Unit V Transducers

TRANSDUCERS
AND
DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS
BY V.BALAJI, M.Tech,
M.Tech, ( P h.D),
h.D),
AP/EEE, DCE
TRANSDUCERS
Transducers is a device which converts one form

of energy into another form of energy.
Example : Loud speaker converts electrical
energy into sound energy .
Function of transducer:
1.It detects and sense the presence,
magnitude and physical quantity being
measured.
2.It provides a proportional electrical output
signal.
BY V.BALAJI, M.Tech, ( P h.D),
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PARTS OF TRANSDUCER
Transducers has two parts namely
1.
Sensing element
2.
Transduction element
Sensor:
Sensor is a device that is used to sense or detect any
particular change in quantity that is being measured
and marks appropriate change in its output.

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Detector:
Detector element is that part of transducer
which responds to physical phenomenon or
change in physical phenomenon.
Transduction element:
An element which transforms the output of
sensing element into an electrical signal is known
as Transduction element.

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SELECTION OF TRANSDUCER
The transducer element should recognize and sense the desired

input signal and should be insensitive to other signals present
simultaneously in the measurand.
It should not alter the event to be measured.
It should have high reproducibility
It should have amplitude linearity

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SELECTION OF TRANSDUCER
It should be able to withstand hostile instruments

without damage and should maintain the accuracy within
acceptable limits.
It should have good accuracy
It should have good dynamic response
It should not induce phase distortions

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CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
Based on principle of Transduction used:

a. Resistive transducer
b. Capacitive transducer
c. Inductance transducer
d. Piezoelectric transducer
e. Photo electric transducer
f . Electromagnetic transducer
g. Thermo electric transducer
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CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
Primary and Active transducers
Analog and Digital transducers
Transducers and inverse transducers

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RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS
Works on principle of change in Resistance
This is achieved by change in either resistivity or length

or area of conductor.
Some of the resistive transducers are potentiometer,

resistance thermometer , thermistor, resistance
hygrometer, Photo conductive cell.

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POTENTIOMETERS
A Resistive potentiometer which is used for the purpose

of voltage division is called as POT.
It is a passive transducer which gives an electrical

output to mechanical displacement applied on the wiper
of the potentiometer.
It requires an external power which may be a.c or d.c.

so it is called as a passive transducer.

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STRAIN GAUGES

It is a resistive transducer.
It operates on the principle of piezo resistive
effect.
piezo resistive effect.
If a metal conductor is stretched or
compressed or its resistance changes on account
of the fact that both length and diameter of
conductor change. It is used for strain
measurements and associated stress in
experimental analysis.
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TYPES OF STRAIN GAUGES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Unbonded metal strain gauges

Bonded metal wire strain gauges
Bonded metal foil strain gauges
Vacuum deposited thin metal film strain gauges
Sputter deposited thin metal strain gauges
Bonded semiconductor strain gauges
Diffused metal strain gauges

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APPLICATIONS OF STRAIN GAUGES
Experimental stress analysis of machines and structures.
Construction of force, torque, pressure, flow and

acceleration transducers.

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UNBONDED METAL STRAIN GAUGES
This gauge consists of a wire stretched between two

points in an insulating medium such as air.
The wires may be made of copper nickel, chrome nickel

or nickel iron alloys.
The flexture element is connected via a rod to a

diaphragm which is used for sensing of pressure.
The wires are tensioned to avoid buckling when they

experience a compressive force.
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Operation

The four posts as shown in figure., are mounted

on a star spring structure.
When the centre of the star spring is subjected
to the force under measurement , the star
spring flexes with each pair of the strain gauge
elements on opposite sides going to strains of
opposite polarity.
The resulting unbalance voltage of the bridge
circuit is proportional to the force and hence the
pressure on he diaphragm.
They are available power ranges from as low as
0-0.15 to 0
0--660 BYbars.
V.BALAJI, M.Tech, ( P h.D),
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APPLICATION OF UNBONDED STRAIN GAUGES

Used exclusively in transducer applications

Employ preloaded resistance wires connected in a
Wheatstone bridge.

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BONDED STRAIN GAUGES

In unbonded strain gauges , the wires of the elements

are exposed to air or the environment.
The housing normally protects the assembly and is
designed particularly to minimize the effects of
vibrations.
These unbonded strain gauges are designed particular
applications and are not suitable for measurements of
local strains.
To make them suitable Bonded strain gauges are
developed in widely different sizes.
The resistive element may be in the form of wire, foil or
film of the material.
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BONDED STRAIN GAUGES

Construction:
The most common type is the wire resistance

gauge with the wire looped back and forth as
shown in figure 2.1 to form a flat grid in one
plane.
The number of loops is limited to 3 or 4 with the
loops as closely spaced as to minimize the
length of the wire lying along the transverse
BY V.BALAJI, M.Tech, ( to
P h.D),
direction OB in comparison
that along the
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longitudinal direction OA.
CONSTRUCTION CONTINUED..
This construction provides insensitive to strains

along the transverse direction and hence its
cross sensitivity becomes very slow.
Single wire types with thick copper wires
welded at the ends may be preferred for use
where cross sensitivity has to be zero.
All of the above resistance elements are
cemently secured by nitrocellulose element or
phenolic elements , to two sheets of flexible
insulating material ,one on each side of the
element.
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PERFORMANCE
For accurate measurement of the strain surface of any

structure, it is necessary that the bonded strain gauge
become integral with the test surface.
They must possess the merit of having higher surface

area or cross section ratio and higher resistance, which
are desirable for faithful transmission of strain from the
stress surface element and strain gauge element and
slightly higher sensitivity.
Improper bonding of the gauge to the surface becomes

a source errors due to hysterisis , creep and zero drift
,apart from lowering
the
stability for long term
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measurements.
VARIABLE INDUCTANCE TRANSDUCERS
This works upon any one of the following principles:

1.Change in self inductance
2.Change in mutual inductance
3.Production of eddy currents
Applications:
It is used to measure displacement and thickness.

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TRANSDUCERS WORKING ON THE PRINCIPLE OF SELF

INDUCTANCE
The self inductance of the coil is L = N 2 /R

Where, N = number of turns
R = reluctance of the magnetic circuit
R = l / A

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LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL

TRANSFORMER(LVDT)
LVDT is used to convert linear motion into electrical signals.
Principle of operation:
It works on the principle of mutual induction.
Advantages:
It has high range for measuring displacement.
Since no physical contact between coil and core, it provides
frictionless operation and also provides electrical isolation.
It gives high output and possesses high sensitivity.
The are rugged in construction.
Low hysterisis
Power consumption is less than 1 W
Infinite resolution

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CHARACTERISTICS OF LVDT
The output voltage is a

function of core
displacement within the
limit of range of motion
about 5 mm from the null
position.

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DISADVANTAGES

Relatively large displacements are required for

appreciable differential output.
Sensitive to stray magnetic fields but shielding is
possible.
Performance is affected by vibrations.
Receiving instrument must be selected to operate on a.c
signals or demodulator network must be used if d.c
output is required .
Dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass of
the core and electrically by the frequency of supply
voltage.
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Temperature also affects
theDCE
performance of the
transducer.
APPLICATIONS
Used where displacements ranging from fraction

of mm to few cm have to be measured.
Acting as secondary transducer it can be used to
measure force, weight and pressure.
Acting as primary transducer converts the
displacement directly into an electrical output
proportional to displacement.
It can also be used for measurement and control
of thickness of metal sheet being rolled.
Also used for measurement of tension in a cord.
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CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
Capacitive transducers are commonly used for

measurement of displacement.
Principle of operation is based on capacitor equation of
parallel plate capacitor is given by ,
C=
C=
o rA/d
where,
A = overlapping area of plates, m2
d = distance between two plates, m
o=permittivity of free space
r = Relative permittivity
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Principle of Change of capacitance may be caused by

Change in overlapping area, A
Change in distance between plate, d
Change in dielectric constant

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ADVANTAGES OF CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS

They require extremely small force to operate them and

hence are very useful for use in small systems.
They are extremely sensitive.
They have a good frequency response.
They have a high input impedance and loading effects
are minimum.
They require small power to operate them .
The capacitive transducers can be used for applications
where stray magnetic fields render the inductive
transducers useless.
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DISADVANTAGES OF CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
The metallic parts of the transducers must be insulated

from each other. In order to reduce the effects of stray
capacitance, the frame must be earthed.
Capacitor transducers show non linear behavior many a
times on account of edge effects. guard rings are used
to eliminate this effect.
Output impedance is very high. this leads to loading
effects.
Cable connecting to the measuring point is also a source
of error.
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USES OF CAPACITIVE TRASDUCERS

It is used for measurement of both linear and

angular displacements.
It also used for extremely small displacements
It is used for measurement of force and
pressure
It is also used for measurement of humidity in
gases
Capacitive transducers are commonly used in
conjunction with mechanical modifiers for
measurement of volume, density, liquid level,
weight etc.
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PIEZO ELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS

It works on the principle of piezo electric effect.

Piezo electric effect:
If a varying potential is applied to the proper axis
of the crystal , it will change the dimension of the crystal
thee by deforming it.
Elements exhibiting piezo electric qualities are called as
electro resistive elements.

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OPTICAL TRANSDUERS

Transducers that convert light into electrical signal are

termed as optical transducers
Principle:
When a light rays fall on semiconductor material
produces a change of mobility of charge in the
semiconductor there by producing change in capacitance
,change in current and finally change in output voltage.
Application:
It is used for the measurement of any phenomenon
which can be made to produce a variation in light
intensity. Sensitivity
and speed response of this type of
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transducer is very high.AP/EEE, DCE
TYPES OF PHOTO ELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS

Photo emissive type

Photo conductive type
Photo voltaic type
Thermal type
Photo diode
Photo transistor
Photo thyristor
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APPLICATION

Used for counting objects in a conveyor belt

Used in burglar alarm circuits, where in the interception
of light actuates an signal
Used as light controlled switch

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DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS
Digital transducers are classified into two types
Direct digital transducers
Indirect digital transducers
Direct digital transducers:
It provide output signals in the form of
rectangular pulses of constant duration and
amplitude, the presence or absence of which in
its time slot is taken to stand for either 1s or
0s.
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INDIRECT DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS:
Transducers whose output signals are sinusoidal

and the frequency of which is related to
measurand are considered to be of digital type
when working in combination with digital
frequency measuringsystem.
Some of direct digital transducers:
1. Linear digital encoder
2.Angular digital encoder or Shaft encoder
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DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS
ADVANTAGES:
1.It is relatively inexpensive

2.It can be made to any degree of accuracy
DISADVANTAGES:
1.due to wear of brushes and contact surface of

the encoder, life of the encoder is reduced.
2. the reliability of indication is limited by
ambiguity of indication whenever brushes or sensors
changes from pertaining to 1to regions pertaining
to 0 and vice versa.
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SHAFT ENCODER

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DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS
Data acquisition systems are used to measure and record

analog signals in basically two different ways
Signals which originate from direct measurement of electrical

quantities. These signals may be a.c or d.c voltages ,frequency or
resistance etc.
Signals which originate from use of transducers

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COMPONENT OF ANALOG DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Transducers
Signal conditioning equipment
Multiplexer
Calibrating equipment
Integrating equipment
Visual display devices
Analog recorders
Analog computers
High speed cameras and Tv equipment
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SIGNAL CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT
It transforms the output of transducer to the

desired magnitude or form required by the next
stage of the data acquisition system.
Multiplexer:
1.Multiplexing is the process of sharing a
single channel with more than one output.
2.Multiplexer accepts multiple analog input
signals and connects them sequentially to one
measuring input.
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Calibrating equipment
Integrating equipment
Visual display devices
continuous monitoring of input analog signals. These devices
include panel mounted meters ,numerical displays, single or multi
channel cro and storage type cros.
Analog recorders
Method of recording data in analog form.
Analog computers
used as reduction device
High speed cameras and Tv equipment
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DIGITAL DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS
Components:
1.
Transducers
2.
Signal conditioning equipment
3.
Multiplexer
4.
Signal converter
5.
Analog to digital converter
6.
Auxiliary equipment
7.
Digital recorders
8.
Digital printers
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Digital data acquisition systems

Generalized diagram
Transducers
Signal
Conditioning Multiplexer
equipment
Signal
converter
A/D
converter
Digital
recorder
Auxiliary equipment
And system programmer

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Uses of digital data acquisition systems

Data acquisition systems are used in ever

increasing , large and wide fields in
Industrial and scientific areas
Aerospace
Biomedical
Telemetry

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DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER

Conversion of digital signal into analog signal

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R-2R LADDER NETWORK

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Analog to digital converter

Conversion of analog to digital signal.

Successive approximation method used for conversion
Speed of an ADC is expressed as conversion time which
is the interval between the start and the instant at which
conversion is completed

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Unit V Transducers

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TRANSDUCERS

Transducers is a device which converts one form

BY V.BALAJI, M.Tech, ( P h.D),

BY V.BALAJI, M.Tech, ( P h.D),

The transducer element should recognize and sense the desired

It should not alter the event to be measured.

It should have high reproducibility

It should have amplitude linearity

BY V.BALAJI, M.Tech, ( P h.D),

It should be able to withstand hostile instruments

It should have good accuracy

It should have good dynamic response

It should not induce phase distortions

Based on principle of Transduction used:

Primary and Active transducers

Analog and Digital transducers

Transducers and inverse transducers

BY V.BALAJI, M.Tech, ( P h.D),

Works on principle of change in Resistance

This is achieved by change in either resistivity or length

Some of the resistive transducers are potentiometer,

BY V.BALAJI, M.Tech, ( P h.D),

BY V.BALAJI, M.Tech, ( P h.D),

A Resistive potentiometer which is used for the purpose

It is a passive transducer which gives an electrical

It requires an external power which may be a.c or d.c.

BY V.BALAJI, M.Tech, ( P h.D),

BY V.BALAJI, M.Tech, ( P h.D),

TYPES OF STRAIN GAUGES

Unbonded metal strain gauges

BY V.BALAJI, M.Tech, ( P h.D),

APPLICATIONS OF STRAIN GAUGES

Experimental stress analysis of machines and structures.

Construction of force, torque, pressure, flow and

BY V.BALAJI, M.Tech, ( P h.D),

UNBONDED METAL STRAIN GAUGES

This gauge consists of a wire stretched between two

The wires may be made of copper nickel, chrome nickel

The flexture element is connected via a rod to a

The wires are tensioned to avoid buckling when they

BY V.BALAJI, M.Tech, ( P h.D),

The four posts as shown in figure., are mounted

APPLICATION OF UNBONDED STRAIN GAUGES

Used exclusively in transducer applications

BY V.BALAJI, M.Tech, ( P h.D),

BONDED STRAIN GAUGES

In unbonded strain gauges , the wires of the elements

BONDED STRAIN GAUGES

The most common type is the wire resistance

This construction provides insensitive to strains

For accurate measurement of the strain surface of any

They must possess the merit of having higher surface

Improper bonding of the gauge to the surface becomes

VARIABLE INDUCTANCE TRANSDUCERS

This works upon any one of the following principles:

BY V.BALAJI, M.Tech, ( P h.D),

BY V.BALAJI, M.Tech, ( P h.D),

TRANSDUCERS WORKING ON THE PRINCIPLE OF SELF

The self inductance of the coil is L = N 2 /R

BY V.BALAJI, M.Tech, ( P h.D),

BY V.BALAJI, M.Tech, ( P h.D),

LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL

BY V.BALAJI, M.Tech, ( P h.D),