Discuss climate change in the last 150 years.

Changes in climate
Global records since 1881 show a significant, but irregular temperature rise of
0.3oC to 0.6C.

Global cooling was recorded after WWII for several decades because of
industrial pollution and volcanic activity (global dimming).

Global warming over the last century: world is warming on average by 0.74C,
with most of that since 1970s.
Global temperatures in the last decade reached the highest levels on record.

10. Discuss the natural causes of recent climate change.

Solar variations - The Sun is the source of energy for the Earths climate system. Some
scientists suspect that a portion of the warming in the first half of the 20th century was due to an
increase in the output of solar energy. As the sun is the fundamental source of energy that is
instrumental in our climate system it would be reasonable to assume that changes in the sun's
energy output would cause the climate to change. For instance a decrease in solar activity was
thought to have triggered the Little Ice Age between approximately 1650 and 1850, when
Greenland was largely cut off by ice from 1410 to the 1720s and glaciers advanced in the Alps.
Volcanic eruptions - When a volcano erupts it throws out large volumes of sulphur dioxide
(SO2), water vapour, dust, and ash into the atmosphere. Large volumes of gases and ash can
influence climatic patterns for years by increasing planetary reflectivity causing atmospheric
cooling. Tiny particles called aerosols are produced by volcanoes. Because they reflect solar
energy back into space they have a cooling effect on the world. The greenhouse gas, carbon
dioxide is also produced.
Ocean current - Ocean currents move vast amounts of heat across the planet. Winds push
horizontally against the sea surface and drive ocean current patterns. Interactions between the
ocean and atmosphere can also produce phenomena such as El Nio which occur every 2 to 6
years. Deep ocean circulation of cold water from the poles towards the equator and movement
of warm water from the equator back towards the poles. Without this movement the poles would
be colder and the equator warmer. Changes in ocean circulation may affect the climate through
the movement of CO2 into or out of the atmosphere.
Earth orbital changes - The earth makes one full orbit around the sun each year. It is tilted at
an angle of 23.5 to the perpendicular plane of its orbital path. Changes in the tilt of the earth
can lead to small but climatically important changes in the strength of the seasons, more tilt
means warmer summers and colder winters; less tilt means cooler summers and milder winters.

Slow changes in the Earths orbit lead to small but climatically important changes in the strength
of the seasons over tens of thousands of years. Climate feedbacks amplify these small
changes, thereby producing ice ages.

11. Explain the greenhouse effect.

Greenhouse gases (CO2, water vapour, nitrous oxide, methane, ozone and
halocarbons) trap heat in the atmosphere resulting in a greenhouse effect.
Incoming shortwave radiation from the sun passes through the greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere. Most of the shortwave radiation is absorbed by the
earths surface which heats up as a result. The warmed surface of the earth
emits longwave radiation to the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases absorb
longwave radiation and warm the atmosphere.
Enhanced greenhouse effect is a rise in global temperatures due to the increase
in the concentration of the greenhouse gases.

12.

Explain how human activities (Anthropogenic factors ) such as

deforestation, burning of fossil fuels, rice cultivation and cattle farming
increase greenhouse gases and lead to enhanced greenhouse effect.

Burning fossil fuels such as oil, coal and natural gas release large
amount of CO when burnt. Burning of fossil fuel is needed to produce
energy for industries, transportation and domestic and commercial
activities.
Deforestation alters atmospheric composition e.g. carbon dioxide and
nitrous oxide, and affecting hydrological cycle

- Forest absorbs CO via photosynthesis. Deforestation lead to increase in CO

level in the atmosphere.
- Carbon oxidation is a process by which carbon in the soil reacts with oxygen in
the atmosphere to produce CO. Deforestation exposes soil to sunlight and
increase soil temperature and rate of carbon oxidation which release more CO
into the atmosphere.

Changing land use

- Agriculture

Rice cultivation tractors running on fossil fuels release CO. Use of chemical
fertilisers increases the amount of nitrous oxide in soil which is then released
when soil is ploughed or when rain flows through the soil. Methane is released
when dead leaves and manure decompose rapidly in the rice field due to high
level of moisture in the soil
Cattle ranching cattle releases methane as a waste gas
- Industries burning of fossil fuel to produce energy release CO as well as
manufacturing of goods release CO as by-product.
- Urbanisation burning of fossil fuels to produce energy for household activities in
urban areas such as heating, cooling, cooking and lighting. More cars, buses and
other transportation also increase greenhouse gas emissions. Constructing
infrastructure and producing construction materials also release greenhouse
gases.

13. Explain the impact of climate change such as sea level rise, extreme
weather events and human health.
Sea level rise - threatens low lying areas and islands, increases risk of damage to
homes and buildings from storm surges that accompany tropical cyclones.
More frequent extreme weather events e.g. heat waves, flood, drought and
tropical cyclones. Increased land and sea surface temperatures resulted in
greater amounts of water vapour and latent heat in a warmer atmosphere
causing more extreme weather events.
Spread of some infectious insect-borne diseases e.g. heavy rainfall allows
mosquitoes to grow resulting in spread of malaria and dengue fever.
Higher temperatures may lengthen the growing season in certain regions e.g. fruit
production in Eastern Canada, vineyards in Europe. Increase in the types of
crops such as blackberries and maize that can be grown in UK. However in
China, production of fruits such as apples and cherries or nuts such as almonds
and walnuts is reduced as these fruits and nuts require cool weather
temperature. Similarly in Canada, the production of wheat is reduced
17. Describe the responses to climate change.
Responses and challenges to climate change

International community international agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol

and 2009 Copenhagen Conference

Kyoto Protocol (UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

Drawn up in Kyoto, Japan on 11 Dec 1997 and came into force on 16 Feb 2005
to reduce levels of greenhouses gases.
Countries were obliged to reduce their combined greenhouse gas emissions by
at least 5% below their 1990 level from 2008 to 2012.
Greater responsibility placed on 37 developed countries and the European
countries as they were mainly responsible for the high levels of greenhouse gas
emissions as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity.
Depending on the ability of each developed country, they help less developed countries reduce
their greenhouse gas emissions by providing them with funds.
Success:
Many countries such as Austria, Finland, Greece, Ireland and Spain met or exceeded target.
Countries monitor and report their greenhouse gs emissions to ensure they are on track in
keeping to target.
Successful in encouraging sustainable development.
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) gave Certified Emission Reduction (CER) credits to
countries which carried our emission-reduction projects such as installing energy-efficient
infrastructure in less developed countries.
Limitations

Countries such as Denmark, Sweden and UK did not achieve their targets.
The Kyoto Protocol did not make it compulsory for countries with low greenhouse gas
emissions to provide energy-efficient technology to countries with high greenhouse gas
emissions.
Countries which did not sign the Protocol continued to contribute significantly in the
global emissions.
Since 1997, global emissions increased by 35%, mainly from China, India and USA

Copenhagen Conference
UN CCC in Copenhagen 2009
Improve on the measures developed for the Kyoto Protocol

 Copenhagen Accord drawn up with target of keeping any increases in the global
mean maximum temperatures to within 2C of the global temperature before
1850.
Success:
Developed countries committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by
various amounts by 2020 e.g. USA & Canada 17%, EU 20-30%, Russia 1525%, Japan 25%
Contribution of US$30 billion to less developed countries for the period between
2010 and 2012
Long-term financial aid of US$100 billion a year by 2020
Funds will help less developed countries reduce greenhouse gas emission.

Limitations:
Targets set are insufficient to reduce emissions to within 2C of the temperatures
before 1850.
No agreement on how the reduction is to be carried out.
Many developed countries have refused to sign the Accord and thus it is not
legally binding
Many countries did not keep to their targets as targets set were a guideline rather than a condition
that must be fulfilled.

Nations e.g. strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions focusing on energy

efficiency and energy conservation, new building requirements and technologies
Singapore
Singapore Green Plan 2012
Launch in 2002 by the Ministry of the Environment to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions by using natural gas as an energy source
To generate 60% of Singapores energy needs using natural gas by 2012 as it is
a cleaner form of energy compare to coal as it does not produce smoke.
Success:

As early as 2010, about 79% of Singapores electricity generated

from natural gas.

Exceeded target ahead of schedule.

Limitations:

Complex treatment plants needed to process natural gas

High maintenance cost for pipelines as they are laid underground and need

to be checked regularly for leakages.

Green Mark Scheme

Launched by the Building Construction Authority (BCA)

Buildings evaluated and certified according to how energy-efficient and

environmental friendly they are. Encourage more new green buildings which are
E.g. buildings which run partly on solar energy.
Success:
Green Buildings such as Plaza by the Park, Standard Chartered @ Changi and
the National Library reported energy savings of 15% to 35% compared to
convention buildings.
Reduce greenhouse gas emission as less fossil fuels needed to generate
electricity.
Limitations

Construction companies and developers too conservative to adopt new

ideas and material to build green buildings

Most costly as green materials may be more expensive.

Plant-A-Tree Programme
Started in 1971 as Tree Planting day by the Garden City Fund and Singapore
Environment Council
Residents encouraged donating money to buy a tree or take part in tree planting
events.
Success:
Contributed to an estimated 60,000 trees planted yearly throughout Singapore by the National
Parks Board. Limitations: Trees take many years to mature, so the positive effects of tree
planting will take time to materialise. E.g. Angsanas, Raintrees and Yellow Flames take25 years
to reach their full height.

India
National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP)
Launched in 206 by the Ministry of Urban Development
To reduce number of vehicles on the road by developing public transport and
non-motorised means of transportation such as cycling.
Use of cleaner technologies and reduce travel distances within major cities.
Jawaharial Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) provide funding to enable
national and state government to design and implement urban transport networks.

Success:
Projects such as as improvements in pedestrian infrastructure around transport
zones in Hyderabad and development of cycle tracks in Pune;
Fare integration between Ahmedabads existing transport systems and a new
Bus Rapid Transit system (BRTS) encouraging more people to take public
transport. By 2010 68 cities implemented BRTS
Rail expansion in Delhi of 186km of metro rail allow transports of over 1.8million
passengers per day and thus kept 91.000 vehicles off the citys roads each day
and reduced 6.3 million tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions each year.
UN awarded $9.5 million worth of Certified Emission Reductions (CER) credits to Delhis metro
rail which allow India to offset its CO emission.

Limitations:

Plenty of time and human resources needed to establish effective public transport in cities
which requires an extensive infrastructure consisting of underground or above-ground rail
systems, road networks and comprehensive bus feeder systems.

Huge capital costs needed to develop public transport. In one city alone, such infrastructure
often costs millions, if not billions, of dollars and construction takes many years to complete.
Increasing number of citizens who can afford private vehicles may also reduce the demand for
public transport.

Energy Labelling Programme

Enforced in 2007 by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency authorised by the Indias

Energy Conservation Act of 2001

Products that us relatively little energy, and hence emit less CO, are sold at a
cheaper price.

Encourage consumers to choose products which promote energy conservation

and help reduce nations greenhouse gas emission
Success:
Label is compulsory for frost-free refrigerators, fluorescent lamps and air
conditioners, and is optional for other appliances such as ceiling fans, television
sets, washing machines and computers.
Sales of products with energy labels increased suggesting a rise in demand for
energy-efficient products.
As of 2011, two major laptop manufacturers have pledged to adopt the labelling system, with
other major manufacturers expected to follow.

Limitations:
Standards and labelling have yet to be developed for many other appliances such as battery
chargers, computer monitors, heat pumps and freezers.

Majority of public still unaware of the labelling programme, showing a need for a stronger
awareness campaign.
Indian Governments promise to use coal-fired power stations to increase electricity access for
the citizens caused increased emission of CO.

The Indian Network of Climate Change Assessment (INCCA)

Launched in Oct 2009
A network of 220 scientists from 120 research institutions promoting domestic
research on climate change.
Research provides data on problems and risks associated with climate change and allow
policies to be formulated and implemented.

Success:

First assessment on predicted climate change impacts in India such as weather, sea levels,
ecosystem, biodiversity, agriculture, human health and water supply for the next 20 years
released in 20 Nov 2010.
Recommended continuous and systematic observation of physical and biological systems as
well establishing region-specific committees to monitor effects of climate change and develop

action plans for specific areas in India.

Limitations:
Due to rapid development, large amounts of greenhouse gases are emitted from
industrial processes and urbanisation.
Recommendations by INCCA might not be taken up by the government as they may hinder the
economic development