Nr 59

Prace Naukowe Instytutu Maszyn, Napdw i Pomiarw Elektrycznych

Politechniki Wrocawskiej
Nr 59

Studia i Materiay

Nr 26

2006

AC/DC line-side converter, PWM rectifier,

Hysteresis-Band Modulation, Carrier-Based Sinusoidal Modulation,
Space-Vector Modulation, overmodulation, fixed switching frequency

Micha KNAPCZYK * , Krzysztof PIEKOWSKI *

F

ANALYSIS OF PULSE WIDTH MODULATION TECHNIQUES

FOR AC/DC LINE-SIDE CONVERTERS

The paper presents the analysis of the modulation strategies for the AC/DC line-side converters.
The application of the different modulation methods to the control system of the AC/DC converter
has been presented. The operation of the AC/DC converter in different dynamic states strongly depends on the modulation method applied. The theoretical background of Hysteresis-Band Modulation, Carrier-Based Sinusoidal Modulation and Space-Vector Modulation has been presented. The issue of overmodulation has been discussed. Voltage Oriented Control of the AC/DC line-side
converter has been chosen to examine the presented modulation methods. The influence of the discussed modulation methods on the line current distortion and the switching frequency has been examined. The simulation results of the presented techniques have been demonstrated and concluded.

1. INTRODUCTION
The dynamic development of the power- and microelectronics devices sustains continual progress in design and realization of modern adjustable speed drives. The interest
of researchers in the elaboration of advanced control techniques for voltage source inverters was in last two decades aroused by AC/DC line-side converters called also PWM
rectifiers (synchronous rectifiers). These front-end rectifiers due to their properties systematically displace the diode bridges becoming an important part of the modern frequency converters for the intelligent motion control applications [1,5]. The three-phase
two-level AC/DC line-side converters provide sinusoidal line currents and bidirectional
power flow at the unity power factor (UPF). These properties have decided of the use of
the PWM rectifiers in the applications improving the electrical power quality [7].
__________
*

Politechnika Wrocawska, Instytut Maszyn, Napdw i Pomiarw Elektrycznych, 50-370 Wrocaw, ul.
Smoluchowskiego 19, michal.knapczyk@pwr.wroc.pl, krzysztof.pienkowski@pwr.wroc.pl.

The AC/DC converters consist of power electronics devices like Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) or Gate Turn-Off thyristors (GTO) that are characterized by
switch mode operation. The capability of forming sinusoidal currents is provided by the
introduction of the sophisticated technique called Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM). This
technique provides the sequences of width-modulated pulses to control power switches.
Many PWM techniques have been developed according to special requirements and
optimization criteria. The choice of the particular PWM technique arises from the desired performance of the synchronous rectifiers [2,3]. Generally pulse-width modulation techniques for frequency converters may be classified as follows: Carrier-Based
Sinusoidal PWM, Hysteresis-Band PWM, Space Vector PWM, Selected Harmonic
Elimination PWM, Minimum Current Ripple PWM, Sinusoidal PWM with Instantaneous Current Control and Random PWM. This paper presents basic assumptions and
applications of selected, most frequently used modulation techniques applied to PWM
rectifiers. For the comparative analysis Voltage Oriented Control of the AC/DC line-side
converter has been chosen to examine the proposed modulation methods.
2. VOLTAGE SOURCE AC/DC LINE-SIDE CONVERTER
The topology of the voltage source AC/DC converter connected to the grid is presented in Fig.1. The power circuit of the synchronous rectifier stems from the topology of the three-phase PWM voltage inverter.

Fig.1. Voltage source AC/DC line-side converter

The PWM rectifiers bridge consists of six fully-controlled IGBT transistors connected to the supply line throughout the three symmetrical line inductors. The voltage
drop over line chokes has to be controlled to provide sinusoidal line currents. Equations (1) describe the dynamic model of the PWM rectifier in natural (A,B,C) coordinates. Sa, Sb, Sc represent states [1,0] of power switches in respective converter legs.

1
d
i gA =
dt
Lg

U dc

e gA R g i gA 3 (2 S a S b S c )

1
d
i gB =
dt
Lg

U dc

e gB Rg i gB 3 ( S a + 2 S b S c )

1
d
i gC =
dt
Lg

U dc

e gC Rg i gC 3 ( S a S b + 2 S c )

(1)

1
d
(S a igA + S b i gB + S c i gC iload )
U dc =
dt
Cd

3. PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION IN APPLICATION TO PWM RECTIFIERS

The major aim of the pulse width modulation in the AC/DC line-side converters is
the control of the amplitudes of the main harmonics of the converter input PWM
three-phase voltages. Besides the appropriate forming of the line current harmonic
spectrum should be provided. In general the modulation techniques should be characterized by the wide range of the linear operation, fixed switching frequency and lower
influence on producing of the higher harmonics in the line currents [6]. The modulation process during the operation of the PWM rectifier should provide the maximal
use of the DC-link voltage. The modulation index m expresses the capability of the
DC-link voltage utilization in generating the PWM voltages at the input of the AC/DC
converter during the control process.

Fig.2. Range of Pulse-Width Modulation for the AC/DC line-side converters

Fig. 2 presents the dependence of the converter input voltage on the modulation index with respect to the DC-link voltage. The modulation bandwidth is generally divided into the linear and the nonlinear range. The limitation of the modulation region
to the linear range is sufficient for the proper operation of the PWM rectifier. Yet for
the excellent dynamic performance of the synchronous rectifier during the transients
the operation in the overmodulation range must be provided [1,8]. However this technique introduces the line current distortions due its nonlinearity and may be inadvisable in the applications of the AC/DC converters improving the electrical power quality. The issue of the modulation index and the modulation range for the basic PWM
techniques will be presented in detail in the next sections of this paper.
3.1. HYSTERESIS-BAND PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION

The Hysteresis Pulse-Width Modulation, named also bang-bang current control

consists in direct forcing of the line current flow according to the current reference
signals i*gA, i*gB, i*gC. This kind of the modulation is performed in the nonlinear control circuit with the hysteresis relays [7]. The Voltage Oriented Control of the PWM
rectifier with the hysteresis pulse-width modulation is presented in Fig.3.

Fig.3. Voltage Oriented Control with Hysteresis-Band PWM (HB-PWM)

When the instantaneous value of the line phase current exceeds its reference value
than the respective grid phase is instantly connected to the negative node of the DClink voltage. Otherwise the grid phase is switched to the positive node in the DC-link.
This process is carried out simultaneously and independently for two other phases.

Equations (2) describe bang-bang current control:

H
Sa = 0
2
H
Sb = 0
2
H
Sc = 0
2

H
Sa = 1
2
H

Sb = 1
2
H

Sc = 1
2

i gA

i gA

i gB

i gB

i gC

i gC

(2)

where i g = i g i * g is the line current error and H is the hysteresis bandwidth in [A].
In result the voltage source AC/DC line-side converter with the hysteresis modulation operates as the source of directly formed current. The idea of the hysteresis pulsewidth modulation is demonstrated in Fig.4.

Fig.4. The idea and control signals of Hysteresis-Band PWM

The basic problem in the bang-bang modulation is the alternating switching frequency that depends on the following significant factors: hysteresis bandwidth, electromagnetic time constant of the grid and chokes circuit, IGBT dead-time and the difference between DC-link voltage and instantaneous value of the respective grid phase
voltage. In order to obtain the privileged switching frequency the additional carrier
signal may be added to the current error at the input of the relays. The other solution is

the synchronization of the switching process i.e. generation of the firing pulses in
every fixed sample step. This type of bang-bang modulation is usually applied in the
microprocessor-based digital control systems and is called -modulation.
The line currents oscillate around the current reference signals within the boundaries defined in the hysteresis relays. Fig.5 presents the line phase voltage and the respective line phase current for the control system of the AC/DC converter with Hysteresis-Band PWM depicted in fig.3.

Fig.5. Line voltage (1) and respective line current (2) for Hysteresis-Band PWM

The narrower hysteresis bandwidth is the better reconstruction of the sine-shaped

currents is obtained. However the absolute reduction of the hysteresis bandwidth is
unacceptable due to the restricted values of the switching frequency of the power transistors. Hence the minimal bandwidth of the hysteresis relays should provide no
higher switching frequency as results from the value of dead-time for IGBT devices.

Fig.6. Line current harmonic spectrum for Hysteresis-Band PWM

In case of non-synchronized Hysteresis-Band PWM the line current harmonic spectrum contains all higher harmonics including sub-harmonics (fig.6). The Total Harmonic Distortion ratio of the line current from fig.5 is equal THDigA=9.3%.
The Hysteresis-Band Pulse-Width Modulation technique is mostly used in the analog control systems of the PWM rectifiers. The hardware implementation of the hysteresis relays can be realized using simple circuit applications with the operational
amplifiers [1]. The dynamic performance of the PWM rectifiers control system with
the bang-bang modulation technique applied is excellent since the hysteresis relays do
not require tuning and provide robustness to line disturbances or parameter mismatch.
3.2. CARRIER-BASED SINUSOIDAL PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION

Carrier-Based Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation is based on the comparison of

the converter voltage reference signals with the carrier signal of the triangular shape
[4]. Unlike Hysteresis-Band PWM with the reference current signals, this modulation
technique provides the firing pulses upon the converter voltage reference signals. The
Voltage Oriented Control of the PWM rectifier with Carrier-Based Sinusoidal PulseWidth Modulation is presented in Fig.7.

Fig.7. Voltage Oriented Control with Carrier-Based Sinusoidal PWM (CB-SPWM)

The reference voltage signals U*A, U*B, U*C are usually sinusoidal of the grid frequency. Their amplitudes are proportional to the expected amplitudes of the main
harmonic of the converter input PWM three-phase voltages. The frequency of the
carrier signal is usually hundredfold higher then the frequency of reference signals.
The modulation index m is defined by the mutual rate of the reference signals and the
carrier signal amplitudes (3):

m=

U * A, B ,C
U carrier

(3)

The converter voltage reference signals U*d, U*q are provided by two linear line
current controllers operating in the (d-q) rotating frame. The idea of the Carrier-Based
Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation is demonstrated in Fig.8.

Fig.8. The idea and control signals of Carrier-Based Sinusoidal PWM

The range of the Carrier-Based Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation is constrained

due to the fact that the modulation index can reach the maximal value of m=1. Then
the amplitudes of the sinusoidal converter voltage reference signals and the carrier
signal are equal. The equation (4) describes the amplitude of the main harmonic of the
converter input PWM phase voltage by the unity modulation index m=1.
U
U convA = U *max = dc
(4)
2

According to the equation (4) the RMS value of the line-to-line converter input
PWM voltage is described by the following expression:
U convAB ( RMS ) =

3
3
U convA( RMS ) = 2 U dc = 0.612 U dc
2
2

(5)

The maximal utilization of the DC-link voltage in case of Carrier-Based SPWM is

about 83%. Due to the fact that the DC-link is not connected with the neutral node of
the grid it is admissible to modify the sinusoidal converter voltage reference signals by
adding so called Zero Sequence Signals of the third harmonic frequency [9].

Fig.9. Line voltage (1) and respective line current (2) for Carrier-Based Sinusoidal PWM

This solution extends the linear range of the modulation up to m=2/3=1.15. Then
the utilization of the DC-link voltage increases to 91%. Fig.9 presents the line phase
voltage and the respective line phase current for the control system of the AC/DC
converter with the Carrier-Based Sinusoidal PWM depicted in Fig.7.

Fig.10. Line current harmonic spectrum for Carrier-Based Sinusoidal PWM

Fig.10 demonstrates the line current harmonic spectrum for the Carrier-Based Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation. The higher harmonics are located in the vicinity of
the carrier frequency fs=5 kHz and its multiple. The Total Harmonic Distortion ratio of
the line current presented in Fig.9 is equal THDigA=6.1%.
The Carrier-Based Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation is acknowledged as the
classical type of the modulation for the power converters. The analog realization is
relatively simple and is based on the application of the operational amplifiers and the
monolithic carrier signal generators. For the digital implementation a slightly different
type of the Carrier-Based Sinusoidal PWM technique has been elaborated. It is called
Regular Modulation and consists in the fixed sampling of the sinusoidal converter
voltage reference signals. In result the sequences of the pulses of the precisely defined
widths are obtained. The modern evaluation boards with the Digital Signal Processors
are equipped with the hardware implementation of Carrier-Based Sinusoidal Modulation. These digital devices are purpose-dedicated to control the power converters.
3.3. SPACE VECTOR PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION

The power transistors of the three-phase two-level synchronous rectifier during its
operation provide eight different states of the conduction (Fig.11).

Fig.11. Conduction states of the AC/DC line-side converter

The converter input voltage can be represented by the space vector U [8,9]. The
space vector U once can take one of eight different positions resulting from the permissible combinations of the conduction states. Fig.12a presents the diagram of the
possible locations of the space vector U decomposed over (-) orthogonal coordinates oriented with the line phase A. Vectors U1 to U6 have fixed modulus of (2/3)Udc
and are phase-shifted by /3. They are called active vectors and refer to the conduction states of the power switches during which the respective phases are supplying the
DC-link load. While the three upper or three lower transistors are conducting simultaneously, the supply line is short-circuited. These states are described by two zero vectors U0 and U7. The zero vectors are located in the origin of (-) coordinates and
they are represented by the two concentric points.

Fig.12. Space Vector representation of the converter input voltage (a) and control signal pattern (b)

If six active conduction states were successively forced in the rectifier, the converter input PWM voltage space vector would change its position every /3 inside the
hexagon. Hence active vectors allocate six equal sectors. During the SV-PWM the
converter input voltage vector U should be appropriately formed in order to map the
reference vector U*. The (d-q) components of the reference vector U* are generated
by two PI current controllers in the control system depicted in Fig.13. The optional
position of the reference vector U* inside the sector can be reached by providing the
symmetrical control pulses represented by the following switching sequence:
U0-U1-U2-U7-U2-U1-U0

(6)

in case when the reference vector U* is moving throughout the first sector. In the other
sectors two next adjacent vectors should be considered. The period TS of each symmetrical control sequence is fixed and corresponds to the frequency fS as follows:

fS =

1
TS

(7)

Fig.12b presents the control sequence for the first sector. During the TS cycle the
adjacent and zero vectors are applied for unambiguously determined times t1, t2, t0.
These durations are calculated with the help of the trigonometrical relationships (8).
t1 =

m TS sin g t
3
3

3
m TS sin ( g t )
3
T
t 0 = S (t1 + t 2 )
2
t2 =

(8)

where 0 gt /3 (in the first sector). The argument of the sin functions should be
appropriately modified according to the range of the other sectors every /3.

Fig.13. Voltage Oriented Control with Space-Vector PWM (SV-PWM)

The reference vector U* rotates with mains pulsation g. To achieve the smooth rotation of the reference vector U* a relatively small value of period TS is necessary. In
practice the switching frequency of fS=5 kHz is sufficient to obtain the sinusoidal line

currents with the minimum ripple. Fig.14 presents the line phase voltage and the respective line phase current for the control system of the AC/DC converter with the
Space Vector Pulse-Width Modulation depicted in Fig.13.

Fig.14. Line current and respective line voltage for Space Vector PWM

The Total Harmonic Distortion ratio of the line current presented in Fig.14 is equal
THDigA=5.7%. For the linear modulation the maximal length of the reference vector
U* is restricted to the radius of the circle inscribed into the hexagon (Fig.12a) and is
equal U*max = Udc/3. The modulation index can reach the maximal value m=1.15 and
the utilization of the DC-link voltage equals 91%. The Space Vector Modulation corresponds to the sinusoidal modulation with the additional Zero Sequence signals.

Fig.15. Line current harmonic spectrum for Space Vector PWM

Fig.15 presents the line current harmonic spectrum for the Space Vector PulseWidth Modulation. The higher harmonics are located in the vicinity of the switching
frequency fs=5 kHz thus have no practical influence on the grid.

3.4. OVERMODULATION

The nonlinear Pulse-Width Modulation occurs when the modulus of the reference
vector U* exceeds the radius of the hexagons incircle. Then the hodograph of the
converter input voltage vector U is not circular any more since the top of the vector
remains at the hexagon being unable to cross its boundaries.

Fig.16. Regions beyond linear modulation: a) overmodulation; b) six-step operation

Fig.16 presents the regions of the nonlinear modulation. The overmodulation proceeds when the modulation index is located in the range of 1.15<m<3.24. Then the
voltage space vector U moves partially on the hexagon and partially on the circle providing the continuous operation. The average length of the space vector U within each
sector equals the modulus of the reference vector U* since the voltage deficit at the
hexagons sides is compensated by the voltage excess in the hexagons rounded corners (Fig.16a). The distortion of the converter input PWM voltage is thus limited.
During the nonlinear modulation only the active vectors are taken into account while
the zero states are neglected. The durations of the active vectors within one switching
period TS are calculated using the following formulas:

t1 = TS

3 cos( g t ) sin ( g t )

3 cos( g t ) + sin ( g t )

(9)

t 2 = TS t1
To reach the full extent of the DC-link voltage utilization, the six-step operation
should be provided (Fig.16b). This discontinuous operation consists in selecting the
active vector which is the closest to the reference vector while passing each sector.
During the six-step operation the converter input voltage is highly distorted and does
not provide the sinusoidal line current flow. Fig.17 demonstrates the converter input
phase voltage during the linear modulation, overmodulation and six-step operation.

Fig.17. Converter input phase voltage by: a) linear modulation, m=0.85; b) overmodulation, m=1.9; c)
six-step operation, m=20

4. CONCLUSIONS
The paper presents the comprehensive analysis of the selected pulse-width modulation techniques in the applications to the AC/DC line-side converters. The HysteresisBand PWM technique provides the excellent dynamics through the direct line currents
tracking. This feedback PWM technique allows the switching pattern to be realized
on-line. This method despite the simplicity of the implementation is corrupted by the
varying switching frequency accounting for the high current ripple.
The appliance of the Carrier-Based Sinusoidal PWM technique may reduce the
higher harmonics content in the line currents since the carrier signal imposes roughly
constant switching frequency of the power transistors. Unlike bang-bang current control carrier-based modulation directly enforces adequate converter input PWM voltages to track their reference values. Hence the main problem is the efficiency of the
DC-link voltage conversion into the PWM scheme at the input of the AC/DC converter. The deliberate distortion of voltage reference signals by the third harmonics is
the most effective method to extend the linear range of the carrier-based modulation.
The Space Vector PWM technique provides the wide range of the linearity and the
improved harmonic performance although the high computational effort and the com-

plexity of the implementation. The space vector modulation likewise the carrier-based
modulation is the feedforward PWM technique. The PWM voltage may be then
formed via an open-loop control scheme. Hence the control system of the synchronous
rectifier does not exhibit the high dynamic performance and the effects of disturbances
are not automatically reduced.
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Rectifiers, 2001 IEEE International Symposium on Industrial Electronics, June 2001.
[4] KIM J.-H., SUL S.-K., A Carrier-Based PWM Method for Three-Phase Four-Leg Voltage Source
Converters, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol.19, no.1, January 2004.
[5] KRAH J.-O., HOLTZ J., High-Performance Current Regulation and Efficient PWM Implementation
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[6] KWASINSKI A., KREIN P. T., CHAPMAN P. L., Time Domain Comparison of Pulse-Width Modulation Schemes, IEEE Power Electronics Letter, vol.1, no.3, September 2003.
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ANALIZA METOD MODULACJI SZEROKOCI IMPULSW W UKADACH

STEROWANIA PRZEKSZTATNIKW SIECIOWYCH AC/DC
Artyku prezentuje analiz wybranych metod modulacji szerokoci inpulsw (MSI) w ukadach sterowania przeksztatnikw sieciowych AC/DC, zwanych take prostownikami PWM. Zdolno przeksztatnika AC/DC ksztatowania sinusoidalnych prdw sieci jest zapewniona przez uporzdkowan sekwencj zacze poszczeglnych kluczy tranzystorowych, zwan modulacj szerokoci impulsw (MSI).
W artykule przedstawiono teoretyczne zaoenia metody histerezowej modulacji nadnej z bezporednim formowaniem przebiegw prdu, modulacji sinusoidalnej z sygnaem nonym oraz modulacji wektorowej. Do celw analizy porwnawczej strategii modulacji zastosowano metod Voltage Oriented Control w ukadzie sterowania przeksztatnika sieciowego AC/DC. Przedstawiono wybrane wyniki bada
symulacyjnych i omwiono wpyw przedstawionych metod modulacji na znieksztacenia prdw sieci i
sposb przeczania pprzewodnikowych kluczy tranzystorowych.