Lecture 1

Stephens Island Wren: Timeline

1892 Lighthouse built
1894 January - Lighthouse working
February keeper (David Lyall) and cat
June killing starts
July reaches ornithologists
October birds start decreasing in numbers
December Xenicus lyalli described
1895 - March - birds very rare
November cannot be found
December cats swarming island
1925 cats exterminated
Marthas Vineyard
Marthas Vineyard, New England: 2000 + birds(heath hen) as on January 1912
1916 . Fire, Bitter winter, invasion of hawks
11 March 1932: Extinct
Lecture 3
New Caledonia
-Estimate that New Caledonia host 0.05 % of global botanical diversity
-Estimate that only 15 to 20 % of the initial humid dense forest remains
-There is about 8 to 9 chances out of 10 that a plant species seen there only exist in New Caledonia
-Estimate that only less than 20% of insects present in New Caledonia are described
Anthropic Impacts
Since the arrival of men (>3500 ans), at least 17 endemic species of vertebrates (birds, reptiles) have
disappeared of the surface of the earth
CBD Article 15 (against biopiracy)
Strictest interpretation of Article 15 and CBD laws:
ALL biological material and data are national treasures;
ALL material past and present are Sarawakian property;
ALL parties (local and foreign) are potential risks;
ALL biological research is applied and economical
Guilty (or suspects) until proven innocent

Man-made threats
Habitat Destruction & Fragmentation - The destruction or splitting up of once continuous habitat to
enable humans to use the land for agriculture, development of towns and cities, construction of
dams, or other purposes.
Climage Change - Human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, have altered the Earth's
atmosphere and have resulted in global climate changes.

Introduction of Exotic Species - Accidental and intentional introduction of non-native species into
regions never before occupied by the species have resulted in the extinctio of numerous endemic
species.
Pollution - Pollutants (pesticides, herbicides, etc.) released into the environment are ingested by a
wide variety of organisms.
Over-Exploitation of Resources - Exploitation of wild populations for food has resulted in population
crashes (over-fishing, for example).
Hunting, Poaching, Illegal Trade of Endangered Species - Some endangered species are targeted for
their value on illegal markets.
Accidental Deaths - Car hits, window collisions (birds), collissions with ships (whales).

Acts and Statutes

Convention of Biodiversity
Article 3. Principle States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the
principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their
own environmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction
or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of
national jurisdiction.

Article 5. Cooperation
Each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate, cooperate with other Contracting
Parties, directly or. where appropriate, through competent international organizations, in respect of
areas beyond national jurisdiction and on other matters of mutual interest, for the conservation and
sustainable use of biological diversity.
Article 6. General Measures for Conservation and Sustainable Use
Each Contracting Party shall, in accordance with its particular conditions and capabilities:
(a) Develop national strategies, plans or programmes for the conservation and sustainable use of
biological diversity or adapt for this purpose existing strategies, plans or programmes which shall
reflect, inter alia, the measures set out in this Convention relevant to the Contracting Party
concerned; and
(b) Integrate, as far as possible and as appropriate, the conservation and sustainable use of
biological diversity into relevant sectoral or cross-sectoral plans, programmes and policies.
Article 8. In-situ Conservation
Each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate:
(a) Establish a system of protected areas or areas where special measures need to be taken to
conserve biological diversity:
(b) Develop, where necessary, guidelines for the selection, establishment and management of
protected areas or areas where special measures need to be taken to conserve biological diversity:
(c) Regulate or manage biological resources important for the conservation of biological diversity
whether within or outside protected areas, with a view to ensuring their conservation and
sustainable use;
(d) Promote the protection of ecosystems, natural habitats and the maintenance of viable
populations of species in natural surroundings:
(e) Promote environmentally sound and sustainable development in areas adjacent to protected
areas with a view to furthering protection of these areas:

(f) Rehabilitate and restore degraded ecosystems and promote the recovery of threatened species,
inter alia, through the development and implementation of plans or other management strategies:
(g) Establish or maintain means to regulate, manage or control the risks associated with the use and
release of living modified organisms resulting from biotechnology which are likely to have adverse
environmental impacts that could affect the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity,
taking also into account the risks to human health:
(h) Prevent the introduction of, control or eradicate those alien species which threaten ecosystems,
habitats or species:
(i) Endeavour to provide the conditions needed for compatibility between present uses and the
conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components:
(j) Subject to its national legislation, respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and
practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the
conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and promote their wider application with the
approval and involvement of the holders of such knowledge, innovations and practices and
encourage the equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of such knowledge,
innovations and practices:
(k) Develop or maintain necessary legislation and/or other regulatory provisions for the protection of
threatened species and populations:
(l) Where a significant adverse effect on biological diversity has been determined pursuant to Article
7, regulate or manage the relevant processes and categories of activities: and
(m) Cooperate in providing financial and other support for in-situ conservation outlined in
subparagraphs (a) to (1) above, particularly to developing countries.
Article 15 (against biopiracy)
1. Recognizing the sovereign rights of States over their natural resources, the authority to determine
access to genetic resources rests with the national governments and is subject to national legislation.
2. Each Contracting Party shall endeavour to create conditions to facilitate access to genetic
resources for environmentally sound uses by other Contracting Parties and not to impose
restrictions that run counter to the objectives of this Convention.
3. For the purpose of this Convention, the genetic resources being provided by a Contracting Party,
as referred to in this Article and
Articles 16 and 19, are only those that are provided by Contracting Parties that are countries of
origin of such resources or by the Parties that have acquired the genetic resources in accordance
with this Convention.
4. Access, where granted, shall be on mutually agreed terms and subject to the provisions of this
Article.
5. Access to genetic resources shall be subject to prior informed consent of the Contracting Party
providing such resources, unless otherwise determined by that Party.

6. Each Contracting Party shall endeavour to develop and carry out scientific research based on
genetic resources provided by other Contracting Parties with the full participation of, and where
possible in, such Contracting Parties.
7. Each Contracting Party shall take legislative, administrative or policy measures, as appropriate,
and in accordance with Articles 16 and 19 and, where necessary, through the financial mechanism
established by Articles 20 and 21 with the aim of sharing in a fair and equitable way the results of
research and development and the benefits arising from the commercial and other utilization of
genetic resources with the Contracting Party providing such resources. Such sharing shall be upon
mutually agreed terms.

Prevention of Pollution of the Sea Act

Prohibition of discharge of oil or oily mixtures from land or apparatus
3. If any oil or oily mixture is discharged into Singapore waters from any place on land, or from any
apparatus used for transferring oil from or to any ship (whether to or from a place on land or to or
from another ship)
(a)if the discharge is from a place on land, the occupier of that place or if the discharge is caused by
the act of another person who is in that place without the permission (express or implied) of the
occupier, that person; or
(b)if the discharge is from an apparatus used for transferring oil from or to a ship, the person in
charge of the apparatus,
shall be guilty of an offence and shall be liable on conviction to a fine of not less than $1,000 and not
more than $1 million or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 2 years or to both.
Prohibition of discharge of refuse, garbage, wastes, effluents, plastics and dangerous pollutants from
ships
6.(1) Subject to subsection (2) and any regulations made under subsection (5), if any disposal or
discharge of refuse, garbage, waste matter, trade effluent, plastics or marine pollutant in packaged
form occurs from any ship into Singapore waters, the master, the owner and the agent of the ship
shall each be guilty of an offence and shall each be liable on conviction to a fine not exceeding
$10,000 or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 2 years or to both.
(2) Subsection (1) shall not apply to the disposal or discharge of refuse, garbage, waste matter,
trade effluent, plastics or marine pollutant in packaged form from a ship
(a)which is necessary for the purpose of securing the safety of a ship or saving life at sea; or
(b)if the refuse, garbage, waste matter, trade effluent, plastics or marine pollutant in packaged form,
as the case may be, escaped from the ship in consequence of damage, other than intentional
damage, to the ship or its equipment, and all reasonable precautions were taken after the
occurrence of the damage or the discovery of the discharge for the purpose of preventing or

minimising the escape of the refuse, garbage, waste matter, trade effluent, plastics or marine
pollutant in packaged form, as the case may be.
(3) Subsection (1) shall not apply where a synthetic fishing net, or synthetic material used in the
repair of such a net, on a ship is lost at sea, and all reasonable precautions were taken to prevent the
loss.
(4) For the purposes of subsection (2), damage to a ship or to its equipment shall be taken to be
intentional damage, if the damage arose in circumstances in which the master, the owner or the
agent of the ship
(a)acted with intent to cause the damage; or
(b)acted recklessly and with knowledge that damage would probably result.
(5) The Authority may, with the approval of the Minister, make regulations to exempt any ship from
the operation of subsection (1), either absolutely or subject to any prescribed conditions, and either
generally or as respects particular classes of ships, or in relation to particular descriptions of refuse,
garbage, waste matter, trade effluent, plastics or marine pollutant in packaged form or to the
disposal or discharge thereof in prescribed circumstances, or in relation to particular areas of the sea.

Examples
Technology against environment
Technology comprises the crafting of materials and transforming them into implements that allow
man to control or manipulate natural resources in order to meet his needs.
1. Fossil Fuels unsustainable use since Industrial Revolution
Unsustainable usage:
-Fossil fuels were formed over millions of years by the decomposing remains of plants and animals
under immense heat and pressure. This process resulted in energy laden fuels ? coal, petroleum, and
natural gas, which together have generated most of the energy consumed globally for over a century,
paving the way for continued advancement and new inventions.
- However, many believe that the world is using fossil fuels at an unsustainable rate. Some experts
believe that the world has already reached its peak for oil extraction and production, and that it is
only a matter of time before natural gas and coal follow suit.
Environmental impacts:
-The world has about 30 years left before temperatures rise to risky levels if it continues to burn
fossil fuels at the present rate
- It says that since the beginning of the industrial age, more than 500 gigatons of carbon has been
released into the atmosphere from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, and deforestation and
other land use changes.
-But to retain a 66 per cent chance of preventing temperatures rising more than 2 degrees from the
late 1880s, the world can only emit a further 300 gigatons of carbon. Because about 10 or 11
gigatons of carbon are released each year, that suggests there is less than 30 years before the 800
gigatons limit is breached.
-Mining for coal and drilling for oil are especially hazardous because the digging of massive mines
and wells can change the surrounding landscapes and bring massive amounts of salt water to the
surface which can damage nearby ecosystems without proper treatment and sequestration.
2.Nanoparticles
Environmental impacts
(refer to 1202 test)
3.Mining of metals
Background
It is said that the end of the Bronze Age began in 1200 BC, when the use of iron or metal came into
the foreground as a better material for weaponry. Since then, almost every nation found it necessary
to harness their environments iron resources to produce weapons for their warfare technology.

Hence, metals even then played an important role in order for a territory or region to survive. Until
mining methods were soon developed wherein mining technology had greater negative impact on
the natural environment than the wood burning process that the cavemen discovered.
Environmental Impacts
In the U.S., the mining industries brought acid mine drainage problems that led to a series of
chemical reactions. It resulted into contamination of both surface and groundwater as natural
sources of drinking water. The growth, development and propagation of fish and other aquatic life
became disrupted. Waste water pipes, bridges and other metal structures submerged underwater
resulted to corrosion and subsequently acid run-offs.
The Appalachian Coal Fields is the region where mining activities took place and where most of the
mines produced different forms of metals. Some mines closed due to the advent of the Civil Wars in
1861-1865. Mines were abandoned and soon, the mine drainage problems surfaced with significant
levels of toxic content. In fact, most of the mining industries in the Appalachian Coal Fields have
since closed due to economic recession but not without leaving pollution problems. It is said that of
all coal fields, Western Maryland has the most severe case of water pollution. The drainage run-offs
carry acid, iron, aluminum, sulfur and other toxic substances into the nearby streams.
4.Nuclear Power
Environmental Impacts
Nuclear power has at least four waste streams that may harm the environment:
-spent nuclear fuel at the reactor site (including fission products and plutonium waste)
-tailings and waste rock at uranium mines and mills
-releases of small amounts of radioactive isotopes during reactor operation
-releases of large quantities of dangerous radioactive materials during accidents
The nuclear fuel cycle involves some of the most dangerous elements and isotopes known to
humankind, including more than 100 dangerous radionuclides and carcinogens such as strontium-90,
iodine 131 and cesium -137, which are the same toxins found in the fall out of nuclear weapons"

Development trajectories
-describes the course of behavior over time
- science of governing a country is governance; it can be defined quickly as what democratically
elected and accountable leaders do with the pooled resources of the citizenry and the collective
patrimony of the contents of the national territory in order to provide things for the common good.
- steering of a country is defined through economic policy, which refers to the management of
resources and upkeep of things deemed to be essential;

- In the post WWII period, the leaders of Southern nations looked to the Northern nations as ideal
examples in terms of political and administrational organisation, and the perceived prosperity of
their citizens, and sought to imitate their trajectories.
- To achieve a sustainable modernity, resource use by the richest countries will have to decline, and
terms of trade of the richer countries will need to be more fairly balanced with the poorer countries.
In this way poorer countries environments will be less exploited, and hopefully become more
prosperous. For this change to occur however, rich country electorates must be convinced to lower
their resource use out of compassionate concerns for the imbalance in regard to the poorest
countries. The only way that the population of a rich country would willingly accept this, would be if
somehow quality of life discourse could be positioned above the importance of perpetual economic
growth. A new concept, relating to happiness, through belonging and harmony could be established
which emphasises self-sufficiency in energy and low energy use.

Environmental Education
All education is environmental education," as Center board member David W. Orr has written. "By
what is included or excluded, students are taught that they are part of or apart from the natural
world."
Schooling is everything the school does that leads to students' learning whether that learning is
intended or not. Students learn from classroom lectures. They also learn from what the school offers
in the lunchroom, by how it uses resources and manages waste, by who is included in decisions, by
how the school relates to the surrounding community.
The Center for Ecoliteracy has identified four broad areas food, the campus, community, and
teaching & learning which are explored in depth in its book, Smart by Nature: Schooling for
Sustainability. Each of these areas offers multiple avenues for educators, students, parents, and
citizens wanting to engage in the transformative work of schooling for sustainability.
Environmental education focuses on:
-Awareness and sensitivity about the environment and environmental challenges
-Knowledge and understanding about the environment and environmental challenges
-Attitude concern for the environment and help to maintain environmental quality
-Skills to mitigate the environmental problems
-Participation for exercising existing knowledge and environmental related programs.
Successful Stories
In the fall of 2010, Mary Magos' 2nd and 3rd grade students at the Ann Arbor Learning Community
in Michigan embarked on a journey to learn about habitats. In addition to an extensive animal unit in
science, they collaborated with other classes to learn about bats

By reading about bats and investigating their habitat, students discovered that bats who dine on
mosquitoes help maintain a balance in the insect population. Students then worked with a parent to
construct bat houses.
When summer science camp students found acid mine drainage was seeping into nearby Snowy
Creek in 2003, Rebecca Sanders, 5th grade teacher at Crellin Elementary School in Oakland, saw it as
an opportunity to teach problem solving and environmental science. By working with local, state and
federal agencies, the property surrounding Crellin was turned into an environmental education
laboratory in which the students use conduct stream studies and collect data on the biological and
chemical quality of Snowy Creek
Sanders said that she has found that the enthusiasm displayed by the students for what they are
learning helps earn the support of parents, community members and school administrators. It
encourages them to participate in environmental projects at the school

Recycling
Germany:
Germany produces 30 million tons of garbage annually. The Green Dot system has been one of the
most successful recycling initiatives, which has literally put packaging on a diet. The crux is that
manufacturers and retailers have to pay for a "Green Dot" on products: the more packaging there is,
the higher the fee. This clever system has led to less paper, thinner glass and less metal being used,
thus creating less garbage to be recycled. The net result: a drastic decline of about one million tons
less garbage than normal every year
Taiwan:
Economic Value
On the practical side, throwing containers into garbage cans does not make sense to most people;
instead, they have become aware that those empty bottles and cans still have value. That awareness
finds validation in the NT$9 billion (US$280 million) average annual production value created from
sales of raw materials made from the containers. Another example of the value of recyclables is
Taoyuan Countys Super Dragon Technology Co., which extracts hundreds of kilograms of precious
metals each month from discarded information technology products, or e-waste.
Environmental value
People here also have a progressive sense of the finiteness of resources. When talking about their
homeland, locals often tell visitors Taiwan is just a small island. Compounding matters is the
islands limited amount of level ground suitable for homes and businesses. There is thus a growing
awareness that environmental problems in these densely packed areas will be felt quickly, and by
many
Japan:
Container and Packaging Recycling Law has been enforced in April 1997 by the Ministry of the
Environment to reduce the waste of glass containers, PET bottles and paper cartons

Extinction
Natural Extinction
Animals and plants have always had a hard time surviving. Scientists estimate that over two thirds of
the animals and plants that once lived on Earth are now extinct.
Mixed factors
The West Indian manatee is an endangered aquatic mammal that lives in rivers, estuaries, canals and
saltwater bays. Manatees need warm water to survive. In the winter they live in southern Florida
and parts of Georgia. In the summer they can migrate as far north as Virginia and west to Louisiana.
Sometimes manatees die because they don't migrate back to warm water soon enough. There are
currently a little under 2,000 manatees in Florida. Every year about 150 die. Manatees are often
killed when they are hit by boats. Manatees can also die when they get caught in fishing nets.
Human
In Hawaii, the state bird, the Nene Goose, is in danger, in part, because of the mongoose. The
mongoose was brought into Hawaii by planters to help control rats in sugar cane fields. The planters
didn't realize that rats are nocturnal and the mongoose hunts in the day. The mongoose found other
sources of food like eggs from nesting birds, including the Nene goose. The Nene goose used to be
found all over Hawaii. There are now less than 800 left in the state.

Natural Disasters
People and the environment are increasingly suffering from the effects of natural disasters. There
are a number of reasons for this such as high population growth and density, migration and
unplanned urbanization, environmental degradation and possibly global climate change. The sheer
scope of the socioeconomic impacts of natural disasters has brought about a shift in the political
approach to dealing with the concept of risk in modern societies.
Comparing the past two decades, the number of people killed in natural and non-natural disasters
was higher in the 1980s (86 328 annually) than in the 1990s (75 252 annually). However, more
people were affected by disasters in the 1990s - up from an average of 147 million a year in the
1980s to 211 million people a year in the 1990s. While the number of geophysical disasters has
remained fairly steady, the number of hydrometeorological disasters (those caused by water and
weather) has increased. In the 1990s, more than 90 per cent of those killed in natural disasters lost
their lives in hydrometeorological events such as droughts, windstorms and floods. While floods
accounted for more than two-thirds of people affected by natural disasters, they are less deadly
than many other types of disaster, accounting for only 15 per cent of deaths
The 1997-98 El Nio event affected virtually every region: Eastern Africa suffered drought and
unusually high rainfall; Southeast Asia and North America, abnormally warm periods; South Asia,
drought; Latin America and the Caribbean, unusually high rainfall and drought; and the Pacific
Islands unusually high rainfall.
2004 Tsunami

-magnitude 9.1-9.3, 3rd highest recorded on seismograph, riggered other earthquakes as far away as
Alaska
- 227,898 people died
-loss of US9.9 billion
-released stored energy equivalent to more than 23000 hiroshima bombs
we have emphasized human impacts on the environment. It is important to recognize that humans
do not in any way cause earthquakes. We certainly do play a large role in determining what the
impacts of an earthquake end up being. But the earthquake itself is caused by plate tectonics, which
are beyond human influence
Hurricane Katrina 2005
1800 people died
-$81 billion estimate, but may be higher as there are more indirect costs which till now have not
been totally quantified
Other US
Hurricane Andrew in 1992 which cost $30 billion, and the Northridge Earthquake in 1994 which
resulted in over $44 billion
-earthquakes in US max deaths is 3000 in 1906, tsunamis in Hawaii which resulted in earthquake in
1960 in Chile only killed 61
- The largest earthquake to hit the U.S. was on March 28, 1964, when a 9.2 magnitude quake struck
Prince William Sound in Alaska, Dead: Tsunami: 98 Alaska, 11 California, 4 Oregon. Earthquake: 15
Alaska
Philippines Hurricane
-typhoon Haiyan
-more than 3600 dead, $15 billion damage
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
-11 March 2011
-due to earthquake, is located in tsunami-prone area, the sea wall not strong enough
- initiated by the tsunami of the Thoku earthquake and tsunami on 11 March 2011.[5] The damage
caused by the tsunami produced equipment failures, and without this equipment a loss-of-coolant
accident followed with nuclear meltdowns and releases of radioactive materials beginning on 12
March

Good Governance

Good governance is an indeterminate term used in international development literature to describe

how public institutions conduct public affairs and manage public resources. Governance is "the
process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented (or not
implemented)" The term governance can apply to corporate, international, national, local
governance or to the interactions between other sectors of society.
The concept of "good governance" often emerges as a model to compare ineffective economies or
political bodies with viable economies and political bodies.[2] The concept centers around the
responsibility of governments and governing bodies to meet the needs of the masses as opposed to
select groups in society.
EPA
-government agency: Compliance and enforcement is how EPA ensures that governments,
businesses and industry understand and follow our nation's environmental laws and regulations.
Compliance helps organizations or individuals meet their obligations under environmental laws and
regulations. Enforcement takes legal action against an organization or industry when they do not
comply with the law.
Clean Water Act, Clean Air Act

Conservation
Singapore
Wildlife Reserves: include Zoo, Bird Park, River Safari, Night Safari
Modern zoos have an important role to play in conservation. They help protect, preserve and restore
wildlife and their habitats. Zoos bear the responsibility of educating the public and creating
awareness for the dwindling numbers in the animal kingdom. In line with these aims, Singapore Zoo
is one of the most successful conservation parks in the region.
Conservation through breeding:
Breeding of endangered animals is another important aspect of conservation. The Singapore Zoo has
bred a long list of endangered animals such as the orang utan, golden lion tamarin, proboscis
monkey, white rhino, king cobra, rhino iguana, tiger and Malayan tapir. The Zoo has exchanged
many of these animals with other reputable zoos for breeding purposes.
Conservation through education:
Guests come to the Zoo to relax and to be entertained, so learning about wildlife has to be fun. This
is why we have the exciting animal exhibits, Animal Shows and Animal Feeding Programmes. These
activities are meant to entertain as well as to integrate conservation messages to a captive audience.
US
Restoration of the Everglades

The restoration of the Everglades is an ongoing effort to remedy damage inflicted on the
environment of southern Florida during the 20th century. It is the most expensive and
comprehensive environmental repair attempt in history.[1][2] The degradation of the Everglades
became an issue in the United States in the early 1970s after a proposal to construct a jetport in the
Big Cypress Swamp. Studies indicated the airport would have destroyed the ecosystem in South
Florida and Everglades National Park.[3] After decades of destructive practices, both state and
federal agencies are looking for ways to balance the needs of the natural environment in South
Florida with urban and agricultural centers that have recently and rapidly grown in and near the
Everglades.
Environmental protection became a national priority in the 1970s. Time magazine declared it the
Issue of the Year in January 1971, reporting that it was rated as Americans' "most serious problem
confronting their communitywell ahead of crime, drugs and poor schools. When South Florida
experienced a severe drought from 1970 to 1975, with Miami receiving only 33 inches (840 mm) of
rain in 197122 inches (560 mm) less than average. Media attention focused on the Everglades.
With the assistance of governor's aide Nathaniel Reed and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service biologist
Arthur R. Marshall, politicians began to take action. Governor Reubin Askew implemented the Land
Conservation Act in 1972, allowing the state to use voter-approved bonds of $240 million to
purchase land considered to be environmentally unique and irreplaceable. Since then, Florida has
purchased more land for public use than any other state. In 1972 President Richard Nixon declared
the Big Cypress Swampthe intended location for the Miami jetport in 1969to be federally
protected. Big Cypress National Preserve was established in 1974,and Fakahatchee Strand State
Preserve was created the same year
Indonesia
Indonesia is currently the largest exporters of sharks and shark products in the world. Sharks are
captured through local fisheries as well as as part of by-catch in industrial fisheries.
The declaration of Indonesias shark sanctuary by the Raja Ampat government is bold,
On 20 February 2013, the Raja Ampat government officially announced that it has declared its entire
4 million hectares of coastal and marine waters a shark sanctuary.
This means that all harvesting of sharks is now prohibited in its waters. In addition, the sanctuary
also gives full protection to a number ecologically and economically important ocean species, such
as manta rays, dugongs, whales, turtles, dolphins and ornamental fish species.
Sharks are what we scientists call apex predators, which means they are at the top of the food
chain and play an important role in maintaining healthy ecosystems.
Without top predators, ecosystems can be altered and become less productivein some cases, they
can even collapse. Any changes to an ecosystem will ultimately affect local fisheries, and therefore
the food and livelihoods of local communities.
Local fisheries are important in Indonesia. At least 20 million people in Indonesia directly depends on
fisheries for their livelihoods and as a source of protein.

Human Dependence on Biodiversity

-The report also points out that while developed countries rely on domesticated species for their
dietary needs, many people still depend on wild species for survival. For example, more than 275
million people are dependent on coral reefs for food, coastal protection and their livelihoods,
according to the IUCN. The reef fishing industry is worth $6.8 billion annually but its sustainability is
threatened by overfishing that affects over half of the worlds reefs.
- Other parts of the report highlight the delicate interplay between humans and wild species. At least
one third of the worlds food production depends on pollination carried out by insects, bats and
birds. It is estimated that the service these players in the ecosystem provide is worth over $200
billion per year. According to the IUCN Red List, 16 percent of Europes more prevalent butterflies
are threatened, while 18 percent bats are threatened globally.