Embryonic Development of the Brain

Encephalo means brain

4th week of embryonic development
Neural tube forms and marks the three primary brain vesicles
1. Prosencephalon (forebrain)
Divides into:
Telencephalon (endbrain)
o In adult cerebrum: Cerebral hemispheres
o Greatest change occurs
o Sprouts lateral swellings that look like Mickey Mouses ears (two
cerebral hemispheres=collectively cerebrum)
Diencephalon (interbrain)
o In adult they become thalamus and hypothalamus, epithalamus,
and retina of the eye
2. Mesencephalon (midbrain)
Stays the same
Brain stem: midbrain
3. Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
Divides into:
Metencephalon (after brain)
o In the adult Brain stem: pons
o In the adult Cerebellum
Myelencephalon (spinal brain)
o In the adult medulla oblongata
In week 5 the primary brain vesicles give rise to the secondary brain vesicle
3 primary brain vesicles, 5 secondary brain vesicles, 7 distinct adult brain sections

Regions of the adult brain (7):

1.
2.
3.
4.

Cerebral hemispheres (2): spreads over diencephalon; 83% of total brain mass
Diencephalon: Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Epithalamus
Brain stem: midbrain, pons, medulla
Cerebellum

Ventricles of the brain:

Arise from expansions of the lumen (cavity) of embryonic neural tube
Continuous with one another and with central canal of the spinal cord
Filled with cerebrospinal fluid and lined by ependymal cells
cavities in the brain that communicate with each other
the central canal of the spinal cord, and subarachnoid space

Lateral ventricles (2):

one in each cerebral hemisphere, under corpus callosum

large C-shaped chambers that reflect the pattern of cerebral growth
separated anteriorly by a thin median membrane called septum pellucidum
each lateral ventricle communicates with the 3rd ventricles via interventricular foramen

3rd ventricle:

continuous with the 4th ventricle via cerebral aqueduct that runs through the midbrain
a space between the right and left lobes of the thalamus

4th ventricle:

continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord inferiorly

runs through the midbrain and separates the brain stem and cerebellum
has 3 openings:
2 lateral apertures in its side wall
1 median aperture in its roof
Both allow it to communicate with subarachnoid space (a fluid space
surrounding the brain

Cerebral Hemispheres:
1. Cerebral Cortex (within the cerebrum; dictates cerebral function)
executive suite
Enables us to be aware of ourselves and our sensations
To communicate, remember, understand, and to initiate voluntary movements
Composed of gray matter: neuron cell bodies, dendrites, associated glia and BV (but NO
fiber tracts)
1/8 thick, it accounts for 40% of total brain mass
Its many convolutions effectively triple its surface area
Surface Anatomy:
Gyri/gyrus: folds or convolutions/ elevated ridges of tissue
Sulci/Sulcus: shallow grooves (separate gyri)
Fissures: deep grooves (separate large regions of the brain
Longitudinal fissure: separates the cerebral hemispheres
Transverse cerebral fissure: separates the cerebral hemispheres from the
cerebellum

Lobes (5 in each hemisphere)

Frontal: anterior portion of the brain

Primary Motor (Somatic) Cortex:

Voluntary contraction of skeletal muscles
Responsible for skilled motor activities (due to pyramidal cells)
Premotor Cortex:
controls learned motor skills of repetitious or patterned nature (riding bike, typing)
Brocas area: motor speech
Directs the muscles involved in speech production
Frontal eye field
Controls voluntary movement of the eyes
Comprehension, elaboration of thought, and emotion (supraorbital region)

Parietal: separated from the frontal lobe by central sulcus and from the occipital lobe by parietooccipital sulcus

Primary somatosensory cortex

Postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe
Receive impulses from somatic sensory receptors in the skin and from proprioceptors in
skeletal muscles, joints, and tendons. (touch, temperature, proprioception, pain)
Somatosensory association cortex
Stores memories of past sensory experiences
Determines shapes and structures of objects without having to see them (size, texture)
Ex. Reaching into pocket for keys

Occipital: posterior portion of the brain between parietal lobe and cerebellum

Primary visual cortex

Receives visual information that originates on the retina (rods and cones) of the eye
Impulses are receives as color, shape and movement
Visual association cortex
Uses past visual experiences to interpret visual stimuli (color, form and movement),
enabling us to recognize a flower or a persons face

Temporal: between the lateral sulcus and transverse fissure; lateral/inferior portion of cerebrum,
between cerebellum inferiorly and frontal and parietal lobes superiorly

Primary auditory cortex

Receives input from the receptors of the inner ear
Impulses are received as rhythm, pitch and loudness
Auditory association area
Storage/memories of feelings about certain sounds

 Determines what sound is (speech, music, noise)

Partly responsible for comprehension of written and spoken word
Insula: (island of Reil) not visible from exterior surface because it lies within the lateral sulcus, covered
by temporal, parietal and frontal lobes

Contains the basal nuclei (pleural) which include:

Corpus striatum (lentiform and caudate nuclei)
Lentiform nucleus (putamen and globus pallidus)
o Putamen and globus pallidus
Basal nuceli function to:
Maintain overall muscle tone
Provide control of agonistic and antagonistic (unnecessary) muscle groups for
coordinated movement, specifically for starting and stopping and measuring the
intensity of movements (via primary motor cortex)
Disorders may cause too little or too much movement

Diencephalon (group of gray matter regions)

Thalamus (inner chamber)

2 oval masses (egg-shaped nuclei) above the midbrain

Form the lateral walls of the 3d ventricle
Nuclei are connected at the midline by interthalamic adhesion (intermediate mass)
3 cm long, makes up 80% of diencephalon
Relay station for information coming into the cerebral cortex (to help mediate sensation, motor
activities, arousal, learning, and memory)
Mostly gray matter (nuclei)
Does have some white matter ; one strip (internal medullary lamina) serves to divide the gray
matter into nuclear groups (anterior, lateral, medial)
Contains many different nuclei that assume various roles
Afferent impulses from all sense (except smell) and all parts of the body converge on the
thalamus and synapse with at least one nuclei
Medial geniculate nuclei-> auditory
Lateral geniculate nuclei -> vision
Ventral posterior nuclei -> receives impulses from general somatic sensory receptors
(touch, pressure, pain, heat, col etc.)
Ventral lateral nuclei and ventral anterior nuclei
Voluntary motor actions
Arousal (awareness, being alert)
Concerned with certain emotions (via anterior nuclei)

Hypothalamus (under the thalamus): forms floor and part of lateral walls of 3rd ventricle, partially
protected by sella turcica of the sphenoid bone

Main visceral control center of the by and is vitally important for overall body homeostasis
Lies above pituitary gland (main endocrine gland), attached by infundibulum (attaches
hypothalamus to pituitary gland)
Mammillary bodies: pealike nuclei that bulge anteriorly from the hypothalamus-relay stations in
the olfactory pathways
Functions:
1. Autonomic control center
Controls activity of center in the brain stem and spinal cord
Influences BP, rate and force of heartbeat, digestive tract motility, eye pupil size and
many other visceral activities
2. Center for emotional response
Involved in the perception of pleasure, fear, and rage, as well as those involved in
biological rhythms and drives (sex drive)
Acts through ANS pathways to initiate most physical expressions and emotions
(fearful person has high BP, high HR, sweating, dry mouth)
3. Body Temperature regulation
bodys thermostat
Monitor BP and receive input from other thermoreceptors in the brain and body
periphery
Initiates cooling (sweating) or heat-generating actions (shivering) as needed to
maintain body temperature
4. Regulation of food intake
Changes blood levels of certain nutrients (glucose, amino acids or hormones
Regulates feelings of hunger and satiety
5. Regulation of water balance and thirst
When body fluids become too concentrated, osmoreceptors are activated. These
neurons trigger the release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from pituitary gland. ADH
causes kidneys to retain water
Same conditions stimulates neurons in the thirst center causing us to feel thirsty
and drink more fluids
6. Regulation of sleep-wake cycle
Helps regulate sleep through suprachiasmatic nucleus (biological clock)
7. Control of endocrine system functioning
Control secretion of hormones by anterior pituitary gland
Its supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei produce hormones ADH and oxytocin

Epithalamus: forms roof of 3rd ventricle

Most dorsal portion of diencephalon

Pineal gland/body: extends from posterior border of epithalamus and is visible externally
Secretes hormone melatonin (sleep inducing signal and antioxidant)
Along with hypothalamic nuclei, helps regulate sleep-wake cycle

Brain Stem (includes midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata)

Midbrain: sandwiched between diencephalon superiorly and pons inferiorly, just superior to level of the
foramen magnum

Provides fiber pathways between higher and lower brain centers

Contains visual and auditory reflex and subcortical motor centers
Cerebral peduncles:
Two 2 bulges on the ventral side
Contains corticospinal (motor) tracts descending from cortex to pons and to
spinal cord
Contain sensory/afferent fibers from spinal cord to thalamus and superior
cerebellar peduncle
Superior cerebella peduncle (fiber tracts): connect the midbrain to the
cerebellum dorsally
Cerebral aqueduct: connects 3rd and 4th ventricles in the midbrain
Tectum: midbrains roof
Corpora quadrigemina (2 sets of twins): large nuclei, on tectum (within White Matter)
Superior colliculi:
o Visual reflex centers that coordinate head and eye movements
when we visually follow a moving object
Inferior colliculi:
o Auditory relay from hearing receptors of the ear to sensory cortex
o Reflexive response to sound, such as in the startle reflex, which
causes you to turn your head toward an unexpected sound
Substantia nigra
Located deep to the cerebral peduncle
High content of melanin pigment
Functionally linked to basal nuclei (for conscious muscle control)
Red nucleus:
Deep to the substantia nigra
Red due to rich blood supply and to the presence of iron pigment in its neurons
Relay nuceli in some descending motor pathways that effect limb flexion
Embedded in the reticular formation (nuclei associated with reticular
formation)
Oculomotor nerve (CN III) Motor Nerve

Innervates external eye and upper eye-lid muscles

Mediates most eye movement
Changes size of pupil and lens shape
Trochlear Nerve (CN IV) Motor Nerve
Innervates superior oblique muscles

Pons (bridge)
Mainly a conduction region, its nuclei contribute to the regulation of respiration and
cranial nerves
Between midbrain and medulla; anterior to cerebellum
Chiefly composed of conduction tracts
Transverse: connect Pons with the cerebellum
Form middle cerebellar peduncles
Between Pons and Cerebellum
Act as relays for conversations between motor cortex and cerebellum
Longitudinal: connect higher brain centers and spinal cord (tracts from medulla to the
upper brain stem and brain (contain both sensory and motor fibers))
Trigeminal nerve (CN V); mixed nerve; divided into three divisions: V1, V2, V3
Ophthalmic division (CN V1):
o Sensory fibers from the anterior scalp, upper eye lids, nose, lacrimal gland
Maxillary division (CN V2):
o Sensory fibers from palate, upper teeth, skin of cheek, upper lip, lower
eyelid
Mandibular division (CN V3):
o Sensory from lower teeth, skin of chin, general sensory to tongue (except
taste buds)
o Motor fibers to muscles of mastication
Abducens (CN VI): Motor
Innervates lateral rectus muscle, moves eyeball laterally
Facial (CN VII): Mixed Nerve
Have five branches: temporal, Zygomatic, buccal, mandibular, and cervical
Motor impulses to muscles of facial expression, secretion of saliva & (lacrimal)
tears
Sensation of face, proprioception and taste (anterior 2/3 of tongue)
Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII): Sensory
Innervates semicircular canals
Maintains equilibrium and sense of hearing
Contains nuclei which help medulla maintain normal rhythm of breathing

Medulla oblongata:
Autonomic reflex center involved in maintaining body homeostasis
Nuclei regulate respiratory rhythm, heart rate, BP, several cranial nerves
Provides conduction pathways between inferior spinal cord and higher brain centers
Most inferior part of the brain stem
Blends into the spinal cord at the level of the foramen magnum of the skull
Medulla and pons form ventral wall of 4th ventricle
Contains ascending and descending tracts from spinal cord to cortex and back
Houses pyramids (triangular structures on the ventral side) composed of corticospinal
tracts (largest motor tracts) from cortex to spine and out to the body
Decussation (crossing over):
o Occurs at the junction of the medulla and spinal cord
o Fibers cross over to the opposite side before continuing into the spinal cord
Inferior cerebella peduncles
Fiber tracts that connect the medulla to the cerebellum dorsally (communicate)
Olives:
Lateral to the pyramids, oval swellings
Swellings caused mainly by the wavy folds of gray matter of the underlying
inferior olivary nuclei
These nuclei relay sensory information on the state of stretch of muscles and
joints to the cerebellum
Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII): Sensory
Innervates semicircular canals
Maintains equilibrium and sense of hearing
Innervate cochlea of auditory portion of the ear
Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX): mixed nerve
Sensation: tongue (1/3 posterior), pharynx, carotid sinus, general sensory
(touch, pressure, pain) from pharynx and posterior tongue, chemoreceptors in
carotid body (monitor O2 and CO2 levels in the blood and regulate respiratory rate
and debpt), baroreceptors of carotid cinus (monitor BP)
Motor: parotid gland for secretion, pharynx and larynx for swallowing
Vagus nerve (CN X): Mixed nerve
Main parasympathetic nerve
Motor fibers to heart, lungs, abdominal viscera; sensory impulses from carotid
sinus
Accessory nerve (CN XI): mixed nerve
Motor: 2 divisions
o Cranial: innervates pharynx, larynx, and soft palate for swallowing
o Spinal :innervates sternocleidomastoid muscle, and trapezius muscle-moves
head

Sensation: from all innervated muscles

Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII): Mixed Nerves
Innervates intrinsic and extrinsic muscles of the tongue
Allows for speech and swallowing
Cardiovascular center:
Cardiac Center-adjusts force and rate of heart contraction to meet bodys needs
Vasomotor Center-changes BV diameter to regulate BP
Respiratory center:
Generate respiratory rhythm and control the rate and depth of breathing
Various other centers:
Regulate vomiting, hiccupping, swallowing, coughing and sneezing

Cerebellum
Cauliflower-like, exceeds in size only by the cerebrum; accounts for about 11% of total
brain mass.
Separated by cerebral hemisphere by tentorium cerebelli (which lies in the transverse
fissure)
Provides precise timing and appropriate patterns of skeletal muscle contraction for
smooth, coordinated movements and agility needed for our daily living-driving, and typing. We
have no awareness of its functioning
Vermis
Cerebellar hemispheres are connected medially by Vermis
Receives input from inner ear, eyes, axial body
Concerned with sense of equilibrium and its ongoing adjustment
Cerebellar hemispheres
Concerned with subconscious skeletal muscle activity
3 lobes (anterior, posterior, flocculonodular) subdivided by deep fissures
Cortex (gray matter) thrown into folds called folia (pleatlike gyri)
Medulla (white matter tracts): the arbor vitae radiates out like tree branches
connecting to internal nuclei
Cerebellar Peduncles: 3 pairs (almost all fibers to & from cerebellum are ipsilateral)
Superior cerebellar peduncle: Connect cerebellum to midbrain
Middle cerebellum peduncle: Connect cerebellum to pons
Inferior cerebellum peduncle: Connect cerebellum to medulla
These peduncles convey sensory information to the cerebellum from 1) muscle
proprioceptors throughout the body and 2) vestibular nuclei of the brain stem,
which are concerned with equilibrium and balance
Cerebellar process:
Receive sensory information from vestibular apparatus (inner ear), visual, and
proprioceptive receptors throughout the body (mostly from the trunk) and may also
receive information from motor cortex, brainstem

 Process is ongoing, which allows for smooth coordinated movements; required for
skilled movements, coordination, posture and balance
Limbic System:

Emotional or affective (feelings), brain

Involved in producing motivation, behaviors, and emotions, relative to survival
Odors, sounds, pictures, etc. can produce memories -> feelings-> emotions-> being brought by
the limbic structures
Limbic structures: olfactory bulbs, septum pellucidium, fornix, cingulate gyrus, part of basal
nuclei, amygdaloidal nucleus, hippocampus, mammillary bodies, and various nuceli of thalamus
and hypothalamus
pleasure centers and pain-centers
Where these centers are stimulated electronically, these specific emotions will be
produced depending on area stimulated
Feelings such as pain, pleasure, anger, range, fear, sorrow, hunger, thirst, sexual
feelings, docility, affection, etc.

Reticular Formation:

Made up of fibers found in the medulla, pons, and midbrain

Gray matter; a region of interlacing nerve fibers ascends the length of the brainstem up into and
through the diencephalon to the cortex
Reticular activating system (RAS):
Exerts control over cerebral cortex, producing generalized cortical awareness
Activation and arousal of the brain maintains wakefulness (consciousness); constant
impulses; this activity is dampened by sleep, alcohol, drugs etc.
3 vital centers of RAS (travels via reticulospinal tracts): controls visceral motor activity
1. Cardiac center: regulates heart beat and force of contraction
2. Medullary rhythmicity area: adjusts basic rhythm of breathing
3. Vasomotor center: regulates diameter of BV
Helps regulate activities such as vomiting, hiccupping, swallowing, sneezing, and coughing
Between RAS and cerebral cortex:
99% of all stimuli are disregarded as insignificant or accommodation/adaptation
Hallucinogens (LSD) remove RAS dampers -> results in sensory overload

Protection of the brain

Cranium: skull; bony encasement
Meninges (plural): 3 layers of CT (dura, arachnoid, and pia mater)

Cover and protect the CNS

Protect BV and enclose venous sinuses
Contain cerebrospinal fluid
Form partitions in the skull
Dura Mater: outermost meninx (singular)
Strongest layer
Surrounds the brain, two layered sheet of fibrous CT (not spinal cord)
Superficial periosteal layer: is attached to the inner surface of the skull (periosteum)
Deeper meningeal layer: forms the true external covering of the brain and continues
caudally the vertebral canal as the spinal dura mater
The two layers are fused together, except where they separate to enclose dural venous
sinuses: collect venous blood (CSF) from the brain and direct it into the internal jugular
veins of the neck
Meningeal dura:
In several places, extends inward to form flat partitions that subdivided the cranial
cavity
o These dural septa, limit excessive movement of the brain within the cranium
Falx cerebri: fold that dips into longitudinal fissure between the cerebral hemispheres
o Anteriorly, it attaches to the crista galli of the Ethmoid bone
Falx cerebelli: runs along the Vermis of the cerebellum
Tentorium cerebelli: extends into the transverse fissure between the cerebral
hemispheres and the cerebellum
Arachnoid Mater
Middle of the 3 meninges
Separated from the dura mater by a narrow serous cavity, the subdural space, which
contains a film of fluid
Beneath the arachnoid membrane is the wide subarachnoid space
o Web-like extensions span this space and secure the arachnoid mater to the
underlying pia mater
o Subarachnoid space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid
o Contains largest BV serving the brain (poorly protected due to arachnoid being
elastic)
Arachnoid villi
o Knoblike projections of the arachnoid mater protrude superiorly through the
dura mater and into the superior sagittal sinus

o Cerebrospinal fluid is absorbed into the venous blood of the sinus by these
valvelike villi
o Cause granulations on skull (pits on inner surface of skull)

Pia Mater:
Innermost layer and delicate vascular membrane of areolar CT
Only meninx that clings tightly to the brain like cellophane wrap, following its every
convolution

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF):

Found in and around the brain and spinal cord

Forms a liquid cushion that gives buoyancy to the CNS structures
Reduces brain weight by 97% and prevents the delicate brain from crushing under its own
weight
Mechanical Protection: Protects the brain and spinal cord from blows and other trauma (shock
absorber)
Chemical protection: optimal chemical environment for neuronal firing
Circulation: allows for exchange of nutrients and waste products
Has a rich blood supply, helps nourish the brain, and carries chemical signals (hormones) from
one part of the brain to another
Similar in composition to blood plasma (contains less protein, ion concentrations are different)
Choroid Plexuses:
Found in all ventricles (hang from the roof of each ventricle)
Consists of network of capillaries covered first by a layer of pia mater and then by
modified ependymal cells
CSF is formed primarily by filtration from capillaries through ependymal cells (it cant get
between cells because of their tight junctions [blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier])
The pathway:
Formed in choroid plexuses of lateral ventricles
Through interventricular foramen
3rd ventricle where more fluid added by CP
Then through cerebral aqueduct into 4th ventricle, more fluid added by CP
Some CSF flows through the central canal but most through the apertures (2 lateral and
1 medial) to subarachnoid space
The fluid returns to the blood in the dural sinuses via the arachnoid villi

Blood brain barrier (maintains constant environment)

Protective mechanism that helps maintain a stable environment for the brain
Allow for different rates of passage. Certain materials such as glucose, oxygen, essential amino
acids, and electrolytes pass rapidly; some enter more slowly, and some not all at all (urea,
creatinine)

 Bloodborne substances in the brains capillaries must pass through 3 layers before they reach
neurons:
1. The endothelium of the capillary wall
2. Relatively thick basal lamina surrounding the external face of each capillary
3. The bulbous feet of the astrocytes clinging to the capillaries
Astrocyte feet supply required signals to the endothelial cells, causing them to make tight
junctions
These tight junctions seamlessly join together the endothelial cells, forming the blood-brain
barrier and making these the least permeable capillaries in the body
No barrier around hypothalamus because it needs to sample blood level compositions to
maintain homeostasis (vomiting center another area with no BBB)