c a tio n
c r th e firs t y e a r o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n o r e v e n la te r a n d th a t m a n y c h ild r e n d o
r o t a c q u ir e a t all.
S o m e re s e a rc h e rs h a v e lo o k e d a t t h e k n o w le d g e o f E n g lis h d is p la y e d by
s c h o o lc h ild r e n . P e re r a < 1984) p r o v id e s a m a s s o f d a ta , w h ic h h a s n o t b e e n
ti k c n in to a c c o u n t b y a n y p r o p o n e n t s o f th e C h o m s k y a n v ie w o f firs t la n g u a g e
a c q u is itio n . H e r d a ta w a s p r e s e n te d in M ille r a n d W e in e r t (2 0 0 9 , p p . 3 9 7 - 8 )
a n d a r e r e p r o d u c e d h e re .

I.

s t u d i e s h a v e s h o w n t h a t o n ly h a l l o f a s e t o f t e n y e a r o l d s c o u l d a c c u r a t e l y in t e r
p r e t t h e s t r u c t u r e S u b j e c t - V e r b - S e c o n d O b j e c t - D i r e c t O b j e c t a s i n I'V e s h o w e d
h e r th e b o o k ,

ii.

e l e v e n y e a r o l d s r e g u l a r ly u s e a d v e r b s i n v e r b p h r a s e s , a s in h a v e b e e n a fv / a y s

iii.

t h e s e q u e n c e D e t e r m i n e r N o u n P r e p o s it io n a l P h r a s e is r a r e b e t w e e n t h e a g e s o f

t r y i n g . b u t s ix y e a r o ld s r a r e ly d o ;

f iv e a n d t w e l v e ;
iv.

t h e a b ilit y t o h a n d l e a r a n g e o f p r e - a n d p o s t n o m i n a l m o d i f i e r s is o n l y r e a c h e d
a b o u t a g e f if t e e n o r s ix t e e n ,

v.

a p a r t fro m s e t p h ra s e s s u c h a s m u m a n d d a d , c o -o r d in a t e d N o u n P h r a s e s a re n o t
u s e d e x t e n s iv e l y b e f o r e a g e f iv e a n d o n l y b e c o m e f r e q u e n t b e t w e e n t h e a g e s o f
e i g h t a n d t h ir t e e n ; u n s u r p r is i n g ly , s i n c e s p e a k e r s a v o i d c o m p l e x s u b j e c t N o u n
P h r a s e s , t h e e a r l ie s t c o o r d i n a t e d N o u n P h r a s e s f u n c t i o n a s D ir e c t O b je c t ,

V i.

c o n c e a l e d n e g a t i v e s a r e d i f f ic u lt

o n ly 4 4 %

o f a s a m p l e o f s e v e n y e a r o ld s

u n d e r s t o o d t h e s e n t e n c e T o m 's m o t h e r w a s a n y t h i n g b u t p l e a s e d , o n l y 5 8 %
u n d e rsto o d H

o n ly D a v id h a d

know n,

th e d o g

w a s q u it e

ta m e , a n d

o n ly

3 8 % u n d e r s t o o d M a r y 's d r e s s w a s n e i t h e r n e w n o r p r e tt y .
v ii.

t h e f u ll p a s s i v e a p p e a r s la t e in c h il d r e n 's s p e e c h -

o n e s t u d y f o u n d t h a t o n ly

3 0 % o f a s a m p l e o f e l e v e n y e a r o l d s u s e d a f u l l p a s s iv e ;
v iii.
ix .

c h il d r e n u n d e r e l e v e n d o n o t u s e f i n i t e o r n o n - f i n i t e c l a u s e s a s S u b je c t ;
W H c o m p l e m e n t s o f in d i r e c t s p e e c h m a y h a v e t h e w o r d o r d e r o f in t e r r o g a t i v e s
a s in I c a n ' t r e m e m b e r w h a t w a s i t a b o u t - a s o p p o s e d t o I c a n t r e m e m b e r w h a t
i t w a s a b o u t . | P e r e r a t r e a t s t h is a s a n e r r o r b u t s e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n o n p p
p p . 1 8 -2 0 .1

4 -6 and

242

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

x.

t h e v e r b s t h a t t a k e f in it e c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s b e i o n g to a li m it e d s e t - m a i n l y te ll,
k n o w , sh o w ,

x i.

in o n e s t u d y , f r e e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s a f t e r v e r b s lik e a s k . a s i n A s k H e l e n w h i c h b o o k

x ii.

a d v e r b i a l c l a u s e s o f t im e , r e a s o n a n d c o n d i t i o n a r e f o u n d i n c h il d r e n ' s s p e e c h ,

x iii.

e v e n w h e n c h il d r e n c a n u s e v a r io u s a d v e r b ia l c l a u s e s o f t im e , t h e y d o n o t a lw a y s

XIV.

o n e s t u d y f o u n d t h a t o n ly 4 0 % o f a s a m p l e o f n i n e y e a r o l d s u s e d r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s

( o r e a d , w e r e m i s u n d e r s t o o d b y 3 0 % o f a s a m p l e o f n i n e t e e n y e a r o ld s ;

b u t a d v e r b ia l c l a u s e s o f r e s u l t , p a c e , m a n n e r a n d c o n c e s s i o n a r e m u c h ra re r;

u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h ip b e t w e e n t h e m a i n c l a u s e a n d a d v e r b ia l c l a u s e ;

in s u b j e c t n o u n p h r a s e s ;
xv.

p r im a r y s c h o o lc h ild r e n

g e n e r a lly d o

not

use

r e la t iv e c l a u s e s i n t r o d u c e d b y

w h o m , w h o s e o r p r e p o s i t i o n p l u s a r e la t iv e p r o n o u n , a s i n t h e s h o p i n w h i c h w e
b o u g h t it.

(x v ) c o n f ir m s o u r d is c u s s io n o f re la tiv e c la u s e s o n p p . 1 0 4 -1 0 6 , b u t it a lso
sh o w s t h a t b y a g e six , c o n tr a r y to H a e g e m a n s s t a te m e n t, c h ild r e n h a v e n o t
m a s te r e d w h re la tiv e s, w h ic h a r e p a r t o f C h o m s k y a n c o r e g r a m m a r . I n fact,
P ereras w o r k in s c h o o ls s h o w s t h a t m o s t c h il d r e n u p to t h e a g e o l 12 d o n o t
u s e th e s e w h c o n s t r u c ti o n s , ( i ii ) , (iv ) a n d (x iv ) a r e c o m p a tib le w i t h th e f i n d
ings o f B ib e r t h a t in in f o r m a l s p o k e n la n g u a g e N P s a r c v e ry s im p le . A lo o k a t
th e a g e ra n g e s is in s tru c tiv e : c h ild r e n a g e d 6 a n d 11 ty p ic a lly c a n n o t handlec o m p le x N P s , b u t c h ild r e n r e a c h t h e a g e o f 16 b e fo r e th e y c a n p r o d u c e a n d
in te r p r e t c o m p le x N P s. (x ) is a n in d i c a ti o n o l a c h a r a c te r is tic t h a t is n o w
fa m ilia r: c o n s t r u c ti o n s t h a t w o u ld b e fre e ly g e n e r a te d b y r u le in a g e n e ra tiv e
g r a m m a r o f E n g lis h a r e in c h ild r e n s s p e e c h a n d w r itin g m o r e lik e te m p la te s
t h a t a llo w a m i n im u m a m o u n t o f m a n o e u v r in g . P o in t ( x ii) a c c o rd s w ith th e
ty p e s o f a d v e rb ia l f o u n d in s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lis h b y M ille r a n d W e in e r
(2009).
P e re r a c o lle c te d d a ta f r o m a la rg e s a m p le o f p r im a r y - s c h o o l c h ild r e n a n d
s s c o n d a r y - s c h o o l s t u d e n t s a n d m a n y s tu d ie s , s u c h a s t h e o n e b y C r a in a n d
N a k a y a m a re f e r r e d to o n p p . 1 0 4 -1 0 6 , c o lle c t d a ta f r o m s m a lle r se ts o f s u b je c ts.
In te n s iv e w o r k o n t h e la n g u a g e o f in d iv id u a l s p e a k e r s ( i n t h i s c a se , c h ild r e n )
is a ls o v a lu a b le , s in c e it g iv es a v ie w in d e p th t h a t c o m p l e m e n t s t h e b r o a d b u t
s u p e rfic ia l p e rs p e c tiv e o ffe re d b y la rg e s a m p le s . C a r r (2 0 0 7 , p . 6 7 4 ) r e p o r ts
th a t t h e th e o r y o f la n g u a g e , w h ic h h e c a lls R a d ic a l I n te r n a lis m , is h a r d to
re c o n c ile w ith th e lin g u is tic c o m p e te n c e o l a n 8 - y e a r - o ld c h il d , b ilin g u a l in
F re n c h a n d E n g lish , w h o s e la n g u a g e d e v e lo p m e n t C a r r w a s fo llo w in g in
d e ta il. R a d ic a l I n te r n a lis m , e s s e n tia lly t h e C h o m s k y a n th e o ry , ta k e s la n g u a g e
to b e a n in n a te ly e n d o w e d , s p e c ific a lly lin g u is tic m o d u l e in th e m i n d /b r a in .

First Lan gu age A cq u isitio n

L a n g u a g e h a s a r e a lity in d e p e n d e n t o f la n g u a g e s a n d is u n iv e rs a l, r a n g in g
e v e r all in d iv id u a ls w ith th e re le v a n t i n n a t e e n d o w m e n t.
T h e 8 - y e a r o ld c h ild s tu d ie d b y C a r r h a d n o t m a s te r e d th e fo llo w in g
a p p a r e n t ly b a s ic p o in t s o f F r e n c h g r a m m a r :

t h e u s e o f t h e c o m p l e m e n t i s e r c e q u e t h a t w h i c h ' , a s in J e s a is c e q u ' i l a d it k n o w
t h a t w h ic h h e h a s s a id , I k n o w w h a t h e s a id .
t h e u s e o f t h e s u b j u n c t iv e , t h e p r e s e n t s u b j u n c t iv e is r e q u ir e d i n c e r t a i n s u b
o r d in a t e c l a u s e s i n s p o k e n a n d w r i t t e n F r e n c h b u t T h e p a s t s u b j u n c t iv e is a c h a r a c
t e r is t ic o f f o r m a l w r i t t e n F r e n c h .
t h e fu t u r e te n se

A c c o rd in g t o C a r r th e la c k o f m a s te r y o f t h e a b o v e p o in t s is n o t re la te d to
th e c h ild s b ilin g u a lis m ; h is te a c h e rs r e p o r t th a t h is c o n tr o l o f F re n c h is o n
a p a r w ith th a t o l h is m o n o l in g u a l p e e r s . C a r r (2 0 0 7 , p . 6 7 5 ) a r g u e s th a t l a n
g u a g e a c q u is itio n , c o n tr a r y to t h e b e lie fs o f C h o m s k y , P in k e r , H a e g e m a n ,
A d g er a n d C h o m s k y a n s in g e n e ra l, is s lo w b e c a u s e o f t h e c o m p le x ity o f
la n g u a g e . ( H e re f e rs t o D a b ro w s k a s re s e a rc h o n th e la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n o f
a b o y w i t h P o lish a s h is n a tiv e la n g u a g e . T h e b o y d i d n o t h a v e a d e q u a te m a s
te ry o f th e g e n itiv e c a se u n ti l a g e 10 , t h e g e n itiv e b e in g a c e n tr a l c a s e in P o lish .)
H is o b s e r v a tio n s le a d h im to t h e o p in i o n t h a t s o m e s p e a k e r s n e v e r m a s te r all
th e c o m p le x ity , e s p e c ia lly t h e d e n s e s u b o r d in a te - c la u s e s t r u c tu r e s . T h is la tte r
v iew is e n tir e ly c o m p a tib le w ith t h e re s e a rc h o f P h il p o tt a n d B ric e 1 Ie a th . (See
p p . 2 3 0 -2 3 2 .) C a r r s o b s e r v a tio n s a ls o le a d h im to th e c o n c lu s io n t h a t d iffe re n t
c h ild r e n ta k e d if f e r e n t p a th s t o la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n . T h is v a r i a ti o n d o e s n o t
sit w ith th e C h o m s k y a n th e o ry , s in c e i n n a t e e n d o w m e n t is s a i d to b e in v a r ia n t
a c ro s s t h e sp e c ie s . ( T h e v a r i a ti o n is im p lic it in t h e n e g le c te d w o r k o f A n n e
P e te rs (1 9 8 3 ) , w h o p r o p o s e d t h a t m a n y c h ild r e n d o n o t a c q u ir e s m a ll lin g u is
tic u n its , w h ic h th e y t h e n c o m b i n e in to la r g e r o n e s b u t in s te a d u s e la rg e u n its
a s a w h o le f o r sp e c ific p u r p o s e s , le a r n in g g r a d u a lly h o w t h e la rg e u n it s b re a k
c o w n in to s m a lle r o n e s .)

Poverty of stimulus
C h o m s k y ( I 9 S 6 a , p p . x x v - x x v ii) se ts o u t t h e e s s e n tia ls o f t h e C h o m s k y a n
th e o r y o f first la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n . W h a t C h o m s k y c a lls P la to s p r o b le m is
to e x p la in h o w h u m a n s k n o w s o m u c h a b o u t th e i r n a tiv e la n g u a g e , g iv e n th a t
th e e v id e n c e a v a ila b le t o th e m is s o s p a r s e . A p p lie d t o la n g u a g e , th e p r o b le m is

243

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

th e p o v e r ty o f s t im u lu s : c h ild r e n l e a r n th e i r n a tiv e la n g u a g e f r o m a lle g e d ly
m e a g re , d e g e n e r a te d a ta ; le a r n in g it, f u r th e r m o r e , w ith o u t in s tr u c t io n o r
n e g a tiv e e v id e n c e , t h a t is, e v id e n c e t h a t p a r t i c u l a r s e q u e n c e s o l m o r p h s a n d
w o r d s a r e u n g r a m m a tic a l. T h e d a ta t o w h ic h c h ild r e n a r e e x p o s e d , s o th e
C h o m s k y a n th e o r y r u n s , d o n o t p r o v id e a n y th i n g lik e e n o u g h e v id e n c e fo r
c h ild re n to w o r k o u t th e c o r r e c t a n d c o m p le x s t r u c tu r e s w h ic h th e y n o n e t h e
less u s e u n e rr in g ly , a p p ly in g c o m p u ta tio n a lly c o m p le x s tr u c tu r e - d e p e n d e n t
ru les. T h e s o l u ti o n to t h e p r o b le m , in th e C h o m s k y a n th e o r y o l firs t la n g u a g e
a c q u is itio n , is to a s s u m e t h a t h u m a n s a r e e n d o w e d w ith a n in n a t e la n g u a g e
f a c u lty t h a t d e te r m in e s th e o p e r a t i o n o f v a r i o u s c o n s t r a in t s o n p o s s ib le s y n
tactic s t r u c tu r e s w ith o u t e x p o s u r e to E -la n g u a g e , o r e x te r n a l lin g u is tic d a ta .
S o m e m in o r , v a r ia b le , p r o p e r tie s a r e s w itc h e d o n b y e x p o s u r e to w h a te v e r
la n g u a g e a p a r t ic u l a r c h ild i s a c q u ir in g . T h e s e e s s e n tia ls c o n t i n u e to b e a n
in te g ra l c o m p o n e n t o f th e M in im a lis t P ro g r a m , w h o s e a m b i ti o n , a c c o r d in g to
B o eck x (2 0 0 6 , p . 1 0 ), is t o c o n s t r u c t e x p lic it m o d e l s o f t h e th r e e fa c to rs in f lu
e n c in g la n g u a g e d e s ig n : t h e g e n e tic c o m p o n e n t ( t h e i n n a t e la n g u a g e fa c u lty ) ,
e x p e rie n c e (e x p o s u r e to s p e c ific F .-la n g u a g e ), a n d t h e g e n e ra l p r o p e r tie s o f
w e ll d e s ig n e d , o p tim a l s y s te m s .

T h e lin e ta k e n h e r e is t h a t t h e c o n c e p t o f p o v e r ty o f s tim u lu s a n d th e
d a i m th a t c h ild r e n a r e e x p o s e d to m e a g r e , d e g e n e r a te d a ta a r e u n s u s ta in a b le .
T h is b e c o m e s q u i t e o b v io u s w h e n w e ta k e in to a c c o u n t t h e p r o p e r tie s o f
s p o n ta n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e , t h e p r o p e r tie s o f ( f o r m a l) w r it te n la n g u a g e ,
t i e w a y s in w h ic h c h ild r e n g a in k n o w le d g e o f s p o k e n a n d w r it te n la n g u a g e
a n d th e a g es a t w h ic h th e y d o so . O n t h e la s t p o in t , w e s im p ly re f e r r e a d e r s to
t i e p r e v io u s s e c tio n . C h ild r e n d o n o t le a r n t h e m a jo r ity o f th e s y n ta c tic s t r u c
tu r e s o f t h e i r n a tiv e la n g u a g e b y a g e th r e e o r a g e s ix a n d m a n y c o n s t r u c ti o n s
a re n o t m a s te r e d till t h e la te te e n s . P e re ra ( 1 9 8 4 ), C a r r (2 0 0 7 ) a n d D a b ro w s k a
(2 0 0 5 ) s u p p l y s o lid e v id e n c e t h a t la n g u a g e le a r n in g ta k e s p la c e q u it e slow ly.
W h a t c h ild r e n ty p ic a lly a c q u ir e in t h e First th r e e y e a rs o f life is k n o w le d g e
c f th e s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n v a rie ty o f th e i r n a tiv e la n g u a g e . ( T h e r e a r e o f
c o u rs e c h ild r e n w ith p a r e n ts w h o re a d s to rie s a n d r h y m e s t o th e m e v e ry day.
S u ch c h ild r e n p ic k u p w o r d s a n d p h r a s e s a n d e v e n w h o le c la u s e s t h a t m ig h t be
q u ite u n ty p ic a l o f e v e ry d a y s p e e c h . W e r e t u r n t o t h i s to p ic b e lo w .) A s a r g u e d
c n p p . 2 2 0 - 2 2 2 in c o n n e c t io n w ith la n g u a g e c o m p le x ity , a n d a s d e s c r ib e d
in d e ta il in M ille r a n d W e in e r t (2 0 0 9 ) , Z e m s k a ja (1 9 7 3 ) , B la n c h e -B e n v e n is te
(1 9 9 1 ) a n d m a n y o th e r s , th e s y n ta x o l s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e is v e ry
s im p le . M ille r a n d W e in e r t (2 0 0 9 ) p r o p o s e d , p o s s ib ly c o n tro v e rs ia lly , th a t
t i e e x te n d a b ility a n d c o m p le x ity o f c la u s e s a n d p h r a s e s is se v e re ly lim ite d .

First Lan gu age A cq u isitio n

O n t h e b a s is o f th e d a ta t h e y e x a m in e d - w h ic h w a s a n a lo g o u s to d a ta e x a m
in e d in th e a b o v e re f e re n c e s - t h e fo llo w in g s t a te m e n ts apply.
i . A s u b j e c t N P c o n t a i n s a t m o s t o n e o u t o f t h e s e t ( d e t e r m i n e r , q u a n t if i e r , n u m e r a l}
t o g e t h e r w i t h a fu ll n o u n ; a lt e r n a t iv e ly , a s u b j e c t N P c o n t a i n s a p r o n o u n ;
ii.

O t h e r N P s m a y c o n t a i n a t m o s t a d e t e r m i n e r / n u m e r a l / q u a n t i f ie r / t w o a d je c t iv e s
a n d a n o u n . T h e n o u n m a y b o f o l l o w e d b y o n e p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e o r o n e r e la
t iv e c l a u s e ( B u t s e e P e r e r a 's p o i n t s (iii>. (v ), ( x iv ) , < x v ) )

iii

A m a i n c l a u s e m a y b e p r e c e d e d o r f o l l o w e d b y o n ly o n e a d v e r b ia l c l a u s e , o f t im e ,
r e a s o n o r c o n d it io n .

iv. T h e m a m v e r b i n a m a m c l a u s e m a y b e f o l l o w e d b y o n l y o n e c o m p l e m e n t c la u s e ,
a n d t h e v e r b g o v e r n i n g t h e c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e is o n e o f a v e r y s m a ll s e t

see

P e r e r a 's p o in t (x ).
w. S u b o r d in a t e c l a u s e s a r e n o t e m b e d d e d in o t h e r s u b o r d in a t e c la u s e s

T h e s t r u c tu r e s a r c s o s i m p l e th a t t h e y c a n b e a c q u ir e d v ia s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d
le a r n in g m e c h a n is m s . B u t h o w d e g e n e r a te a r e t h e s p o k e n d a ta t h a t c h ild re n
a re e x p o s e d to ? O f c o u rs e , s p e a k e r s s u f fe r f r o m .slips o f t h e to n g u e t h a t re s u lt
i.i g r a m m a tic a l in fe lic itie s . S p o o n e r is m s , c h o ic e o f w r o n g le x ic a l ite m (u s u a lly
c o n n e c te d in s o u n d o r se n s e to t h e o n e t h e s p e a k e r s h o u l d h a v e c h o s e n ) ; th e
e v id e n c e is t h a t in in f o r m a l c ir c u m s ta n c e s , ta lk in g to c lo s e fa m ily o r frie n d s
a b o u t u n c o m p lic a te d to p ic s , s p e a k e r s d o n o t p r o d u c e d e g e n e r a te d a ta . T h a t is,
th e y s u c c e s s fu lly p e r f o r m th e r u le s o t th e g r a m m a r o f w h a te v e r v a r ie ty th e y
s p e a k o f w h a te v e r la n g u a g e . T h e la n g u a g e o f t h e v a r i o u s d a ta b a s e s o f in f o r m a l
c o n v e rs a tio n e x a m in e d b y M ille r a n d W e in e rt (2 0 0 9 ) is n o t d e g e n e ra te .
O n ly o n c e in t h e 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 w o r d s o f th e M ille r-B ro w n C o r p u s o f s p o n ta n e o u s
c o n v e rs a tio n is t h e r e a s e r io u s b r e a k d o w n o f s y n ta x - in te re s tin g ly , a t a p o in t
w h e re t h e s p e a k e r is t r y i n g to e x p re s s a c o m p le x s e t o l c o n d itio n s b y m e a n s o f
re lativ ely c o m p le x s y n ta x . The re le v a n t e x c e r p t is in (3 ).
(3 ) a 2 6

n o i f w e c a n g e t lo u is e i m e a n h e r m o t h e r a n d f a t h e r lo u is e 's p a re n ts
w o u ld g iv e u s t h e y 'v e g o t a b i g c a r a n d k e e p t h e m in f o r t h e w e e k b u t
lo u is e is n t t o o k e e n o n t h e :o e a so

m 39

w h a t o n d n v n g th e

m s 3 8 n o b e c a u s e o u is e ts f r ig h t e n e d t o d r iv e
a27

b u t s h e lik e s th e b i g c a r b e t t e r t h a n t h e m in i a c t u a lly b e c a u s e t h e a u s tin

it's g o t p o w e r s t e e n n g s h e f in d s t h e m in i d if f ic u lt t o d riv e
M ille r - B r o w n C o r p u s , c o n v e r s a t io n 1 ?

P r e s u m a b ly < a 2 6 > w a n te d t o s a y s o m e th in g a lo n g t h e lin e s o f ' i f w e c o u ld

g e t lo u is e s m o t h e r a n d f a th e r to g iv e u s t h e i r b ig c a r a n d ta k e t h e M in i fo r th e

245

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A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

w e e k [ t h a t w o u ld b e g o o d ) , b u t lo u is e isn t to o k e e n o n t h e id e a s o [w e 're s tu c k
w ith th e M in i I. T h e o t h e r p a r t ic i p a n ts in th e c o n v e r s a tio n d o n o t n o tic e th e
d is jo in te d s y n ta x , th e c o n v e r s a tio n c o n ti n u e s w ith o u t h e s i ta t io n s a n d < a > h as
h e r s y n ta x b a c k in o r d e r fo r h e r n e x t t u r n , w h ic h is a ls o re la tiv e ly c o m p le x in
c o n te n t. In (a c t, JM d id n o t n o tic e th e d is jo i n te d s y n ta x w h e n lis te n in g to th e
re c o r d in g f o r t h e firs t t i m e b u t o n ly w h e n h e c a m e t o tr a n s c r i b e it.
L a b o v (1 9 7 2 , p . 2 0 3 ) g o e s s o f a r a s to s a y t h a t t h e u n g r a m m a t i c a l l y o f
e v e ry d a y s p e e c h is a m y th . I n h is e m p ir ic a l s tu d ie s , 7 3 p e r c e n t o l u tte ra n c e s
c o r r e s p o n d e d d ir e c tly to w e ll- fo rm e d s e n te n c e s . T h a t fig u re ro s e to 9 8 p e r c e n t
w h e n c a se s o f e llip s is w e r e e x c lu d e d , a lo n g w ith in s ta n c e s o f s t a m m e r in g a n d
false s ta r ts . L a b o v say s t h a t a g r e a t m a n y o t h e r lin g u is ts h a v e c o n f ir m e d h is
v iew t h a t w h e n n o n - a c a d e m ic s p e a k e r s a r e ta lk in g a b o u t s u b je c ts t h e y k n o w
w ell, s u c h a s p e r s o n a l e x p e rie n c e s , o n ly 10 p e r c e n t o t u tte r a n c e s n e e d to be
e d ite d to q u a lify a s c o r r e s p o n d in g to w e ll- fo rm e d s e n te n c e s . W h e n s p e a k e rs
t r y to e x p re s s c o m p le x id e a s in i m p r o m p t u ta lk , s u c h a s c o n v e r s a tio n s a t c o n
feren ces, s y n ta c tic s t r u c t u r e c a n g o aw ry , b u t c h ild r e n d o n o t p a r t ic i p a te in
s u c h g a th e r in g s .
T h e o th e r s id e o l th e c o in

is th a t th e g r a m m a r

w ritte n

la n g u a g e c a n

be

w r y c o m p le x a n d d e n s e . As B ib e r (1 9 8 8 ) h a s s h o w n , th e r e a r e m a n y ty p e s o f
w r itte n te x t, w ith a c a d e m ic m o n o g r a p h s a n d p a p e r s a m o n g th e m o s t c o m
plex. T h e la n g u a g e o f b o o k s in t e n d e d to b e r e a d to 3 - y e a r - o ld s is q u ite sim p le ,
w h ile t h e la n g u a g e o f b o o k s in t e n d e d f o r o l d e r c h ild r e n c a n b e q u i t e c o m p le x .
B ut t h i s ty p e o f w r it te n la n g u a g e , u n lik e s p o k e n la n g u a g e , is n o t e v a n e s c e n t
a n d is c e r ta in ly n o t d e g e n e r a te , s in c e il is c a re f u lly w r it te n , s c r u tin iz e d b y
e d ito r s a n d c h e c k e d b y c o p y e d ito rs . C h ild r e n s b o o k s a r e n o t re a d o n c e a n d
d is c a rd e d . W ell, th e y c a n b e , b u t m a n y c h ild r e n r e a d b o o k s o v e r a n d o v e r a g a in
t.ll t h e y h a v e la rg e c h u n k s o f te x t in t h e i r m e m o r y . ( A n d c h il d r e n ty p ic a lly
c o m p la in in s ta n t ly il a ti r e d p a r e n t tr ie s to s k ip a p a r a g r a p h o r t u r n tw o p ag es
a t o n c e .)

Fixed phrases
C h ild r e n w h o a r e re a d to h a v e p h r a s e s a n d c la u s e s in th e i r m e m o r y a n d c a n in
t a r n u s e th e s e c h u n k s o r b its o t th e c h u n k s . T h e s e m ig h t b e c a lle d id io s y n
c ra tic f o r m u la e . T h e p e rv a s iv e n e s s o f fix e d p h r a s e s h a s slo w ly b e e n d is c o v e re d
e v e r th e la s t tw e n ty - fiv e y e a rs. B o lin g e r (1 9 7 6 ) w a s a lre a d y s u g g e s tin g th a t
R 'a d y -m a d e c h u n k s o l u n a n a ly s e d la n g u a g e a r e a s im p o r t a n t a s p ro d u c tiv e
ru le s, a n d e v e n e a r lie r L yons (1 9 6 8 , p . 4 1 6 ) w r o te T h e r e is a g o o d d e a l o f o u r

First Lan gu age A cq u isitio n

e v e ry d a y u s e o f la n g u a g e w h ic h is q u ite p r o p e r ly d e s c r ib e d in b e h a v io u r is t
te r m s , a n d c a n b e a t t r i b u t e d to o u r " a c tin g o u t ' o f p a r t ic u l a r ro le s" in th e
m a in te n a n c e o f s o c ia lly -p re s c rib e d , r itu a lis tic " p a tt e r n s o f b e h a v io u r .' L y o n s
re la te d fix e d p h r a s e s t o t h e a c ti n g o u t o f e v e ry d a y r o u t in e s o f in t e r a c tio n
a n d t o s p e e c h a c ts , b u t P e te rs (1 9 8 3 ) s a w b a sic firs t la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n as
in v o lv in g , in la rg e m e a s u r e , c h u n k s o f la n g u a g e le a r n e d w h o le , a n d P a w ley
a n d S y d e r < 1983, p . 2 0 9 ) a r g u e d t h a t a n y s p e a k e r o f E n g lis h h a s s to r e d in
m e m o r y a la rg e n u m b e r o l p h ra s e s a n d c la u s e s . T h e y s u g g e s t t h a t o rd in a ry ,
m a tu r e E n g lis h s p e a k e r s p r o b a b ly k n o w s e v e ra l h u n d r e d s o f th o u s a n d s o f
s e n te n c e - le n g th e x p re s s io n s : e x a m p le s a r e I th o u g h t b e tte r o f it. I t d o e sn 't
le u r th in k in g a b o u t. T h in k tw ic e b e fo re y o u V P, I ( ju s t) c a n t th i n k stra ig h t a n d
s o o n (P a w le y a n d S y d er, 1983, p . 2 1 3 ). P a w le y a n d S y d e r o b s e r v e t h a t s u c h
p r e f a b r ic a te d p a t t e r n s a r e e a sily e n c o d e d a n d p e r m i t t h e s p e a k e r to a t t e n d to
th e ta s k o f c o n s t r u c ti n g t h e la r g e r d is c o u rs e . E q u ally , t h e y le s s e n t h e d e c o d in g
b u r d e n fo r lis te n e rs . T h e s e a d v a n ta g e s a r e illu s tr a te d in ( 4 ) , a n e x c e rp t f r o m a
c is c u s s io n p r o g r a m m e b r o a d c a s t b y S c o ttis h T e lev isio n .

(4) Presenter 1

y o u said th a t y o u k n o w there w a s a tim e w h e n y o u th o u g h t you

m ig h t leave h im a n d th a t h e h a d a d rin k p ro b lem I m e an

d o you

ta k e a n y resp o nsib ility fo r you r m arriag e g o in g th e w a y i t did?

R o sean n e 1

w e ll o b v io u s ly it t a k e s t w o t o t a n g o
M a r r ia g e G u id a n c e C o u n c i l

b u t e h m I w e n t t o th e

h e w o u l d n 't g o

I w ent to A no n

w e w e n t t o o n e m e e t in g t o g e t h e r a n d t o A lc o h o li c s w h a t e v e r
it w a s

c o u n s e llin g s e s s io n a n d h e c a m e o u t

t h a t w o m a n 's

b lo o d y d a lt
P re se n te r 2
R oseanne 2

I s a id t h a t w o m a n is a p r o f e s s io n a l a n d e h y o u k n o w w e k e p t
t r y in g to m a k e a g o o f it a n d b e p le a s a n t w e w e n t q u it e a f e w
h o lid a y s t o g e t h e r w e h a d a g o o d lif e s t y le b u t h e j u s t s e e m e d t o

F ix e d p h r a s e s a r e h a d a d r in k p ro b le m , it ta kes tw o to ta n g o , co u n sellin g
session, is a p ro fessio n a l, m a k e a g o o f i t a n d h a d a g o o d lifestyle. H a d a
d r in k p r o b le m is a e u p h e m i s m fo r w a s d e p e n d e n t o n a lc o h o l o r w a s su ffe rin g
fr o m a lco h o lism o r w a s a n alcoholic. It h a s th e lig h t v e r b h a d . a n d th e e v e ry d a y
r.o u n s d r in k a n d p ro b le m , it ta k e s tw o to ta n g o is a c o n v e n ie n t s h o r th a n d
fo r c o m p le x e x p re s s io n s c o n v e y in g a c o m p le x id e a : w h e n a p r o b le m h a s to b e
so lv e d in a s i t u a t i o n in v o lv in g tw o p e o p le , b o th p e r s o n s h a v e to b e re a s o n a b le ,
m a k e c o m p r o m is e s a n d c o o p e ra te . II o n e o l th e p e r s o n s ta ils to d o th is , th e re
is n o a g r e e m e n t a n d n o p o s itiv e a c tio n , is a p ro fe ssio n a l is s h o r t h a n d fo r

247

248

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

'h a s h a d a p r o p e r tr a in in g a n d g a in e d a q u a lific a tio n a n d h a s e x p e rie n c e o f a n a
lyzin g a g iv e n ty p e o f s itu a tio n a n d o ffe rin g a d vic e . M o r e o v e r p ro f e s s io n a ls
c o n d u c t th e m s e lv e s in a n a p p r o p r ia t e m a n n e r d u r i n g in te r v ie w s w ith c lie n ts
a n d m a y h a v e to fo llo w a c o d e o f c o n d u c t. P ro f e s s io n a ls p r o v id e o b je c tiv e
a n d a c c u ra te a s s e s s m e n ts o t w h a t n e e d s t o b e d o n e ', h a d a g o o d life s ty le is
s h o r th a n d f o r 'h a d s u f f ic ie n t in c o m e to h a v e a s o lid h o u s e , g o o d f u r n i t u r e , a n
e x p e n siv e c a r, t o v is it t h e c in e m a , t h e a t r e o r c lu b s a n d g o o n re g u la r h o lid a y s
(o v e rse a s, in t h e U K c o n te x t) , to m a k e a g o o f it in th is c o n te x t is to w o rk
to g e th e r in a n u n s a tis f a c to r y s i t u a t i o n to k e e p th e r e l a ti o n s h ip aliv e b y o v e r
lo o k in g u n p le a s a n t in c id e n ts a n d t r y i n g to c a jo le o n e s p a r t n e r in to a re a s o n
a b le c o u r s e o f a c tio n . T h e s e e x a m p le s illu s tr a te v e r y n e a tly h o w fix e d p h r a s e s
e n a b le s p e a k e r a n d lis te n e r t o d e a l w ith c o m p le x id e a s in s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d
la n g u a g e , th e r e b y r e d u c in g t h e i r c o g n itiv e lo a d a n d k e e p in g th e d is c u s s io n
f.o w in g .
C r u s e (1 9 8 6 , p p . 3 7 - 4 8 ) d e m o n s tr a t e d t h a t w h ile t h e s y n ta x o f id io m s is
n o t c o m p le te ly f r o z e n , it h a s v e ry lim ite d flex ib ility . I d io m s a r e n o t e a sily in t e r
ru p te d b y a d v e r b s - C r u s e c ite s th e d o u b tf u l e x a m p le s ?A r th u r h a s a chip,
a p p a r e n t l y , o n h i s s h o u l d e r a n d ? M i* t o o k t h e m , a f t e r a s h a k y s t a r t , t o t h e clea n ers,

a W H c le ft h ig h lig h tin g a n e n tir e id io m is fin e - W h a t J o h n d i d w a s p u l l h is

sister's le g

b u t a W H c le ft h ig h lig h tin g t h e o b je c t o f p u ll w ill n o t d o

'W h a t

h i m p u lle d w a s h is sister's leg. T h e la tte r e x a m p le is o f c o u r s e q u i t e a c c e p ta b le

in its lite r a l in t e r p r e ta ti o n . I n th e s a m e s p ir it, N a tti n g e r a n d D e c a rric o (1 9 9 2 )
d e v e lo p e d t h e n o ti o n o f le x ic a l p h ra se s', p r e f a b r ic a te d c h u n k s o f la n g u a g e
w h ic h c o m e p a r tia lly o r c o m p le te ly a s s e m b le d , b u t o p e n to a n a ly s is b y g r a m
m a tic a l ru le s . W r a y (2 0 0 2 ) d e m o n s tr a t e s t h e c e n tr a l ro le o f fix e d p h r a s e s in
n o r m a l a d u lt la n g u a g e , a p h a s ia , a n d firs t a n d s e c o n d la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n .
F ixed p h r a s e s a r e v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r th e o r ie s o f firs t ( a n d in d e e d se c o n d )
la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n b e c a u s e th e y ra ise q u e s tio n s a b o u t a c e n tr a l te n e t o l
C h o m s k y a n g e n e ra tiv e g r a m m a r m e n t io n e d a t t h e b e g in n i n g o f th is c h a p te r,
t i a t c h ild r e n a c q u ir e c o m p u t a ti o n a ll y c o m p le x s t r u c tu r e - d e p e n d e n t ru le s.
T h e e n o r m o u s n u m b e r a n d v a rie ty o f fix e d p h r a s e s s u g g e s t a n a lte rn a tiv e
view : m u c h o f la n g u a g e is f o r m u la ic a n d im it a ti o n , c o m b in e d w ith t h e l e a r n
in g a n d m a n i p u la t io n o f f o r m u la s , p la y s a n im p o r t a n t p a r t in first la n g u a g e
a c q u is itio n . T h is a lt e r n a t iv e v ie w is s u p p o r te d b y t h r e e d e v e lo p m e n ts in re c e n t
w o rk : re s e a rc h i n t o th e a c q u is itio n o f la n g u a g e t h a t h ig h lig h ts th e ro le o f im i
ta tio n a n d fo r m u la s ; re c e n t s y n ta c tic re s e a rc h fo c u s in g o n t h e p o w e r o l lexical
ite m s a n d t h e c e n tr a l p o s i ti o n o f th e le x ic o n in g e n e ra tiv e m o d e ls a n d re c e n t

First Lan gu age A cq u isitio n

s y n ta c tic re s e a rc h fo c u s in g o n u n it s t h a t a r e la r g e r t h a n s in g le w o r d s b u t hav e
to b e a n a ly s e d a n d le a r n e d a s s in g le u n its .
W e r e t u r n to fix e d p h ra s e s . E a rlie r w e e x a m in e d p u b lic fix e d p h ra s e s , th a t
is, fix e d p h r a s e s th a t a r e k n o w n to m a n y i f n o t m o s t s p e a k e r s o f E n g lis h a n d
a re liste d in d ic tio n a r ie s a n d c o lle c tio n s o l id io m s . T h e r e a r e a lso p r iv a te o r
s e m i- p r iv a te fix e d p h r a s e s , t h a t is, s e q u e n c e s o f m o r p h e m e s a n d w o r d s th a t
a re n o t id io m s b u t a r e u s e d o v e r a n d o v e r a g a in b y a d u lt s p e a k e r s a s w ell a s b y
c h ild r e n le a r n in g th e i r firs t la n g u a g e o r a s e c o n d la n g u a g e . A n in te r e s tin g
e x a m p le c o m e s f r o m B la n c h e -B e n v e n is le ( 1991 ), in t e r e s t in g n o t o n l y in b e in g
F re n c h b u t in b e in g a n in s ta n c e o f th o s e a p p a r e n t ly m u n d a n e c o n s tr u c tio n s ,
rela tiv e cla u se s. B la n c h e - B e n v e n is te a p p lie s t h e la b e l fix e d p h ra s e o r f o r m u la
to e x a m p le s c o n ta i n in g th e F re n c h p r o n o u n le q u e l, w h ic h c a n f u n c tio n a s a n
in te rro g a tiv e o r a re la tiv e p r o n o u n . C o n s id e r ( 5 ) .
(5 ) a

lu c h o is ir a s le q u e l?
y o u w i ll - c h o o s e w h ic h - o n e ?

fa v o u s a v e z
you

u n e c a n a lis a t io n d e q a ^ s u r la q u e lle il y a u n d o u t e

have a

p ip e

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t h e r e -is a d o u b t

E x a m p le s s u c h a s (5 b ) a r e s a id b y la n c h e - e n v e n is te to b e u s e d b y s p e a k
e rs w h o a r e h ig h ly e d u c a te d a n d / o r u s e d to p u b lic s p e a k in g . M o s t s p e a k e rs ,
h o w ev er, u s e th e p r o n o u n in a s m a ll s e t o f f o r m u la s b u il t r o u n d a s m a ll set
c f le x ic a l ite m s , a s in (6 ).
(6 ) a .

le

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g ro u p

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b . la m e n t a lit , l'a m b ia n c e , d a n s la q u e lle il a t le v

t h e o u t lo o k , t h e a m b ia n c e in w h ic h h e w a s b r o u g h t - u p
c

la r a is o n p o u r la q u e lle il le ta it
t h e r e a s o n f o r w h ic h h e it is - d o in g

d.

le s e c t e u r d a n s le q u e l
t h e s e c t o r in

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in te r v ie n t

h e is - in t e r v e n m g

T h e s ig n ific a n c e o f la rg e n u m b e r s o f fix e d p h r a s e s is t h a t th e y p o i n t to a
la rg e r r o le in la n g u a g e p r o c e s s in g fo r s to r a g e a n d re trie v a l. It h a s lo n g b e e n
re c o g n iz e d (s e e , f o r e x a m p le , C ric k , 1 9 7 9 ) t h a t th e r e a r e s e r io u s li m ita tio n s
c n p ro c e s s in g c a p a c ity c o m p a r e d w ith s to ra g e . ( O n e m a jo r d e v e lo p m e n t in
c o m p u t in g h a r d w a r e o v e r th e p a s t tw e n ty y e a rs h a s b e e n t h e a p p lic a tio n o f
r.a n o - te c h n o lo g y to p r o d u c e s m a lle r a n d s m a lle r c h ip s w i t h g r e a te r a n d g re a te r

249

250

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

c a p a c ity f o r (h e s to r a g e o f in f o r m a t io n .) H u m a n b e in g s h a v e g r e a t fa c ility
fo r m e m o r i z in g fa c ts a n d r e tr ie v in g th e m , b u t a r e p a te n t ly n o t s o a d e p t a t
p r o d u c i n g c o m p le x s y n ta x i m p r o m p t u in re a l tim e . ( H u m a n s d if f e r w ith
re s p e c t t o m e m o r y c a p a c ity , s p e e d o f s t o r a g e , le n g th o f s to r a g e a n d a c c u ra c y
c f re trie v a l f r o m m e m o ry . A p e r s o n s m e m o r y c a n b e tr a in e d , b u t d ille r e n c e s
a re n o t re m o v e d .) A m o d e l o f la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n t h a t g iv e s a m a j o r ro le to
slo ra g e o f lex ical ite m s a n d a v e ry la rg e n u m b e r o f fix ed p h r a s e s d o e s n o t n e e d
to in v o k e a r ic h a n d p o w e rfu l fa c u lty o ! la n g u a g e .

Generative analyses and the language of children

T h e s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e o f c la u s e s a n d p h r a s e s in s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e
to g e th e r w ith th e fix e d p h r a s e s p r e s e n ts a s t r ik i n g c o n tr a s t w i t h th e e x a m p le s
u s e d b y C h o m s k y a n s to d e m o n s tr a t e th e n e e d to a p p e a l to a n in n a te , ric h
fa c u lty o f la n g u a g e a n d a U n iv e rs a l G r a m m a r o f in tr ic a te c o n s tr a in ts . B o eck x
(2 0 0 6 , p p . 2 3 - 4 ) w o n d e r s w h a t d a ta c o u ld le a d c h ild r e n to g e n e r a te e x a m p le s
s u c h a s (7).
17) W ill th e m a n w h o is ta il le a v e n o w

T h e g e n e r a liz a tio n , f o r lin g u is ts , is | M o v e t h e m a in c la u s e A u x t o t h e fr o n t) .

S u p p o s e th e d e c la ra tiv e c la u s e w e re T h e m a n w h o is ta ll w ill lea ve n o w . T h is
s e n te n c e c o n ta i n s tw o c o n s t it u e n ts th a t c a n m o v e to th e f r o n t o f c la u s e s to
p r o d u c e in te rro g a tiv e s , is ( T h e m a n is ta ll a n d Is th e m a n tall*) a n d w ill ( H e w ill
leave a n d W ill h e leave*.). H o w d o e s t h e c h ild k n o w th a t in (7 ) w ill h a s to m o v e
to t h e f r o n t a n d n o t is, (8 ) b e in g u n g r a m m a tic a l?
(8 ) ' I s t h e m a n w h o t a ll le a v e n o w ?

B o e c k x a rg u e s t h a t c h il d r e n c o u ld n o t g e t a t th e c o r r e c t r u le i f th e y o n ly
u s e d s im p le , w e ll- f o r m e d b its o l th e la n g u a g e a s d a ta . B u t t h a t is p re c ise ly
v /h a t th e y h e a r (sa y s B o e c k x ), s in c e th e y d o n o t c o m e a c ro s s in c o r re c t
e x a m p le s s u c h a s ( 8 ) , t h a t is, th e y h a v e n o n e g a tiv e e v id e n c e . B o e c k x c o m
m e n ts t h a t it is q u it e p o s s ib le t h a t e x a m p le s lik e ( 7 ) , t h o u g h w e ll- f o r m e d , a re
to o c o m p le x t o b e p a r t o f c h il d r e n s lin g u is tic i n p u t ; c h ild r e n w ill s im p ly sk ip
e v e r a s t r u c t u r e t h a t is t o o c o m p le x a n d w ill c e r ta in ly n o t p r o d u c e o n e .
In o t h e r w o r d s , s a y s B o e c k x , t h i s s u g g e s ts t h a t c h il d r e n d o n o t a rr iv e a t th e
rig h t r u le so le ly o n t h e b a s is o f t h e lin g u is tic in p u t o f th e ta r g e t la n g u a g e
b u t a r e g u id e d b y s o m e b io lo g ic a l f e a tu r e o l c h ild r e n r a t h e r t h a n b y s o m e
p r o p e r ty o f t h e lin g u is tic i n p u t .

First Lan gu age A cq u isitio n

T h e r e is a n o th e r a n s w e r lh a l d o e s n o t a p p e a l t o a s y e t m y s te rio u s
b io lo g ic a l p r o p e r tie s . It lie s in th e d is c u s s io n o f t h e N P -C la u s e c o n s tr u c tio n
o n p p . 293 1 . (7 ) is n o t a ty p ic a l s t r u c t u r e o f s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e .
T h e d e c la r a tiv e v e rs io n . T h e m a n w h o is ta ll w ill lea ve n o w , h a s a c o m p le x
s u b je c t N P , w h ic h is v e ry ra re in s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e . T h e s t r u c tu r e
w o u ld b e T h e m a n w h o is ta ll h e ll lea ve n o w , o r m o r e lik e ly T h e g u y w ho's
t ill h e ll lea ve n o w . T h e c o r r e s p o n d in g in te r r o g a tiv e is T h e g u y w h o s ta ll w ill
he lea ve n o w ?
O f c o u r s e , c h ild r e n w ill e v e n tu a lly c o m e a c ro s s s e n te n c e s s u c h a s ( 7 ) , b u t
th e y w ill d o s o w h e n th e y c o m e in c o n ta c t w ith w r itte n la n g u a g e . T h is
b r in g s u s to tw o c r u c ia l p o in ts . O n e is th a t c h ild r e n , say o f t h r e e o r f o u r , lis te n h g to a s t o r y c o n ta i n in g s u c h in te r r o g a tiv e a n d d e c la ra tiv e s e n te n c e s w ill
e ith e r s k ip th e m a t e r i a l t h a t is a b o v e t h e i r h e a d s o r in t e r p r e t it o n t h e b a s is o f
e x tr a - lin g u is tic c o n te x t, fo r in s ta n c e , t h e s t o r y u p to th a t p o i n t a n d th e e v e n ts
h

th e s t o r y im m e d ia te ly a f t e r t h a t p o in t . C o n s id e r t h e e x a m p le s in (9 ),

re p e a te d f r o m M ille r a n d W e in e rt (2 0 0 9 , p p . 4 1 0 -1 1 ).
(9> a .

H e r e is a c a r to p u t i n t h e q a t a q e

b . O h - y o u v e f o u n d a b lo c k t o p u t o n t o p o f t h e t o w e r
c

H e r e >s b is c u it to g iv e t o t h e d o g g ie

T h e i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r ty o f th e s e e x a m p le s is th a t th e in t e r p r e ta ti o n is
h e a v ily s u p p o r te d b y t h e e x tr a - lin g u is tic c o n te x t. Y o u n g c h ild r e n ta k in g th e ir
first s te p s in la n g u a g e h a v e a s m a ll w o rld a n d ta lk a b o u t e v e n ts a s th e y a re
c n - g o i n g - o fte n d r iv in g p a r e n ts m a d b y s t a ti n g t h e o b v io u s , o v e r a n d over.
C h ild r e n q u ic k ly le a rn t h a t to y c a rs g o in to g a ra g e s a n d t h a t th e y d o n o t g o
i n to t h e g a ra g e s b y th e m s e lv e s b u t h a v e to b e p u s h e d in . B lo c k s c a n b e p u t o n e
<:n to p o f t h e o t h e r to t o r m to w e rs , a n d th e c h ild o r its c a r e r s h a v e to m a n i p u
late t h e b lo c k . B isc u its a r e e d ib le , a n d d o g s e a t b is c u its . T h a t is, c h ild r e n c a n
call o n th e i r k n o w le d g e o f th e e x tr a - lin g u is tic w o rld to in te r p r e t e x a m p le s
s u c h a s th o s e in ( 9 ) . E v e n i f a g iv e n c h ild d o e s n o t u n d e r s t a n d th e s y n ta x , i t c a n
p ic k u p t h e c ru c ia l i t e m s car, garage; block, to w er, b isc u it, doggie. In th e c h ild 's
w o rld , th e r e l a ti o n s h ip b e tw e e n th e re le v a n t e n titie s is c le a r - c u t. I f it is n o t, th e
c a re r w ill d e m o n s t r a t e t h e r e la tio n s h ip , a n d f r o m th e s e sm a ll b e g in n in g s
th e c h ild w ill e v e n tu a lly c o m e to c o m p le x e x a m p le s , b u t p r o b a b l y n o t b e fo re
a g e e ig h t o r la te r, d e p e n d in g o n a g iv e n c h ild 's r e a d in g e x p e rie n c e .
T h e s e c o n d c ru c ia l p o i n t is t h a t m a n y c h ild r e n o n l y c o m e a c ro s s w r itte n
la n g u a g e in sc h o o l; e v e n c h ild r e n w h o a r e re g u la r ly re a d to a n d w h o m a y
b e a b le to r e a d b e fo r e th e y g o to s c h o o l h a v e to w o r k a t w r it te n la n g u a g e .

2 5 2

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

c o m p le tin g s e n te n c e s , p r o d u c i n g a p p r o p r ia t e c o m p le te s e n te n c e s , a n s w e rin g
q u e s tio n s in c o m p le te s e n te n c e s , c ir c lin g e x a m p le s o f n o u n s , v e rb s , a d je c tiv e s ,
a n d o v e r a n u m b e r o f y e a rs le a r n in g h o w to p r o d u c e in t e g r a t e d sy n ta x ,
c o m b in in g fin ite a n d n o n - f in it e c la u s e s i n t o c o m p le x s e n te n c e s a n d le a r n in g
to re a d a n d in t e r p r e t s u c h s e n te n c e s . A ll th is w o r k in v o lv e s v a r i o u s ty p e s o f
n e g a tiv e e v id e n c e , f r o m s u g g e s tio n s a s t o h o w a g iv e n p u p i l s te x t c a n b e
r e p h r a s e d a n d m a d e c le a r e r to d e m o n s tr a t io n s o f h o w to u s e free p a rtic ip le s ,
say, a n d w h re la tiv e c la u s e s o l th e m o r e in tr ic a te k in d , a n d a d v e rb ia l c la u s e s o l
c o n c e s s io n a n d s o o n . A ll th e w o rk o n s y n ta x is p a r t o f a b ig g e r e x e rc ise :
e x te n d in g c h ild r e n s v o c a b u la r y a n d t h e i r a p p r e c ia tio n o f d if f e r e n t ty p e s o f
te x t f r o m p o e tr y to th e la n g u a g e in w h ic h s c ie n tific e x p e r im e n ts a r e w r itte n
u p . C h ild r e n a r e e x p o s e d to lo ts o f n e g a tiv e e v id e n c e a s w e ll a s p o sitiv e e x a m
p le s o f d if fic u lt s y n ta c tic s t r u c tu r e s .
E)o c h ild r e n g e t a n y n e g a tiv e e v id e n c e a t a ll b e fo r e t h e y g o to s c h o o l? It is
g e n e ra lly a c c e p te d t h a t th e p a r e n t s o f p r e - s c h o o l c h ild r e n d o c o r r e c t w h a t
th e y c o n s id e r in c o r r e c t g r a m m a r , b u t e q u a lly i t is a tr u i s m t h a t s u c h y o u n g
c h ild re n p a y n o a tt e n ti o n to c o r r e c tio n s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , c h ild r e n a re
fo rc e d

to

a ct

il

th e ir

a d d re sse e s

d o

n o t

u n d e rs ta n d

w h a t

h as

b e e n

s a id ;

if

a s i m p l e r e p e t it io n d o e s n o t p r o d u c e re s u lts , th e g r a m m a r , a n d p e r h a p s th e
v o c a b u la ry , h a s to b e re c a s t. T h is c o u ld b e c o n s id e r e d a n in d ir e c t s o r t o f n e g a tiv e e v id e n c e .
A n u n a tt r a c t iv e f e a tu r e o f th e C h o m s k y a n a p p r o a c h t o first la n g u a g e
a c q u is itio n is th e p r o je c tio n o n to la n g u a g e le a r n e r s o f t h e p r i n c ip l e s a n d
c o n s tr a in ts r e q u ir e d f o r th e h a n d li n g o f m a g n a s y n ta x . M o d e ls d e s ig n e d to
g e n e ra te a n y s t r u c t u r e f r o m t h e s im p le s t to th e m o s t c o m p le x e n d u p w ith
w h a te v e r c o m p le x a p p a r a t u s is n e c e s s a ry to g e n e r a te t h e m o s t c o m p le x e x a m
ples. T h e e s s e n tia l p o i n t m a d e e a r lie r is t h a t t h e c o m p le x ity i s ir r e le v a n t to
c h ild r e n , w h o d e a l w i t h s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e . N o te t o o th e sk e w in g
th a t o c c u r s w h e n firs t la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n th e o r is t s o r s p e c ia lis ts in g e n e r a
tive s y n ta x g e t th e d a ta w r o n g . T h is p o i n t w as m a d e o n p . 5 in c o n n e c tio n
w ith s t r o n g a n d w e a k fe a tu re s in M in im a lis m . T his is re le v a n t to y o u n g le a r n
ers, s in c e k n o w le d g e o f fe a tu r e s is p a r t o f th e U n iv e rs a l G r a m m a r a s c r ib e d to
tn e m . It is a ls o re le v a n t in a n o t h e r c o n n e c tio n ; c h ild re n a r e n o t e x p o s e d o n ly to
e x a m p le s s u c h a s I w o n d e re d w h o M e d e a h a d p o is o n e d a n d / e n q u ir e d w h e n w e
could le a v e b u t to th e v e rs io n s d e c la r e d u n a c c e p ta b le b y A d g e r (2 0 0 3 , p . 3 5 7 ),
/ w o n d e re d w h o h a d M e d e a p o is o n e d a n d I e n q u ir e d w h e n c o u ld w e leave.
A n o th e r s t r o n g p o s s ib ility is th a t y o u n g c h ild r e n d o n o t e n c o u n te r s u c h

First Lan gu age A cq u isitio n

in d ire c t q u e s tio n s o r, i f t h e y d o , d o n o t s t o p t o a n a ly s e t h e s y n ta x . A th i r d
p o s s ib ility is t h a t c h ild r e n e n c o u n te r s u c h e x a m p le s o n l y in s to rie s a n d w o rk
c u t t h e m e a n i n g f r o m th e c o n t e n t o f t h e sto ry .
H o r r o c k s (1 9 8 8 , p . 1 54) is a n e x a m p le o f h o w t h e p e rv a s iv e in f lu e n c e o f
m a g n a s y n ta x le a d s t o i n a p p r o p r ia te a d u lt d a ta b e in g c ite d in c o n n e c t io n w ith
c h ild re n s la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n . H o r r o c k s d is c u s s e s t h e in v e n te d e x a m p le
G ra b a ll f o u n d a n e w s e t o f clie n ts to fleece. H o r r o c k s w o n d e r s h o w c h ild re n
m ig h t le a r n t h a t G ra b a ll is u n d e r s to o d a s th e s u b je c t o f flee c e a n d s e t o f clien ts
a s th e o b je c t (a lte r n a tiv e ly . A g e n t a n d P a tie n t) . H o w c o u ld c h ild r e n in te r p r e t
th e s e n te n c e c o rr e c tly w ith o u t p r i o r k n o w le d g e o f p r in c ip le s o f i n t e r p r e t a
tio n ? If th e y g o t it w ro n g , h o w w o u ld th e y k n o w t h a t th e y h a d g o t it w ro n g ?
C a n it re a lly b e tr u e , h e a sk s , th a t e v e r y 2 -y e a r -o ld h a s g o n e th r o u g h a c o n
s c io u s p ro c e s s o f w o rk in g o u t w h a t s e n te n c e s o f th is s o r t m ig h t m e a n in
p r in c ip le a n d t h e n d is c o u n tin g all b u t th e c o r r e c t in t e r p r e ta ti o n ?
A firs t r e a c tio n m ig h t b e t h a t H o r r o c k s c o n c e r n is m is p la c e d , s in c e n o
2 -y e a r - o ld s w h o w o u ld p a y a n y a t t e n t i o n to h is e x a m p le . ( C lie n ts , f l e e c e - o n ly
h M a r y h a d a little la m b ', set7.) A s e c o n d re a c tio n is t h a t in , say , a M i s te r M e n
b o o k , a 3

y e a r o ld

b e tte r, a 4

o r 5

y e a r o ld

m ig h t m e e t a s e n te n c e s u c h as

W h e n M r B u m p h a d a n n o y e d a ll th e p e o p le in B lu e to w n , h e w e n t to G re e n to w n
e n d fo u n d lots o f o th e r p e o p le to a n n o y . A s w ith t h e e x a m p le s e a r lie r in v o lv in g
c a rs a n d g a ra g e s , b is c u its a n d d o g g ie s , th e 4 - o r 5 -y e a r - o ld c a n w o r k o u t fro m
tn e p re c e d in g s t o r y t h e r e la tio n s h ip a n n o y b e tw e e n M r R u m p a n d lo ts o f
e t h e r p e o p le .
H o r r o c k s < 1988, p . 156) d is c u s s e s c o o r d i n a ti o n a n d h o w y o u n g c h ild re n
k n o w t h a t q u e s tio n s s u c h a s W h o d o y o u lo ve m e a n d , M u m m y ? a r c o d d . F ro m
a p r a g m a ti c p e rs p e c tiv e , th e r e is g o o d r e a s o n n o t to e n d u tte r a n c e s w ith a nd.
e n d s e ts u p a n e x p e c ta tio n t h a t m o r e i n f o r m a t io n is t o fo llo w ; c a r e r s w h o
b r e a k o ff a n u tt e r a n c e o n a n d a r e p r o b a b ly g o in g to s a y s o m e th i n g else, o r
bave c h a n g e d th e i r m in d s , a n d th e c h ild w h o fin is h e s a n u tt e r a n c e w i t h a n d
v/ill b e a s k e d t o s u p p l y th e e x tr a in f o r m a t io n . T y p ic a l la n g u a g e g a m e s r u n
th u s , w ith t h e c a r e r a s k in g th e q u e s tio n s a n d th e c h ild g iv in g th e a n sw e rs:
W ho's c o m in g to s e e y o u ? G ra n n y . U h u h , and? G ra n d p a . U h u h , a n d ? A u n t L u cie
a n d s o o n . W e d o n o t n e e d to lo o k f o r p u re ly s y n ta c tic c o n s t r a in t s w h e n th e re
a r e p e rfe c tly g o o d p r a g m a tic re a s o n s w h y c h il d r e n d is c o v e r e a rly in life th a t
u tte r a n c e s s h o u l d n o t fin is h w ith and.
M a n / i n i (1 9 9 0 ) a ll o r d s a fin a l e x a m p le o f m a g n a s y n ta x m is a p p lie d in
d is c u s s io n s o f c h ild la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n . S h e a d d u c e s t h e e x a m p le s lo h n a n d

253

254

A C ritica l Introduction to Syntax

Peter lik e each o th e r 's p ic tu re s a n d J o h n a n d P e te r th o u g h t t h a t ea ch o th e r's
p ic tu re s w ere o n sale. (E x a m p le s w ith ea ch o th e r a ls o fe a tu re in M a h e r a n d
G ro v e s.) T h e s e e x a m p le s a r e c e n tr a l fo r a g r a m m a r t h a t is to h a n d le th e sy n ta x
a n d s e m a n tic s o f e a ch o th er, b u t t h i s is n o t a c o n s t r u c t i o n th a t o ld e r c h ild re n
u se , la r less y o u n g c h ild r e n . ( O f c o u r s e c h ild r e n d o u s e ea ch o th e r, h u t in
e x a m p le s s u c h a s w e k ic k e d ea ch o th e r .) T h e e x a m p le s t h a t y o u n g c h ild r e n
h e a r a r e o n t h e lin e s o f th e y 're v e r y lik e ea ch o th er, w i t h e a ch a n d o th e r a d ja c e n t,
n o t in a p o ss e ssiv e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d n o t in a s e p a r a te c la u s e f r o m th e th e ir
a n te c e d e n t.
W e h a v e a r g u e d th a t v a r i o u s a s s u m p ti o n s m a d e b y C h o m s k y a n d o th e r s
a re in c o r re c t: t h a t fo r w r itte n la n g u a g e it is n o t t r u e th a t c h il d r e n a re
e x p o s e d to m e a g re , d e g e n e r a te d a ta ; t h a t f o r w r itte n la n g u a g e c h ild r e n d o
h a v e a c c e ss to p r e v io u s ly p r e s e n te d d a ta ; t h a t f o r w r it te n la n g u a g e c h ild re n
d o re c e iv e o v e r t in s tr u c t io n . W ith r e s p e c t t o s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e ,
t i e in c id e n c e o t u n g r a m m a tic a l s t r u c tu r e s h a s b e e n g re a tly e x a g g e ra te d a n d
t i e a b s e n c e o f o v e r t in s tr u c t io n e x a g g e ra te d . T h e s t r u c tu r e s o f s p o n ta n e o u s
s p o k e n la n g u a g e , a s d e m o n s tr a t e d in C h a p t e r 11 a n d e ls e w h e re in t h e b o o k ,
a rc m u c h

le s s c o m p le x

th a n

th e

s tru c tu re s o i

w ritte n

la n g u a g e . C h ild r e n

d o

n o t a c q u ir e t h e i r first la n g u a g e in a v a c u u m b u t in a r ic h s o c ia l e n v ir o n m e n t,
in a re la tiv e ly lim ite d u n iv e r s e w h e re re f e re n tia l ta s k s a r e s e v e re ly lim ite d in
sc o p e . G iv e n w h a t w e k n o w a b o u t s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e , t h e h y p o th
esis o f a ric h i n n a t e s e t o f p r i n c ip l e s is to o e x tr e m e ; w h a t is n e e d e d is a th e o r y
n i x i n g h y p o th e s is f o r m a ti o n , r o te le a r n in g a n d s o c ia l in te r a c tio n .

Appendix
Appendix 3.1
S 1 A 0 5 7 (A )

3 H o w 's m u m a n d f ir s t n a m e l

S 1 A -0 5 7 (B )

4 O h t h e y r e a l n g h t I 'v e b e e n t o s e e t h e m t h is m o r n in g a n d t h e r e 's a c r o w d o f
v is it o r s th e r e so

S1 A - 0 5 7 ( A )

6 W h o w a s th e r e

S1 A - 0 5 7 ( A )

7 A h m o t h e r a n d f a t h e r a n d M o t h e ' a n d b r o t h e r a n d f ir s t n a m e 2 a n d f ir s t n a m e 3

S 1 A 0 5 7 (A )

10 f ir s t n a m e 3 w a s t h e r e f ir s t n a m e 3 r a n g m e t h is m o r n i n g a c t u a lly

S1 A - 0 5 7 ( B )

1 7 Y e s S h e s a id s h e 'd b e e n in t o u c h w i t h y o u t h is m o r n in g

S 1 A -0 5 7 (A )

1 4 M m m A n d < u lln a m e 4 D o y o u k n o w f ir s t n a m e 4

S1 A - 0 5 7 ( B )

1 6 N o I d o n 't t h in k I d o

S 1 A 0 5 /(A )

I / S h e r a n g a s w e ll a n d f ir s ln a m e b r a n g

S1 A - 0 5 7 ( B )

1 8 O h y e s D id y o u k n o w t h e r e w a s a f ir e o n t h e h a r b o u r b r id g e

S 1 A 0 5 7 (A )

21 N o W h a t ha p p e n e d

S1 A - 0 5 7 ( B )

2 2 O h t h e w o r k m e n w e i e d o in g s o m e w o r k o n it a n d a p p a r e n t ly th e w h a t d o th e y
c a ll t h a t t h a t o x o x y w e id in g c a u g h t f ir e a n d t h e y w e n t f o r th e f ir e e x t in g u is h e r s
a n d w h e n t h e y g o t t h e f ir e e x t in g u is h e r s th e r e w a s n o t h in g in t h e f ir e e x t in g u is h e r s
s o t h e y c o u l d n 't p u t o u t t h e fire

S 1 A -0 5 7 IA )

2 8 Yeah

S 1 A -0 5 7 (A )

2 9 O h re a lly

S1 A - 0 5 7 ( A )

3 0 W h e r e a b o u t s w a s t h e f ir e O n t h e r o a d O r u p o n t h e t o p

S 1 A 0 5 7 (B )

3 3 N o U p o n t h e t o p I t h in k

S 1 A 0 5 /(A )

3 4 O n th e v e r y to p

S 1 A -0 5 7 (B )

3 5 S o m e w h e r e u p o n t h e t o p I t h in k I d o n 't k n o w I d id n 't h e a r m u c h a b o u t it
b u t a n y w a y t h a t w a s t h e h a r b o u r b r id g e

S 1 A -0 5 7 (A )

3 9 A n d h o w lo n g w h a t h o w d id t h e y g e t it o f f H o w d id t h e y g e t t h a t g e t th e
f ir e o u t

S 1 A -0 5 7 (B )

4 2 W e ll t h e y h a d t o c a ll t h e f ir e b r ig a d e b u t it h e ld u p a ll t h e t r a f f ic

S 1 A -0 5 7 (A )

4 5 T h is m o r n in g

S 1 A -0 5 7 (B )

4 6 Yes

S 1 A -0 5 7 (A )

4 7 W a s t h is t h is m o r n in g In p e a k h o u r

256

Appendix
S1 A -0 S 7 (B )
S1A-057(B>

18 Yes
4 9 T h i s w a s n o t v e r y lo n g a g o O n ly a b o u t w e ll it p r o b a b ly w o u l d 'v e b e e n in p e a k
h o u r b u t it w a s o n t h e a c t u a lly it w a s it w a s n 't o n t h e n e w s I d o n ' t t h in k

S1A-057(B>

5 2 It w a s a n e w s f la s h b e t w e e n t h e n e w s r e p o r t s t h a t I h e a r d it

S1A -0 5 7B )

5 3 M m m Yes

S 1 A -0 S 7 A )

b4 0h

S1 -0 5 7 ( )

5 5 S o w h o e ls e w a s o v w h o w h o w a s f u s t n a m e 6 a n d f ir s t n a m e 7 th e r e w e r e t h e y

S1A-0S71B)

5 7 Yes

S 1 A 057(A )

5 8 O h a n d h o w 's f ir s t n a m e l Is h e a l r i g h t t o d a y

S1 A -0S7(B)

6 0 Y e s H e 's b itt in g o u t o n t h e c h a n a n d

S 1 A -0 5 7 IA )

6 1 H a s h e s till g o t a d rip

S1A -057(B )

6 2 N o H e d i d n 't h a v e t h e d r ip W e ll I d o n 't t h in k so

S1A-0571B)

6 4 I d i d n 't s e e a n y d r ip b u t I d i d n 't s t a y I j u s t w e n t s o r t o f in a n d o u t a n d w h e n
t h e y w e r e a ll th e r e I t o o k t h e f lo w e r s a n d p u t t h e m in w a t e r f o r th e m

S1 A -0 5 7 (A )

6 8 Oh

S1 A -0 5 7 (A )

6 9 D id m u m

S1 A -0 5 7 (A )

7 0 H o w h a t flo w e r s

S1A -0 5 7IB )

7 1 W e g o t a b o u t t h r e e b u n c h e s o f f lo w e r s t h a t w e b o u g h t t h e m

S1A-0S7(A>

7 3 W h a t d i d a h m u m h a v e a d r ip in

S1A -057(B )

7 4 Y e s S h e 's s till g o t it

S 1 A -0 S 7 A )

7 5 D id t h e y s a y h o w lo n g s h e 's g o n n a b e in h o s p it a l f o r

S1A-057(B>

7 6 W e ll I r e a lly w a s n ' t t a lk in g t o a n y b o d y t h is m o r n i n g b u t s e e t h e y 'v e g o t t a

g e t her b a c k o n fo o d a n d see n o w th a t goes

S1 A -0 5 7 (A )

7 9 Yeah

S 1 A -0 5 7 A )

8 0 D id y o u g e t in c o n t a c t w i t h t h e d o c t o r

S1 A -0 S7 IB !

8 1 N o I h a v e n 't s e e n t h e d o c t o r

S1 A -0 S 7 (A )

82 Oh

S1A -0 5 7B )

8 3 It's h a r d t o s e e t h e d o c t o r u n le s s y o u 'r e t h e r e r ig h t w h e n h e 's t h e r e y o u d o n 't

s e e h im

S1A -0 5 7B )

8 4 A n d I'd r a t h e r t a lk t o d o c t o r a h s u m a m e 8 is it s u r n a m e 8

S1A -057(B )

8 6 W h a t 's t h e h is

S1 A -0 5 7 A )

8 7 Yeah

S1 A -0 5 7 (A )

8 8 N am es

S1A -057(B )

8 9 Y e a h W h a t 's t h e d o c t o r 's n a m e

A p p en d ix
S 1 A -O b / (A )

90

T h e o n e w h o o p e r a t e d o n m u m I t h in k it w a s s u r n a m e s ' c o s f ir s t n a m e l s g o t

D r su rn a m e 9
S 1 A -0 5 7 (B )

9 3 Yes

S 1 A -0 5 7 (B )

9 4 Yes

S 1 A -O i> / (B )

9 5 Y e s B u t it's h a r d t o g e t t o s e e th e d o c t o r s ' c o s t h e y 'r e s o b u s y a n d g e t t in g

a r o u n d t o b e in g b u s y t h e y r e b u il d i n g a n o t h e r h o s p ita l

S 1 A -0 5 7 (8 )

9 8 In t h e s o u t h w e s t I t h in k In t h e s o u t h w e s t

S 1 A -0 5 7 (A )

1 0 0 Yeah

S 1 A 0 b / (A )

1 0 1 T h e y 'r e d o

S1 A - 0 5 7 ( A )

1 0 7 T h e y 'r e c lo s in g B a lm a in y e y e s t e r d a y w h e n I w e n t d o w n th e re

S 1 A -0 5 7 IA )

1 0 3 O h w e ll t h e y 'r e n o t c lo s in g i t b u t t h e y 'r e n o t d o in g a n y o p e r a t io n s

S 1 A -0 5 7 (B )

1 0 5 R e a lly

S 1 A -0 5 7 (B )

1 0 6 A n d it's g o i n g t o t a k e in C o n c o r d B a lm a in a n d a n o t h e r c o u p le o l h o s p it a ls
I t h in k t o s e r v ic e t h e a r e a

S 1 A - 0 5 7 (A )

1 0 9 R ea y

S 1 A -0 5 7 (A )

1 1 0 C o s it s a lo n g w a y

S 1 A - 0 5 7 (B )

111

T h a t 's w h e n y o u g o o u t t h e H u m e h i g h w a y y o u g o

th ro u g h G o rd o n

d o n 't y o u
S 1 A -0 5 7 (A )

1 1 3 Y e a h O h n o Y o u d o n ' t h a v e to g o t h a t w a y

S 1 A -0 5 7 (A )

1 1 4 Y o u ca n g o th e b a ck w ay

S 1 A -0 5 7 (B )

1 1 6 Y e s It 's s till a

lo n g w a y w h e n t h e y 'v e g o t h o s p it a ls a lr e a d y

h e r e lo r

c o n v e n ie n c e
S 1 A -0 5 7 (A )

1 1 8 Yeah

S 1 A -0 5 7 (B )

1 2 0 D id y o u g e t m t o u c h w i t h f ir s t n a m e l

S 1 A -0 5 7 (A )

121 Ye p

S 1 A -0 5 7 (B )

1 ? ? Is h e c o m i n g in t o s e e m u m

S 1 A -0 5 7 (A )

1 2 3 Y e a h H e s I d o n t t h in k h e c o u l d h a n d le c o m i n g in y e s t e r d a y b u t u m a h h e 's
g o n n a c o m e in t o d a y w it h f i r s w a m e 2

S 1 A -0 5 7 (B )
S 1 A 0 5 7 (A )

1 2 7 O h t h a t 's g o o d Y e s A n d d id h e w o r k a t t h e w e e k e n d f ir s t n a m e l
1 3 0 Y e a h M e w o rk e d o n S a tu rd a y a h S a tu rd a y a n d S u n d a y a n d u rn a n d th e n
I'm g o i n g t o g e t h im t o c o m e in o n S a t u r d a y f o r f o u r h o u r s ' c o s I m g o n n a
g o s h o p p in g

S 1 A -0 5 7 (A )

1 3 4 S o I'm g o n n a w o r k f r o m te n till o n e a n d t h e n h e s g o n n a w o r k f r o m o n e
t ill f iv e a n d t h e n f ir s t n a m e 2 w ill p r o b a b ly w o r k o n S u n d a y

S 1 A -0 5 7 (B )

1 3 7 M m rr

257

258

Appendix
S I A -0 S 7 (B )

1 3 8 M m m T h a t's g o a d

S 1 A -0 5 7 B )

139 M mm

S 1 A -0 S 7 (B >

1 4 0 I s e e I s e e s a id t h e b lin d m a n b u t h e c o u ld n 't s e e a t all

S 1 A 0 5 7 (B )

1 4 1 O h a n y w a y I'v e g o t s o m e p u m p k in a n d s o m e c a u li f lo w e r a n d I'm g o i n g to
m a k e p u m p k in s o u p a n d c a u li f lo w e r s o u p f o r t h e w e e k e n d

S 1 A -0 S 7 (A )

1 4 4 Is t h a t fo r w h e n m u m a n d f ir s t n a m e l c o m e O u t

S 1 A - 0 5 7 ( B > 14 6 Y e s B u t y o u c a n h a v e s o m e if y o u lik e p u m p k in s o u p a n d c a u lif lo w e r s o u p

S 1 A -0 5 7 B )
S 1 A 0 5 7 (A )

1 4 8 D o you
1 4 9 A r e y o u m a k i n g t w o d if f e r e n t s o u p s o r p u t t in g t h e m b o t h in o n e

S1A-0S7(B>

151 N o M a k in g tw o d iffe re n t o nes

S1 A -0 5 7 (A )

1 5 2 O h I lik e p u m p I lik e p u m p k in s o u p

S 1 A 0 5 7 (B )

S 1 A -0 S 7 A )

1 5 3 Y e a h A n d if t h e r e 's a n y o v e r it c a n b e f r o z e n

155 W e usually freeze it d o n 't w e th o u g h

S 1 A - 0 5 7 I B ) 1 5 6 O h y e s b u t in t h e d e e p fr e e z e
S 1 A - 0 5 7 ( A ) 15 7 O h w e d o n 't h a v e a n y
S 1 A 0 5 7 ( B ) 1 5 8 Y e s v o u d o Y o u 'v e a o t a f r e e z e r a t t h e t o p o f t h e f r id a e
S 1 A 0 5 7 (B )

1 5 9 T h a t fre e ze r

S 1 A - 0 5 7 ( A ) 1 6 0 O h I t h o u g h t y o u m e a n t a b i g f r e e z e lik e a
S1 A -0 5 7 (B )1 6 1 N o T h e fr e e z in g c o m p a r tm e n t a t t h e t o p o f t h e fn d g e
S 1 A -0 5 7 IB )

1 6 3 Y o u p u t i t in t h e r e I'v e g o t s o m e lit t le p ia s t ic c o n t a in e r s t o p u t i t in s o th e r e 's

ju s t e n o u g h fo r o n e s e r v n g

S1 A -0 5 7 (A )

1 6 7 O h N e w c o n v e r s a t io n o n s a m e t a p e

Appendix 3.2
S 2 B -0 3 6 (A >

1 7 5 T h e r e a r e m a n y f a c t o r w h ic h d e t e r m in e h o w d a n g e r o u s a s n a k e is

S 2 B -0 3 6 !A )

1 7 6 E v e n t h e m o s t t o x i c s n a k e w i t h t h e lo n g e s t f a n g s a n d t h e w o r s t t e m p e r c a n
h a r d ly b e c o n s id e r e d d a n g e r o u s if it d o e s n 't c o m e in t o c o n t a c t w it h h u m a n s

S 2 B 0 3 6 A )

1 7 9 U n f o r t u n a t e ly A u s t r a lia 's m o s t d a n g e r o u s s n a k e is f o u n d a ll t o o c o m m o n ly in
o u r b a ck y a rd s

S 2 B - 0 3 6 iA )

181

S 2 B -0 3 & A )

18 3 A lt h o u g h it w a s t h e m o s t u r g e n t ly n e e d e d t a ip a n a n t i- v e n o m w a s o n e o f th e
la s t t o b e d e v e lo p e d

U n t il 1 9 5 4 a f u ll b it e f r o m a t a ip a n m e a n t c e r t a in d e a t h

A p p en d ix
S 2B -036A )

1 8 4 l- o r t u n a ie ly t a ip a n v e n o m is n 't ih e m o s t p o t e n t b u t in a ll o t h e r a s p e c t s it ra te s
e q u a l w it h o r a b o v e A u s t r a lia 's o t h e r v e n o m o u s s n a k e s a n d h a s e a r n e d th e
r e p u t a t io n a s t h e m o s t d a n g e r o u s s n a k e in A u s t r a lia

S 2 B -0 3 6 (A )

1 8 8 11^ th e lo n g e s t o f t h e v e n o m o u s s n a k e s a n d t h is is a n a d v a n t a g e w h e n

s t r ik in g
S 2 B -0 3 6 A )

1 9 0 If c o r n e r e d it w ill g o o n t h e a t t a c k Its le n g t h m e a n s it c a n s tr ik e h i g h m a k in g
t h e b it e m o r e e ffe c t iv e

S 2 B -0 3 6 A )

1 9 3 U n lik e t h e ir c o u s in s t h e v ip e r s w h ic h c a n f o ld t h e ir f a n g s b a c k t h e y h a v e
p e r m a n e n t ly e r e c t f a n g s w h ic h lim it s t h e le n g t h t h a t t h e y c a n g r o w

S 2 B 0 3 6 (A )
S 2 B -Q 3 6 < A !

19 5 T h e y a v e r a g e a b o u t 4 t o 5 m illim e tr e s
1 9 6 I h e t a ip a n 's f a n g s c a n g r o w to b e 1 2 m illim e t r e s t h a t 's a b o u t t h e le n g t h o f
m y f in g e r n a il w h ic h m a k e s f o r g r e a t e r k illin g p o w e r

S 2 B -0 3 6 4 A )

1 9 8 L ik e t h e s n a k e t h e t a ip a n u s e s a s tr ik e a n d r e le a s e m e t h o d o f a tta c k

S 2 B -0 3 6 1 A )

2 0 0 U n lik e t h e s n a k e it w ill b it e r e p e a t e d ly

S 2 B -0 3 6 (A >

2 0 1 It s lo n g f a n g s m e a n t h e v e n o m c a n b e in je c t e d to a f a t g r e a t e r d e p t h a n d
t h e r e f o r e h a v e a g r e a t e r e f fe c t

S 2 B -0 3 6 tA )

2 0 3 In o n e r e p o r t e d a t t a c k a 1 2 -y e a r -o ld b o y d ie d le s s t h a n a n h o u r a f t e r b e in g
b it t e n 1 2 t im e s b y a t a ip a n

S 2 B -0 3 6 A )

2 0 6 T a ip a n s a>e m o s t c o m m o n ly f o u n d in w e ll - g r a s s e d t 'o p ic a l w o o d la n d s b u t
t h e ir p r e fe r r e d d i e t o f s m a ll r o d e n t s b ir d s a n d t h e o c c a s io n a l b a n d ic o o t m e a n s
t h e y r e o f t e n f o u n d n e a r fa r m o u t b u i ld in g s a n d e v e n u r b a n b a c k y a r d s

S 2 B -0 3 6 A )

2 1 0 I n c o m p a r is o n t h e tig e s n a k e is n 't c o n s id e r e d a s d a n g e r o u s a s t h e t a ip a n y e t
it a c c o u n t s f o r f a r m o r e b ite s t h a n a n y o t h e r s n a k e i n A u s t r a lia

S 2 B -0 3 6 IA )

2 1 2 T h i s t ig e r s n a k e is s h e d d i n g its s k in

S 2 B -0 3 6 1 A )

2 1 3 T h e p r o c e s s c a l le d s l o u g h in g h a p p e n s a b o u t f iv e t im e s a y e a r

S 2 B -0 3 6 (A >

2 1 4 Im m a t u r e s n a k e s s lo u g h a s t h e y g r o w b u t in a d u lt s it o c c u r s t o r e p la c e
d a m a g e d a n d w o r n s k in

S 2 B -0 3 6 A )

2 1 6 T h e e a s t e r n t ig e r s n a k e is f o u n d f r o m t h e s o u t h - e a s t e r n c o r n e r o f Q u e e n s la n d
d o w n t h r o u g h N e w S o u t h W a le s a n d m o s t o f V ic t o r ia a n d u p in t o S o u t h A u s t r a lia
t h e m o s t d e n s e ly p o p u la t e d c o r n e r o f t h e c o n t in e n t

S 2 B -0 3 6 (A )

2 2 0 T h i s b r i n g s it in t o c o n t a c t w it h h u m a n s f a r m o r e o f t e n t h a n m o s t s n a k e s

S 2 B -0 3 6 (A )

2 2 1 W h e n it d o e s c o m e in to c o n t a c t w it h u s it's u n lik e ly t o fle e

S 2 B -0 3 6 A )

2 2 2 If y o u d o h a p p e n t o f in d a s n a k e i n a b u il d i n g d is c r e t io n is t h e b e t t e r p a r t o f
v a lo u r

S 2 B -0 3 6 A )

2 7 4 D o n ' t t ry t o r e m o v e it J u s t g iv e i t a w id e b e r t h a n d it w ill u s u a lly g o o u t th e

w a y it c a m e in

259

260

A p p e n d ix

S 2 B -0 3 6 A )

2 2 6 A n o v e r e x c it e d s n a k e is m o r e lik e ly l o a t t a c k s o if it c o m e s t o w a r d s y o u
s im p ly m o v e q u ie t ly o u t o f t h e w a y

S 2 B - 0 3 & A )

777

S 2 B -0 3 6 1 A )

2 2 8 T h i s is a C h a p e ! Is la n d t ig e r s n a k e

S 2 B -0 3 6 A )

2 2 9 Its d a r k e r c o lo u r is d u e t o it s c o ld h a b it a t i n t h e 8 a s s S t r a ig h t

S 2 B -0 3 6 IA )

2 3 0 W h e n it f e e d s it w o r k s it s j a w s in a c h e w i n g m o t io n

S 2 B -0 3 & A )

7 3 1 T h e f a n g s a r e v e r y s m a ll b u t t h e v e n o m is e x t r e m e ly p o t e n t

S 2 B -0 3 6 < A >

2 3 2 B y in je c t in g la r g e a m o u n t s t h e v e n o m q u ic k ly b e g i n s t h e p r o c e s s o f

's p r o b a b ly j u s t c u r io u s o r e v e n lo st

b r e a k in g d o w n t h e fo o d
S 2 B -0 3 6 A )

2 3 4 T h e f a n g s a ls o a i d in t h e a c t o f s w a llo w in g

S 2 B -0 3 6 IA )

2 3 b I h e s n a k e lit e r a lly w a lk s a l o n g its v ic t im f o r c in g it d o w n its th ro a t

Epilogue
In t h e I n t r o d u c ti o n , w r it te n in N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 9 , 1 m e n t i o n t h e in s p ir a t io n a n d
e n c o u r a g e m e n t I g a in e d f r o m th e w o r k o f C la ire B la n c h e -B e n v e n is te . T h is
t p i l o g u e is b e in g w r it te n a t th e b e g in n in g o t lu n c 2 0 1 0 , a lm o s t 6 w e e k s a lte r
1e r d e a th , a h u g e lo s s , e s p e c ia lly to s c h o la r s w o r k in g o n s p o k e n la n g u a g e .
I o n l y m e t C la ire B la n c h e -B e n v e n is te o n c e , in A p ril 2 0 0 0 . I n t h e c o u r s e o l o u r
c o n v e rs a tio n , s h e m e n t i o n e d h o w d if fic u lt it h a d b e e n to h a v e h e r re s e a rc h
ta k e n s e rio u s ly , a s it fo c u s e d o n s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n F re n c h a n d n o t o n li te r
a r y te x ts . T e n y e a rs o n t h e s i t u a t i o n h a s im p r o v e d , b u t n o t a s m u c h a s m ig h t
l a v e b e e n h o p e d . T h e th r e e c e n tr a l id e a s p r e s e n te d in t h e I n t r o d u c tio n
have p r o g r e s s e d a t d if f e r e n t r a te s . D e s c rip tiv e g r a m m a r s o f m a n y la n g u a g e s
c o n ti n u e to a p p e a r in im p re s s iv e n u m b e r s . T h e t e n e t t h a t m e a n i n g is c e n tr a l
to th e u n d e r s ta n d in g o f g r a m m a tic a l p a tt e r n s , in d e e d is th e i r ra is o n d 'e tr e , h as
k e e n a d o p te d b y m a n y re s e a rc h e rs , p a r tic u la r ly b y a d h e r e n t s o t C o g n itiv e
L in g u istics.
L e ss h e a d w a y h a s b e e n m a d e b y t h e id e a th a t s p o n ta n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e
is im p o r t a n t lo r c o r e th e o r e tic a l a re a s s u c h a s s y n ta x , la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n ,
ty p o lo g y , la n g u a g e e v o lu tio n a n d la n g u a g e v a r i a ti o n . V a ria tio n is ts f o c u s o n
n o n - s ta n d a r d v a rie tie s o f a g iv e n la n g u a g e o r o n te x t ty p e s ; t h e y h a v e n o t
s o fa r g iv e n th e s a m e a t t e n t i o n to t h e c o n tr a s ts , in d e e d te n s io n s , w ith i n a n y
lite ra te s o c ie ty b e tw e e n th e g r a m m a tic a l a n d d is c o u r s e p a t t e r n s o f s p o n ta n e c u s s p e e c h a n d th e g r a m m a tic a l a n d d is c o u r s e p a tt e r n s o f f o r m a l w ritin g .
T h is p o te n t ia l s t r a n d o f v a r ia tio n th e o r y c o n n e c ts d ir e c tly w i t h th e o r ie s o f
f.rst la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n ; a n y a d e q u a t e th e o r y o f firs t la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n
m u s t ta k e a c c o u n t o f th e s e c o n tr a s ts a n d te n s io n s . A ll th e s e p o i n t s w e re re c o g r i z e d b y C la ir e B la n c h e -B e n v e n is te . H o p e fu lly , t h i s b o o k w ill c o n ti n u e h e r
w o r k a n d p r o p e l s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e a little lu r t h e r in to th e v a rio u s
th e o re tic a l a re n a s .

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T h o m p s o n . S . A . 1 1 9 8 8 ),
I. A . H a w k i n s ( e d . ) ,

T ix o n o v , A

d isc o u rs e a p p ro a c h

h b n u m y e Raboty po Russkomu Jazyku

t o t h e c r o s s - l i n g u i s t i c c a t e g o r y a d j e c t i v e ' . I n

Explaining Linguistic Universals. O x f o r d :

Beyond the Great Wall. L o n d o n :

T h u b ro n , C . (1 9 8 7 ),

O x f o r d U n iv e r s ity P re ss

N . 1 1 9 6 0 ),

Kategorija Sostojamja

O x f o r d U n iv e rs ity P re s s , p p . 1 6 7 -8 5

1 le in e m a n n .

Sovremennorn Russkom Jazyke.

S a m a r k a n d . 'T h e

C a t e g o r y o f S t a te in M o d e r n R u s s ia n '

M in d the Gaffe. T h e Penguin Guide to Comm on Errors in English

I i a s k . R . I .. ( 2 0 0 1 ) .

L o n d o n : P e n g u in

B ooks.
T ra u g o tt, L . (1 9 7 2 ),
T r u d g ill. P. ( 1 9 8 3 ),

The History o f English Syntax

Sociolinguistics. H

N e w Y o rk : 1 lo lt . R i n e h a r t & W in s to n

a im o n d s w o rth : P e n g u in B o o k s.

V a n V a lin , R . D ., |r . a n d L a P o U a , R . J. 1 1 9 9 7 ),

Syntax: Structure. M eaning a n d Function.

C a m b rid g e :

C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P re s s .
V a r g a s , F ( 2 0 0 8 ) , l il

Lieu Incertain. P a r i s :

V iv ia n e lla m y .

V i n o g r a d o v . V . V. ( 1 9 3 8 ) ,

Sovrernennyj Russkij Jazyk.

W a c k e r n a g e l- J o lle s ,

(1 9 7 1 ),

B.

M o s c o w . ( 'M o d e r n R u s s i a n ')

Untersuchungen zur gesprochenen Sprache: Beobachtungen zur

Verknpfung spontanen Sprechens. G p p i n g e n : A l f r e d

W e in b e r g . S . (2 0 0 1 ) ,

Facing Up. C a m

W e in e r t, R . a n d M ille r .
W ra y , A . ( 2 0 0 2 ) ,

K m m e rle .

b r id g e , M A : H a r v a r d U n iv e rs ity P re ss.

( 19 9 6 ) . C l e f t s i n s p o k e n d i s c o u r s e .

Form ulait Language a n d the Lexicon. C a m

Z e m s k a ia , E . A . ( 1 9 7 3 ),

Russkaja razgovornaja tec. M

Z w ic k y . A . ( 1 9 8 5 ) , l e a d s .

Journal o f Linguistics 2

Journal o f Pragmatics 2 5 ,

oscow : N auka.

1. 1 - 2 9 .

1 7 3 -2 0 2 .

b r id g e : C a m b r id g e U n iv e rs ity P re ss.

T h is p a g e in te n tio n a lly l e f t b la n k

Index
a c c e p ta b ility 1 1 8 . 1 2 1

d a t a a n d a n a ly s is 11 - 2 0

ag e a n d m a s t e r y o f c o m p le x

d a t a a n d m is a n a ly s is 1 1 - 1 3

c o n s tru c tio n s 2 4 0 3
a n a c o lu th o n

d a t a a n d th e o r y ix , 8

18 2 0 ,2 7

a s p e c t i n E n g lis h

11

d a ta , r a n g e o f 5 6

1 4 1 -6 2

d e p e n d e n c y r e la t io n s 4 1- 6 0
d e p e n d e n c y r e la t io n s a n d s u b o r d in a t e

d a u s e a n d s e n t e n c e 21 - 6

c la u s e s 5 7 - 6 0

c o g n itiv e c a p a c it y 3 - 4 , 7 - 8

d e s c rip tio n 4

c o m p le m e n t a n d a d ju n c t 4 2 - 4

d e s c r i p ti v e g r a m m a r 3

c o m p le x ity a n d la n g u a g e

d o u b l e c le f ts 3 4 - 7

a c q u is itio n 2 4 0 -3
c o m p l e x i t y a n d la n g u a g e u s e r s 2 2 9 - 3 3

e x c e p t c la u s e s 1 3 -1 8

c o m p l e x i t y o f la n g u a g e 2 2 0 - 3 6

e x p la n a t io n a n d d e s c r i p t i o n 2 - 8

c o m p le x ity i n w r i t te n la n g u a g e 2 2 2 - 9 ,

e x p la n a t io n a n d s e m a n t i c s 7

2 3 3 -6
c o m p le x ity s p e a k in g a n d w r itin g 2 2 0 -2

f ir s t la n g u a g e a c q u i s i ti o n 2 3 7 - 5 4

c o n c e p t u a l i z a ti o n a n d p e r c e p t io n

f ix e d p h r a s e s 2 4 6 - 5 0

1 9 2 -4

f ix e d p h r a s e s , p r i v a t e 2 4 9 - 5 0

c o n s tru c tio n s 9 9 -1 1 7

f ix e d p h r a s e s i n i n t e r a c t i o n s 2 4 7 - 8

c o n s tru c tio n s a n d C h o m sk y a n
g e n e ra tiv e g r a m m a r

1 0 9 -1 0

f o r e n s ic l in g u is tic s 3
f r e e p a r t i c i p le 59

c o n s tru c tio n s a n d la n g u a g e
a c q u is itio n

104 6

g e n e r ic

147 9

c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d s p e e c h a c t s 101

g e r u n d 5 9 ,1 2 0

c o n s t r u c t i o n s , c a t e g o r y o f s t a te in

g e r u n d , T y p e II 5 9 -6 0

R u s s ia n 1 0 6 - 9

p a s s iv e 1 6 3 - 7 4

c o n s t r u c t i o n s , c o n d i t i o n a l s i n C la s s ic a l
G r e e k 106

g e t p a s s iv e . g e t a s a v e r b o f

c o n s t r u c t i o n s , e x is te n tia l 1 0 2 - 4
c o n s t r u c t i o n s , e x is te n tia l a n d B e lfa s t
E n g lis h

g e t p a s s iv e a n d d e l i b e r a t e a c t i o n

1 0 9 -1 0

m o v e m e n t 1 7 0 -2
g e t p a s s iv e , its h i s t o r y 1 7 3 - 4
g r a m m a r a n d s e m a n t ic s v ii

c o n s tru c tio n s , I T d e f t 1 1 0 -1 4

g r a m m a t ic a l f u n c t i o n s 1 9 9 - 2 0 2

c o n s tru c tio n s , lo n e i f c la u s e s 1 1 5 -1 6

g r a m m a t ic a l f u n c t i o n s a c r o s s

c o n s t r u c t i o n s , l o n e w h e n c l a u s e s 1 16
c o n s tru c tio n b o u n d a rie s

1 0 2 -4

c o n s tru c tio n s a s a n e tw o rk 9 9 -1 0 1
c o n t a c t c la u s e 27

la n g u a g e s 202
g r a m m a t ic a l i ty 1 1 8 - 3 9
g r a m m a t i c a l i t y a n d la n g u a g e
change

1 3 2 -4

1 6 8 -9

274

In d e x

o b s e rv a tio n a n d th e o r y 4 - 5

g r a m m a t ic a l i ty a n d lin g u is tic
p o w e r 1 3 4 -6
g r a m m a t ic a l i ty a n d v a r ia t io n

13 0 - 2

p a rts o f sp e ech

1 9 1 -7

p a rts o f sp e e c h a n d d e n o ta tio n

1 9 1 -4

h a b itu a l 1 4 7 - 9

p a rts o f sp e e c h a n d sp e e c h a c ts 1 9 4 -7

head 4 1 -5 3

p e r c e p t i o n a n d c o n c e p t u a li z a tio n

h e a d o f c la u s e 4 4 - 5

1 9 2 -4

head o f N P 50 3

P e r f e c t a n d R e s u lta tiv e 1 5 8 - 6 2

h e a d o f P P 4 9 50

p e rfo rm a n c e e r ro rs 5 6
p o v e r t y o f s t i m u l u s 2 4 3 54

in d i r e c t o b j e c t 2 0 0 - 1

P r o g r e s s iv e

1 5 3 -5

in d ire c t q u e s tio n s 4 - 6 ,1 8 - 2 0
i n d i r e c t q u e s t i o n s a n d g e o g r a p h ic a l
sp re a d 6

r e c a p i t u l a t o r y p r o n o u n 27
re fe re n c e g ra m m a rs 2 -3

i n t u i t io n s 9 , 1 2 1 - 2

r e la tiv e c la u s e 2 7 - 9 , 1 2 2 - 7

i n t u i t io n s a n d s p o k e n la n g u a g e 9 - 1 0

R e s u lta tiv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s 1 5 9 - 6 2

i r r r c a l i s a n d th e T u r k i s h a o r is t 1 5 1 - 2

re s u m p tiv e p r o n o u n

124

r o le s 2 0 2 - 1 8
la n g u a g e a c q u i s i ti o n 4

r o le s , c r i t e r i a f o r 2 0 5 - 9

left d i s l o c a ti o n 2 9 - 3 1

r o le s a n d r o le p la y e rs 2 1 1 -1 5

lu i a l i s n 193

l o k s a i i d d itu a liu n t y p e 2 0 9 - 1 I
r o le s , g r a m m a r a n d d if f e r e n t

m a g n a s y n ta x

1 2 0 ,1 2 2 - 7

m a g n a v o c a b u la ry

1 1 9 -2 0

m id d le c o n s tru c tio n
M in im a lis m

la n g u a g e s 2 1 5 -1 7
R u s s ia n 2 1 5 - 1 6

127

m o d ifie r 4 1 -5 3

se n te n c e 2 1 - 6
sh a d o w p ro n o u n

124

S im p le P a s t a n d P e r f e c t 1 5 5 - 8
n o n c o n f i g u r a t i o n a l i t y 61 98
n o n - c o n f i g u r a t i o n a l i ty a n d i n f o r m a t i o n
s tru c tu re 8 2 -5
n o n - c o n f i g u r a t i o n a l i t y i n A u s tr a lia n
la n g u a g e s 7 4 - 9
n o n - c o n f i g u r a t i o n a l i ty i n R u s s ia n 7 9 - 9 2
N P -C la u s e c o n s tru c tio n 2 9 -3 1

S im p le P a s t e x p r e s s in g E x p e r ie n tia l
m e a n i n g 158
S im p le P a s t + j u s t 1 5 7 - 8
S im p le P r e s e n t a n d i r r e a l i s 1 5 2 - 3
S im p le P r e s e n t a n d s p e e c h a c t s 149
S im p le P r e s e n t i n d i f f e r e n t
te x t - ty p e s 1 4 5 - 7

N P - C l a u s e i n F r c n c h 72

S im p le P r e s e n t v s S im p le P a s t 1 4 4 - 5 1

N P - C o m p I c m c n t C la u s e

s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e vii

c o n s t r u c t i o n 31 - 2 , 7 2 - 4

s to ra g e v s o n - lin e g e n e ra tio n 2 4 9 -5 0

N P c o m p le x ity 6 4 - 6 ,

s u b o rd in a te c la u s e s , c rite ria fo r 1 4 -1 7

N P c o m p le x ity , a v o i d i n g 6 8 - 7 4

s y s te m s e n t e n c e 22

N P s i n A u s tr a l i a n E n g lis h 6 6 - 8

s t r o n g f e a tu r e s 5

N P s in G e rm a n 6 5 -6
N P s i n R u s s ia n 6 5

t e n s e i n E n g lis h 1 4 1 - 6 2

N P s i n s p o k e n E n g lis h 6 4 - 7 4

te x t se n te n c e 2 2 .2 5 - 6

n u m b er ag reem en t 4 2 -6

T H c le ft 1 1 - 1 3

Index
I l c o r y a n d d e s c rip tio n 2 - 1 1

w h i n t e r r o g a t i v e s 183

t h i n g is c o n s t r u c t i o n 3 2 - 9

w h w o rd s a s d e ic tic s

tr a n s c rip tio n a n d c o d in g 2 1 - 2

w h w o r d s a s f u s e d r e la tiv e s 1 7 8 - 9

T u r k is h

w h w o r d s i n r e la tiv e c l a u s e s 1 8 1 - 3

1 7 9 -8 0

17 5 - 9 0

w h ic h a s d i s c o u r s e c o n n e c t i v e
u n in t e g r a t e d s t r u c t u r e s 2 3 . 2 8 - 9

W H c le f t 3 2 - 9

u sa g e -b a se d m o d e ls 1 4 0 -6 2

w r i t t e n la n g u a g e v ii

1 8 2 -3

275

'A n e x p lo ra tio n o f th e s y n t a x o f re a l la n g u a g e , b o th sp o ke n a n d w ritten, w h ich

u n e a rth s f a s c in a t in g e xa m p les, sh o w in g ju s t h o w d iffe re n t th e tw o ca n b e - a n d
h o w c h a lle n g in g th e y a re f o r lin g u is ts o f d iffe re n t p e rsu a s io n s . '

T h is b o o k in tr o d u c e s m a jo r a r e a s o f d e b a t e w i t h i n t h e f ie ld o f s y n ta x :
c o n s tru c tio n s , g r a m m a r a n d s e m a n tic s , c o n f ig u ra tio n a lity , u s a g e -b a s e d
g r a m m a r, c o m p le x ity a n d la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n . I t h ig h lig h ts t h e a p p lic a tio n
o f th e s e s a m e c o n c e p ts a c ro ss d if fe r e n t m o d e ls o f g ra m m a r. R e a l e x a m p le s
fro m s p o k e n a n d w r itte n la n g u a g e , a n d s ta n d a r d a n d n o n - s ta n d a r d la n g u a g e
d e m o n s tr a te th e d iffic u ltie s a n d p ro v id e g u id a n c e o n h o w to a p p ly th e c o n c e p t
o f g r a m m a tic a lity . R e a d e rs a re s h o w n h o w to p ro d u c e re lia b le a n a ly s e s ,
e s p e c ia lly fo r s p o k e n la n g u a g e .

C o m p r e h e n s iv e , a c c e s s ib le a n d c h a lle n g in g , t h i s b o o k is e s s e n t i a l r e a d i n g f o r
s tu d e n ts ta k in g c o u rs e s in s y n ta x a n d s y n ta c tic th e o r y , b o th a t u n d e r g ra d u a te
a n d p o s t g r a d u a t e le v e l.

J i m M ille r is P ro fe s s o r E m e ritu s a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f E d in b u r g h , UK . H e w a s

f o r m e r ly P ro fe s s o r o f L in g u is tic s a n d S p o k e n L a n g u a g e a t E d in b u r g h a n d
P ro f e s s o r o f C o g n itiv e L in g u is tic s a t t h e U n iv e r s ity o f A u c k la n d , N e w Z e a la n d .

LINGUISTICS
ISBN 9 7 8 - 0 - 8 2 6 4 - 9 7 0 4 - 8

co n tin u u m

w w w .continuum books.com