Bruno Peterson

Professor Dennis LeClaire

History of European Music
November 25, 2014
A Brief History of Fugue and Discussion of Fugal Writing
What defines a fugue may be one of the least agreed upon topics in music theory.
There are a few necessary procedures in fugal writing, without which the composition
simply would not be a fugue. However, once those requirements have been met, the
variation in construction is endless, making no two fugues similar beyond those
necessary requirements. There are no limits to the variations that can be achieved.
Of the books Ive studied on the subject1, there seems to be a general consensus
that many of the early theorists postulated rules for fugal writing that could not be
reconciled with the greatest examples of the art form. Of all of these books, and not
surprisingly among most scholars, it is unanimously agreed that Johann Sebastian Bach is
the greatest fugue writer in human history. The simple truth is, that it is not Bachs
workmanship, but the rule that requires to be altered. Any rules regarding fugue, which
will not fit the works of the greatest fugue-writer the world has ever seen, carry their own
condemnation on their face. (Prout 109)
Defining a fugue beyond the general is difficult. This is in part due to the
evolution of what we now know as a fugue. The word fugue comes from the latin fuga:
flight. Fuga is also related to the word fugere: to flee, and fugare: to chase. The basic idea
being that one voice is chasing another through the use of canonic imitation. From 1300-

Referenced on works cited page

1700 there were many different terms other than fugue used to describe compositions
with imitative counterpoint: chace, canon, caccia, round, canzona, capriccio, fantasia,
motet, and ricercare 2 . So much of the confusion comes from these words, especially
canon and fugue, being used by different composers and theorists to identify many
different things or the same thing.
The ricercare is of particular importance to the development of the fugue. The
imitative ricercare basically were the starting points for what we now know as fugue.
These pieces were one of a few things: very specific studies or etudes of contrapuntal
techniques (namely canonic imitation in regards to fugue), improvised pieces to test out
instruments, and sometimes used as preludes to other pieces (as the term ricercare means
to search out as in the key or mode of the piece)3. Over a couple centuries the ricercare
evolved into fugue. Bach even used the term ricercare to describe two of his pieces from
his Musical Offering that were basically 3 and 6 voice fugues (the main difference being
ricercares had longer note values).
Over the centuries, the type of counterpoint involved in what musicians called a
fugue or fuga changed. The terms fuga and fugue, predate the term canon. What is the
difference between canonic imitation and fugue, as we know it today? The term canon
refers generally to the use of a strict rule guiding the contrapuntal imitation (ex: canon at
the interval of a second). In canon, the lead voice is strictly imitated throughout the piece
(ending sometimes being an exception), whereas that is rarely the case in fugue. The
subject is imitated in the exposition and periodically through the piece (entries), but not

2
3

From Grove Music Online, article on Fugue

Wikipedia on Ricercare
2

for its entirety.4 Although there were many terms being used to describe canonic pieces in
the Medieval and Renaissance, the term fuga was the most commonly used until the time
of Bach.5 The difference between Medieval and Renaissance being that in the Medieval
period, fuga was used to describe any piece in canonic style, whereas in the Renaissance
fuga implied use of strict canonic imitation (keyword being strict). During the mid to late
Baroque period, Bachs time, we see the term fugue being used as we think of it today.
No longer as a designations for pieces with strictly canonic voices and counterpoint.
The fugue starts with a theme in one voice/entry (any voice), usually short length
(a bar or two) but length does vary considerably. This is called the subject. The subject
enters in the tonic key. This material is at the heart of the entire fugue. The answer is the
first entry of the second voice, and is a transposition of the subject usually in the
dominant (although this varies).
When the second voice enters with the answer, the first voice begins a
counterpoint with it. If the answer is an exact transposition of the subject, it is known as a
real answer, and if it is altered at all it is called a tonal answer. This can either be free
counterpoint, or material that gets reused, which would be referred to as a countersubject.
The countersubject is written in invertible counterpoint at the octave or fifteenth. In
order for a countersubject to be heard accompanying the subject in more than one
instance, it must be capable of sounding correctly above or below the subject, and must
be conceived, therefore, in invertible or double counterpoint (Wiki). There can be
multiple countersubjects in a piece.

4
5

From Prout. 1
From Grove Music Online, article on Canon
3

Voices can and do enter in many variations. In a 3-part fugue there are 6
permutations of voices: 123, 132, 213, 231, 312, 321. All of these combinations can be
used, even in the same piece. Another technique that is commonly used, but not
necessary, is called stretto. This is where the end of one entry overlaps with the beginning
of another. When this is used, often the amount of time the entries spend overlapped is
gradually increased so as to increase the drama, tension and to elevate interest. If there is
any additional melodic material presented between the entries of each voice it is called a
codetta. The back and forth between entries of subject and answer will continue until all
voices have entered. When each voice has entered, the exposition is complete.
Ultimately, there is no standard form for fugue. As a result, it makes more sense
to think of fugue not as a solidified form or genre, but a compositional technique and
texture. Pieces or passages that utilize the fugal technique, but arent strictly fugues are
called fugato (usually within another work that is not a fugue)6. Fugato can commonly be
found in the development section of a sonata. When the fugal technique is used in a
stripped down version, as little as just exposition and one restatement, it is called a
fughetta. The term fughetta is a diminutive term that literally means little fugue.
However, fughetta has been used to describe fugues of varying sizes including an E
minor fugue of Bachs that exceeds the length of 46 out of the 48.7
Although not exactly a form itself, fugues are generally structured in a sort of
ternary form consisting of the exposition, middle episodes or entries, and a restatement or
recapitulation.

However, this is certainly not always the case. A double, triple or

quadruple fugue will have multiple (2, 3 or 4) subjects, each given their own exposition.
6
7

Wikipedia page on Fugue

Prout. 171
4

There are also fugues without middle episodes. Once the exposition is complete (and
even within it) the variations in the literature are vast. The bare minimum is really the
exposition and techniques utilized therein.
An episode is a transitional section that usually modulates and develops the
subject material. If used, they appear in-between entries of the subject partially to keep
the fugue from being too predictable or boring. The following section is the restatement,
where the subject is brought back in the new key center. The answer and countersubjects
can also be brought back in the restatements. Modulating to closely related keys is
typical, however nothing is set in stone and fugues in the literature vary greatly. The
episodes and restatements will alternate until the subject is restated in the tonic key
(usually but not always). Sometimes a subject is only partially restated during episodes,
these are called false entries. False entries are usually used to heighten the drama by
delaying the restatement of the subject. Sometimes at the point of a restatement the entire
exposition comes back. This is called a re exposition and is used to extend the length of a
fugue. At the end of the fugue there will usually be a pedal point on the tonic with an
entry above, this closing section is called the coda.
Youll notice that with these definitions I have to preface them with, usually but
not always. That is because the middle entries, and recapitulation allow for the most
freedom in the fugue. This is partly why there are so many variations and also why it is
hard to extract a set of absolute rules or principles for creating a fugue. The greatest
writers of fugue never attempted to box it in as much either. They start with the
foundation of fugal writing, and from there, go on creative, inventive and unique
explorations. There are many other types of fugue with their own set of compositional

restrictions or specific goals: Accompanied fugue, fugue on a choral, octave fugue,

counterfugue, invertible fugue, and free fugue.
At this point Im going give a very short description and analysis of a fugue by
Bach. This is fugue VII from the Well Tempered Clavier book I (see attached copy). On
the copy I supplied, Ive marked every time the subject, answer, and countersubject are
used. I also marked the exposition, episodes, and coda.
It is a three-voice fugue in Eb, with entries in the order of soprano, middle, then
bass. The subject is followed by a short codetta (seven 16th notes) that gets reused and
developed about as much as the subject itself. When the answer comes in, the soprano
begins with a countersubject. This countersubject is brought back many times. When the
final voice enters, free counterpoint is used in the third voice. Any time there are three
voices after the exposition, there is some free counterpoint being used in one of the
voices. Although the free counterpoint is not reused exactly, it is still very much related
to the rest of the musical material. The exposition is a bit unusual because before the last
voice enters (signaling the end of the exposition), the 1st episode appears.
After the exposition, there are six more episodes, many which develop the
material from the codetta. The episodes use varies types of development including
sequences. They also use rhythmic material and melodic curves from both subject and
countersubject, which ties the piece together on a deep level. The episodes dont always
modulate to a new key center, and because the subject modulates it is often used to move
through different key centers in restatements. This fugue does not stray to far from the
tonic key, modulating to closely related keys V, vi, and iii.

Bach manipulates the subject, answer, and countersubject in some interesting

ways. In bar 11, when the answer comes in, its first note is tied to the preceding 8th note
of the last measure, altering the character just slightly and also hinting at the rhythms of
the countersubject. In bar 20, the countersubject enters in the middle voice, but the length
of the first 3 notes is altered, and the shape of the next four 16th notes is slightly varied to
fit the harmonization. In measure 26, the entrance of the answer is treated in the same
way the answer was in measure 11, once again hinting at the countersubject. Same thing
with the subject in measure 29, although this time its tied to the preceding quarter note.
Also the first four notes of this entrance of the subject reflect the shape of the tonal
answer, making it a sort of aggregate of both subject and answer. This also marks the
point that the subject returns in the tonic key in the same voice as the exposition. When
Bach brings restates the subject in the tonic key, he makes it just slightly different to keep
things interesting.
In the final restatement before the coda, the answer is brought back in the original
voice it was stated, but with one note changed. This makes for an incomplete vii7 of V
that resolves the next eighth note to its expected resolution, an incomplete V7 (all in the
key of Eb). This is immediately followed by a rest in all voices, making this slight
alteration very poignant and striking when it is heard. The coda uses a slight piece of the
countersubject, and there is no pedal point.
Bachs fugues are masterful works of art combining craftsmanship, musicality,
inventiveness, virtuosity, and intellectual control in a perfect balance. It is quite obvious
that anyone seriously interested in learning fugal technique would simply need to study
Bach. His Well-tempered Clavier and Art of the Fugue alone could take a lifetime to
7

investigate. Having said that, there are many other composers that utilized the technique
in masterful ways. Haydn, Handel, Mozart, Beethoven just to name a few. Some of my
favorite fugues Ive heard, besides those of J.S. Bachs, are by Beethoven. I Especially
like his unquestionable masterpiece, Op 133 the Grosse Fuge. A piece which merits an
in-depth study all of its own. Bach and composers after him have shown that the
possibilities for fugue are quite endless. It is not just a technique, but a composers tool for
exploring the interaction of pure melody.

Works Cited

Walker, M. Paul. "Fugue." Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University
Press. Web.20 Nov. 2014.
http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/51678.
Alfred Mann, et al. "Canon (i)." Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online.
Oxford University Press.Web. 20 Nov. 2014.
http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/04741.
John Caldwell. "Ricercare." Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford
University Press.Web. 21 Nov.
2014. http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/23373
Groocock, Joseph, and Yo Tomita. Fugal Composition: A Guide to the Study of Bach's
'48' Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2003. Print.
Oldroyd, George. The Technique and Spirit of Fugue; an Historical Study. London:
Oxford U, 1948. Print.
Prout, Ebenezer. Fugue. New York: Greenwood, 1969. Print.
Verrall, John. Fugue and Invention in Theory and Practice. Palo Alto, CA: Pacific, 1966.
Print.
LeClaire, Dennis. Overview of a Fugue. Handout given in class. Nov. 2014