AT2251 ATHT Notes PDF

www.Vidyarthiplus.
com
UNIT I GAS POWER CYCLES

1. Define: Thermodynamic cycles.
Ans: Thermodynamic cycle is defined as the series of processes performed on the system, so
that the system attains to its original state.
2. Define the term compression ratio.
Ans: Compression ratio is the ratio between total cylinder volume to clearance volume. It is
denoted by the letter r
3. What is the range of compression ratio for SI and diesel engine?
Ans: For petrol of SI engine 6 to 8 : For diesel engine 12 to 18.
4. Write the expression for efficiency of the otto cycle?
Ans:
1
Efficiency n =1 - --------(r)r-1
5. What is meant by cutoff ratio?
Ans: Cutoff ratio is defined as the ratio of volume after the heat addition to before the heat
addition. It is denoted by the letter p
6. What are the assumptions made for air standard cycle.
Ans:
1. Air is the working substance.
2. Throughout the cycle, air behaves as a perfect gas and obeys all the gas laws.
3. No chemical reaction takes place in the cylinder
4. Both expansion and compression are strictly isentropic
5. The values of specific heats of the air remain constant throughout the cycle.
7. What is the difference between otto and Diesel cycle.
Otto Cycle
1. Otto cycle consist of two adiabatic and
two constant volume process.
2. Compression ratio is equal to expansion
ratio
3. Heat addition takes place at constant
volume.
4. Compression ratio is less. It is varies
from 6 to 8.
Diesel Cycle
1. It consists of two adiabatic, one constant
volume and one constant pressure
processes.
2. Compression ratio is greater than
expansion ratio.
3. Heat addition takes place at constant
pressure
4. Compression ratio is more. It varies
from 12 to 18.
8. Define: Mean effective pressure of an I.C. engine.

Ans: Mean effective pressure is defined as the constant pressure acting on the piston during the
working stroke. It is also defined as the ratio of work done to the stroke volume or piston
displacement volume.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
9. Define: Specific fuel consumption.
Ans: SFC is defined as the amount of fuel consumed per brake power hour of work.
10. What is meant by calorific value of a fuel.
Ans: Calorific value of a fuel is defined as the amount of heat liberated by the compete
combustion of unit quantity of a fuel.
11. Give the expression for efficiency of the Dual cycle.
Ans:
Efficiency n = 1 -
1
------(r)r-1
Kpr - 1
----------------(K-1) + yK(p-1)
where,
r Compression ratio
k pressure or Expassion ratio
p cut off ratio and
y adiabatic index
11. What are the factors influencing of the Dual cycle?
Ans: 1. Compression ratio 2.cut off ratio 3. pressure ratio and 4. heat supplied at constant
volume and constant pressure.
12. Give the expression for efficiency of the Brayton cycle.
Ans:
1
Efficiency n = 1 - ---------- where Rp pressure ratio.
(Rp)y-1
13. What is a Gas turbine? How do you classify.
Ans: Gas turbine is an axial flow rotary turbine in which working medium is gas.
Classification of gas turbine.
1. According to the cycle of operation
a) open cycle b) closed cycle and c) semi closed cycle.
2. According to the process
a) constant volume and b) constant pressure process.
14. What is meant by open cycle gas turbine?
Ans: In open cycle gas turbine, the exhaust gas form turbine is exhausted to the atmosphere
and fresh air is taken in compressor for every cycle.
15. Differentiate open and closed cycle gas turbines.

Open cycle gas turbine
Closed cycle gas turbine
1. Working substance is exhausted to the
1. The same working substance is
atmosphere after one cycle.
recirculated again and again.
2. Pre-cooler is not required
2. Pre-cooler is required to cool the exhaust
gas to the original temperature.
3. High quality fuels are used
4. For the same power developed size and
weight of the plant is small
3. Low quality fuels are used

4. Size and weight are bigger.
16. What is the function of intercooler in gas turbines? Where it is placed?

Ans: The intercooler is placed between L.P. and H.P. compressors. It is used to cool the gas
coming form L.P. compressor to its original temperature.
17. Why re-heater is necessary in gas turbine? What are its effects?
Ans: The expansion process is very often performed in two sperate turbine stages. The reheater is placed between the H.P. and L.P. turbines to increase the enthalpy of the exhaust gas
coming from H.P. turbine.
Effects:
1. Turbine output is increased for the same compression ratio
2. Thermal efficiency is less.
18. What is the function of regenerator in gas turbine?
Ans: The main function of heat regenerator is to exchange the heat from exhaust gas to the
compressed air for preheating before combustion chamber. It increases fuel economy and
increase thermal efficiency.
1. Derive the air standard efficiency of Otto cycle with neat sketch
2. Problem
3.Derive the air standard efficiency of diesel cycle with neat sketch.
4. PROBLEM
5 PROBLEM
6. PROBLEM
7 PROBLEM
8 PROBLEM
UNIT II REFRIGERATION CYCLES AND RECIPROCATING CYCLES
1. What is meant by single acting compressor?
In single acting compressor, the suction, compression and delivery of air take place on one side
of the piston.
2. What is meant by double acting compressor?
In double acting reciprocating compressor, the suction compressin and delivery of air take
place on both side of the piston.
3. What is meant by single stage compressor?
In single stage compressor, the compression of air from the initial pressure to the final
pressure is carried out in one cylinder only.
4. Define clearance ratio
Clearance ratio is defined as the ratio of clearance volume to swept volume (or) stroke volume.
Vc
C = -------Vs
Vc clearance volume
Vs swept volume
5. What is compression ratio?

Compression ratio is defined as the ratio between total volume and clearance volume.
Total volume
Compression ratio = ------------------Clearance Volume
6. What are the factors that effect the volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating
compressor?
1) Clearance volume 2) Compression ratio.
7. What is the difference between complete (or) perfect inter cooling and incomplelte (or)
imperfect inter cooling.
Perfect Inter cooling
When the temperature of air leaving the intercooler (T3) is equal to the original atmospheric air
temperature (T1), then the inter cooling is known as perfect inter cooling.
Imperfect Inter cooling
When the temperature of air leaving the inter cooler (T3) is more than original atmospheric air
temperature (T1), then the inter cooling is known as Imperfect inter cooling.
8. Power requirement of a refrigerator is _________
Ans: Inversely proportional to cop
9. In SI Units, one ton of refrigeration is equal to __________
Ans: 210KJ/min
10. The capacity of a domestic refrigerator
is in the range of __________
Ans: 0.1 to 0.3 tonnes.
11. COP of a refrigerator working on a reversed carnot code is _________

Ans:
T2
----------T1 T2
12. The vapour compression refrigerator employs the __________cycle
Ans: Reversed carnot
13. In vapour compression cycle the condition of refrigerant is dry saturated vapour
________
Ans: Before entering the compressor.
14. Name four important properties of a good refrigerant
Ans: 1. Low boiling point
2. High critical temperature & pressure
3. Low sp.heat of liquid
4. Non flammable and non explosive.
15. Name some of the equipments used in air conditioning system
Ans: 1. Filter
2. Cooling coil
3. Heating coil
4. Compressor
5. Condeser
6. Evaporator
16. Name any four commonly used refrigerants
Ans; 1. Ammonia (NH3)
2. Carbon di oxide (CO2)
3. Sulphur di oxide (SO2)
4. Freon 12.
17. What are the factors to be considered in air conditioning a room?
Ans: 1. Temperature of air
2. Humidity of air
3. Purity of air
4. Motion of air.
1. PROBLEM
2. PROBLEM
3.PROBLEM
4.What are the difference between vapour compression and absorbtion system?
5.Explain with neat sketch vapour absorbtion
6 Problem
7 Problem
RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSOR

1. Explain with neat sketch the Operation of an Air Compressor
Operation:
To understand the operation of an air compressor, let us assume the cycle and indicator diagram for a
simple single stage reciprocating air compressor, as shown below. (Click the image to enlarge.)
The simple reciprocating air compressor has a piston which reciprocates inside the
cylinder wall and cylinder head. The piston is attached to the crankshaft with the help of
a connecting rod and thus the rotation of the crankshaft causes the piston to move up
and down inside the cylinder. The crankshaft is mounted on the crank case. The
cylinder head contains valve pockets where the suction and delivery valve are fixed.
These suction and delivery valves are of simple pressure differential types. They open
and close, due to the pressure difference on either side of the valve plates.
1. When the compressor stops or idles for some time, it is always assumed that there is
some residual compressed air left in the cylinder space. This residual air expands when
the piston moves down. The pressure drops in the cylinder space at a particular point as
the piston moves down, where the pressure inside the cylinder becomes lesser than the
atmospheric pressure. Thus this difference in pressure makes the suction or inlet valve
open.
2. This opening of inlet valve allows fresh air to be drawn inside the cylinder space as
the piston still continues to move in the downward direction. The inlet valve will remain
open till there is pressure difference between the atmosphere and inside of the cylinder
space. As the pressure difference starts to reduce, the inlet valve starts slowly closing.
The inlet valve closes completely when there is no pressure difference and then the
piston reaches bottom dead center (BDC), and it starts to travel in an upward direction.
At this position, both the inlet and delivery valve remains closed. Thus as the piston
moves up, the pressure starts to build inside the cylinder space.
3. The delivery valve starts to open when there is a pressure difference between the
cylinder space and air receiver. Let us assume the air receiver is at a pressure of 7 bar.
The delivery valve will not open until the pressure inside the cylinder space is slightly
above 7 bar. As the piston moves in upward direction, the pressure increases and at
some point the pressure grows beyond 7 bar making the delivery valve open. Thus the
compressed air is delivered into the air receiver.
4. As the piston reaches top, the pressure starts to fall and the delivery valve starts to
close. The residual compressed air remaining in the space again starts to expand as the
piston moves down continuing the next cycle.
2. Explain with neat sketch theoretical P-V diagram of air compressor:

Referring to the diagram, the theoretical air compressor P-V diagram can be
understood.
4-1:
The air compressor draws in air from the atmosphere. The atmospheric pressure is P1.
The initial volume when the piston is at top is zero (Assuming there is no bumping
clearance). Thus as the piston moves from top to bottom, a volume of air V1 is drawn
into the compressor. The temperature of air is T1.
1-2:
As the piston moves up, the air is compressed polytropically (PV^n= C). The pressure of
air increases from P1 to P2. The volume decreases from V1 to V2. The temperature
increases from T1 to T2.
2-3:
The compressed air at the pressure P2, volume V2 and temperature T2 is delivered out
of the compressor to the air receiver.
3. Explain with neat sketch the Practical P-V diagram of air

compressor:
In my last article, we have seen the P-V diagram and understood the operation of an air
compressor. But in practice, the diagram is not so perfect. The figure shown here
represents the actual practical P-V diagram of an air compressor. The points, 1234
represents the theoretical diagram. But there are some shaded portions above and
below the work done area. It is necessary to give certain explanation for these
additional areas which add up to the work done by the compressor.
Referring to the diagram, at point 4, when the clearance air has reduced to the
atmospheric pressure, the inlet valve will not open immediately. The pressure drops
lower than the atmospheric pressure and the inertia of the valves are overcome by the
pressure difference. Thus the valve is forced open by the atmospheric air and it rushes
into the cylinder chamber. There is a valve bounce and the pressure does not remain
constant inside the cylinder. The pressure slightly increases and then decreases after
which reaches somewhat steady intake of air. This negative pressure difference is
called as the Intake Depression.
The same occurs at the point 2, where the delivery valve delays to open. The
compressed air pressure inside the cylinder of compressor reaches a pressure slightly
more than the air receiver pressure. The delivery valve then opens causing a slight
decrease in pressure but always above the air receiver pressure enabling the
compressor to deliver air. Then it reaches a stable point after some Valve Bounce and
then reaches point 3 where the delivery valve closes to continue its cycle. Thus in
practice, the compressor requires more power to compensate for the additional work
done due to the depressions in delayed opening of the valves.
4. What are the Limitations of a Single-Stage Air Compressor?
Refer to the enclosed diagram, the single stage air-compressor is compressing from
pressure P1 to Pressure P2, completing the cycle 1234, where 3-4 is the clearance air
expansion. Also V1-V4 is the effective swept volume or the effective volume where the
fresh air from atmosphere is sucked in. The mass of air flowing through the compressor
is controlled by this effective swept volume V1-V4.
If any restriction is placed on the delivery of the air compressor, for example: the
discharge valve throttled, then the delivery pressure of the air compressor increases.
From the diagram, let us say the new delivery pressure is P5. Then the operating cycle
will be 1567, where 6-7 is the clearance expansion of air and the effective swept volume
is V1-V7. Thus it is evident that the effective swept volume (V1-V4) is more than (V1V7). Thus when the delivery pressure of the single-stage air compressor is increased,
the effective swept volume is reduced.
If the delivery pressure is further increased (assuming the compressor is so strong to
work), the delivery pressure reaches P8, and the compression follows the curve 1-8,
where there will be no delivery of compressed air. Thus when the delivery pressure of a
single-stage compressor is increased, the mass flow rate also increases.
Since the delivery pressure increases, the associated temperature also increases. Thus
the temperature of the air after compression is so high as to cause mechanical
problems and the amount of heat is actually theenergy loss.
If a single-stage machine is required to deliver a high-pressure compressed air, then it
requires
1.
Heavy moving/working components to compress air to such a high pressure,
2.
There might be some balancing problems due to heavy moving parts,
3.
The power requirement for such heavy parts movement is too high,
4.
There will high torque fluctuations,
5.
To compensate for the torque fluctuations, a heavy flywheel is required.
6.
Better cooling arrangements are required, and
7.
Lubricating oil which does not get vaporized at such high temperatures.
A multi-stage compressor is one in which there are several cylinders of different

diameters. The intake of air in the first stage gets compressed and then it is passed
over a cooler to achieve a temperature very close to ambient air. This cooled air is
passed to the intermediate stage where it is again getting compressed and heated. This
air is again passed over a cooler to achieve a temperature as close to ambient as
possible. Then this compressed air is passed to the final or the third stage of the air
compressor where it is compressed to the required pressure and delivered to the air
receiver after cooling sufficiently in an after-cooler.
Advantages of Multi-stage compression:
1.
The work done in compressing the air is reduced, thus power can be saved
2.
Prevents mechanical problems as the air temperature is controlled
3.
The suction and delivery valves remain in cleaner condition as the temperature
and vaporization of lubricating oil is less
4.
The machine is smaller and better balanced
5.
Effects from moisture can be handled better, by draining at each stage
6.
Compression approaches near isothermal
7.
Compression ratio at each stage is lower when compared to a single-stage

machine
8.
Light moving parts usually made of aluminum, thus less cost and better
maintenance
Refer to the diagram of a multi-stage compressor, where it is evident that the work done
by the compressor is less when compared to a single-stage machine for same delivery
pressure.
Practical Understanding of Multi-stage Compressor
We know that PV^n = C, where n is the polytropic compression index.

If we want to compress air from atmospheric pressure to a pressure of 30 bar, and say
the ambient temperature is 27 degree Celsius:
The compression index n = 1.35 and the compression ratio for single-stage compressor
would be 30:1.
Also we know that T1/T2 = (P1/P2) ^ ((n-1)/n).
Thus when calculated using the above expression, T2= 450 degree Celsius. Thus it is
evident that the delivery temperature of compressed air is 450 degree Celsius.
Do you think of any harm to compressor will happen at this temperature?

The main issue is the lubricating oil mist and associated explosion. The lubricating oil at
this temperature will ignite and cause very severe problem. Thus if multi-staging is
used, the delivery air temperature is controlled very close to the ambient air and there is
no possibility of lubricating oil and associated problems.
Why Cylinder Diameter reduces as Pressure Increases
Now let us understand a very practical issue.

Have you ever noticed in a multi-stage compressor, the diameter of cylinder liners of
each stage is different? To be more elaborate, the first stage cylinder diameter is
biggest and the intermediate stage is the second biggest and the third or final stage is
the smallest of all. Do you know the reason for this?
As the pressure of compression increases, the cylinder diameter decreases. The mass
flow rate or the amount of air passing through each stage is same. Thus as the pressure
increases with the same mass flow rate, the volume occupied by air must reduce. This
is accomplished by reducing the diameter and thus the volume of the cylinder.
UNIT- III CONDUCTION

1. What is thermal diffusivity?
It is the ration of thermal conductivity to the thermal capacity
2. Define overall heat transfer coefficient
The overall heat transfer U gives the heat transmitted per unit area per unit time per
degree temperature difference between the bulk fluids on each side to the metal or solid.
3. Define the Fourier Law of heat conduction
The rate of flow of heat in a simple homogeneous solid is directly proposional to the
area of the section at right angle to the direction of heat flow and change of temperature with
respect to the length of the path of the heat flow.
4. What are the mechanisms in heat transfer through solids?
Latice Vibration
Transport of Free Electrons
5. Define thermal conductivity of metals
Thermal conductivity is defined as the amount of energy conducted through a body of
unit area and unit thickness in unit time when the difference in unit temperature between the
faces causing the heat flow in unit temperature difference.
6. What is thermal contact resistance?
Due to the reduced area and presence of voids, a large resistance to heat flow occurs at
the interface. This resistance is known as thermal contact resistance.
7. What ate the purpose of thermal insulation?
Prevent the heat flow from the system to surroundings
Prevent the heat flow from the surroundings to system
8. Name few common types of fin
Uniform straight fin, Tapered straight fin, Annular fin, Pin fins
9. Define fin efficiency
The efficiency of fin is defined as the ratio of the actual hat transferred by the fin to the
maximum heat transferable by fin, if entire fin area were at a base temperature.
10. What are the conditions that make the fin effective?
Thermal conductivity should be large

Convective heat transfer coefficient should be small
Thickness of the fin should be small
11. Define thermal diffusivity
Thermal diffusivity = Thermal conductivity/Thermal capacity
What are the various mode of heat transfer?
Conduction, Convection, Radiation
12. What are the factors influence the thermal conductivity?
Material structure, Moisture content, Density, Pressure and Temperature, Homogeneous
mixture of components
13. Define critical thickness of insulation
The thickness up to which the heat flow increases and after which heat flow decreases is
termed as critical thickness.
14. Define thermal insulation
A material, which retards the flow of heat with reasonable effectiveness, is known as
insulation.
15. Name few applications of finned surfaces
Radiator of automobiles, Air-cooled engine cylinder heads, Condenser and evaporator in
refrigeration and AC systems, Electric motor bodies and Electronic chip heat sinks
16. What are the assumptions made in the analysis of heat flow through fins?
Steady state heat conduction
No heat generation within the fin
Uniform convective heat transfer coefficient
One dimensional heat conduction
Homogeneous properties of materials
17. Define fin effectiveness
Fine effectiveness is the ratio of the fin heat transfer rate to the heat transfer rate that
would exist without a fin.
18. What are the conditions that make the fin effective?
Thermal conductivity should be large
Convective heat transfer coefficient should be small
Thickness of the fin should be small
PART B
1. Consider a 4-m-high, 6-m-wide, and 0.3-m-thick brick Wall whose thermal conductivity
is k =0.8 W/m C. On a Certain day, the temperatures of the inner and the outer surfaces Of
the wall are measured to be 14C and 6C, respectively. Determine the rate of heat loss
through the wall on that day.
Assumptions 1 Heat transfer through the wall is steady since the surface temperatures remain
constant at the specified values. 2 Heat transfer is one-dimensional since any significant
temperature gradients will exist in the direction from the indoors to the outdoors. 3. Thermal
conductivity is constant.
Properties The thermal conductivity is given to be k = 0.8 W/mC.
Wall
L=0.3 m
Q
14C
6C
Analysis The surface area of the wall and the rate of heat loss through the wall are
A (4 m) (6 m) 24 m2
T T
(14 6) C
Q kA 1 2 (0.8 W / m. C)(24 m2 )
512 W
L
0.3 m
2. Consider a 4-m-high, 6-m-wide, and 0.3-m-thick brick wall whose thermal conductivity is
k =0.8 W/m C. On a certain day, the temperatures of the inner and the outer surfaces of the
wall are measured to be 14C and 6C, respectively. Determine the rate of heat loss through
the wall on that day. assuming the space between the two glass layers is evacuated.
Assumptions 1 Heat transfer through the window is steady since the indoor and outdoor
temperatures remain constant at the specified values. 2 Heat transfer is one-dimensional since
any significant temperature gradients will exist in the direction from the indoors to the
outdoors. 3 Thermal conductivities of the glass and air are constant. 4 Heat transfer by
radiation is negligible.
Properties The thermal conductivity of the glass and air are given to be kglass = 0.78 W/mC
and kair = 0.026 W/mC.
Analysis The area of the window and the individual resistances are
A (12
. m) (2 m) 2.4 m2
Air
1
1
0.0417 C/W
2
h1 A (10 W/m .C)(2.4 m 2 )
L
0.003 m
R1 R3 Rglass 1
0.0016 C/W
k1 A (0.78 W/m.C)(2.4 m 2 )
L
0.012 m
R2 Rair 2
0.1923 C/W
k2 A (0.026 W/m.C)(2.4 m 2 )
1
1
Ro Rconv,2
0.0167 o C/W
h2 A (25 W/m2 .o C)(2.4 m 2 )
Rtotal Rconv,1 2 R1 R2 Rconv,2 0.0417 2(0.0016) 0.1923 0.0167
Ri Rconv,1
0.2539 C/W
The steady rate of heat transfer through window glass then becomes
T T
[24 (5)]C
Q 1 2
114 W
Rtotal
0.2539C/W
The inner surface temperature of the window glass can be determined from
T T
Q 1 1
T1 T1 Q Rconv,1 24 o C (114 W)(0.0417C/W) = 19.2C
Rconv,1
3. A cylindrical resistor element on a circuit board dissipates 0.15 W of power in an

environment at 40C. The resistor is 1.2 cm long, and has a diameter of 0.3 cm. Assuming
heat to be transferred uniformly from all surfaces, determine (a) the amount of heat this
resistor dissipates during a 24-h period, (b) the heat flux on the surface of the resistor, in
W/m2, and
(c) the surface temperature of the resistor for a combined convection and radiation heat
transfer coefficient of 9 W/m2 C.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 Heat is transferred uniformly from all
surfaces of the resistor.
Analysis (a) The amount of heat this resistor dissipates during a 24-hour period is
Q Q t (0.15 W)(24 h) 3.6 Wh
(b) The heat flux on the surface of the resistor is

As 2
D 2
DL 2
(0.003 m) 2
(0.003 m)(0.012 m) 0.000127 m 2
4
4
Q
0.15 W
q
1179 W/m 2
As 0.000127 m 2
Q
Resistor
0.15 W
(c) The surface temperature of the resistor can be determined from
Q
0.15 W
Q hAs (Ts T )
Ts T
171C
hAs (1179 W/m2 .C)(0.000127 m 2 )
4. Heat is to be conducted along a circuit board that has a copper layer on one side. The
circuit board is 15 cm long and 15 cm wide, and the thicknesses of the copper and epoxy
layers are 0.1 mm and 1.2 mm, respectively. Disregarding heat transfer from side surfaces,
determine the percentages of heat conduction along the copper (k =386 W/m C) and epoxy
(k = 0.26 W/m C) layers. Also determine the effective thermal Conductivity of the board.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 Heat transfer is one-dimensional since
heat transfer from the side surfaces is disregarded 3 Thermal conductivities are constant.
Properties The thermal conductivities are given to be k = 386 W/mC for copper and 0.26
W/mC for epoxy layers.
Analysis We take the length in the direction of heat transfer to be L and the width of the
board to be w. Then heat conduction along this two-layer board can be expressed as
T
T
T
Q Q copper Q epoxy kA
kA
(kt ) copper (kt ) epoxy w
L copper
L epoxy
L
Heat conduction along an equivalent board of thickness t = tcopper + tepoxy and thermal
conductivity keff can be expressed as
T
T
Q kA
k eff (t copper t epoxy) w
L board
L
Setting the two relations above equal to each other and solving for the effective conductivity
gives
k eff (t copper t epoxy ) ( kt ) copper ( kt ) epoxy
k eff
( kt ) copper ( kt ) epoxy
t copper t epoxy
Note that heat conduction is proportional to kt. Substituting, the fractions of heat conducted
along the copper and epoxy layers as well as the effective thermal conductivity of the board
are determined to be
( kt ) copper (386 W / m. C)(0.0001 m) 0.0386 W/ C
( kt ) epoxy (0.26 W / m. C)(0.0012 m) 0.000312 W/ C
Copper
( kt ) total ( kt ) copper ( kt ) epoxy 0.0386 0.000312 0.038912 W/ C

f epoxy
and
( kt ) total
( kt ) copper
Epoxy
0.000312
0.008 0.8%
0.038912
0.0386
0.992 99.2%
( kt ) total
0.038912
(386 0.0001 0.26 0.0012) W/ C
29.9 W / m. C
(0.0001 0.0012) m
f copper
k eff
( kt ) epoxy
Ts
tcopper
tepoxy
5. A1-mm-thick copper plate (k = 386 W/m C) is sandwiched between two 5-mm-thick

epoxy boards (k = 0.26 W/m C) that are 15 cm 20 cm in size. If the thermal contact
conductance on both sides of the copper plate is estimated to be 6000 W/m C, determine
the error involved in the total thermal resistance of the plate if the thermal contact
conductance are ignored.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 Heat transfer is one-dimensional since
the plate is large. 3 Thermal conductivities are constant.
Properties The thermal conductivities are given to be k = 386 W/mC for copper plates and
k = 0.26 W/mC for epoxy boards. The contact conductance at the interface of copper-epoxy
layers is given to be hc = 6000 W/m2C.
Analysis The thermal resistances of different layers for unit
surface area of 1 m2 are
Rcontact
1
1
0.00017 C/W
hc Ac (6000 W/m2 .C)(1 m 2 )
Rplate
L
0.001 m
2.6 106 C / W
kA (386 W / m. C)(1 m2 )
Repoxy
L
0.005 m
0.01923 C / W
kA (0.26 W / m. C)(1 m2 )
The total thermal resistance is

Rtotal 2 Rcontact Rplate 2 Repoxy
2 0.00017 2.6 10 6 2 0.01923 0.03914 C/W
Then the percent error involved in the total thermal resistance of the plate if the thermal
contact resistances are ignored is determined to be
%Error
2 Rcontact
2 0.00017
100
100 0.87%
R total
0.03914
which is negligible.
Copp
er
Epox plate Epox
y
y
5 mm 5 mm
Repoxy
Rplate
T1
Repoxy
T2
Rcontact
Rcontact
6. A 4-m-high and 6-m-wide wall consists of a long 18-cm 30-cm cross section of horizontal
bricks (k =0.72 W/m C) separated by 3-cm-thick plaster layers (k = 0.22 W/m C). There
are also 2-cm-thick plaster layers on each side of the wall, and a 2-cm-thick rigid foam (k
=0.026 W/m C) on the inner side of the wall. The indoor and the outdoor temperatures are
22C and =4C, and the convection heat transfer coefficients on the inner and the outer sides
are h1 = 10 W/m2 C and h2 =20 W/m2 C, respectively. Assuming one-dimensional heat
transfer and disregarding radiation, determine the rate of heat transfer through the wall.
Assumptions 1 Heat transfer is steady since there is no indication of change with time. 2 Heat
transfer through the wall is one-dimensional. 3 Thermal conductivities are constant. 4 Heat
transfer by radiation is disregarded.
Properties The thermal conductivities are given to be k = 0.72 W/mC for bricks, k = 0.22
W/mC for plaster layers, and k = 0.026 W/mC for the rigid foam.
Analysis We consider 1 m deep and 0.33 m high portion of wall which is representative of
the entire wall. The thermal resistance network and individual resistances are
Ri
R2
R1
T1
R3
R4
R6
R5
R7
T2
1
1
0.303 C / W
2
h1 A (10 W / m . C)(0.33 1 m 2 )
L
0.02 m
2.33 C / W
kA (0.026 W / m. C)(0.33 1 m 2 )
Ri Rconv ,1
R1 R foam
R2 R6 R plaster
side
R3 R5 R plaster
center
L
0.02 m
0.303 C / W
kA (0.22 W / m. C)(0.30 1 m 2 )
L
018
. m
54.55 C / W
ho A (0.22 W / m. C)(0.015 1 m2 )
L
018
. m
0.833 C / W
kA (0.72 W / m. C)(0.30 1 m2 )
1
1
0152
.
C / W
h2 A (20 W / m. C)(0.33 1 m2 )
R4 Rbrick
Ro Rconv ,2
1
Rmid
The
1
1
1
1
1
1
Rmid 0.81 C / W
R3 R4 R5 54.55 0.833 54.55
Rtotal Ri R1 2 R2 Rmid Ro 0.303 2.33 2(0.303) 0.81 0152

.
4.201 C / W
2
steady rate of heat transfer through the wall per 0.33 m is
T T
[(22 ( 4)] C
Q 1 2
619
. W
Rtotal
4.201 C / W
Then steady rate of heat transfer through the entire wall becomes
(4 6) m
Q total (619
. W)
450 W
0.33 m2
2
7. A50-m-long section of a steam pipe whose outer diameter is 10 cm passes through an open
space at 15C. The average temperature of the outer surface of the pipe is measured to be
150C. If the combined heat transfer coefficient on the outer surface of the pipe is 20 W/m2
C, determine (a) the rate of heat loss from the steam pipe, (c) the thickness of fiberglass
insulation (k =0.035 W/m C) needed in order to save 90 percent of the heat lost. Assume
the pipe
Temperature to remain constant at 150C.
Assumptions 1 Heat transfer is steady since there is no indication of any change with time. 2
Heat transfer is one-dimensional since there is thermal symmetry about the center line and no
variation in the axial direction. 3 Thermal conductivity is constant. 4 The thermal contact
resistance at the interface is negligible. 5 The pipe temperature remains constant at about 150
C with or without insulation. 6 The combined heat transfer coefficient on the outer surface
remains constant even after the pipe is insulated.
Properties The thermal conductivity of fiberglass insulation is given to be k = 0.035 W/mC.
Analysis (a) The rate of heat loss from the steam pipe is
Ao DL (0.1 m)(50 m) 15.71 m 2
Q bare ho A(Ts Tair ) (20 W/m2 .C)(15.71 m 2 )(150 15)C = 42,412 W
(c) In order to save 90% of the heat loss and thus to reduce it to 0.142,412 = 4241 W, the
thickness of insulation needed is determined from
Q insulated
Ts Tair
Ro Rinsulation
Ts Tair
ln(r2 / r1 )
1
ho Ao
2kL
Ts
Rinsulatio
(150 15)C
1
(20 W/m 2 .C)[(2r2 (50 m)]
Ta
ir
Substituting and solving for r2, we get

4241 W
Ro
ln(r2 / 0.05)
2 (0.035 W/m.C)(50 m )
r2 0.0692 m
Then the thickness of insulation becomes

t insulation r2 r1 6.92 5 1.92 cm
8. Consider a 2-m-high electric hot water heater that has a diameter of 40 cm and maintains
the hot water at 55C. The tank is located in a small room whose average temperature i 27C,
and the heat transfer coefficients on the inner and outer surfaces of the heater are 50 and 12
W/m2 C, respectively. The tank is placed in another 46-cm-diameter sheet metal tank of
negligible thickness, and the space between the two tanks is filled with foam insulation (k
=0.03 W/m C). The thermal resistances of the water tank and the outer thin sheet metal
shell are very small and can be neglected. The price of electricity is $0.08/kWh, and the home
owner pays $280 a year for water heating. Determine the fraction of the hot water energy cost
of this household that is due to the heat loss from the tank. Hot water tank insulation kits
consisting of 3-cm-thick fiberglass insulation (k = 0.035 W/m C) large enough to wrap the
entire tank are available in the market for about $30. If such an insulation is installed on this
water tank by the home owner
himself, how long will it take for this additional insulation to pay for itself?s
Assumptions 1 Heat transfer is steady since there is no indication of any change with time. 2
Heat transfer is one-dimensional since there is thermal symmetry about the centerline and no
variation in the axial direction. 3 Thermal properties are constant. 4 The thermal contact
resistance at the interface is negligible. 5 Heat transfer coefficient accounts for the radiation
effects, if any.
Properties The thermal conductivity of plastic cover is given to be k = 0.15 W/mC.
Analysis In steady operation, the rate of heat transfer from the wire is equal to the heat
generated within the wire,
Rplastic
Q W e VI (8 V)(10 A) 80 W
Rconv
T1
The total thermal resistance is
T2
1
1
0.3316 C/W
ho Ao (24 W/m2 .C)[(0.004 m)(10 m)]
ln(r2 / r1
ln(2 / 1)
Rplastic
0.0735 C/W
2kL
2(0.15 W/m.C)(10 m)
Rtotal Rconv Rplastic 0.3316 0.0735 0.4051 C/W
Rconv
Then the interface temperature becomes

T T
Q 1 2
T1 T Q Rtotal 30C (80 W)(0.4051 C/W) 62.4C
Rtotal
The critical radius of plastic insulation is

rcr
k 0.15 W/m.C
0.00625 m 6.25 mm
h 24 W/m2 .C
Doubling the thickness of the plastic cover will increase the outer radius of the wire to 3 mm,
which is less than the critical radius of insulation. Therefore, doubling the thickness of plastic
cover will increase the rate of heat loss and decrease the interface temperature.
9. Obtain a relation for the fin efficiency for a fin of constant cross-sectional area Ac,
perimeter p, length L, and thermal conductivity k exposed to convection to a medium at T
with a
heat transfer coefficient h. Assume the fins are sufficiently long so that the temperature of the
fin at the tip is nearly T. Take the temperature of the fin at the base to be Tb and neglect heat
transfer from the fin tips. Simplify the relation for (a) a circular fin of diameter D and (b)
rectangular fins of thickness t..
Assumptions 1 The fins are sufficiently long so that the temperature of the fin at the tip is
nearly T . 2 Heat transfer from the fin tips is negligible.
Analysis Taking the temperature of the fin at the base to be Tb and using the heat transfer
relation for a long fin, fin efficiency for long fins can be expressed as
fin
Actual heat transfer rate from the fin

Ideal heat transfer rate from the fin
h, T
if the entire fin were at base temperature
hpkAc (Tb T )
hA fin (Tb T )
hpkAc
hpL
Tb
kAc
ph
D
This relation can be simplified for a circular fin of diameter D and rectangular fin of
thickness t and width w to be
p= D
fin,circular
1
L
kAc
1
ph
L
k (D 2 / 4)
1
(D)h
2L
fin,rectangular
1
L
kAc
1
ph
L
k ( wt )
1
2( w t ) h L
Ac = D2/4
kD
h
k ( wt ) 1
2 wh
L
kt
2h
10. A hot plate is to be cooled by attaching aluminum pin fins on one side. The rate of heat
transfer from the 1 m by 1 m section of the plate and the effectiveness of the fins are to be
determined.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The temperature along the fins varies in
one direction only (normal to the plate). 3 Heat transfer from the fin tips is negligible. 4 The
heat transfer coefficient is constant and uniform over the entire fin surface. 5 The thermal
properties of the fins are constant. 6 The heat transfer coefficient accounts for the effect of
radiation from the fins.
Properties The thermal conductivity of the aluminium plate and fins is given to be k = 237
W/mC.
Analysis Noting that the cross-sectional areas of the fins are constant, the efficiency of the
circular fins can be determined to be
hp
kAc
fin
hD
kD 2 / 4
4h
kD
4(35 W / m2 . C)
15.37 m-1
(237 W / m. C)(0.0025 m)
tanh aL tanh(15.37 m-1 0.03 m)
0.935
aL
15.37 m-1 0.03 m
The number of fins, finned and unfinned surface areas, and heat transfer rates from those
areas are
n
1 m2
27,777
(0.006 m)(0.006 m)
D 2
(0.0025)2
2
Afin 27777 DL
27777 (0.0025)( 0.03)
6.68 m
4
4
2
D 2
1 27777 (0.0025) 0.86 m 2

Aunfinned 1 27777
4
4
Q
Q
hA (T T )
finned
fin
fin,max
fin
fin
0.935(35 W/m .C)( 6.68 m )(100 30)C

15,300 W
2
Q unfinned hAunfinned(Tb T ) (35 W/m2 .C)( 0.86 m 2 )(100 30)C

2107 W
Then the total heat transfer from the finned plate becomes
Q total,fin Q finned Q unfinned 15,300 2107 1.74 10 4 W 17.4 kW
The rate of heat transfer if there were no fin attached to the plate would be
Ano fin (1 m)(1 m) 1 m2
Q no fin hAno fin (Tb T ) (35 W / m2 . C)(1 m2 )(100 30) C 2450 W
Then the fin effectiveness becomes

fin
Q fin
17,400
7.10
2450
Qno fin
3 cm
0.6 cm
D=0.25 cm
UNIT- IV CONVECTION
1. What is dimensional analysis?
Dimensional analysis is a matehematical technique which make use of the study of
the dimensions for solving seferal engineering problems.
2. Define free convection
If the fluid motion is produced due to change in density resulting from temperature
gradient, the mode is said to be natural convection.
3. What is forced convection?
If the fluid motion is artificially created by means of external force like a blower or
fan that type of heat transfer is know as forced convection.
4. What are the advantages of dimensional analysis?
It express the functional relationship between the variables in dimensional terms
It enable getting up a theoretical solution in a simplified dimensional form
5.What are the factors changes the thickness of boundary layer?
Turbulence in the ambient flow
Surface roughness, Pressure gradient
Viscosity of the fluid and temperature difference between the surface and fluid
6. What is meant by Newtonian and Non-Newtonian flow?
The fluid, which obeys Newtons law of viscosity, is called Newtonian flow and other
type of fluid is called Non-Newtonian flow.
7. Define hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer.
In hydrodynamic boundary layer the velocity of flow is less than 99% of free stream
velocity.
In thermal boundary layer, temperature of the fluid is less than 99% of free stream
temperature.
8. What are the limitations of dimensional analysis?
The complete information is not provided by this analysis
No information about the internal mechanism of physical phenomenon
Des not give any clue regarding the selection of variables.
9.Define lower critical Reynolds number
It defines the limit below which all turbulence, no matter how severe, entering the
flow from any source will eventually be damped out by viscous action.
10.Define Nusselt Number.

It is the ratio of heat transfer rate, Q to the rate at which heat would be conducted
within the fluid under a temperature gradient.
11. Define Grashoff number
It is related with natural convection heat transfer. It is defined as the ratio of the
product of inertia force and buoyancy force to the square of viscous force.
12. What is boundary layer?
A layer adjacent to the boundary is called boundary layer.
13. What are the factors that change the boundary layer from laminar to turbulent?
Turbulence in ambient flow, surface roughness, pressure gradient, plate curvature and
temperature difference between fluid and boundary.
14. Define skin friction coefficient.
It is defined as the ration of shear stress at the plate to the dynamic head caused by
free stream velocity.
15. Define thermal boundary layer.

In a boundary layer wherein the temperature variation exists is called the thermal
boundary layer.
16. Define free convection.
Free or natural convection is the process of heat transfer which occurs due to
movement of the fluid particles by density changes associated with temperature differential in
a fluid.
17. Give few examples of free convection
The cooling of transmission lines, electrical transformers and rectifiers
The heating of rooms by use of radiators
The heat transfer from hot pipes and ovens surrounded by cooler air
Cooling of reactor core.
PART B
1. Hot engine oil flows over a flat plate. The temperature and velocity of the oil are 30C&3
m/s respectively. The temperature of the plate is 30C. compute the total drag force and the
rate of heat transfer per unit width of the plate.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating condition exists. 2 The critical Reynolds number is Recr =
5105. 3 Radiation effects are negligible.
Properties The properties of engine oil at the film temperature of (Ts + T)/2 = (80+30)/2
=55C = 328 K are (Table A-13)
867 kg/m 3
123 10 6 m 2 /s
k 0.141 W/m.C Pr 1505
Oil
V = 3 m/s
T = 30C
Ts = 30C
L=6m
Analysis Noting that L = 6 m, the Reynolds number at the end of the plate is
Re L
V L
(3 m / s)(6 m)
146
. 105
6
2
123 10 m / s
which is less than the critical Reynolds number. Thus we have

laminar flow over the entire plate. The average friction
coefficient and the drag force per unit width are determined
from
C f 1.328 Re L 0.5 1.328(1.46 10 5 ) 0.5 0.00347
FD C f As
V 2
2
(0.00347)(6 1 m 2 )
(867 kg/m 3 )(3 m/s) 2

81.3 N
2
Similarly, the average Nusselt number and the heat transfer

coefficient are determined using the laminar flow relations for
a flat plate,
hL
0.664 Re L 0.5 Pr 1/ 3 0.664(146
. 105 ) 0.5 (1505)1/ 3 2908
k
k
0141
.
W / m. C
h Nu
(2908) 68.3 W / m2 . C
L
6m
Nu
The rate of heat transfer is determined from Newton's law of cooling

3. Wind is blowing parallel to the wall of a house. The temperature and velocity of the air is
5oC& 55 km/hr. Calculate the rate of heat loss from the wall.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating condition exists. 2 The critical Reynolds number is Recr =
5105. 3 Radiation effects are negligible. 4 Air is an ideal gas with constant properties.
Properties The properties of air at 1 atm and the film
temperature of (Ts + T)/2 = (12+5)/2 = 8.5C
Air
k 0.02428 W/m.C
V = 55 km/h
T = 5C
1.413 10 -5 m 2 /s
Pr 0.7340
Ts = 12C
Analysis Air flows parallel to the 10 m side:

L
The Reynolds number in this case is
Re L
V L [(55 1000 / 3600)m/s](10 m)
1.081 10 7
1.413 10 5 m 2 /s
which is greater than the critical Reynolds number. Thus we have combined laminar and
turbulent flow. Using the proper relation for Nusselt number, heat transfer coefficient and
then heat transfer rate are determined to be
hL
(0.037 Re L 0.8 871) Pr1/ 3 [0.037(1.081 10 7 ) 0.8 871]( 0.7340)1 / 3 1.336 10 4
k
k
0.02428 W/m.C
h Nu
(1.336 10 4 ) 32.43 W/m2 .C
L
10 m
Nu
As wL (4 m)(10 m) = 40 m 2
Q hA (T T ) (32.43 W/m 2 .C)(40 m 2 )(12 - 5)C 9081 W 9.08 kW
s
If the wind velocity is doubled:

Re L
V L [(110 1000 / 3600)m/s](10 m)
2.163 107
5
2
1.413 10 m /s
which is greater than the critical Reynolds number. Thus we have combined laminar and
turbulent flow. Using the proper relation for Nusselt number, the average heat transfer
coefficient and the heat transfer rate are determined to be
hL
(0.037 Re L 0.8 871) Pr1 / 3 [0.037(2.163 10 7 ) 0.8 871]( 0.7340)1 / 3 2.384 10 4
k
k
0.02428 W/m.C
h Nu
(2.384 10 4 ) 57.88 W/m2 .C
L
10 m
Nu
As wL (10 m)(4 m) = 40 m 2
Q hA (T T ) (57.88 W/m 2 .C)(40 m 2 )(12 - 5)C 16,206 W 16.21 kW
s
4. Air is flowing over the steam pipe having steam temperature of 90 oC .The velocity
and temperature of the air are 70Cand 50 km/ hr respectively. Calculate rate of heat
loss by the air on the steam pipe
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 Radiation effects are negligible. 3 Air is
an ideal gas with constant properties.
Properties The properties of air at 1 atm and the film temperature of (Ts + T)/2 = (90+7)/2
Pipe
= 48.5C are (Table A-15)
k 0.02724 W/m.C
Air
V = 50 km/h
T = 7C
1.784 10 m /s
-5
Pr 0.7232
Analysis The Reynolds number is
D = 8 cm
Ts = 90C
Re
V D [(50 km/h)(1000 m/km)/(3600 s/h)](0.08 m)
6.228 10 4
1.784 10 5 m 2 /s
The Nusselt number corresponding to this Reynolds number is

hD
0.62 Re 0.5 Pr1 / 3
Nu
0.3
1/ 4
k
1 0.4 / Pr 2 / 3
Re 5 / 8
1

282,000
4/5
0.62(6.228 10 4 ) 0.5 (0.7232)1 / 3 6.228 10 4

0.3
1
1/ 4
282,000
1 0.4 / 0.72322 / 3
5/8
4/5
159.1
The heat transfer coefficient and the heat transfer rate become
h
k
0.02724 W/m.C
Nu
(159.1) 54.17 W/m2 .C
D
0.08 m
As DL (0.08 m)(1 m) = 0.2513 m 2

Q conv hAs (Ts T ) (54.17 W/m 2 .C)(0.2513 m 2 )(90 - 7)C = 1130 W (per m length)
5. The components of an electronic system located in a horizontal square duct (20cm20 cm)
is cooled by air flowing over the duct. The velocity and temperature of the air are 200 m/min
& 300C.Determine the total power rating of the electronic device.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating condition exists. 2 Radiation effects are negligible. 3 Air is
an ideal gas with constant properties. 4 The local atmospheric pressure is 1 atm.
temperature of (Ts + T)/2 = (65+30)/2 = 47.5C are
20 cm
k 0.02717 W/m.C
1.774 10 -5 m 2 /s
65C
Pr 0.7235
Analysis The Reynolds number is

Re
Air
30C
200 m/min
V D (200/60) m/s(0.2 m)
3.758 10 4
1.774 10 5 m 2 /s
Using the relation for a square duct from Table 7-1, the Nusselt number is determined to be
Nu
hD
0.102 Re0.675 Pr1 / 3 0.102(3.758 10 4 ) 0.675(0.7235)1 / 3 112.2
k
The heat transfer coefficient is

k
0.02717 W/m. C
h Nu
(112.2) 15.24 W/m 2 .C
D
0.2 m
6. Water at 15C is to be heated to 65C by passing it over a bundle of 4-m-long 1-cmdiameter resistance heater rods maintained at 90C. Water approaches the heater rod bundle
in normal direction at a mean velocity of 0.8 m/s. The rods arc arranged in-line with
longitudinal and transverse pitches of SL = 4 cm and ST = 3 cm. Determine the number of tube
rows NL in the flow direction needed to achieve the indicated temperature rise.
Assumptions 1 steady operating condition exists. 2 The surface temperature of the rods is
constant.
Properties The properties of water at the mean temperature of (15C +65C)/2=40C
k = 0.631 W/m-K
= 992.1 kg/m3
Cp =4.179 kJ/kg-K
Pr = 4.32
-3
= 0.65310 kg/m-s
Prs = Pr@ Ts = 1.96
Also, the density of water at the inlet temperature of 15C (for use in the mass flow rate
calculation at the inlet) is i =999.1 kg/m3.
Analysis It is given that D = 0.01 m, SL = 0.04 m and ST = 0.03 m, and V = 0.8 m/s.
Then the maximum velocity and the Reynolds number
Ts=90C
based on the maximum velocity become
V=0.8 m/s
S
Vmax
ST
0.03
V
(0.8 m/s) 1.20 m/s
ST D
0.03 0.01
Re D
Ti=15C
Vmax D (992.1 kg/m3 )(1.20 m/s)(0.01 m)
18,232
0.653 10 3 kg/m s
ST
The average Nusselt number is determined using

the proper relation from Table 7-2 to be
Nu D 0.27 Re 0D.63 Pr 0.36 (Pr/ Prs ) 0.25
0.27(18,232) 0.63 (4.32) 0.36 (4.32 / 1.96) 0.25 269.3
Assuming that NL > 16, the average Nusselt number and heat transfer coefficient for all the
tubes in the tube bank become
Nu D, N L Nu D 269.3
h
Nu D, N L k
D
269.3(0.631 W/m C)
16,994 W/m2 C
0.01 m
Consider one-row of tubes in the transpose direction (normal to flow), and thus take NT =1.
Then the heat transfer surface area becomes
As N tubeDL (1 N L ) (0.01 m)(4 m) 0.1257N L
Then the log mean temperature difference, and the expression for the rate of heat transfer
become
Tln
(Ts Ti ) (Ts Te )
(90 15) (90 65)
45.51C
ln[(Ts Ti ) /(Ts Te )] ln[(90 15) /(90 65)]
Q hAs Tln (16,994 W/m2 C)(0.1257N L )(45.51C) 97,220 N L
The mass flow rate of water through a cross-section corresponding to NT =1 and the rate of
heat transfer are
AcV (999.1 kg/m3 )(4 0.03 m 2 )(0.8 m/s) 95.91 kg/s
m
C p (Te Ti ) (95.91 kg/s)(4179 J/kg.C)(65 15)C 2.004 10 7 W
Q m
Substituting this result into the heat transfer expression above we find th e number of tube
rows
Q hAs Tln 2.004 10 7 W 97,220 N L N L 206
7. Cooling water available at 10C is used to condense steam at 30C in the condenser of a
power plant at a rate of 0.15 kg/s by circulating the cooling water through a bank of 5-m-long
1.2-cm-internal-diameter thin copper tubes. Water enters the tubes at a mean velocity of 4
m/s, and leaves at a temperature of 24C. The tubes are nearly isothermal at 30C.Determine
the average heat transfer coefficient between the water and the tubes, and the number of tubes
needed to achieve the indicated heat transfer rate in the condenser.
Steam, 30C
24C
Water
10C
4 m/s
D = 1.2 cm
L=5m
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The surface temperature of the pipe is
constant. 3 The thermal resistance of the pipe is negligible.
Properties The properties of water at the average temperature of (10+24)/2=17C are
998.7 kg/m3
C p 4184.5 J/kg.C
2431 kJ/kg
Also, the heat of vaporization of water at 30C is fg

Analysis The mass flow rate of water and the surface area are
D 2
Vm
m Ac Vm
(998.7 kg/m 3 )
(0.012 m) 2
(4 m/s) = 0.4518 kg/s
4
The rate of heat transfer for one tube is

C p (Te Ti ) (0.4518 kg/s)( 4184.5 J/kg.C)( 24 10C) 26,468 W
Q m
The logarithmic mean temperature difference and the surface area are
Tln
Te Ti
T Te
ln s
Ts Ti
24 10
11.63C
30 24
ln
30 10
As DL (0.012 m)(5 m) = 0.1885 m 2
The average heat transfer coefficient is determined from

Q hAs Tln
h
Q
26,468 W
1 kW
2
12.1 kW/m .C
2
As Tln (0.1885 m )(11.63C) 1000 W
The total rate of heat transfer is determined from

cond h fg (0.15 kg/s)( 2431 kJ/kg) 364.65 kW
Q total m
Then the number of tubes becomes

N tube
Q total 364,650 W
13.8
26,468 W
Q
9. Water is to be heated from 10C to 80C as it flows through a 2-cm-internal-diameter, 7m-long tube. The tube is equipped with an electric resistance heater, which provides uniform
heating throughout the surface of the tube. The outer surface of the heater is well insulated, so
that in steady operation all the heat generated in the heater is transferred to the water in the
tube. If the system is to provide hot water at a rate of 8 L/min, determine the power rating of
the resistance heater. Also, estimate the inner surface temperature of the pipe at the exit.
(Resistance heater)
Water
10C
3 m/s
D = 2 cm
80C
L
Assumptions 1 Steady flow conditions exist. 2 The surface heat flux is uniform. 3 The inner
surfaces of the tube are smooth.
Properties The properties of water at the average
temperature of (80+10) / 2 = 45C are (Table A-9)
990.1 kg/m 3
k 0.637 W/m.C
/ 0.602 10 -6 m 2 /s
C p 4180 J/kg.C
Pr 3.91
Analysis The power rating of the resistance heater is

V (990.1 kg/m3 )(0.008 m 3 /min) 7.921 kg/min 0.132 kg/s
m
C p (Te Ti ) (0.132 kg/s)( 4180 J/kg.C)(80 10)C 38,627 W
Q m
The velocity of water and the Reynolds number are

Vm
Re
V
(8 10 3 / 60) m3 / s
0.4244 m / s
Ac
(0.02 m) 2 / 4
Vm Dh (0.4244 m/s)(0.02 m)
14,101
0.602 10 6 m 2 /s
which is greater than 10,000. Therefore, the flow is turbulent and the entry lengths in this
case are roughly
Lh Lt 10D 10(0.02 m) 0.20 m
which is much shorter than the total length of the duct. Therefore, we can assume fully
developed turbulent flow in the entire duct, and determine the Nusselt number from
Nu
hDh
0.023 Re 0.8 Pr 0.4 0.023(14,101) 0.8 (3.91) 0.4 82.79
k
Heat transfer coefficient is

h
k
0.637 W/m.C
Nu
(82.79) 2637 W/m2 .C
Dh
0.02 m
Then the inner surface temperature of the pipe at the exit becomes
Q hAs (Ts ,e Te )
38,627 W (2637 W/m 2 .C)[ (0.02 m )( 7 m )](Ts 80)C
Ts ,e 113.3C
10. Water is boiling in a 12-cm-deep pan with an outer diameter of 25 cm that is placed on
top of a stove. The ambient air and the surrounding surfaces are at a temperature of 25C, and
the emissivity of the outer surface of the pan is 0.95. Assuming the entire pan to be at an
average temperature of 98C, determine the rate of heat loss from the cylindrical side surface
of the pan to the surroundings by (a) natural convection and (b) radiation. (c) If water is
boiling at a rate of 2 kg/h at 100C, determine the ratio of the heat lost from the side surfaces
of the pan to that by evaporation of water. The heat of vaporization of water at 100C is 2257
kJ/kg.
Vapor
2 kg/h
Pan
Ts = 98C
Air
T = 25C
= 0.1
Water
100C
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 Air is an

ideal gas with constant properties. 3 The local atmospheric
pressure is 1 atm.
Properties The properties of air at 1 atm and the film temperature
of (Ts+T)/2 = (98+25)/2 = 61.5C are (Table A-15)
k 0.02819 W/m.C
1.910 10 5 m 2 /s
Pr 0.7198
1
1
0.00299 K -1
Tf
(61.5 273)K
Analysis (a) The characteristic length in this case is the height of the pan, Lc L 0.12 m.
Then,
Ra
g (Ts T ) L3
Pr
(9.81 m/s 2 )(0.00299 K -1 )(98 25 K )( 0.12 m) 3

(1.910 10 5 m 2 /s) 2
(0.7198) 7.299 10 6
We can treat this vertical cylinder as a vertical plate since

35L
Gr
1/ 4
35(0.12)
(7.299 10 / 0.7198)
6
1/ 4
0.07443 < 0.25
and thus D
35L
Gr 1/ 4
Therefore,
2
6 1/ 6
1/ 6
0
.
387
(
7
.
299
10
)
0
.
387
Ra
Nu 0.825
0.825
28.60
8 / 27
8 / 27
9
/
16
9
/
16
0.492
0.492
Pr
0.7198
k
0.02819 W/m.C
Nu
(28.60) 6.720 W/m 2 .C
L
0.12 m
As DL (0.25 m )( 0.12 m ) 0.09425 m 2
h
and
Q hAs (Ts T ) (6.720 W/m2 .C)(0.09425 m 2 )(98 25)C 46.2 W
(b) The radiation heat loss from the pan is

Q rad As (Ts 4 Tsurr 4 )
(0.10)(0.09425 m 2 )(5.67 10 8 W/m2 .K 4 ) (98 273 K ) 4 (25 273 K ) 4 5.9 W
(c) The heat loss by the evaporation of water is

h fg (2 / 3600 kg/s)( 2257 kJ/kg) 1.254 kW 1254 W
Q m
Then the ratio of the heat lost from the side surfaces of the pan to that by the evaporation of
water then becomes
f
46.2 5.9
0.042 4.2%
1254
11. Consider a 1.2-m-high and 2-m-wide glass window with a thickness of 6 mm, thermal
conductivity k =0.78 W/m C, and emissivity 0.9. The room and the walls that face the
window are maintained at 25C, and the average temperature of the inner surface of the
window is measured to be 5C. If the temperature of the outdoors is 5C, determine (a) the
convection heat transfer coefficient on the inner surface of the window, (b) the rate of total
heat transfer through the window, and (c) the combined natural convection and radiation heat
transfer coefficient on the outer surface of the window. Is it reasonable to neglect the thermal
resistance of the glass in this case?
Glass
Ts = 5C
Room
T = 25C
= 0.9
L = 1.2 m
Q
Outdoors
-5C
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 Air is an

ideal gas with constant properties. 3 The local atmospheric
pressure is 1 atm.
temperature of (Ts+T)/2 = (5+25)/2 = 15C are (Table A-15)
k 0.02476 W/m.C
1.471 10 5 m 2 /s
Pr 0.7323
1
1
0.003472 K -1
Tf
(15 273)K
Analysis (a) The characteristic length in this case is the height of the window, Lc L 1.2 m.
Then,
Ra
g (T Ts ) L3c
Pr
(9.81 m/s 2 )(0.003472 K -1 )( 25 5 K )(1.2 m) 3

(1.471 10 5 m 2 /s) 2
(0.7323) 3.986 10 9
9 1/ 6
1/ 6
0.387(3.986 10 )
0.387Ra
Nu 0.825
0.825
189.7
8 / 27
8 / 27
9
/
16
9
/
16
0.492
0.492
Pr
0.7323
k
0.02476 W/m.C
Nu
(189.7) 3.915 W/m 2 .C
L
1.2 m
As (1.2 m)(2 m) 2.4 m 2
h
(b) The sum of the natural convection and radiation heat transfer from the room to the
window is
Q convection hAs (T Ts ) (3.915 W/m2 .C)( 2.4 m 2 )( 25 5)C 187.9 W
Q radiation As (Tsurr 4 Ts 4 )
(0.9)( 2.4 m 2 )(5.67 10 8 W/m2 .K 4 )[( 25 273 K ) 4 (5 273 K ) 4 ] 234.3 W
Q total Q convection Q radiation 187.9 234.3 422.2 W
(c) The outer surface temperature of the window can be determined from
kA
Q t
(346 W)( 0.006 m)
Q total s (Ts,i Ts,o )
Ts,o Ts,i total 5C
3.65C
t
kAs
(0.78 W/m.C)( 2.4 m 2 )
Then the combined natural convection and radiation heat transfer coefficient on the outer
window surface becomes
or
Q total hcombined As (Ts ,o T,o )

Q total
346 W
hcombined
20.35 W/m 2 .C
As (Ts ,o T,o ) (2.4 m 2 )[ 3.65 (5)]C
Note that T QR
and thus the thermal resistance R of a layer is proportional to the
temperature drop across that layer. Therefore, the fraction of thermal resistance of the glass is
equal to the ratio of the temperature drop across the glass to the overall temperature
difference,
Rglass
Rtotal
Tglass
TRtotal
5 3.65
0.045 (or 4.5%)
25 (5)
which is low. Thus it is reasonable to neglect the thermal resistance of the glass.
UNIT V RADIATION
PART- A
1. What are the factors influencing the rate of emission of radiation?

The temperature of surface
The nature of surface
The wave length and frequency of radiation
2. Define emissive power
Emissive power is defined as the total amount of radiation emitted by a body per unit time
and unit area.
3. What is meant by gray body?
It is the body absorbs a definite percentage of incident radiation, irrespective of their
wave length, the body is known as gray body.
4. Define shape factor
The shape factor is defined as the fraction of the radiation energy that is diffused from
one surface element and strikes the other surface directly with no intervening reflections.
5. What is radiation shield?

The radiation shield reduces the radiation heat transfer by effective increasing of surface
resistance without actually removing any heat from the overall system.
6. What are the properties of black body?
It absorbs all the incident radiation falling on it and does not transmit or reflect
regardless of the wave length.
It emits maximum amount of thermal radiation at all wave length at any specified
temperature
It is a diffuse emitter
7. Define emissivity
It is defined as the ability of the surface of a body to radiate heat.
8. What are the assumption made to calculate radiation exchange between surfaces
All surfaces are considered to be either black body or gray body.
9. Radiation and reflection process are assumed to be definite
The absorptivity of a surface is taken equal to its emissivity and independent of
temperature of the source of the incident radiation.
10. Define irradiation and radiosity
Irradiation is defined as the total radiation incident upon a surface per unit time per unit
area
Radiosity is used to indicate the total radiation leaving a surface per unit time per unit
area.
PART- B
1. Determine the view factors F13 and F23 between the rectangular surfaces
Assumptions The surfaces are diffuse emitters and reflectors.
Analysis From Fig.
L3 1
0.5
W 2
F31 0.24
L1 1
0.5
W 2
W=2m
L2 = 1 m
and
L1 = 1 m
L3 1
0.5
W 2
F3(1 2) 0.29
L1 L2 2
1
W
2
A2
(2)
A1
(1)
L3 = 1 m
A3
(3)
We note that A1 = A3. Then the reciprocity and superposition rules gives
A1 F13 A3 F31
F13 F31 0.24
F3(1 2) F31 F32
0.29 0.24 F32

F32 0.05
Finally, A2 A3 F23 F32 0.05

2. Consider a 4-m 4-m 4-m cubical furnace whose floor and ceiling are black and whose
side surfaces are reradiating. The floor and the ceiling of the furnace are maintained at
temperatures of 550 K and 1100 K, respectively. Determine the net rate of radiation heat
transfer between the floor and the ceiling of the furnace.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating condition exist 2 The surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gray.
3 Convection heat transfer is not considered.
Properties The emissivities of all surfaces are = 1 since they are black or reradiating.
Analysis We consider the ceiling to be surface 1, the floor to be surface 2 and the side
surfaces to be surface 3. The furnace can be considered to be three-surface enclosure with a
radiation network shown in the figure. We assume that steady-state conditions exist. Since
the side surfaces are reradiating, there is no heat transfer through them, and the entire heat
lost by the ceiling must be gained by the floor. The view factor from the ceiling to the floor of
the furnace is F12 0.2 . Then the rate of heat loss from the ceiling can be determined from
Q 1
E b1 E b 2
1
R R R
13
23
12
a=4m
T1 = 1100 K
1 = 1
where
Reradiating
side surfacess
T2 = 550 K
2 = 1
E b1 T1 4 (5.67 10 8 W/m2 .K 4 )(1100 K ) 4 83,015 W/m2
E b 2 T2 4 (5.67 10 8 W/m2 .K 4 )(550 K ) 4 5188 W/m2
and
A1 A2 (4 m) 2 16 m2
1
1
R12
0.3125 m-2
A1 F12 (16 m2 )(0.2)
1
1
R13 R23
0.078125 m-2
2
A1 F13 (16 m )(0.8)
Substituting,
Q 12
(83,015 5188) W/m2
1
1
0.3125 m -2 2(0.078125 m -2 )
7.47 10 5 W 747 kW
3. A thin aluminum sheet with an emissivity of 0.15 on both sides is placed between two very
large parallel plates, which are maintained at uniform temperatures T1 =900 K and
T2 =650 K and have emissivities 0.5 and 2 ,0.8, respectively. Determine the net rate of
radiation heat transfer between the two plates per unit surface area of the plates and Compare
the result with that without the shield.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist 2 The surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and
gray. 3 Convection heat transfer is not considered.
Properties The emissivities of surfaces are given to be 1 = 0.5, 2 = 0.8, and 3 = 0.15.
Analysis The net rate of radiation heat transfer with a thin aluminum shield per unit area of
the plates is
Q 12,oneshield
(T1 4 T2 4 )
T1 = 900 K
1
1
1
1

1
1 2
3,1 3, 2
(5.67 10 8 W/m2 K 4 )[( 900 K ) 4 (650 K ) 4 ]

1
1
1
1
0
.
5
0
.
8
0
.
15
0
.
15
1 = 0.5
T2 = 650 K
2 = 0.8
Radiation
shield
3 = 0.15
1857 W/m 2
The net rate of radiation heat transfer between the plates in the case of no shield is
(T1 4 T2 4 ) (5.67 10 8 W/m2 K 4 )[( 900 K) 4 (650 K) 4 ]
Q 12,no shield
12,035 W/m2
1
1
1
0
.
5
0
.
8
1 2
Then the ratio of radiation heat transfer for the two cases becomes
Q12,one shield
1857 W
1
Q12,no shield 12,035 W 6
4. Two very large parallel plates are maintained at uniform temperatures of T1=1000 K and
T2 = 800 K and have emissivities of 1 ,2 and 0.2, respectively. It is desired to reduce the net
rate of radiation heat transfer between the two plates to one-fifth by placing thin aluminum
sheets with anemissivity of 0.15 on both sides between the plates. Determine the number of
sheets that need to be inserted.
T1 = 1000 K
1 = 0.2
T2 = 800 K
2 = 0.2
Radiation shields
3 = 0.15
gray. 3 Convection heat transfer is not considered.
Properties The emissivities of surfaces are given to be 1 = 0.2, 2 = 0.2, and 3 = 0.15.
Analysis The net rate of radiation heat transfer between the plates in the case of no shield is
(T1 4 T2 4 )
Q 12, no shield
1
1

1
1 2
(5.67 10 8 W/m2 K 4 )[(1000 K ) 4 (800 K ) 4 ]

1
1
0.2 0.2
3720 W/m2
The number of sheets that need to be inserted in order to reduce the net rate of heat transfer
between the two plates to onefifth can be determined from
Q 12,shields
(T1 4 T2 4 )
1
1
1

1 N shield
1 2
3,1 3, 2
(5.67 10 8 W/m2 K 4 )[(1000 K ) 4 (800 K ) 4 ]

1
(3720 W/m2 )
N shield 2.92 3
5
1
1
1
1 N shield
0.2 0.2
0.15 0.15
5. A2-m-internal-diameter double-walled spherical tank is used to store iced water at 0C.

Each wall is 0.5 cm thick, and the 1.5-cm-thick air space between the two walls of the tank is
evacuated in order to minimize heat transfer. The surfaces surrounding the evacuated space
are polished so that each surface has an emissivity of 0.15. The temperature of the outer wall
of the tank is measured to be 20C. Assuming the inner wall of the steel tank to be at 0C,
determine (a) the rate of heat transfer to the iced water in the tank and (b) the amount of ice
at 0C that melts during a 24-h period.
gray.
Properties The emissivities of both surfaces are given to be 1 = 2 = 0.15.
Analysis (a) Assuming the conduction resistance s of the walls to be negligible, the rate of
heat transfer to the iced water in the tank is determined to be
A1 D12 (2.01 m) 2 12.69 m2
Q 12
A1(T2 4 T1 4 )
1 1 2
1
2
D1
D2
(12.69 m 2 )(5.67 10 8 W/m2 K 4 )[( 20 273 K ) 4 (0 273 K ) 4 ]

1
1 0.15 2.01
0.15
0.15 2.04
107.4 W
(b) The amount of heat transfer during a 24-hour period is

Q Q t (0.1074 kJ/s)( 24 3600 s) 9275 kJ
The amount of ice that melts during this period then becomes
Q mhif
m
Q
9275 kJ
27.8 kg
hif
333.7 kJ/kg
D1 = 2.01 m
T1 = 0C
1 = 0.15
D2 = 2.04 m
T2 = 20C
2 = 0.15
Iced
water
0C
Vacuum

AT2251 ATHT Notes PDF

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

AT2251 ATHT Notes PDF

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

www.Vidyarthiplus.

UNIT I GAS POWER CYCLES

8. Define: Mean effective pressure of an I.C. engine.

15. Differentiate open and closed cycle gas turbines.

3. Low quality fuels are used

16. What is the function of intercooler in gas turbines? Where it is placed?

5. What is compression ratio?

11. COP of a refrigerator working on a reversed carnot code is _________

5.Explain with neat sketch vapour absorbtion

RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSOR

2. Explain with neat sketch theoretical P-V diagram of air compressor:

3. Explain with neat sketch the Practical P-V diagram of air

4. What are the Limitations of a Single-Stage Air Compressor?

Heavy moving/working components to compress air to such a high pressure,

There might be some balancing problems due to heavy moving parts,

There will high torque fluctuations,

To compensate for the torque fluctuations, a heavy flywheel is required.

Better cooling arrangements are required, and

A multi-stage compressor is one in which there are several cylinders of different

Prevents mechanical problems as the air temperature is controlled

The machine is smaller and better balanced

Effects from moisture can be handled better, by draining at each stage

Compression approaches near isothermal

Compression ratio at each stage is lower when compared to a single-stage

We know that PV^n = C, where n is the polytropic compression index.

Do you think of any harm to compressor will happen at this temperature?

Now let us understand a very practical issue.

UNIT- III CONDUCTION

Thermal conductivity should be large

3. A cylindrical resistor element on a circuit board dissipates 0.15 W of power in an

(b) The heat flux on the surface of the resistor is

(0.003 m)(0.012 m) 0.000127 m 2

(c) The surface temperature of the resistor can be determined from

( kt ) total ( kt ) copper ( kt ) epoxy 0.0386 0.000312 0.038912 W/ C

5. A1-mm-thick copper plate (k = 386 W/m C) is sandwiched between two 5-mm-thick

The total thermal resistance is

Rtotal Ri R1 2 R2 Rmid Ro 0.303 2.33 2(0.303) 0.81 0152

Q bare ho A(Ts Tair ) (20 W/m2 .C)(15.71 m 2 )(150 15)C = 42,412 W

Substituting and solving for r2, we get

Then the thickness of insulation becomes

The total thermal resistance is

Then the interface temperature becomes

The critical radius of plastic insulation is

Actual heat transfer rate from the fin

if the entire fin were at base temperature

tanh aL tanh(15.37 m-1 0.03 m)

1 27777 (0.0025) 0.86 m 2

0.935(35 W/m .C)( 6.68 m )(100 30)C

Q unfinned hAunfinned(Tb T ) (35 W/m2 .C)( 0.86 m 2 )(100 30)C

Then the fin effectiveness becomes

10.Define Nusselt Number.

15. Define thermal boundary layer.

which is less than the critical Reynolds number. Thus we have

(867 kg/m 3 )(3 m/s) 2

Similarly, the average Nusselt number and the heat transfer

The rate of heat transfer is determined from Newton's law of cooling

Analysis Air flows parallel to the 10 m side:

V L [(55 1000 / 3600)m/s](10 m)

If the wind velocity is doubled:

V L [(110 1000 / 3600)m/s](10 m)

Analysis The Reynolds number is

V D [(50 km/h)(1000 m/km)/(3600 s/h)](0.08 m)