COMPUTER

Computer is an electronic device that is designed to work with

Information.The term computer is derived from the Latin term
computare, this means to calculate.Computer can not do anything
without a Program.it represents the decimal numbers through a string
of binary digits. The Word 'Computer'usually refers to the Center Processor
Unit plus Internal memory.
Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input
from the user and processes these data under the control of set of
instructions (called program) and gives the result (output) and saves output
for the future use. It can process both numerical and non-numerical
(arithmetic and logical) calculations.The basic components of a modern
digital computer are: Input Device,Output Device,Central Processor. A
Typical modern computer uses LSI Chips.
Charles Babbage is called the "Grand Father" of the computer.The First
mechanical computer designed by charles Babbage was called Analytical
Engine. It uses read-only memory in the form of punch cards.

Four Functions about computer are:

accepts data

Input

processes data

Processing

produces output

Output

stores results

Storage

Input (Data):
Input is the raw information entered into a computer from the input
devices. It is the collection of letters, numbers, images etc.
Process:
Process is the operation of data as per given instruction. It is totally internal
process of the computer system.
Output:
Output is the processed data given by computer after data processing.
Output is also called as Result. We can save these results in the storage
devices for the future use.
Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of
times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the
space.[2] Simple computers are small enough to fit into mobile devices, and
mobile computers can be powered by small batteries. Personal computers
in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are what most
people think of as computers. However, the embedded computers found
in many devices from MP3 players to fighter aircraft and from toys to
industrial robots are the most numerous.
What components make a computer?
Today's computers are often comprised with some or all of the below
components (hardware). As technology advances, older technologies such
as the floppy disk drive and Zip drive (both shown below) are no longer
required or included with computers.

Bay

Case or Chassis

Optical drive: Blu-ray, CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW, or DVD

CPU (processor)

Floppy disk drive

Hard drive

Keyboard

Memory (RAM)

Microphone

Monitor, LCD, or other display device

Motherboard

Mouse

Printer

Sound card

Speakers

Video card

Inside of the computer

What does the inside of a computer look like?

Connections
A diagram of the back of a personal computer and a brief description of the
computer connections can also be found on our connection definition.
Peripherals
A peripheral is any accessory or add-on that can be attached to your
computer, but is not required. For example, a computer printer is a perfect
example of a peripheral. See the peripheral definition for a full list of
peripherals that can be attached to your computer.
Variations of computers
When talking about a computer or a "PC" you are usually referring to a
traditional computer that you would find in a home or office. However,
today the lines of what makes a computer are blurring. Below, are all the
different examples of what is considered a computer today.

Embedded computers - The most commonly found and used

computer. An embedded computer is a computer with a specific
function found in such things as cars, microwaves, TVs, the VCR, and
other home electronics.

LAPTOP

laptop

computer,

sometimes

called

notebook

computer by

manufacturers, is a battery- or AC-powered personal computer generally

smaller than a briefcase that can easily be transported and conveniently
used in temporary spaces such as on airplanes, in libraries, temporary
offices, and at meetings. A laptop typically weighs less than 5 pounds and is
3 inches or less in thickness. Among the best-known makers of laptop
computers are IBM, Apple, Compaq, Dell, and Toshiba.
Laptop computers generally cost more than desktop computers with the
same capabilities because they are more difficult to design and
manufacture. A laptop can effectively be turned into a desktop computer
with a docking station, a hardware frame that supplies connections for
peripheral input/output devices such as a printer or larger monitor. The
less capable port replicator allows you to connect a laptop to a number of
peripherals through a single plug.
Laptops usually come with displays that use thin-screen technology. The
thin film transistor or active matrix screen is brighter and views better at
different angles than the STN or dual-scan screen. Laptops use several

different approaches for integrating a mouse into the keyboard, including

the touch pad, the trackball, and the pointing stick. A serial port also allows
a regular mouse to be attached. The PC Card is insertable hardware for
adding a modem or network interface card to a laptop. CD-ROM and digital
versatile disc drives may be built-in or attachable.

Laptop computers, also known as notebooks, are portable computers that

you can take with you and use in different environments. They include a
screen, keyboard, and a trackpad or trackball, which serves as the mouse.
Because laptops are meant to be used on the go, they have a battery which
allows them to operate without being plugged into a power outlet. Laptops
also include a power adapter that allows them to use power from an outlet
and recharges the battery.
While portable computers used to be significantly slower and less capable
than desktop computers, advances in manufacturing technology have
enabled laptops to perform nearly as well as their desktop counterparts. In
fact, high-end laptops often perform better than low or even mid-range
desktop systems. Most laptops also include several I/O ports, such as USB
ports, that allow standard keyboards and mice to be used with the laptop.

Modern laptops often include a wireless networking adapter as well,

allowing users to access the Internet without requiring any wires.
While laptops can be powerful and convenient, the convenience often
comes at a price. Most laptops cost several hundred dollars more than a
similarly equipped desktop model with a monitor, keyboard, and mouse.
Furthermore, working long hours on a laptop with a small screen and
keyboard may be more fatiguing than working on a desktop system.
Therefore, if portability is not a requirement for your computer, you may
find better value in a desktop model.

MOBILE
A mobile phone is a wireless handheld device that allows users to make
calls and send text messages, among other features. The earliest batch of
mobile phones could only make and receive calls. Todays mobile phones,
however, are packed with a lot of additional features such as Web browsers,
games, cameras, video players and even navigational systems.

A mobile phone may also be known as a cellular phone or simply cellphone.

When the first mobile phones were introduced, all they could do was make
calls, and they were so bulky it was impossible to carry them in a pocket.
Later on, mobile phones belonging to the Global System for Mobile
Communications (GSM) network were capable of sending and receiving
text messages. As these devices evolved, they became smaller and more and
more features were added, such as multimedia messaging service (MMS),
which allowed users to send and receive images.
Most of these MMS-capable devices were naturally equipped with cameras,
which allowed users to capture photos with the built-in camera, add
captions, and send them to friends and relatives who also had MMS-

capable phones.
A mobile phone with highly advanced features is called a smartphone, while
a regular mobile phone is known as a feature phone.

A mobile phone typically operates on a cellular network, which is composed

of cell sites scattered throughout cities, countrysides, and even
mountainous regions. If a user happens to be located in an area where there
is no signal from any cell site belonging to the cellular network provider he
or she is subscribed to, calls will not be able to placed or received in that
location.
Portable telephone device that does not require the use of landlines.
Mobile phones utilize frequencies transmitted by cellular towers to connect
the calls between two devices. The first mobile phone operated on an analog
service and was developed by Motorola, Inc. Mobile phones have grown to
be the most widely used portable device in the world. Mobile phones may
also be referred to as wireless or cellular phones.
A mobile phone is a wireless electronic device used for telephone and

multimedia communications. The term "mobile phone" does not typically

refer to a cordless phone, which is ultimately still connected to a land line.
Mobile phones are just another word for cell phones, and they receive their
service from cell phone towers. A mobile phone may be used anywhere
outdoors or indoors, and does not have a base unit that it must be returned
to like a cordless phone.

Mobile phones may be purchased directly from the manufacturers, or they

may be purchased as part of a cell phone service contract from a service
provider. It is often more expensive to purchase a mobile phone from the
manufacturer, because service providers often offer steep discounts when
purchasing a phone with a one- or two-year contract. There are different
types of mobile phones to suit different needs.
A basic mobile phone is simply able to make and receive calls, and send and
receive text messages. In addition, it may have other basic features such as
games, a calendar, or a camera, among others. A smartphone, on the other
hand, is a mobile phone that is capable of accessing and browsing the
Internet; it may also include computer programs for word processing or
spreadsheets, for example. Smartphones are convenient for those who need
to frequently check email or access documents. Most smartphones also
feature full-size keyboards, whereas a basic cell phone might feature a
condensed keyboard.

IPAD
After months of hype and speculation, Apple introduced its latest creation,
the iPad, at an event in San Francisco earlier this year. The mobile
computing device, which has been described by some as a cross between
the iPhone and a MacBook laptop, hit the store shelves and Apple has since
sold 1 million of them.
But what is it really, and what does it do? Here are 18 things to know about
the iPad.

iPad is a line of tablet computers designed and marketed by Apple Inc.,

which runs Apple's iOS. The first iPad was released on April 3, 2010; the
most recent iPad models, the iPad Air and second generation iPad Mini,
were revealed on October 22, 2013 and went on sale November 1, 2013, and
November 12, 2013, respectively. The user interface is built around the
device's multi-touch screen, including a virtual keyboard. The iPad has
built-in Wi-Fi and, on some models, cellular connectivity. As of June, 2014,
there have been over 200 million iPads sold since its release in 2010.[5]
An iPad can shoot video, take photos, play music, and perform Internet
functions such as web-browsing and emailing. Other functionsgames,
reference, GPS navigation, social networking, etc.can be enabled by

downloading and installing apps. As of October 2013, the App Store has
more than 475,000 native apps by Apple and third parties.

There have been five versions of the iPad. The first generation established
design precedents, such as the 9.7-inch screen size and button placement,
that have persisted through all models. The iPad 2 added a dual core Apple
A5 processor and VGA front-facing and 720p rear-facing cameras designed
for FaceTime video calling. The third generation added a Retina Display,
the new Apple A5X processor with a quad-core graphics processor, a 5megapixel camera, HD 1080p video recording, voice dictation, and 4G
(LTE). The fourth generation added the Apple A6X processor and replaces
the 30-pin connector with an all-digital Lightning connector. The iPad Air
added the Apple A7 processor, the Apple M7 motion coprocessor and
reduced the form factor for the first time since the iPad 2. iOS 6.0 added
Siri to the third and fourth generations and the iPad Mini.
There have been two versions of the iPad Mini. The first generation features
a reduced screen size of 7.9 inches and features similar internal
specifications as the iPad 2 except it uses the Lightning connector. The
second generation features the Retina Display, the Apple A7 processor and

the Apple M7 motion coprocessor, closely matching the internals

specifications of the iPad Air.

In the last quarter of 2013, there were 26 million iPads sold, a new record,
compared to 22.9 million in the last quarter of 2012
Apple's first tablet computer was the Newton MessagePad 100,[17][18]
introduced in 1993, which led to the creation of the ARM6 processor core
with Acorn Computers. Apple also developed a prototype PowerBook Duobased tablet, the PenLite, but decided not to sell it in order to avoid hurting
MessagePad sales.[19] Apple released several more Newton-based PDAs; the
final one, the MessagePad 2100, was discontinued in 1998.
Apple re-entered the mobile-computing markets in 2007 with the iPhone.
Smaller than the iPad, but featuring a camera and mobile phone, it
pioneered the multi-touch finger-sensitive touchscreen interface of Apple's
iOS mobile operating system. By late 2009, the iPad's release had been
rumored for several years. Such speculation mostly talked about "Apple's
tablet"; specific names included iTablet and iSlate.[20] The iPad was

announced on January 27, 2010, by Jobs at an Apple press conference at

the Yerba Buena Center for the Arts in San Francisco.[21][22]
He later said that Apple had begun developing the iPad before the
iPhone,[23][24] but had temporarily shelved the effort upon realizing that its
ideas would work just as well in a mobile phone.[25] The iPad's internal
codename was K48, which was revealed in the court case surrounding
leaking of iPad information before launch.[26]
Apple began taking pre-orders for the first-generation iPad from American
customers on March 12, 2010.[3] The only major change to the device
between its announcement and being available to pre-order was the change
of the behavior of the side switch to perform either sound muting or screen
rotation locking (user selectable).[27] The Wi-Fi version of the iPad went on
sale in the United States on April 3, 2010.[3][28] The Wi-Fi + 3G version was
released on April 30.[3][4][4] 3G service in the United States is provided by
AT&T and was initially sold with two prepaid contract-free data plan
options: one for unlimited data and the other for 250 MB per month at half
the price.[29][30] On June 2, 2010, AT&T announced that effective June 7 the
unlimited plan would be replaced for new customers with a 2 GB plan at
slightly lower cost; existing customers would have the option to keep the
unlimited plan.[31] The plans are activated on the iPad itself and can be
canceled at any time.[32]
The iPad was initially only available online at the Apple Store as well as the
company's retail locations, but has since become available for purchase
through retailers including Amazon, Walmart, and network operators. The
iPad was launched in countries including Australia, Canada, France,
Germany, Japan and the United Kingdom on May 28.[33][34] Online preorders in those countries began on May 10.[4] Apple released the iPad in

Hong Kong, Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand and Singapore on July 23,
2010.[35][36][37] Israel briefly prohibited importation of the iPad because of
concerns that its Wi-Fi might interfere with other devices.[38] On September
17, 2010, the iPad was officially launched in China.[39]
300,000 iPads were sold on their first day of availability.[40] By May 3,
2010, Apple had sold a million iPads,[41] this was in half the time it took
Apple to sell the same number of first generation iPhones.[42] After passing
the one million mark they continued selling rapidly reaching 3 million sales
after 80 days.[43] During the October 18, 2010, Financial Conference Call,
Steve Jobs announced that Apple had sold more iPads than Macs for the
fiscal quarter.[44] In total, Apple sold more than 15 million first-generation
iPads prior to the launch of the iPad 2.[45] selling more than all other
tablet PCs combined since the iPad's release.[46] and reaching 75% of tablet
PC sales at the end of 2010.[47]
Jobs unveiled the iPad 2 at a March 2, 2011, press conference.[48][49] About
33% thinner than its predecessor and 15% lighter, the iPad 2 has a better
processor, a dual core Apple A5 that Apple says is twice as fast as its
predecessor for CPU operations and up to nine times as fast for GPU
operations. The iPad 2 includes front and back cameras that support the
FaceTime videophone application, as well as a three-axis gyroscope. It
retained the original's 10-hour battery life and had a similar pricing
scheme.

CAMERA
CAMERA stands for Community Cyberinfrastructure for Advanced
Microbial Ecology Research and Analysis. The aim of this project is to serve
the needs of the microbial ecology research community, and other scientists
using metagenomics data, by creating a rich, distinctive data repository and
a bioinformatics tools resource that will address many of the unique
challenges of metagenomic analysis. The Project was initiated by the
Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, beginning in Jan 2006.

To achieve this aim, CAMERA has developed the cyberinfrastructure

necessary to support the data, tools and resources that are needed to enable
the scientific community to use the rapidly growing treasure of
metagenomic information. The cyberinfrastructure will, of course, continue
to be advanced as new software and other technologies become suitable or
available. Success in this effort will accelerate our understanding of biology
and deliver novel biological solutions to important societal challenges in
health care, energy, and the environment.
CAMERA provides access to raw environmental sequence data, associated
metadata, pre-computed annotation and analyses, and high-performance
computational resources. It is based on innovative cyberinfrastructure

leveraging emerging concepts in data storage, access, analysis, and

synthesis not available in current gene sequence resources.
This resource, to the extent that it is available or can be ascertained,
includes the metadata associated with collection of the samples: the
location, date, and time of collection; the chemical and physical conditions
where the sample was taken; and a measure of its living environment, i.e.,
all the other sequences found in the same sample. As they beomce
available, CAMERA will continue to incorporate additional metagenomic
and reference microbial complete genome sequences (along with genes and
gene

families),

together

with

their

annotations

and

associated

environmental metadata. In addition, a suite of tools and a computational

workflow have been developed to enable scientists to analyze the data in
innovative and more comprehensive ways. Additional tools will be added
when ascertained to be appropriate and effective for our users.

CAMERA releases new projects and data on a weekly basis to maintain a

comprehensive collection of metagenomic and related genomic datasets up
to date while, also maintaining local copies of up-to-date relevant, reference
sequence datasets such as GenBank and RefSeq. CAMERA collects and
links metadata relevant to environmental metagenome datasets with
annotation in a semantically-aware environment allowing users to write

expressive semantic queries against the database. To meet the research

challenges, users are able to query metadata categories such as habitat,
sample type, time, location, and other environmental physicochemical
parameters.

CAMERA is compliant with the standards promulgated by the Genome

Standards Consortium (GSC), and sustains a role within the GCS in
extending standards for content and format of the metagenomic data and
metadata and its submission to the CAMERA repository. To ensure wide,
ready access to data and annotation, CAMERA also provides data
submission tools to allow researchers to share and forward data to other
metagenomics sites and to other community data archives such as
GenBank. It has multiple interfaces for easy submission of large or complex
datasets, and supports pre-registration of samples for sequencing.
CAMERA integrates tools for sequence quality control, assembly, gene
prediction and annotation, clustering, functional and comparative
genomics applications, and many other downstream analysis tools.
All tools are organized in an extensible workflow system with provenance
also being maintained, which allows users to view and download results,

browse the specific details on how results are generated, and upload their
own workflows. The flexibility of the system enables tool integration from
the broader research community and promotes the maintenance of an
extensible analysis environment. An important aspect of the workflow
environment is the organization of workflows into a systematic network, in
which the output for one functional unit can be used as an input for
subsequent workflow runs. This allows researchers to build a complete endto-end analysis stream by choosing different combinations of workflows
based on their specific needs for a given analysis.

CAMERA also provides high-performance networking access and gridbased computing, and a large amount of rotating storage to support
analyses. The project sustains version updates and software upgrades
training sessions, and periodic solicitation of feedback to ensure the
infrastructure and services continue to serve the needs of the scientific
community. The success of this project will depend heavily on continuous
input from the genomics, microbiology, molecular biology, ecology, and
related communities about their needs and priorities. We encourage your
feedback on the utility of the tools and data sets we make available and how
we can improve on them in subsequent releases.

The approaches and observations in metagenonmics represents a major

scientific revolution, which led a National Academy of Sciences study to call
it a new science. For example, marine metagenomics is emerging as a focus
for innovation at the interface of marine environmental science and
information technology. Similar scientific dynamics arise from soil
metagenomics and the study of host-based metagenomics or microbiomes.
The pace of development and the power of gene sequencing for biological
discovery are increasing rapidly with the application of shotgun sequencing
technology to entire microbial communities.
Unlike the traditional culture-based sequencing methods, metagenomics
arises from a breakthrough sequencing approach to examine the interaction
of countless microbial species present at a specific environmental location
and offers tremendous potential to understand better the functioning of
natural ecosystems. It is enabling scientists to consider each gene in the
context of its ecology: the composition of the rest of the community, the
environmental conditions in which it is found, and its relationships with
other species (and when relevant, with its host) with which it is found at
other times and places.
Responding the opportunities and challenges of the new science, this
resource, when fully annotated, will form a Knowledge Base of federated
(microbial ecological) information relating to genomic sequences and their
associated metadata to support a fundamental paradigm shift in the way in
which the biological and biomedical sciences develop in the 21st century.